CHAPTER 3

Biodiversity conservation and management

Corinne Maréchal1, Valérie Cawoy2, Christine Cocquyt3, Gilles Dauby2, Steven Dessein3, Iain Douglas-Hamilton4,5, Jef Dupain6,
Eberhard Fischer7, Danielle Fouth Obang8, Quentin Groom3, Philipp Henschel9, Kathryn J. Jeffery10,11, Lisa Korte12, Simon L. Lewis13,
Sébastien Luhunu14, Fiona Maisels11,15, Mario Melletti16, Roger Ngoufo17, Salvatore Ntore2, Florence Palla18, Paul Scholte8, Bonaventure
Sonké15, Tariq Stevart3, Piet Stoffelen3, Dries Van den Broeck3, Gretchen Walters14, Elisabeth A. Williamson11
ULg, 2ULB, 3NBGB, 4Save the Elephants, 5University of Oxford, 6AWF, 7University of Koblenz-Landau, 8GIZ, 9Panthera, 10ANPN, 11University of Stirling, 12Smithsonian Institute,
1

University of Leeds, 14IUCN, 15WCS, 16University of Rome, 17University of Yaoundé I, 18RAPAC

13

1. Introduction
Since the first edition of the State of the Forest
(SOF), the state and conservation of biodiversity
have been a continuing concern. Every subsequent
edition has reviewed the threats to the fauna and
flora of the subregion. In 2010, the subject was
presented in a chapter entitled “Biodiversity in the
forests of Central Africa : panorama of knowledge,
principal challenges and conservation measures”
(Billand, 2012). By devoting a new chapter to this
subject, the SOF 2013 reaffirms the importance of
biodiversity and the protection of species for the
sustainable development of the forests of Central
Africa.
The present chapter is not a monograph of
the current situation ; it makes no claim to be an
exhaustive treatment of the biological diversity of
Central Africa. Rather it follows the panorama
drawn earlier while highlighting additional knowl-
edge acquired and the tools available to follow
the changes of the biodiversity and to facilitate its
management. It also addresses some topical ques-
tions and recent experiences with the management/
conservation of animal and plant biodiversity.
The first part of the chapter, which is particu-
larly innovative, describes the available methods
for estimating biodiversity in the forests of Central
Africa. The first section concerns the large mam-
mals, including most of the emblematic species ; it
© Dominique Louppe

then presents methodologies for evaluating plant

diversity.
The second part presents the status of a num-
ber of emblematic species. It provides the most
recent information on the critical status of ele-
phant and great ape populations. After reviewing
the state of knowledge of plant diversity, this sec- Photo 3.1 : INERA forest department herbarium – Yangambi, DRC

67
 tion also describes the problems of invasive species of the trans-boundary protected area initiatives is
through examples of the small fire-ant in Gabon presented, following the conservation measures
and Cameroon, and the invasive plants in Sao described in SOF 2010. Lastly, Central Africa con-
Tomé. Surprisingly, this threat to the ecosystems tinues to be confronted with the extensive and
of Central Africa has so far been given little atten- indeed resurgent phenomenon of poaching and
tion by conservationists. trafficking in animal species. Considerable atten-
Several biodiversity tools and approaches are tion is therefore given to the challenge to combat
presented in the third and fourth parts. Attention poaching. This question is addressed transversally
is focused, inter alia, on the fundamental role of in the last two chapters, which highlight concerted
herbaria for the knowledge, conservation and man- multiple action programs being developed in the
agement of plant biodiversity. A preliminary review region, including cross-border management

2. The methods of evaluating biodiversity in the forests

of Central Africa

Box 3.1 : Assessment of the status of large mammals: some definitions

The terms “inventory” and “census” are often used equally in studies quantifying central Africa’s large mammals. These exercises
help document the abundance and distribution of living species in a given location at any given moment. Monitoring is a process which
incorporates a time-related or temporal aspect ; the change in numbers over months and years, is examined. In general, the monitoring
of fauna supports the management of the targeted species and of their habitat. The monitoring serves to evaluate management efficiency,
identify zones confronted with conservation issues and to observe seasonal migrations or movements of species, etc.

2.1. Evaluation of large fauna

Monitoring wildlife is a fundamental require- 2.1.1. The customary methods : dis-

ment for guiding the management and conserva- tance sampling and reconnoitering
tion of species and their habitat. The presence
of large-bodied mammal species with relatively Distance sampling and reconnoitering on
slow reproduction rates combined with the inten- foot (recce) are the two most commonly used
sity and distribution of human activities are two techniques to evaluate wildlife populations in the
commonly used indicators for ecosystem health dense forests of Central Africa. Recces are based
(Alstatt et al., 2009 ; Atyi et al., 2009). Generally, on the direct observation of the animals or, more
monitoring the status of large fauna first deter- generally, on monitoring the traces of their activity
mines their population abundance and distribu- (footprints, droppings, nests, remains of meals,
tion, then identifies and prioritizes the factors etc.). In distance sampling, only the droppings
which may impact their abundance and distribu- or nests (of great apes) are taken into account.
tion in the future (generally threats). These factors We will give only a summary description of these
are monitored for trends across space and time two methods as they are described in detail in the
(IUCN/SSC, 2008). reference work by White and Edwards (2000).

68
 Customarily, distance sampling is applied ment of the genetic profile of the animals on the
along linear transects. One or more tracks are basis of their DNA gathered on the ground (drop-
opened through the vegetation in a specific direc- pings or hairs). The results of the DNA analyses
tion. Then, all observations of each dropping and of the materials collected are then introduced into
each nest are counted along the track and the a mathematical capture-recapture (C-R) model
perpendicular distance of each observation in rela- which estimates absolute density. These results
tion to the axis of progression is measured. The can also serve to construct accumulation curves
total number of animals present in the sample for newly identified individuals.
zone (known as absolute density) is then esti-
mated on the basis of modeling the probability Camera trapping consists of taking pictures of
of detection of observations along the transects, animals with cameras which are activated by infra-
the effective area covered (total length of transects red means (photo 3.2). A C-R model then makes
x effective width of the transects), and the rate of it possible to calculate absolute densities for spe-
production and degradation of the said observa- cies which have characteristics enabling each indi-
tions (droppings or nests) according to site and vidual to be identified, for example, the bongo in
season7. Distance sampling is considered by the Congo (Elkan, 2003) and the Virungas National
scientific world as the reference method. Park (Nixon and Lusenge, 2008), the leopard in
Gabon (Henschel, 2008) or the elephants in the 7. G
 iven that it is impossible to
The theoretical basis for this method and some forests of Asia (Karanth and et al., 2012). The count all the animals (or all
extremely useful field advice is described in detail development of spatially explicit capture-recapture traces of animals) of a given ani-
in Buckland et al., 2001 and 2004. The software techniques (SECR) now allows the robust esti- mal population or of an area, the
program DISTANCE, which is available on the mation of animal density ; this can also be used census statistics (the number of
CREEM (Centre for Research into Ecological and for unmarked animals (e.g. Chandler & Royle, animals or traces of animals actu-
ally recorded in a study) may be
Environmental Modelling) website (http ://www. 2011). For these unmarked animals, which are
used to deduce an estimate of the
ruwpa.st-and.ac.uk/distance), is used both for the the majority of the species usually monitored in population. The abundance of a
sampling design and for the analysis of the results the Central Africa region (such as ungulates, apes particular species in a given area
(Thomas et al., 2010). and elephants), occupancy models (in which traps, is then calculated by dividing the
transects, and surveys by independent observers count statistic by the probability
Recce does not include the variability in can be treated as repeated observations for a local of detection of an animal or trace
detecting the animals. This method consists sim- sample area) can also be used (O’Connell, 2011). of an animal (for example, Nich-
ply of noting the observations while travelling in Finally, a combination of remote video trapping, ols and Conroy, 1996) (MacK-
an approximate direction on pre-existing tracks SECR and other methods has recently been suc- enzie et al., 2006). The statistic
count may also be determined
(footpaths, animal paths, etc.). The data collected cessfully used for great ape and elephants in Gabon
from the number of animals
are similar to those of data sampling but with- (Head et al., 2013). captured, photographed or oth-
out measuring the perpendicular distance of the erwise identified during capture-
observation. These data are converted into an recapture studies (for example,
abundance index (“kilometric abundance index” Otis et al., 1978), or the number
or “encounter rate”), which may indicate temporal of plots where an animal (or sign
changes in a specific animal population. of an animal) has been detected
through sampling of occupation
of the plots (MacKenzie et al.,
2006).
2.1.2. Innovative methods : genetic
estimation and camera trapping
New techniques for evaluating animal popula-
tions are in development ; they include genetic esti-
mation and camera trapping, which are adapted
to rare, nocturnal or particularly discreet species.
Genetic counting methods have been successfully
used for small populations of forest elephants in
© Laila Bahaa-el-din

Ghana (Eggert et al., 2003), Asian elephants in Photo 3.2 : Installation of a

Laos (Hedges et al., 2013), great apes in Gabon photo trap for the study of
(Arandjelovic et al., 2010 ; Arandjelovic et al., African golden cat (Caracal
2011) and gorillas in Uganda (Guschanski et al., aurata), south of the Ivindo
2009) and in the Virunga mountains (Gray et al., National Park, Gabon
2013). The method requires the prior establish-

69
 2.1.3. Other available techniques area. Interview surveys are also useful precursors
for standardised field surveys (Meijaard et al.,
Other techniques exist within a context of 2011).
more specific intervention. For example, counts
by means of sweeps (complete coverage of a sur- The range of counting methods is therefore
vey zone in order to detect all animals, or their broad (Maréchal, 2011). The choice of a suitable
signs, present there) (McNeilage et  al., 2006 ; method depends on many factors : species targeted
Gray et al., 2010) and the monitoring of animals purposes of the study (management objectives,
accustomed to the presence of humans (Kalpers type of results anticipated, desired accuracy of
et al., 2003 ; Gray and Kalpers, 2005) have been estimates), field conditions (size of site, means
specially developed for great apes and a few other available) (table 3.1). In a strict conservation
primates. The appeal technique (van Vliet et al., context, this choice can be made using the deci-
2009) or village surveys (van der Hoeven et al., sion tree proposed by proposed by Strindberg and
2004 ; van Os, 2012) have tended to be used for O’Brien (2012).
the management of species of game in a hunting

