2.

Principles of Mobile Communication

Each mobile uses a separate, temporary radio channel to talk to the cell site (base station).
The cell site talks to many mobiles at once, using one channel per mobile. Channels use a
pair of frequencies for communication – one frequency, the forward link, for transmitting
from the cell site and one frequency, the reverse link, for the call site to receive calls from
the users. Radio energy dissipates over distance, so mobiles must stay near the base station
to maintain communication.
Codecs convert an analog speech signal to its digital representation by sampling analog
signal at regular time intervals called pulse code modulation. For analog data to be
transmitted analog modulation techniques like amplitude modulation and frequency
modulation are used. The modulation techniques used for digital signal transmission are
amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying

Figure 1: Basic Mobile Telephone Service Network

4. Access techniques
The various access techniques used in mobile communication are:
Figure 5: Access Technologies
107
4.1 FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access is the most commonly used analog system. It is a
technique whereby spectrum is divided up into frequencies and then assigned to users.
With FDMA only one subscriber at any given time is assigned to a channel. The channel is
therefore closed to other conversations until the initial call is finished or until it is handedoff
to a different channel. A full duplex FDMA transmission requires two channels. One
for transmitting and the other for receiving. FDMA has been used for first generation
analog systems.
4.2 TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) improves spectrum capacity by splitting each
frequency into time slots. TDMA allows each user to access the entire radio frequency
channel for the short period of a call. Other users share this same frequency channel at
different time slots. The base station continually switches from user to user on the channel.
TDMA is the dominant technology for the second generation mobile cellular networks.
4.3 CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access is based on spread spectrum technology. Since it is
suitable for encrypted transmissions, it has long been used for military purposes. CDMA
increases spectrum capacity by allowing all users to occupy all channels at the same time.
Transmissions are spread over the whole radio band and each voice or data call is assigned
a unique code to differentiate from the other cells carried over the same spectrum. CDMA
allows for a soft hand-off, which means that terminal can communicate with several base
stations at the same time
5 GSM technology
In 1992 European Union formed a study group called the ‘Grouped Special Mobile’ later
renamed to Global System for Mobile Communications. The existence of one standard
boosted the cellular industry in Europe contrary to the United States where several
different 2G systems have been deployed leading to a fragmented market.
Though GSM was standardized in Europe it has been deployed in large number of
countries worldwide (approximately 110). There are four versions of GSM depending on
the operating frequency. They are :
GSM Variant Up link frequency(MHz) Down link frequency(MHz)
Gsm900 890 ~ 915 935 ~ 960
GSM 1800 (DCN) 1710 ~ 1785 1805 ~ 1880
GSM 1900 (PCS) 1850 ~ 1910 1930 ~ 1990
GSM 450 450.4 ~ 457.6 (or) 460.4 ~ 467.6 (or)
478 ~ 486 488.8 ~ 496

The primary service supported by GSM is voice telephony. Speech is digitally encoded and
transmitted through the GSM network as a binary bit stream. For emergency situations, an
emergency service is supported by dialing a certain 3 digit number (like123).GSM also offers a
variety of data services. It allows to users to send and receive data , at rates up to 9.6Kbps. Data
can be exchanged using a variety of access methods and protocols such as X.25. A modem is not
required between the user and GSM network due108 to the fact that GSM network is a digital
network. GSM also supports the short message service (SMS) and Cell Broadcast Service (CBS).
It supports additional services like call forward, call barring of outgoing or incoming caller,
caller identification, call waiting, multiparty conversations etc.