Table 3.1 : Counting methods according to species of large-bodied mammals, level of expertise required and scale of application
Level of expertise required (knowledge, skills, necessary
Method Species target Area of application
practices)
+++
Navigation in forests, reconnoitering of signs and species, sta-
Linear transect *** # to ###
tistics for preparation of regulations for the study, analysis and
interpretation of results, distance sampling
++
Navigation in forests, reconnoitering of signs and species, sta-
Recce *** # to ###
tistics for preparation of standards for the study, analysis and
interpretation of results
+++
Genetic counting * Navigation in forests, statistics for preparation of standards for # to ###
the study, analysis and interpretation of results, precautions for
the storage of DNA, genetic analyses, C-R analysis
++ to +++
Handling photos, statistics for preparation of standards for the
Camera trapping * or ** # to ###
study, analysis and interpretation of results, C-R analysis and
SECR
++
Sweeps * or ** #
Navigation in Forest
Monitoring accus- ++
* ##
tomed animals Individual reconnoitering of animals
++
Calling technique ** (duikers) Competence of the caller, statistics for preparation of standards #
for the study, analysis and interpretation of results
++ to +++
Village survey *** Interview techniques, cartography, statistics for preparation of ## to ###
standards for the study, analysis and interpretation of results
Species targeted : * : only one species ; ** : a taxa or group of species ; *** : all large-bodied mammals.
Level of expertise required : + : basic (basic knowledge of the forest) ; ++ : medium (a particular skill) ; +++ : confirmed expertise (several areas of
knowledge/particular skills).
Scale of application : # : a few thousand hectares (a sector of a forest) ; ## : several tens of thousands of hectares (a forest concession, for example) ;
### : several hundreds of thousands of hectares (a massif ).
Adapted from Maréchal, 2011

70
 Box 3.2 : Fauna censuses in forestry concessions
Corinne Maréchal
University of Liege

For 10 years or so now an increasing number of mammal censuses (large and medium-sized species) have been carried out in the
logging forests of Central Africa. This is a result of the growing commitment of logging companies to the process of sustainable man-
agement, and also to the laws and regulations which now require them to take wild animals into account in the concessions allotted to
them (Billand, 2010).
Under these laws, management standards and certification requirements, the animal population censuses in the concessions essen-
tially serve (a) to provide the basis for the zoning plan delimiting sectors of protection and preservation, and (b) to evaluate, and thereby
reduce the impact of logging (primarily from hunting) on animal species (Maréchal, 2012).
A 2011 study by the University of Liège, financed by CIFOR, reviewed the practices used to census wild animals in logging forests.
To that end, 75 projects concerning some 60 forestry concessions were analyzed (Maréchal, 2011). The methods used to evaluate the
fauna potential in logging forests are fairly similar to those used in forests intended for conservation. The most widely used methods
are “distance sampling”, “recces” on foot or a combination of the two (recce-transect). However, procedures appear to vary widely from
one site to another, particularly regarding the collection of field data, the processing of results or the presentation of distribution maps.
This situation results from a lack of standardized operational procedures for evaluating the resource. In fact, even the most advanced
management regulations say very little about the method of collecting and analyzing data on animal populations, while sustainable
management procedures do not specify the variables to be measured on the ground for evaluating fauna. 
It would therefore appear necessary to standardize the procedures for the evaluation and monitoring of large-mammal popula-
tions in forestry concessions management plans. Ideally, a new methodological framework should be developed, specially adapted to
the particular context of industrial forestry, which should include the exploitation strategy, management objectives (including fauna),
available skills, and the economic and logistical constraints particular to the concession. For this purpose, proposals have been made
by Maréchal et al. (2011).

2.2. Evaluation of Flora

2.2.1. Contribution of forest invento-

ries in concessions
One of the difficulties in studying the bio-
diversity of tropical forests, and hence defining
priority areas for conservation, is obtaining good-
quality field data at reasonable cost. In the con-
text of the USAID/CARPE program (carpe.umd.
edu), the Missouri Botanical Garden (MBG),
the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) have col-
laborated over four years to assist logging com-
panies in identifying, within their concessions,
suitable areas for conservation. The methodology
which was evolved has subsequently been applied
in several logging concessions in Gabon (Stévart
and Dauby, 2011).
© Carlos de Wasseige

The forest inventory data are used to classify

the principal habitats. However, these data are less
precise than those collected by scientists, notably Photo 3.3 : Explosion of
in terms of taxonomic identification, especially for greenery in the understory
rare species of trees and ground vegetation and, of a Bas-Congo woodland –
DRC

71
 to a lesser extent, for non-commercial species. In established in tropical Africa in order to monitor
order to minimize this bias, however, statistical and study vegetation (Picard and Gourlet-Fleury,
methods that attach little weight to rare species 2008 ; African Tropical Rainforest Observation
(Rejou-Mechain et al., 2010) make it possible to Network : afritron.org ; etc.). In these plots, all
characterize the spatial variation of the various trees with a diameter of more than or equal to
flora and to define a forest typology. This typol- 10 cm (at 1.3 m above the ground or at 30 cm
ogy can be more precisely defined by targeted and above the buttresses) were identified and geore-
more complete inventories, including additional ferenced. In general, each tree is marked with
data on flora, notably for endemic species. paint or identified with a metal label to ensure
their long-term monitoring.
Tested for the first time in Gabon on the
Sylvafrica inventories in the concessions of the These permanent plots are an essential tool in
Rimbunan-Hijau – Bordamur group (Stévart and the study of the dynamics of forest stands. They
Dauby, 2009), this approach has enabled the iden- also make it possible to study the processes at the
tification of rare types of vegetation and other origin of plant diversity and its probable past,
important requirements for large-bodied fauna. present and future distribution, notably in the
The recommendations subsequently issued were context of climate change. In addition, they help
useful to Sylvafrica in formulating the develop- to answer questions about the impact of forest
ment plan. fragmentation on the distribution and abundance
of plant species and the quantity of biomass stored
in the various types of forest in forests with strong
2.2.2. Example of permanent plots biodiversity or strong endemism. (see box 3.3 :
Integrating ecological knowledge in management
A large complex of over 250 permanent plots decisions : the contributions of the CoForChange
with an area of between 0.2 and 50 ha and cov- project).
ering a total of approximately 500 ha has been

3. State of biodiversity in the forests of Central Africa

3.1. Current status of some emblematic mammals

Ideally, the protected areas should serve as 3.1.1. Update on the illegal killing of
cores of conservation and protection of large elephants
African fauna. They should be protected by effec-
tive teams and serve as a model for managing Since 2002, the MIKE program (Monitoring
fauna over the long term. But numerous studies the Illegal Killing of Elephants) of CITES
show the decline, even the collapse of large mam- (Convention on International Trade in
mal populations (primates, elephants, antelopes, Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
etc.), including within protected areas (Caro and has been monitoring, in 15 protected sites in
Scholte, 2007 ; Craigie et al., 2010 ; Bouché et al., Central Africa8, the illegal killing of elephants (a
2012). “vulnerable” species on IUCN’s “red list”, except
8 Boumba Bek and Waza in
Cameroon, Bangassou, Dzanga
for the forest elephant sub-population considered
Sangha and Sangba in CAR, The direct causes (proximate drivers) of this to be “in danger”). MIKE mainly collects data
Nouabalé Ndoki and Odzala- phenomenon are well known : poaching mainly relating to elephant carcasses found in the field
Kokoua in Congo, Lopé and and changes in land use (notably farming clear- and calculates the PIKE index (Proportion of
Minkebé in Gabon, Garamba, ings). But among the deep-rooted causes (under- Illegally Killed Elephants), which is the number
Kahuzi Biega, Okapi Faunal Reserve,
Salonga and Virunga in Democratic
lying drivers) will be found the ineffective man- of illegally killed elephants as a proportion of the
Republic of Congo and Zakouma in agement of the protected areas (Scholte, 2011). total number of carcasses counted (Burn et al.,
Chad. 2011).

72
Box 3.3 : Integrating ecological knowledge in management decisions : contributions from the
CoForChange project
1
Sylvie Gourlet-Fleury, 2Adeline Fayolle
1
CIRAD, 2ULg

CoForChange is a project co-financed by the European Union, the National Research Agency
(France) and the Natural Environment Research Council (UK).
A multidisciplinary team of researchers and forest engineers from eight public and private European
institutions and four European countries in association with five African institutions, one international
institution and 14 logging companies, (see list on http://www.coforchange.eu) collaborated from
2009-2012 on the GoForChange project. This multidisciplinary project set out to explain and predict
possible future diversity of the humid tropical forests of the Congo Basin, and to propose tools to
assist in decision-making for improved management of these forests which are subjected to increasing
climatic and anthropogenic pressures. The project focused on a region of approximately 20 million
hectares covering southwest RCA, south-east Cameroon and the northern Republic of Congo.
The project produced many results, some of which have major implications for forest planning
and the conservation of forest ecosystems.
The integration of a large quantity of spatial information; geological maps, topographical SRTM
data (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission), METEOSAT climate data, MODIS data (Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), vegetation activity, and zoning data supplied by partner
forest companies has highlighted the influence of the geological substrate on the distribution of tree
species and, more generally, on the floral and functional characteristics of forest populations (Fayolle
et al., 2012).
In particular, the sandstone substrates and to a lesser extent certain alluvial substrates upon which
sandy soils have developed (RCA and north Congo) contain diversified forests composed of evergreen
species that tolerate shade, grow slowly and are of dense wood. The pedologogical, anthracological
(the study of conserved coal in sediments) and archeological findings demonstrated that these forests
had not been disrupted by man and were probably ancient. Conversely, on the granite and schist
substrates where richer soils have developed there are also diversified forests but composed of deciduous
species whose canopies are prominently fast-growing heliophilic species, composed of average to low
density wood. There are signs that these forests have been disturbed by man, especially where “ayous”
(Triplochiton scleroxylon) species are observed. Most anthropogenic disturbance occurred in current
marantaceae forests (Ouesso, north Congo region). The study of carbon isotopic profiles revealed that
these forests, which are today very open, were not initially savannah but actually degraded forests that
had been invaded by giant herbaceous plants, most likely because of a resurgence of human activity
in the region beginning about 500 years ago.
A controlled environment study of the ecological requirements for principal tree species showed
that these species were particularly resistant to drought at the “juvenile” stage, with the exception
of certain pioneers such as the parasolier (Musanga cecropioides). This result is supported by studies
carried out in the adult stages within the Mbaiki region in RCA.
The project proposed a new forest typology for the study region and completed an initial diagnosis
of forest resilience to human and climatic (drought) impacts. These diagostic methods could be
extended to other forests in the region, using the methodology suggested by CoForChange. This
general assessment would be useful for planners who decide on priority zones for timber production
and conservation. (it is better to produce where the soils are rich and the forests productive) and for
logging managers (productive forest plantations can support a more dynamic silviculture than that
currently practiced).

73
 Between January 2003 and June 2012, out
of 2 175 carcasses counted, PIKE revealed two
1.0 opposing trends : a decline in illegal killing
between 2003 and 2006, and an increase up to
2011-2012 (figure 3.1).
PIKE Index (95% C.I.)

0.8
Given that with a PIKE index of over 0.5
an elephant population is probably already in
0.6 decline9, it is apparent that the level of illegal
killing was very high in the first half of 2012,
with an average PIKE index of more than 0.7. In
0.4 2011, the situation was already serious as all the
MIKE sites showed a PIKE index close to 100 %,
except at Dzanga-Sangha, Lopé, Zakouma and
0.2 Waza (figure 3.2).

Poaching is not confined to the MIKE sites, as

0.0 was confirmed by the massacre in 2012 of 200 to
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 400 elephants, according to sources, in the Bouba
Figure 3.1 : Evolution of the PIKE index in Central Africa between 2003 and 2012 Ndjda National Park in the north of Cameroon
(confidence interval 95 %). and of 30 more at Wonga Wongue in Gabon and
in the region of Mayo-Lémié/Chari-Baguirmi
Source : CITES’s MIKE program
in Chad.
100
2011
These trends are confirmed by :
2012
The ETIS program data (Elephant Trade
75 Information System) run by CITES10, which
records ivory seizures in countries of destination ;
PIKE Index (%)

these confirm the MIKE results over the period

50 2000 to 2012, with record ivory seizure levels
between 2009 and 2011.

25
The GSEaf survey conducted by IUCN
(Group of African elephant specialists in IUCN)
in March 2012 among the network of researchers
and elephant managers in 12 African countries
0
showed a resurgence of poaching during the pre-
ceding 12 months in Cameroon, Gabon, Congo,
Central African Republic and the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC).
Figure 3.2 : PIKE values at the various MIKE sites in 2011 and 2012.
Source : MIKE’s program Central Africa Details of the joint results of MIKE, ETIS
and GSEaf are available at http ://www.cites.org/
fra/com/SC/62/F62-46-01.pdf

The regular surveys conducted in West Africa

show a decline in the elephant population of 76 %
since 1980 (Bouché et al., 2011). The same trend
is apparent in the forests of Central Africa, with
9 Monitoring the Illegal Killing of
Elephants. CITES CoP 16 Doc. a decline of 62 % (Maisels et al., 2013).
53.1 available on http ://www.cites.
org/fra/cop/16/doc/F-CoP16-53-01. The resurgence of the illegal killing of African
pdf elephants can be linked to the economic boom in
10 http ://cites.org/eng/cop/16/
China and to the increase in the purchasing power
doc/E-CoP16-53-02-02.pdf
of Chinese households (Martin and Vigne, 2011 ;

74
Wittemyer et al., 2011). Some experts consider tected (except for mountain gorillas as the entire
that if poaching pressure remains at present levels, population is in national parks). While 11 % of
the species may disappear from Central Africa Congo Basin forests have been gazetted as pro-
within 20 years (Maisels, personal comment). tected areas, about 15 % is designated for timber
Strategic decisions were therefore taken at the exploitation (Nasi et al., 2012). The latter propor-
CITES CoP16, in March 2013, to address this tion increases to nearly 50 % of western lowland
elephant poaching crisis (see 4.3. Recent CITES gorilla and central chimpanzee habitat (Morgan
decisions on elephants). and Sanz, 2007). Therefore logging concessions
and the adoption of wildlife-compatible manage-
ment practices are very important for great apes
3.1.2. Case of the great apes (Morgan et al., 2013). An assessment of change
in “suitable environmental conditions” for great
There are four species of African great ape : apes over a period of 20 years (Junker et al., 2012)
bonobos, chimpanzees, eastern gorillas and showed that high hunting pressure or habitat
western gorillas. The IUCN/SSC A.P.E.S. (Ape degradation have rendered large tracts of forest
Populations, Environments and Surveys) Portal unsuitable for great apes. The same assessment
(http ://apesportal.eva.mpg.de/) and the Red List showed that since the year 2000 the proportion of
of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2012) provide ape range within protected areas has been reduced
up-to-date estimates of the geographic range, to 18 % to 60 % depending on the taxon (moun-
population size and the proportion of the popu- tain gorillas excepted ; Table 3.2).
lations located within protected areas for each
of the nine great ape taxa (table 3.2). IUCN has Improved protected area management, espe-
published conservation action plans for eight of cially law enforcement (Tranquilli et al., 2012),
these taxa (IUCN and ICCN 2012 ; Kormos and and sound wildlife management in buffer zones
Boesch, 2003 ; Maldonado et al., 2012 ; Morgan are vital for ape conservation and for biodiversity
et al., 2011 ; Oates et al., 2007 ; Plumptre et al., in general (Laurance et al., 2012). Furthermore,
2010 ; Tutin et al., 2005). These plans, together landscape-level conservation-focused land-use
with survey results and vulnerability assessments, planning is essential to keep great apes from
guide effort and resource allocation to priority being reduced to isolated populations in forest
conservation needs ; nonetheless, the only great fragments (Dupain et al., 2010). Habitat frag-
ape taxon that is not in decline is the mountain mentation increases proximity between humans
gorilla (Robbins et al., 2011 ; Gray et al., 2013). and apes and thus the likelihood of disease trans-
mission from one to the other. The impacts of
Great apes have very slow rates of reproduc- infectious diseases, such as the Ebola virus, Simian
tion, making their populations extremely vulner- Immunodeficiency Virus and human respiratory
able to any level of offtake. The main threats to viruses, are increasingly well documented, high-
great ape survival are poaching for the bushmeat lighting the need to consider interventions such
trade, habitat destruction and infectious diseases. as vaccination of apes (Ryan and Walsh, 2011).
Additionally, the live trade in young great apes is Recovery from disease outbreaks in slow repro-
reportedly on the rise (Stiles et al., 2013). Despite ducing species, such as apes, takes many years
having full legal protection status in all range even under favourable conditions (Walsh et al.,
states, laws are often not enforced. The propor- 2003), and extinction risks are growing as ape
tion of great apes in the total catch or gross weight populations become increasingly fragmented and
of bushmeat is small, but nevertheless constitutes isolated.
a large number of animals (Dupain et al., 2012 ;
Foerster et al., 2012 ; Hart, 2009).
In the face of rapidly changing dynamics on
Habitat destruction is likely to become a more the African continent (industrial agriculture,
significant threat as forests are converted to agro- mining, infrastructure, human demographics,
industrial plantations to meet increasing interna- etc.), the survival of great apes will depend on
tional demands (Carrere, 2010). Although defor- evidence-based conservation strategies that have
estation rates in Central Africa are low (Mayaux been tested empirically to demonstrate what
et al., 2013), they could change rapidly if poorly works and what does not (e.g. Junker et al.,
planned agro-industrial conversion goes ahead 2012 ; Tranquilli et al., 2012).
as it has elsewhere (Malhi et al., 2013). A rela-
tively small proportion of great ape range is pro-

75
 3.1.3. Forest buffalo : a large grazer Estimates of abundance are limited to a few
living in a forest landscape sites where the open habitat allows for direct ob-
servation of buffalo. Forest buffalo population
The geographic range of the forest buffalo, estimates range from 20 individuals at Campo-
Syncerus caffer nanus, is limited to the Congo Ma’an National Park in Cameroon (Bekhuis
Basin forest (Sinclair, 1977), but because of et  al., 2008) to 500 at Odzala National Park
their elusive habits, few data exist for this sub- in the Republic of Congo (Chamberlan et  al.,
species of African buffalo (Blake, 2002 ; Melletti 1998). Small numbers of buffalo are also report-
et al., 2007a ; Korte, 2008a). Although the for- ed in the Dzanga sector of the Dzanga-Ndoki
est buffalo inhabits forests and because it is the National Park., Central African Republic, where
largest grazer in the rainforest ecosystem, it may the population is estimated at between 32 and
play an important ecological role in maintain- 40 individuals (Melletti et al., 2007b). At Lopé
ing clearings, using proportionally more open National Park in Gabon, the savanna and for-
habitat than forest. The future of this subspecies est mosaic of the northeast portion of the park
depends on effectiveness of protected areas with has an estimated population of 324 individuals
special attention to forest clearings and mosaics (Korte, 2008b).
of forest and savannas, where critical food re-
sources are abundant. Habitat loss and poach- Given these low population estimates, their
ing are major threats to forest buffalo popula- dependence on open habitat within the forest
tions (IUCN/SSC, 2008). Buffalo are hunted landscape and the stability of buffalo groups,
for their meat especially in rural areas, where open areas, which are large enough to support
human populations depend on bushmeat for buffalo herds and have adequate protection from
protein increasing the hunting pressure on this poaching, are crucial for maintaining forest buf-
subspecies. falo populations in the Congo Forest Basin
(Melletti et al., 2007b ; Korte, 2008b).

Table 3.2 : Summary of African great apes statistics

Suitable environ- IUCN category Percent of
Total species Population esti-
Subspecies mental conditions (population SEC in pro-
range (km²) mate
– SEC (km²) trend) tected areas
Western lowland gorilla
347 400 694 208 ~150 000 CR (decreasing) 25.2
Gorilla gorilla gorilla
Cross River gorilla
2 975 3 648 200 – 300 CR (decreasing) —
Gorilla gorilla diehli
Grauer’s gorilla
10 900 21 600 2 000 – 10 000 EN (decreasing) 60.3
Gorilla beringei graueri
Mountain gorilla
785 785 880 CR (increasing) 100
Gorilla beringei beringei
Bonobo 15 000 – 20 000
97 975 418 803 EN (decreasing) 42.4
Pan paniscus (minimum)
Central chimpanzee
317 425 710 670 70 000–117 000 EN (decreasing) 25.5
Pan troglodytes troglodytes
Eastern chimpanzee 200 000 –
816 450 961 232 EN (decreasing) 18.4
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii 250 000
Western chimpanzee
555 450 660 337 23 000 EN (decreasing) 21.7
Pan troglodytes verus
Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee
41 150 168 407 3 500 – 9 000 EN (decreasing) —
Pan troglodytes ellioti

CR : Critically Endangered, EN : Endangered

Sources : Campbell et al., 2012 ; Gray et al., 2013 ; IUCN Red List ; IUCN/SSC A.P.E.S. Portal ; IUCN and ICCN 2012 ; Maldonado et al., 2012
and Robbins et al., 2011