OFDM
How 4g works (working principle):
In the 4g wireless networks, each node will be assigned a 4g-ip address (based On ipv6), which
will be formed by a permanent “home” ip address and a dynamic “care-of” address that
represents its actual location [1]. When a device (computer) In the internet wants to
communicate with another device (cell phone) in the wireless Network, the computer will send a
packet to the 4g-ip address of the cell phone Targeting on its home address. Then a directory
server on the cell phone’s home Network will forward this packet to the cell phone’s care-of
address through a tunnel, Mobile ip; moreover, the directory server will also inform the computer
that the cell Phone’s care-of address (real location), so next packets can be sent to the cell phone
Directly. The idea is that the 4g-ip address (ipv6) can carry more information than The ip address
(ipv4) that we use right now. Ipv6 means internet protocol version 6 Including 128 bits, which is
4 times more than 32bits ip address in ipv4. 32 bits ip Address looks like this 216.37.129.9 or
11011000.00100101.10000001.00001001 (32 Bits). However, the ip address in ipv6 version will
be 4 times of ipv4; it looks like 216.37.129.9, 79.23.178.229, 65.198.2.10, 192.168.5.120. It
includes 4 sets of ipv4 Address defined in different functions and usages. In previous example
for the case, The first set of the ip address (216.37.129.9) can be defined to be the “home
address” Purpose. It just likes the normal ip address that we use for addressing in the internet
And network. The second set of the ip address (79.23.178.229) can be declared as The “care-of
address”. It is the address set up for the communication from cell Phones to computers. After
these addresses from cell and pc established a link, Care-of address will instead of home address;
it means that communication channel Will switch from the first set to the second set of the ipv6
address. The third set of The ip address (65.198.2.10) can be signed as a tunnel (mobile ip
address). It is the Communication channel to wire-line network and wireless network. An agent,
a Directory sever, between the cell phones and pc will use this mobile ip address to Establish a
channel to cell phones. Then, the last set of ip address (192.168.5.120) Can be local network
address for virtual private network (vpn) sharing purpose. In This rich data ip address, software
can use them to distinguish different services and to Communicate and combine with other
network areas, such as computer (pc) and cell Phones’ network in the case of the example. In
addition, the table bellow is a basic Comparison of ipv6 and ipv4 showing that how ipv6 richer
than ipv4 in data Containing capacity. Moreover, in 4g wireless network, not only has it ipv6
Transmission protocol, but also be supported by ofdm, mc-cdma, las-cdma, Uwb and network-
lmds.

Ofdm stands for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing, transmitting Large amounts of
digital data over a radio wave. Ofdm works by splitting the radio Signal into multiple smaller
sub-signals that are then transmitted simultaneously at Different frequencies to the receiver. In
the other words, ofdm is a digital Modulation technology in which in one time symbol
waveform, more than thousands Of orthogonal waves are multiplexed for increasing signal
strength. This is good for High bandwidth digital data transition. The picture bellow is another
example to Explain how ofdm works for signal enhancement. In this case, people might have
A question about how radio wave targeted the correct destination. In ofdm, two Wireless devices
will establish a connection tunnel before they start their Communication. Therefore, after making
a connection between a certain target, the Radio signal will split into many smaller sub-signals
with accurate direction to the Target; that is why the red lines in the bellow picture have the same
direction to their Destination (a laptop).

Ofdm working principle

Ms-cdma stands for multi-carrier code division multiple access, which is Actually ofdm with a
cdma overlay. The users are multiplexed with orthogonal Codes to distinguish users in ms-cdma
and single-carrier cdma systems. It Allows flexible system design between cellular system and
signal cell system. However, in mc-cdma, each user can be allocated several codes, where the
data is Spread in time or frequency. Las-cdma, large area synchronized code division multiple
access, is Developed by linkair communication, a patented 4g wireless technology.
“las-cdma enables high-speed data and increases voice capacity and the latest Innovative
solution, code-division duplex (cdd), merges the highly spectral Efficient las-cdma technology
with the superior data transmission characteristics Of time-division duplex (tdd). This resulting
combination makes cdd to be the Most spectrally efficient, high-capacity duplex system
available today ([1], p. 2319)”. In the 4g area, las-cdma is played as a global transmission
protocol (“world cell”) As showing in the following picture, zone size ([12], p.30). It means that
if the Distance is too far to two wireless devices, they have to use this protocol with ipv6 to
Establish their connection.
In 4g technologies, radio can help solve the multi-path fading issues by Using very short
electrical pulses to across all frequencies at once. However, uwb Can only be used indoor or
underground because of its low-power requirement. Thus, Uwb has to be used with ofdm, which
can transmit large among of digital data with Multi-path algorithm; ofdm running outdoor, uwb
running indoor to ensure signal Strength purpose. In the 4g wireless technology, uwb will be
played as “pico cell” For very limited distance in the buildings.

The network-lmds, local multipoint distribution system, is the broadband Wireless technology
used to carry voice, data, internet and video services in 25ghz And higher spectrum. Its broadcast
method consisted simultaneous voice, data, Internet, and video traffic can be the solution of
signal fading issue in local area. Therefore, network-lmds can be played as micro cell and macro
cell in the 4g Technology to be the main transmission protocol for the wireless devices, showing
as The picture below.