76
 Photo 3.4 : Forest buffalo in
Bai Hokou – Dzanga-Ndoki
National Park, CAR
© Mario Melletti

The forest buffalo is declining across its geo- especially in the more accessible open habitats.
graphic range (IUCN/SSC, 2008). Based on Today, lions and African wild dogs are almost
only a few population estimates, East (1999) certainly extinct within the Congo Basin, while
estimated a total population of 60 000 forest spotted hyenas have been reduced to one small
buffalo with about 75 % of the population in and isolated population, surviving in the Odzala-
protected areas. The future of this subspecies Kokoua National Park in the Republic of Congo
depends on well-managed protected areas as (Henschel, 2009). Vagrant hyenas have been
well as the strengthening of legislation govern- detected in neighboring Gabon (Bout et  al.,
ing hunting (IUCN/SSC, 2008 ; Cornélis et al., 2010), but no evidence exists for the occurrence
in press). Thus, appropriate hunting regulations of a second resident population within the Congo
and enforcement of these regulations are also Basin.
critical for maintaining forest buffalo popula-
tions. In remote forest regions, wildlife populations
(the prey of leopard), have been less severely
affected by human activity, and consequently,
3.1.4. The large carnivores leopards are still fairly widespread across intact
core areas within the Congo Basin (Henschel,
While the forests in the Congo Basin have 2009). However, evidence is mounting that leop-
long been an important stronghold for leopards, ards have disappeared from a number of forest
Panthera pardus (the apex predator in this habitat sites on the fringes of the Congo Basin (e.g.
and an IUCN Red List near threatened species) Andama, 2000 ; Angelici et al., 1998 ; Maisels
(Nowell and Jackson, 1996), the forest-savanna et al., 2001 ; Willcox et Nambu, 2007), where
mosaic habitat also once harbored important human population density is higher. A recent
populations of lions, Panthera leo (Vulnerable), study in central Gabon suggests that bushmeat
African wild dogs, Lycaon pictus (Endangered), hunting may precipitate the decline in leopard
and spotted hyenas, Crocuta crocuta (Malbrant numbers through exploitative competition and
and Maclatchy, 1949). Uncontrolled hunting by that intensively hunted areas are unlikely to sup-
humans, however, has led to a dramatic decrease port resident leopard populations (Henschel
in wild ungulate populations (carnivore’s prey), et al., 2011).

77
 Under these circumstances, land-uses that
mitigate the effects of bushmeat hunting such as
well-managed, large protected areas and similarly
large and well-managed logging concessions, are
essential for the effective conservation of leop-
ards in the Congo Basin (Henschel et al., 2011).
Conservation efforts directed towards spotted
hyenas should promote the rigorous protection of
the remaining population in the Odzala-Kokoua
National Park, and the establishment of a second
population in the center of their former range,
the Bateke Plateau (Henschel, 2009).

© Philipp Henschel
Photo 3.5 : Male leopard prowling an abandoned logging trail in the NSG con-
cession – East of the Lopé National Park, Gabon

3.2. State of plant diversity

3.2.1. State of current knowledge on Lichens

flora
The checklist of lichens and lichenicolous
Flowering plants (angiosperms) fungi (Feuerer, 2012) clearly demonstrates the
fragmentary knowledge of this group of species
Our knowledge of the vascular flora of Central in Central Africa (table 3.3). For more than half
Africa is incomplete. In the case of Rwanda, of the countries, no pertinent data are available.
Burundi and DRC, the National Botanic Garden Countries for which more data are available still do
of Belgium is in the process of preparing a check- not give a good picture of the total lichen diversity.
list of the vascular plants : the list can already be The checklists are based on a small number of
accessed online (http ://dev.e-taxonomy.eu/data- publications and the reported species belong to
portal/flore-afrique-centrale/). Table 3.3 shows a rather small number of families. This indicates
recent estimates of the numbers of species in that research has so far mainly been driven by
each country. In most cases, these are only rough the interest of the individual investigators and
estimates based upon the available data and in their taxonomical knowledge at that moment.
some cases the data are not available. The real For instance, with the exception of São Tomé and
botanical diversity is probably much higher than Príncipe , not one species of one of the largest
these estimates. tropical families, the Graphidaceae, is mentioned.
Lichens are generally very sensitive to changes in
the habitat. So if the earth continues to warm
all lichen species preferring cold conditions are
threatened.

78
 Algae

Algae are a group of aquatic photosynthetic

organisms, which range in size from microscopi-
cally small to very large. Aquatic algae are respon-
sible for more than half of the oxygen production
on earth. The diatoms, one of the algae groups,
are important bio-indicators of water quality,
and they are used in paleolimnological studies
to reconstruct past climate. Other algae include
Cyanobacteria, which while more closely related
to bacteria, are traditionally studied as part of the
algae. Estimates of the species diversity of these
two groups of algae in Central Africa can be found

© Dominique Louppe
in Table 3.3.

Bryophytes and Pteridophytes

Bryophytes (hepatic, anthocerotes and

mosses) and pteridophytes (lycopsides and ferns
sensu stricto) have long been neglected in biodi-
versity inventories, particularly in tropical Africa. Photo 3.6 : Botanical garden – University of Kisangani, DRC
Even though some countries have been explored
in depth, most of the data available for Central
Africa are deficient, discoveries of new species
are frequent and inventories are continuing
(table 3.3).

Table 3.3 : Botanical diversity in Central Africa

Country Angiosperms Pteridophytes Lichens Algae Bryophytes Introduced
Burundi 3 413 174 21 690 152 288
Cameroon 8 500 279 101 n/a 585 410
DRC 8 203 378 183 487 (*) 893 364
Equ. Guinea (Annobon) 42 n/a 53
Equ. Guinea (Bioko) 7 100 204 1 n/a 352 226
Equ. Guinea (Rio Muni) 117 1 157
Gabon 4 710 179 2 n/a 316 n/a
Rep. of Congo 4 538 n/a 2 n/a 126 n/a
CAR 4 300 n/a 3 n/a 333 297
Rwanda 2 974 194 112 52 554 291
São Tomé 139 n/a 158
1 230 78 297
Príncipe 117 n/a 47
Chad 2 250 n/a 23 1 426 78 131
(n/a : no reliable data available or under review)
(*) For lake Tanganyika 956 species of algae have been recorded

79
 Box 3.4 : Mushroom diversity of Central Africa
Jérôme Degreef & André De Kesel
National Botanic Garden of Belgium
Only 2 500 mushroom species have been described in Africa, 70% of which are native or endemic
(Mueller et al., 2007). This inventory is far from complete however because it is estimated that in an
ecosystem there are four to six times more mushroom species than superior plants. The first official list
of Congo (DRC) mushrooms, produced by Beeli in 1923, recorded 593 species. In 1948, Hendrickx
reported that the number had increased to 1 163, including Rwanda and Burundi. No report has been
produced since then.
Due to their seasonal nature, producing a complete inventory of mushrooms requires much more
field work than for other living species. Moreover, Central African mycologists are poorly represented
within the whole African mycologist community. Indeed, in 2012, only 10 out of 200 members of the
African Mycological Association (http://www.africanmycology.org/) were represented by Central Africa
(Gryzehnhout et al., 2012).
In view of this situation, priorities must be made for further research. Edible mushrooms constitute
Figure 3.3 : Edible mushrooms
a particularly interesting group within the more general framework of the development of non-timber
of central Africa’s dense forests
forest products (NTFP).
300 edible mushroom species were recorded in tropical Africa (Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993 ; Boa,
2006), more than half of which are related to living trees via a symbiosis called “ectomycorrhizae’’.
These mushrooms play an important part in the ecosystem, but inevitably end up disappearing due to the disappearance of the
associated trees. Abundance and diversity of these mushrooms may therefore be used as key indicators of the state of the forest.
In light of this, an illustrated training manual was recently published, enabling the identification of Central African dense forest’s
most consumed species (Eyi Ndong et al., 2011) (figure 3.3). It aims to improve local knowledge on African mushrooms and their
diversity. The manual is available electronically (www.abctaxa.be) but also as a free hard copy thanks to support from the GTI (Global
Taxonomy Initiative), a Belgian focal group, and from the BTC (Belgian Development Cooperation).

3.2.2. Threats to biodiversity : the case stands preventing the regeneration of natural for-
of invasive species ests. In São Tomé in particular, in the mountain
ecosystems in which it proliferates and which it
Invasive plants in São Tomé degrades, it reduces local biodiversity and disrupts
ecotourism activities (Lejoly, 1995).
In São Tomé and Príncipe various introduced
plant species have spread from the crop-growing It is estimated that in São Tomé about one
areas where they had been planted and have third of imported local flora has become natural-
acquired an invasive character (Figueiredo et al., ized. It may therefore be assumed that many of
2011). In a context of high endemism and insular- these plants are potentially invasive, albeit not yet
ity, the phenomenon is particularly threatening detected as such to date.
to the country’s plant diversity.
Although these invasive plants have already
Among these invasive plants are : Cinchona probably caused irreparable damage (loss of bio-
spp. (cinchona), Rubus rosifolius (Asian raspberry diversity, including endemic species), the most
plant), Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican sunflower), remarkable ecosystems can still be preserved.
Bambusa spp. (Stevart et al., 2010). Cinchona For example, it would appear possible to control
is one of the 100 most invasive species in the biodiversity loss in the Obo National Park and
world and its harmful impact on the biodiversity its surrounding area through evaluation of the
of invaded sites is recognized (http ://www.issg. situation, the prediction of future invasion, the
org/database/welcome/). Originating from Latin eradication and control of the invasive species,
America, it was planted from the mid-nineteenth and the awareness-raising and education of the
century in many islands to treat cases of malaria local people.
(Galapagos, Hawaii, São Tomé, etc.). Rapidly
becoming naturalized, cinchona forms dense

80
 The small fire-ant (Wasmannia Although some earlier infestations were a
auropunctata) in Gabon and Cameroon result of deliberate introductions of W. auropunc-
tata as a method of limiting insect pests in Cocoa
Wasmannia auropunctata is a tiny, biting, red plantations (de Miré, 1969), currently its primary
ant native to the neotropics, which has colonised means of dispersal is inadvertent and mediated by
and dominated many tropical and sub-tropical human activities, notably logging and oil drill-
areas worldwide. In Africa, W. auropunctata was ing (Walsh et al., 2004 ; Mikheyev et al., 2008),
first recorded in Libreville, Gabon around 1913. building and road construction, and the trans-
It is presumed to have arrived on boats import- portation of goods and vegetation (Wetterer and
ing goods from the Americas (Santschi, 1914). Porter, 2003).
Since then, it has spread across Gabon and north
to neighboring Cameroon (figure 3.4). Recent The impacts of W. Auropunctata on biodiver-
genetic analyses suggest a single clonal origin for sity could be dramatic. For example, in Gabon,
the entire regional population (Mikheyev et al., a greater than 95 % decrease in native ant species
2009 ; Foucaud et al., 2010). diversity has been attributed to W. auropunctata.
(Walker, 2006). There is growing evidence that

Figure 3.4 : Approximate known range of Wasmannia auropunctata in Central Africa (red hatching) ; red
points indicate known infestation sites in Gabon. Black hatching : no data, although presence is likely.
Data sources : Wetterer et al., 1999 ; Walsh et al., 2004 ; Walker, 2006 ; Mikheyev, et al., 2008, 2009 ; Mikissa, 2010 ;
Tindo et al., 2011 ; JP vande Weghe, O.Hymas, JB Mikissa, V. Mihindou and K. Jeffery, pers. obs.)

81
 delicate ecosystem processes are being disturbed Untreated W. auropunctata infestations can
at different trophic scales, as populations of micro- become unbearable to humans within a few years,
bivore, detritivore, pollinating and mutualistic due to the frequency of stings sustained in highly
species are affected by the introduction of W. infested areas. Although not yet measured, the
auropunctata (Dunham and Mikheyev, 2010 ; potential for damage to the economy of rural
Mikissa, 2010). W. auropunctata has a mutualistic communities and to the development of tourism
relationship with phloem-feeding insects, which within Gabon is becoming increasingly appar-
cause damage to plants by sapping nutrients and ent. Reports already exist of plantations, houses
increasing diseases (Smith, 1942 ; Delabie et al., and villages being abandoned because of W. auro-
1994 ; de Souza et al., 1998 ; Fasi and Brodie, punctata infestations (J.B. Mikissa, pers. comm.).
2009). While long identified as a threat to crop Appropriate fire-ant treatments and management
species, its spread into protected areas and more programs have not yet been developed for Gabon,
undisturbed environments in Gabon is now caus- yet they are urgently required. While total eradica-
ing concern for the conservation of native plant tion is now an unrealistic option, strategies should
fauna. include public awareness, prevention of spread,
monitoring, eradication of isolated infestations
and treatment at advancing frontiers.

4. Tools for managing biodiversity in Central Africa

4.1. The legislation on traditional hunting and poaching

In Central Africa, all countries have included

in their forestry codes provisions for local people
to have access to faunal resources in their tradi-
tional lands. But this right of usage is limited
© FRM

and certain hunting practices are illegal. In the

field, however, the dividing line is often difficult
to establish between so-called traditional hunting
and poaching (illegal hunting), between what
is permitted and what is forbidden. These are
defined in legislation but are difficult to recon-
cile with local practices. These distinctions are
particularly relevant to hunting gear, the areas
allocated to traditional hunting, the uses of bush-
meat and the circulation of animal products. An
examination of the legal provisions relating to
the practice of hunting in Cameroon illustrates
particularly well this situation on the ground and
its contradictions (box 3.5).

Photo 3.7 : Pygmy hunter

and his game – UFA Bétou,
Congo

82
 Box 3.5 : Hunting and poaching in Cameroon: What does the law say?
Roger Ngoufo
University of Yaoundé

Hunting in Cameroon requires, among other things, a hunting permit or license, which has been compulsory since 1981 (article
48 of the former Act No. 81-13 of 27 November 1981, and later article 87 of existing Act No. 94-01 of 20 January 1994 establishing
regulations for forests, fauna and fisheries). The only derogation permitted concerns so-called “traditional” hunting defined as hunting
carried out “with implements made from materials of plant origin” (Decree No. 95-466 of 20 July 1995 establishing the procedures
for the application of the regulations relating to fauna). Under the Act of 1994, this traditional hunting “is authorized throughout the
national territory except in state forests for the concession of fauna and on the property of third parties”.
Again according to the relevant legislation, “products emanating from traditional hunting are exclusively intended as foodstuffs”
(art. 24 of Decree No. 95-466 of 20 July 1995 establishing the procedures for the application of the regulations relating to fauna).
This falls under the concept of the right of use defined as “the exploitation by local inhabitants of forest, fauna or fisheries products for
personal use” (art. 4).
In Cameroon, poaching is defined as any act of hunting without a permit, in the closed season, in reserved places or with prohibited
equipment or weapons” (art.3 of Decree No. 95-466 cited). Similarly, any traditional hunting procedure liable to jeopardize the con-
servation of certain animals may be restricted (art. 81 of Act No. 94-01 of 1994). By extension, “any person found, at any time or in
any place, to be in possession of the whole or part of a protected class A or B animal, as defined in article 78 of the present Act, whether
alive or dead, shall be deemed to have captured or killed it” (art. 101 of Act No. 94-01 of 1994).
All these provisions de facto outlaw numerous widespread local practices, which thereby
become acts of poaching. For example, the use of traditionally manufactured rifles, nets or
steel cables is completely illegal, even though these practices are common at the local level.
© Carlos de Wasseige

Certain ancestral practices using partially or fully protected species have thus become illegal,
such as the killing of an elephant, which constitutes a rite of passage among the Bakas. Many
people are also liable to fall under the ambit of the law through their involvement in any
way in the traffic in animal products. In other words, it has to be acknowledged that the
concept of “traditional hunting” provided by Cameroonian legislation does not tally with
the facts on the ground.
Photo 3.8 : Temporary poachers’ camp

4.2. The lists of threatened species

According to the IUCN Red List of plant species known from Central African for-
Threatened Taxa (http ://www.iucnredlist.org/), ests (White, 1983), only 965 (12 %) have been
about 6 000 species have been evaluated in assessed. For assessed mammals, most evaluations
Central African countries. For these species, the were conducted in 2008 ; of these, some 70 % are
levels of threat are detailed by group in Figure 3.5. LC (Least Concern) while 12 % are VU, EN, or
While the majority of evaluated species are not CR. Several of these threatened species are listed
threatened, 0 to 34 % of the species are classified by CITES.
as Vulnerable (VU), Critically Endangered (CR)
or Endangered (EN) by group per threat category In general, evaluations of species are valid
(e.g. 34 % of plants are classified as VU ; 2 % of for approximately 10 years before they require
birds, EN). The high percentage of species for updating (Schatz, 2009). Using this benchmark,
which there are no data available (DD – Data as a whole, only 6 % of the Central African evalu-
Deficient) is also worrisome. ations are out of date. However, in consulting
the IUCN database, plants (particularly listed
The numerous species which remain unevalu- timber species) are clearly in the worst position,
ated (and so unaccounted for in the statistics with 32 % of the evaluations requiring updating.
presented in Figure 3.5) are even more trou- Many groups were updated in 2012, with some
bling. For example, of the approximately 8 000 1 500 updates or additions, including all of the

83
 100%

90%

80%

70%
EX
EW
60%
CR
50% EN
VU
40% DD
NT
30% LC

20%

10%

0%
Plants Molluscs Arthropods Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Figure 3.5 : Percentage of Central African threatened species by category of threat and species group (EX :
Extinct ; EW : Extinct in the Wild ; DD : Data Deficient ; NT : Near Threatened ; LC : Least Concern ; CR :
Critically Endangered ; EN : Endangered ; VU : Vulnerable)

listed birds and many mollusks, arthropods and ducted by IUCN, in which regionally threat-
fish. ened species of fishes, mollusks, odonates and
crabs were mapped within river sub-watersheds
Nonetheless, different cases show that a good (figure 3.6). The coastal equatorial regions
understanding of the threat level is vital to help (including Cameroon’s crater lakes), the Lower
guide conservation action : Congo Rapids, and the Bangweulu-Mweru sys-
tem in the Democratic Republic of Congo have
A number of Central African amphibians the highest level of threatened freshwater spe-
were assessed for the IUCN Red List in 2012. cies (Brooks et al., 2011). Many of these areas
The IUCN Amphibian Specialist Group uses qualify as Key Biodiversity Areas, areas which
these assessments, in conjunction with priori- are globally important for biological conserva-
ties identified by the Alliance for Zero Extinction tion (Holland et al., 2012). A related pan-African
(AZE) and information provided by local part- study on dragonflies found that the mountains
ners, to identify the most critical habitats requir- of the Cameroon-Nigeria border had the most
ing conservation for the long term survival of threatened species in the Congo Basin, while
some of the world’s more threatened amphibians. the highest number of DD species is found in
Their priority sites include Cameroon’s Mont north-eastern Gabon, a well-studied area in the
Oku, Mont Manengouba, Mont Nganha, and 1960s and ‘70s which has not had subsequent
the Bakossi Hills, each containing 35 to 85 spe- field surveys (Clausnitzer et al., 2012). Finally,
cies. These sites form part of the global set of a Red List of Cameroon’s endemic plant species
priorities identified by the AZE, an effort to draw has given preliminary evaluations of more than
attention to habitat conservation of threatened 800 species (Onana & Cheek, 2011).
species worldwide. In the Congo Basin, there are
15 AZE sites including those cited previously In Gabon, new surveys of poorly known,
and the DRC’s Itombwe Mountains, São Tomé’s highly threatened and strictly endemic spe-
lowlands, Gabon’s Mont Iboundji, and Rwanda’s cies in the Libreville area helped to inform the
Nyungwe National Park (http ://www.zeroextinc- boundaries of the newly created Raponda-Walker
tion.org). Arboretum. The last remaining populations of
Psychotria wieringae (EN), Acricocarpus vestitus,
Another example of how the analysis of threat Gaertnera spicata amongst others are now guar-
level informs conservation priorities is with the anteed protection (Lachenaud et al., 2013).
freshwater assessments of Central Africa con-

84
Figure 3.6 : The distribution of regionally threatened species of fishes, molluscs, odonates and crabs within
Central Africa, mapped to river sub-watersheds (Brooks et al., 2011)
© Olivier Lachenaud

Photo 3.9 : Psychotria wieringae, one of several

highly-threatened, rare and endemic species in the
Libreville region of Gabon, which is now protected
by the newly-created Raponda-Walker arboretum.

85
 Finally, when species are threatened by Lowland Gorilla (CR), Mountain Gorilla (EN),
commercial trade, they are often listed by the Chimpanzee (EN), Bonobo (EN), Mandrill
Convention on the International Trade of En- (VU) and Drill (EN). Well known plants in-
dangered Species (CITES). Examples of large clude Prunus africana (VU) and Pericopsis elata
mammals on the list include the African ele- (EN), as well as many orchids (see box 3.6 for
phant (VU) (for Central Africa this includes the more information).
forest elephant subpopulation (EN)), Western

Box 3.6. IUCN’s Red List and commercial trees: the case of Pericopsis elata (Harms) Meeuwen (assamela, afrormosia)
Jean-Louis Doucet and Nils Bourland
Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech / University of Liège

From the okoume (Aucoumea klaineana) to the sapelli (Entandrophragma cylindricum) many commercial tree species are included
on IUCN’s Red List (http://www.iucnredlist.org/). No less then half the species currently logged in Central Africa are considered
threatened under the AIcd criterion. Among these species, those which have decreased in population by at least 50 percent over the last
three generations are classified as vulnerable (VU), a reduction of at least 70 percent is classified as in danger of extinction (EN) or in
critical danger of extinction (CR) if  reduced by at least 90 percent.
However, the characteristics of these trees such as their longevity make the classification for the list unusually complicated. The
duration of a generation defined by IUCN (2001), the average age of the parents of the cohort, is generally close to a century for most
of the commercial species (Menga et al., 2012). Furthermore, a poor understanding of the ecology of the commercial species under-
scoress the high priority for studying their autecology, particularly to evaluate threats so that forestry management can be improved in
logging operations.
The assamela (Pericopsis elata), also known as the afrormosia or kokrodua, is classified as EN in IUCN’s Red List and in annex II of
CITES (species for which an export permit or re-export certificate is necessary). Its status was studied in Cameroon by Barland et al.,
(2012a) in a forestry concession of about 120 000 ha. The population analyzed was suffering from a substantial regeneration deficit.
The local abundance of this heliophilic species derives from old forest clearings, which enabled it to intitially regenerate (van Gemerden
et al., 2003; Brncic et al., 2007). Because shifting agriculture was previously more common in these areas, conditions favoring its re-
generation have diminished.
The assamela flowers regularly in the area studied starting at the age of about 120 years onwards while the average age of the repro-
ducing adult trees is estimated to be about two centuries. In practice, it is impossible to determine the population reduction over three
generations (i.e. 600 years) as called for by the IUCN. Moreover, the impact of commercial harvest on the assamela in Cameroon can
be regarded as limited because the species may be felled only if its diameter is at least 90 cm, which would reduce the number of seed
trees by only 12 percent in 30 years. If it is assumed that the population studied is representative of the Cameroonian population, the
EN status would appear to be greatly exaggerated.
However, the situation may vary from one country to another. In the Republic of Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC), the legal minimum diameter for harvest is only 60 cm, which threatens a greater proportion of seed trees and could adversely
affect regeneration of the species.
Nevertheless, the assamela’s distribution range in Central Africa coincides with some protected areas (Bowland et al., 2012b). Thus,
7 percent of the assamela area in DRC appears to occur in protected areas, as opposed to 40 % in Congo and 46 percent in Cameroon.
Applying the IUCN criteria to timber species is therefore extremely delicate. It is even possible that today certain heliophilic species
such as the assamela could be even more abundant than 600 years ago (see Brncic et al., 2007).
Consequently, a more rigorous estimate of the status of species should take account of population dynamics considering future,
and not past, anthropic impacts. Any simulation should necessarily consider the ecology of the species, the zoning plan of the coun-
tries included in its distribution area (including the proportion of distribution within protected areas), rates of deforestation, forestry
legislation and the existence of reafforestation programs. Lastly, in light of national disparities, a regional approach appears essential.
In the case of heliophilic and anthropophilic species such assamela or okoume, conservation alone will not be sufficient to guaran-
tee the maintenance of populations in the long term. Only rational management, integrating regeneration programs, will ensure their
longlasting survival.

86
4.3. Recent CITES decisions on elephants

CITES is an international agreement between killing of elephants, illegal trade in ivory and
governments that aims to ensure that interna- the national security implications of ivory traf-
tional trade in specimens of wild animals and ficking. Public awareness campaigns aimed at
plants does not threaten their survival. Every two reducing the demand for ivory, which is the prin-
to three years, member states meet to review the cipal driver of the illegal killing of elephants, were
implementation of the agreement. At the last con- endorsed by the CITES plenary. This endorse-
ference of the parties to CITES, in March 2013 ment further allows for the building of a coali-
in Bangkok, strategic decisions were adopted for tion of individuals, scientists, NGOs, institutions
the first time about on-the-ground actions to col- and governments to take united international
lectively address the elephant poaching crisis and action to reduce demand for ivory. Finally, an
the escalating illegal trade in ivory (http ://www. agreement was adopted to strengthen the African
cites.org/common/cop/16/sum/E-CoP16-Com- Elephant Conservation Fund (http ://www.fws.
II-Rec-13.pdf ). The data illustrating the current gov/international/wildlife-without-borders/
elephant poaching crisis are outlined briefly in african-elephant-conservation-fund.html) and
3.1.1. “Update on the illegal killing of elephants” the African Elephant Action Plan (http ://www.
of this chapter. bloodyivory.org/action-plan).

Among other decisions, taking DNA samples The Conference decided to establish Wildlife
on future ivory seizures greater than 500 kg is now Incident Support Teams (WISTs), to be dis-
mandated, and CITES parties are required to patched at the request of a country which has
report annually on ivory stockpiles. Additionally, been affected by a significant poaching incident
the discussion of the possibility of a CITES- related to illegal trade or that has made a large-
sanctioned trade in ivory was postponed and scale seizure of CITES listed specimens. The
the ban remains in place. Moreover, the CITES WISTs will assist and guide appropriate follow-
Secretary General will now cooperate with the up actions in the affected or intercepting country
UN Office of Drugs & Crime regarding illegal in the immediate aftermath of such an incident.

© Dominique Louppe
4.4. Herbaria, not only about naming plants

A herbarium is a collection of preserved plants between 23 to 25 years to describe half the new
for scientific research and education. Herbaria are plant species collected in one year. This interval
a vital and irreplaceable taxonomic reference for can be explained by the shortage of specialists,
plants, which identify thousands of plant names. the tremendous amount of material available in
Herbaria are complementary to the function of herbaria (it estimated that the world’s 2 721 active
the Botanical Gardens as explained in the box 3.3 herbaria together house 361 million specimens)
of State of the Forest 2010. : “Botanic gardens in and by the methodology of plant taxonomy itself.
Central Africa : roles and prospects”.
Herbaria are also important for all types of
Herbaria are essential to achieve the first objec- research on plants such as genetics, palynol-
tive of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation ogy, wood anatomy, chemistry, pharmacognosy,
(GSPC), which states that “Plant diversity is well inventories, etc. Vouchers specimens, which have
understood, documented and recognized.” (see : all of the essential elements for identifying the
https ://www.cbd.int/gspc). They are where new specimen, including comprehensive labeling
species are discovered, described and named. New about the place, date, collector and habitat of
species are often described many years after they collection, are crucial in many research domains.
were collected. Fontaine et al. (2012) estimated
that the shelf life, between discovery and descrip- Herbaria are not only a depository for dried
tion, is on average 21 years for species of all king- herbarium specimens. They also hold associated Photo 3.10 : Example of
doms. Bebber et al. (2010) calculated that it takes materials such as liquid-preserved fruits and a restored herbarium in
INERA – Yangambi, DRC

87
 flowers, DNA samples, wood samples, drawings, tory of crops, pest and invasive species ; evaluate
watercolors, photographs, archives, literature, the in-situ and ex-situ conservation of plants ;
etc. The combined availability of these materials and, provide a historical reference for carbon and
allows scientists to study the morphological and nitrogen cycles.
genetic variability of a species as well as its past
and present distribution ; calculate environmental The oldest herbaria in Central Africa date
parameters and potential distribution patterns ; back to the early 20th century (e.g. the herbaria
predict future distribution in the context of of Kisantu and Eala). From 1946 onwards, many
global change ; document the distribution his- local herbaria were founded. Many of these col-

Table 3.4 : Most important herbaria in the Congo Basin.

Number of
Country Name Code Institute
specimens
Burundi Herbarium of the Biology Department BJA University of Burundi 20 000
National Herbarium of Cameroon YA National Herbarium of Cameroon 96 000
Herbarium Limbe Botanical &
SCA Limbe Botanical & Zoological Gardens 30 000
Cameroon Zoological Gardens
Herbarium of the school of Garoua
HEFG Garoua wildlife school 11 000
wildlife
Central African Herbarium faculty of sciences BANG Bangui university 10 000
Republic Herbarium Central Station of Boukoko SCB Central Station of Boukoko 3 600
Republic of Congo Herbarium National of Congo IEC Study on plant resources center 40 300
Herbarium of the Centre for Training
Congolese Institute for the Conservation
and Research Forest Conservation EPU 8 000
of Nature (ICCN)
Epulu
Herbarium of the university and
IUK University of Kinshasa and INERA 29 000
INERA of Kinshasa
Herbarium of the Kisangani university KIS Kisangani university 10 000
Herbarium of the Lubumbashi univer-
LSHI Lubumbashi university 25 000
sity
Herbarium of the Kisantu botanical Congolese institute for the conservation
KISA 8 000
Democratic garden of nature (ICCN)
Republic of Congo Research center in Natural Sciences
Lwiro Herbarium LWI 15 000
Lwiro (CRSN)
National Institute for the Agronomic
Kipopo Herbarium KIP 25 000
study and research (INERA)
National Institute for the Agronomic
Luki Herbarium LUKI 10 000
study and research (INERA)
National Institute for the Agronomic
Mulungu Herbarium MLGU 10 000
study and research (INERA)
National Institute for the Agronomic
Yangambi Herbarium YBI 150 000
study and research (INERA)
Gabon National herbarium of Gabon LBV CENAREST 40 000
National Herbarium and
Equatorial Guinea BATA National Institute of Forest Desarollo 8 000
Documentation Centre
Institute of Scientific and Technological
Rwanda National Herbarium of Rwanda NHR 16 700
Research (IRST)
Directorate General of Environment,
São Tomé and Herbarium national of São Tomé and
STPH Ministry of Natural Resources and 1 500
Príncipe Príncipe
Environment
Herbarium of the Research Laboratory
Chad -(*) Livestock Ministry 8 000
Veterinary and Zootechnical
(*) Not mentioned in Index Herbariorum
Source : Index Herbariorum : http ://sciweb.nybg.org/science2/IndexHerbariorum.asp

88
lections still exist and can be an important tool structure and collections, the training of techni-
for the study of the biodiversity of the region. cians and researchers, as well as the digitization
In addition to the collections in local herbaria, of collections. They provide support to local part-

© Carlos de Wasseige
important collections from the regions can be ners in the pest-control of herbaria, the mount-
found in European and North American her- ing of herbarium samples, the classification and
baria (e.g. Kew, Meise, Missouri, Paris and determination of herbarium specimens, and the
Wageningen) (table 3.4). digitization of collections, including the data-
capture of botanical information. Scanned images
In an effort to maintain historically important of herbarium material from the Congo Basin,
scientific collections, rehabilitation projects are with their accompanying data, are made available
underway in several herbaria with financial and via the internet (http ://plants.jstor.org/), and this
Photo 3.11 : Kaleidoscope of
technical support from international partners, is especially valuable to African researchers. These
shape and color
including the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation projects not only contribute to the development
(African Plants Initiative), the French Ministry of local African institutions but also strengthen
of Foreign Affairs (Sud Expert Plantes), devel- their scientific research both locally and inter-
opment cooperation agencies of several coun- nationally.
tries, the European Union, and several European
botanical gardens and herbaria. These projects
focus on the rehabilitation of institutions’ infra-

5. Management of biodiversity in Central Africa

5.1. Lessons from Trans-boundary Protected Areas

In Central Africa, six trans-boundary pro-

tected areas (APTs) have been established since
2000 after cooperation agreements were com-
pleted ; (Kamdem Kamga, 2012), the Trinational
Sangha Area (TNS : Cameroon, Congo and
CAR), the Trinational Dja-Odzala-Minkebe Area
(TRIDOM : Cameroon, Congo and Gabon),
the Lake Télé-Lake Tumba Complex (Congo and
CAR), the Binational Séna Oura-Bouba Ndjida
Area (BSB Yamoussa : Cameroon and Chad),
the Trans-boundary Mayumba-Conkouati Park
(Gabon and Congo) and the Mayombe complex
(Congo, DRC and Angola).

Two other trans-boundary complexes are in

the process of being established : the Binational
Campo Ma’an-Rio Campo Area (Cameroon and
Equatorial Guinea) and the Monte-Alen-Monts de
© FRM

Cristal Area (Equatorial Guinea and Gabon). The

expected accession of Gabon and the revision of
the agreement on the Mayombe forest will make
Mayombe the first quadpartite trans-boundary
Photo 3.12 : River under a luxuriant forest, northern Gabon
complex in Central Africa.

89
 In 2012 the Commission on Central African areas very often falls short of actual needs and is
Forests (COMIFAC), with the financial support too dependent on external financiers, which raises
of the GIZ, commissioned a study to review the uncertainty about their sustainability.
existing APTs and to propose a strategic orienta-
tion framework adapted to this type of conserva- A working group on the protected areas and
tion initiative (Ngoufo, 2013). The Great Virunga wild fauna is being set up within the COMIFAC.
Trans-boundary Collaboration (GVTC), which It should serve as an interface between the subre-
comprises three countries, including one from out- gional political bodies and actors on the ground and
side the subregion (DRC, Rwanda and Uganda), will promote greater capitalization on the lessons
was included in this study. The diagnosis has cov- learned from the various APT initiatives. Other
ered the processes of creating, managing, governing actions capable of significantly improving the func-
and financing these trans-boundary complexes. tioning of the APTs may also be envisaged : overall
planning on the basis of the management plans of
The study concluded that the creation and the various protected areas concerned ; making the
management of trans-boundary complexes in most of the tourism potential of the various sites
Central Africa are technically feasible. However, (example of the Odzala-Kokoua National Park,
their management and governance display short- see box 3.7) ; the mobilization of resources for the
comings, even though their contribution to sub- execution of the subregional Action Plan for the
regional integration and mutual cooperation in countries in the COMIFAC area for the strength-
biodiversity conservation efforts is undeniable. ening of the enforcement of national legislation on
Unfortunately, the financing of the protected wild fauna (PAPECALF – box 3.9), etc.

Box 3.7 : Ecotourism in the Odzala-Kokoua National Park

Robbert Bekker, Bourges Djoni Djimbi and Paul Noupa
TRIDOM

The Odzala-Kokoua National Park was created in 1935 and covers 1 354 600
hectares. It contains over 100 clearings where visitors can see a number of large
mammals; plains gorillas, elephants, buffaloes, bongos and chimpanzees. These
animals, as well as birds, reptiles and insects together with their exceptional
habitats, give the park great ecotourism potential.
The sustainable financing and management of the park are guaranteed
by the public-private partnership agreement of November 14, 2010 between
the Government of Congo and the African Parks Network. The agreement is
for a renewable period of 25 years. The park’s development plan provides for

© Bass Fandjo
complete protection of 60 % of its area with 40 % designated as transition and
eco-development zones. In order to derive the greatest benefit from the park’s
natural and cultural riches and to contribute to local development, on April 29,
2011 the government signed a renewable 25-year partnership agreement with
the Congo Conservation Company (CCC) for the rights to seven ecotourism
and hunting concessions within and on the outskirts of the park. In return, it Photo 3.13 :Lango eco-
will make an annual payment of 5 % of its gross receipts to a village development fund. lodge, Odzala-Kokoua
national park, Congo
The CCC has invested 5 million euros in the development of ecotourism. In 2012 it built three
lodges (two top-of-the-range at Lango and Ndzéhi and one middle-range at Mboko) at a cost of 3.8
million euros, and it built two satellite camps in 2013. The three lodges employ about 100 people,
60 % from the area. All have been locally trained in hotel management.
The first 120 tourists arrived between August and September 2012. Starting in 2013, ecotourists are welcomed during the best visit-
ing periods: January-February (lesser dry season) and June to mid-October (main dry season). The products offered include : discovery
of the forest on foot, watching large wild animals from watchtowers, tracking groups of gorillas and sailing in dugout canoes.
In 2013, regulations to determine how village development funds are distributed were drawn up. Thus, of the 71 local villages
direct and indirect beneficiaries are designated. Procedures for disbursement and management of the funds are also being established.

90
Box 3.8 : Participative monitoring of the “Tri National de la Sangha’’
1
Dominique Endamana, 1Kenneth Angu Angu, 2Jeff Sayer, 3Thomas Breuer, 4 Zacharie Nzooh, 1Antoine Eyebe and 1Léonard Usongo
1
IUCN, 2 JCU, 3 WCS, 4 WWF

The “Sangha Group”, starting in 2004 formed a group of the many actors involved in the management of the Tri National de la
Sangha (TNS) forested landscape: managers of protected areas, research and conservation institutions, universities, loggers, local NGO’s
and civil servants.
This group has created a participative monitoring evaluation system (SEP) with the goal to analyze the impact of the actions taken
to conserve biodiversity and to develop local communities at the landscape scale as well as to assess the results of these activities. This
measure supplements the remote sensing monitoring of forest management initiated by the CARPE programme (Yanggen et al., 2010).
These measures rely on the participative “bottom-up” approach which engages the local communities and indigenous populations
according to the following steps : conceptualization of the tool, development and definition of the indicators and continuous monitor-
ing of these indicators (Sayer et al., 2007). The SEP has enabled a greater understanding of the dynamics within the TNS landscape as
well as the identification of values ascribed to the landscape and has furthermore identified the avenues leading to environmental and
socio-economic changes.
The indicators are grouped according to natural, physical, social and human benefits (table 3.5) (Department for International
Development, 2001). The natural benefits have been divided into two categories; local resource importance (NTFP, subsistence game
hunting, etc.) and global resource importance (large mammals: elephants, primates, etc.).

Table 3.5 : 28 indicators used for TNS landscape monitoring (2006-2011)

Local natural benefits Global natu- Human benefits Social benefits Physical benefits Governance
ral benefits
Availability of four Illegally-killed Health care access Running of the Manioc windmills Application of the law
NTFP priorities elephants local committees
on natural resources
management
Availability of non- Bongo popu- Standard of school Communal initia- Housing standard Violation of rules on
protected fauna lation attendance tives on natural fauna
resources manage-
ment
Commitment to sus- Ability of forest Perception of cor- Number of drinkable Sharing of eco-
tainable management companies to employ ruption (public and water points tourism and fauna
of forest process or local, qualified tech- private sectors) benefits derived from
certification nicians forest management
Level of associated Access to nearest Recurrence of local
activity large urban center conflicts
Progress in award- Level of tourism Re-establishment level
ing of the Baka development of parliamentary com-
Community Forests mittees
Participation of the Wood transforma- Forest and fauna
Baka in resolution tion factory/work- control
of disputes in the shop
court of the tradi-
tional chief
Use of the forest Market of the three
license-fee products most in
demand
Monitoring of these 28 indicators started in 2006. Each indicator is assessed according to the Likert scale (ranging from 1 (worst-case
situation of the indicator) to 5 (ideal indicator situation)). This process happens once a year during the annual Sangha group meeting,
based on quantitative and qualitative data gathered by administrators of protected areas and by their partners, within their own proper

91
 1.0 ecological and socio-economic monitoring evaluation
system (figure 3.7).
0.8 0.73 0.72 0.74
0.65 0.67 0.67
The monitoring of these factors (Endamana et al.,
0.6 2010) has enabled the development of future conservation
0.55 0.56 and development plans for the TNS (Sanker et al.,
0.4 0.48 0.50 0.50 2009) and has also increased the understanding of the
0.44
landscape’s resilience in facing external factors such as
0.2 the 2008 international financial crisis (Sayer et al., 2012).
To achieve a consensus on the indicators, the landscape-
0.0 level participative monitoring requires substantial time
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 investment and patient involvement in monitoring from
all the local actors, dialogue between all actors through
Figure 3.7 : Changes in conservation and development indices in the TNS an exchange platform, an adjustment of the indicators
2006-2011 according to evolving stakeholder priorities and finally,
the archiving of field data.

These benefits are applicable to other priority CBFP landscapes. The described approach will inspire the CGIAR institutions (CIFOR,
ICRAF, Biodiversity International) long-term monitoring of “Referenced Landscapes” in their global research program on the changes
of forest landscapes.

5.2. The management of wild fauna in Central Africa

5.2.1. The anti-poaching initiatives This scourge has increased in recent years with the
development of transnational criminal networks
In its previous edition, the State of the Forest participating in the illegal traffic in fauna. The
outlined the multiple threats currently beset- phenomenon is also having an impact in terms of
ting the protected area systems in the subregion public order and security as it has cost the lives of
(Angu et al., 2010). Among them poaching for many trackers and ecoguards (Garamba in DRC,
Photo 3.14 : Squirrel caught ivory or bush-meat is considered likely to have Zakouma in Chad, Bouba Ndjida in Cameroon).
in a trap – UFA Bétou, the most serious impact on animal populations.
Congo A range of anti-poaching measures

At the present time a whole series of tools and

initiatives are being deployed to combat poach-
ing. They may be summarized as follows :

- Supply of equipment : vehicles and weapons

for anti-poaching teams, construction of security
posts, particularly in sensitive areas and along
access routes (roads, tracks, rivers, etc) ;
- Making sites secure : setting-up of security
patrols, organization of lightning raids, creation
of elite paramilitary units or support for national
armed forces ;
- Strengthening capacity : increase in numbers
and training of ecoguards ;
© FRM

- Development of a MIST-type database

(Management Information SysTem, available

92
on http ://www.ecostats.com/software/mist/ in the various States. Poaching is becoming a
mist.htm) or SMART (Spatial Monitoring and question of national security and territorial integ-
Reporting Tool, available on http ://www.smart- rity. More than in the past, the States responsible
conservationsoftware.org/) ; must take concerted action on poaching in order
- Work with local populations : development to guarantee the conservation of wildlife and its

© Frédéric Sepulchre
of income-generating alternatives to poaching biodiversity.
(e.g. agriculture, fisheries, market-gardening)
and execution of education and awareness-raising
programs ;
- Increased law enforcement : strengthening
and harmonization of legal and institutional
frameworks regarding wildlife management,
coordination of actions at the local, national Photo 3.15 : Land turtle in
and regional levels (see box 3.9 on PAPECALF). Gabon forest

Cross-border initiatives

The major anti-poaching innovation in

Central Africa has been the move away from
local or national initiatives to a cross-border
approach. Coordination already exists in the
TNS and TRIDOM (see section 5.1 and box
3.7). In late 2012, in order to respond to cross-
border poaching, the tripartite plan involving
Chad, Cameroon and CAR was approved by the
COMIFAC Council of Ministers. In March 2013
an Extreme Emergency Anti-Poaching Plan
(PEXULAB) was adopted as a supplement to
PAPECALF in order to take urgent action against
elephant poaching in Central Africa.

The cross-border anti-poaching actions are

being set up in order to improve coordination of
activities and involve the following principal par-
ticipants : administrative authorities, protected-
area conservationists, conservation project offi-
cials, etc. Cooperation takes the form of joint
security operations in the border regions by mul-
tinational teams of ecoguards, sometimes sup-
ported by the armed forces. This strong coopera-
tion between States needs to be further enhanced
by the standardization of penalties and sanctions
against poachers.

In October 2012, the Central Africa Protected

Areas Network (RAPAC) initiated a study aimed
at the harmonization of legislation relating to
wildlife management. It will, inter alia, cover the
© Frédéric Sepulchre

various aspects of anti-poaching legislation in the

subregion (procedures, penalties, etc.) and will
propose common strategy actions.

Poaching unfortunately corresponds to the

economic laws of supply and demand. Today it
extends beyond non-compliance with the regula-
tions relating to sustainable wildlife management Photo 3.16 : Gabon viper (Bitis gabonica) – Ndjolé region, Gabon

93
 Box 3.9 : Sub-regional action plan for the strengthening of the implementation of national laws on wildlife
Chouaïbou Nchoutpouen1, Stephane Ringuet2, Germain Ngandjui2 and Marc Languy3
1
COMIFAC, 2TRAFFIC, 3WWF

In February 2005, the Central African heads of state adopted a “Convergence Plan” outlining priorities for biodiversity manage-
ment and for tackling poaching and the illegal exploitation of forest resources. Despite this political good will, the illegal poaching and
trade, especially of ivory, have developed into extremely worrying proportions which pose a serious danger to vulnerable species such
as elephants and great apes. Yet all these countries have signed and ratified several international conventions, including the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
They have also all drawn up and adopted national laws in favor of sustainable wildlife management. Nonetheless, these laws are far from
being implemented in the most efficient manner.
In June 2012, the COMIFAC Board of Ministers adopted a sub-regional Action Plan for the strengthening of the implementation
of national laws on wildlife (PAPECALF). This groundbreaking plan, which will be implemented between 2012 and 2017, commits
governments to reinforce the application of sub-regional national and international laws, conventions and agreements that regulate
the management of wildlife in Central Africa. It aims to improve the implementation of the laws by introducing more efficient deter-
rent tactics against poaching and illegal trade. It also promises to aggressively increase the number of arrests and prosecutions of those
implicated in poaching or illegal trade in the COMIFAC countries.
Specifically, the Action Plan’s objectives are the following:
- strengthen cooperation and collaboration among the controlling and judicial authorities affected by the implementation of the
laws on wildlife – both nationally and internationally - within the COMIFAC area;
- increase monitoring and checks, in particular in key transit areas or borders, internal markets and cross-border zones;
- introduce effective deterrents to tackle illegal wildlife poaching and trade; ensure prosecutions are carried out regularly and that
they comply with respective national laws; ensure that the outcomes of investigations and prosecutions are closely monitored,
published and widely broadcast;
- strengthen awareness of issues associated with illegal wildlife trade (Ringuet and Ngandjui, 2012; SC62 Doc. 30).
In order for PAPECALF to be effectively implemented, each country must allocate adequate financial and human resources to this
end. The relevant government ministries must make everyone aware of this Action Plan though an effective communication process
which results in implementation on a national level. Two bodies in charge of ensuring the Action Plan will be implemented have been
created: a National Coordination Unit (CCN) which, in each country, will be embedded in the Ministry of Wildlife; and a Working
Sub-Group on Wildlife and Protected Areas (SGTFAP), which will be embedded within the COMIFAC Working Group on Biodiversity.
The expected success of the implementation of the plan will rely on effective coordination and communication and sharing of
information between the countries and the relevant organizations.

94
Box 3.10 : Strengthening of cross-border surveillance in the TRIDOM area
Robbert Bekker, Bourges Djoni Djimbi and Paul Noupa
TRIDOM

TRIDOM is a cross-border tri-national complex of protected areas comprising the Dja wildlife reserve and the Odzala and Minkebe
national parks. For two years now the TRIDOM partners have been taking a number of innovative actions to support the governments
of the three concerned countries (Cameroon, Congo and Gabon) in their sovereign task of combating international poaching which is
threatening elephants. These actions have taken the following forms :

Legal tools
As with the Sangha tri-national project, a cross-border protocol has been drawn up and will serve as a legal framework for joint
surveillance operations along the common borders. In order to prosecute offenders of wildlife and environmental laws, three joint
national committees have been established within the TRIDOM framework to monitor disputes and the application of laws (at Ouesso
and Ewo in Congo, and at Makokou and Oyem in Gabon). Cross-border collaboration with Cameroon is being established. These
committees operate under the aegis of the state prosecutors and comprise representatives of the ministries of forests and interior, the
police, the Gendarmerie and armed forces, NGOs and economic partners.

The cross-border anti-poaching operation

The capacities of the surveillance teams on the ground have been strengthened. A common Management Information System (MIST)
has been adopted in all the TRIDOM protected areas as a tool for monitoring anti-poaching activities. A total of 110 personnel have
been trained to collect, analyze and interpret data (abundance of large mammals and human activities, size of fruit on the ground from
the most important food plants). In addition, some 30 conservation workers (representatives of water and forests ministries, prefectures
and sub-prefectures) have been trained in information techniques and the monitoring of wildlife. This training was given by national
gendarmerie officers and by the state prosecutor attached to the Ewo Higher Court.
In Djoum (Cameroon), in Tala-Tala (Congo) and in Oyem (Gabon), the protected areas services, the brigades and the six frontier
forestry posts were provided transportation equipment (vehicles, motorcycles, outboard motors), communications equipment (VHF
radios, satellite telephones), and navigation and camping equipment.
These resources, valued at $ 530 000, have been financed by the Global Environment Fund. There are also plans to build a control
post at the point where the frontiers of the three countries meet, close to the colonial marker near the village of Alati in Cameroon, and
to base the future tri-national anti-poaching brigade there.
Lastly, TRIDOM conservation personnel have developed a joint cross-border anti-poaching action plan which was put into effect
in 2013.

Example of a surveillance and anti-poaching unit in Congo

In order to contribute to the anti-poaching operation in the Forest Management Units (UFAs) at Tala-Tala (Sifeu) and Jua-Ikié (Sefyd)
in the Department of Sangha in northern Congo, the TRIDOM project modeled its program on the WCS-supported experimental
operation conducted in the Ngombé UFA (eastern part of the TRIDOM Congo segment). TRIDOM has supported a partnership
between forest concession-holders, the government and WWF to create a surveillance and anti-poaching unit. In this context, the Forestry
Department is making available the eco-guards responsible for conservation work, the forestry companies are financing operations on the
ground in keeping with their concession commitments and WWF is providing its expertise in conservation and biodiversity. TRIDOM
is supporting the initiative through the financing of equipment and training.

Community activities
Awareness-raising campaigns on community forests and conflicts between local people and elephants were conducted in order to
remind these local people of the value of the natural resources within their environment. To date, 16 village communities on the edge
of the Odzala-Kokua National Park have worked to reduce commercial hunting in exchange for the setting-up of income-generating
activities (goat farming, aquaculture, beekeeping, development of a number of non-timber forest products, rehabilitation of coconut
groves or intensive subsistence crops, etc.). Some communities want to participate in the surveillance of “ strategic ” clearings in order to
reduce poaching and to facilitate the restoration of ecological corridors. Their objective, in the medium term, is to develop community-
managed ecotourism.

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 Box 3.11 : An itinerant courthouse: the “mobile court” in the Salonga National Park (DRC)
Florence Palla
RAPAC

A mobile court now allows judges, prosecutors, defendants, witnesses and lawyers (around 20 people) to be transported right up
into isolated areas. This had not been possible previously.
In November and December 2011, a Chambre foraine or mobile court was organized in Monkoto by the partners of the Salonga
National Park (SNP), in support of the Congo Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICCN). Ten poachers were tried for illegal
possession of weapons and for poaching. By the end of the trial, seven life sentences had been handed out and the poachers were imme-
diately transferred to Ndolo prison in Kinshasa. On this occasion, 12 weapons were seized and three (presumed) poachers were acquitted.

5.2.2. Action to combat trafficking of comprehensive and collaborative approach to

great apes prevent illegal trade (http ://www.cites.org/eng/
prog/iccwc.php).
Several initiatives are specifically addressing
the illegal trafficking of endangered great apes. Other responses to great ape trafficking are
described in “Stolen Apes”, available for down-
For example, the Last Great Ape Organization load on the GRASP website (http ://www.un-
(LAGA, http ://www.laga-enforcement.org/) grasp.org/news/114-stolen-apes-counts-illegal-
is providing technical and legal assistance to trade-toll). This report, published in 2013, is the
Forestry and Wildlife Administrations in arrest- first to analyse the scale and scope of the illegal
ing and prosecuting illegal wildlife dealers in great apes trade, and it highlights the growing
Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and CAR. Also LAGA links of sophisticated trans-boundary crime net-
has developed measurable standards of the effec- works to wildlife trafficking.
tiveness of enforcement of illegal trafficking (i.e.
number of major traffickers arrested, convicted At the sub-regional level, the COMIFAC
and imprisoned per week). Action Plan for the Strengthening of the
Implementation of National Laws on Wildlife
Also, new formal collaborative agreements by (PAPECALF 2012-2017) is another potentially
international agencies such as the International effective instrument to shift the trend of great
Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime apes trafficking in Central Africa (Box 3.9).
(ICCWC), which includes CITES, INTERPOL,
the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC), the World Customs Organization
(WCO), and the World Bank works to craft a

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