Compilation of Contempo Modules - MGL

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Name : JOHN PHILIP M. CORTEZA, MAED

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S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

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The Marian Way
God listens to true prayers. During this trying time, we encourage
our Marians to religiously ask for the guidance of our Almighty.
The plague dramatically breaks out borders to borders. Millions of people died, and overwhelming
numbers of infected people caused fear and panic amongst us. Let us continue to pray and
practice the Ignacian-Marian way. Together, we will survive and heal as one.
Vision Mission
Dynamic and Holistically We commit ourselves to:

developed individuals
actively witnessing the 1. promote the total formation of persons through
gospel values in the quality instruction and integration of activities
community. 2. form vibrant, responsible community leaders
inspired by the virtues of Mo. Ignacia and imbued
with the Gospel values;
3. provide development programs for the acquisition of
appropriate skills, promotion of positive attitudes
and enhancement of personal discipline;
4. foster the development of multiple and holistic
competencies to ensure work effectiveness.
GOAL STATEMENT
St. Mary’s College is a Catholic School that is an instrumentality of the Congregation of the
Religious of the Virgin Mary that aims to provide within its community of students and personnel
Catholic values. Its goal is to provide an educational program and environment animated by
Catholic doctrine, beliefs, teachings, traditions, and practices, the exercise of which is protected
by, among others, Article III, Section 5 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. In order for us to
approximate our vision and live our mission, we dedicate to produce graduates who are God-
fearing, capable of independent learning and critical thinking, enabling them to respond
successfully by continuing education in a technologically advanced world and to serve the
society, promoting justice and peace and protecting the youth against harassment and
immorality.
QUALITY POLICY
We, at the St. Mary’s College, commit to provide quality Catholic Ignacian Marian education
to mold students to be Ignacian Marian leaders of faith, excellence, and service wherever
they are at all times. We commit to collaboratively comply and maintain an effective quality
management system by periodically reviewing and validating the processes and services in
line with the quality objectives and standards for continual improvement.

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Course Code/Name : GE 3 – Contemporary World
Course Credits : 3 units
Course Description : This course introduces students to the contemporary world by
examining the multifaceted phenomenon of globalization.
Using the various disciplines of the social sciences, it examines
the economic, social, political, technological, and other
transformations that have created an increasing awareness of
the interconnectedness of peoples and places around the
globe. To this end, the course provides an overview of the
various debates in global governance, development, and
sustainability. Beyond exposing the student to the world
outside the Philippines, it seeks to inculcate a sense of global
citizenship and global ethical responsibility.
This course includes mandatory topics on population education

in the context of population and demography.
Prerequisite : None
Timeframe : 3 hours every week for 18 weeks or 54 hours in a semester
Course Objectives/ : At the end of the term, you will be able to:
Outcomes A. Competencies
1. distinguish different interpretations of and approaches to
globalization
2. describe the emergence of global economic, political,
social, and cultural systems
3. analyze the various contemporary drivers of globalization
4. understand the issues confronting the nation-state
5. assess the effects of globalization on different social
units and their responses
B. Skills
6. analyze contemporary news events in the context of
globalization
7. analyze global issues in relation to Filipinos and the
Philippines
8. write a research paper with proper citations on a topic
related to globalization
C. Values
9. articulate personal positions on various global issues
10. identify the ethical implications of global citizenship
Course Requirements : 1. Regular quizzes
2. Midterm analysis paper
3. Final research paper
Grading System : Quiz 30%
Performance Task 40%
Major Exam 30%
-------------
100%

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How to Use the Module
In this module, you will undergo through a series of learning/ experiential activities to
accomplish requirements as projected in each lesson and subtopics. Each term period contains
Assessment Sheets, Lesson or topic exercise sheet, and Performance Task Exercises
Sheet.
Summative Assessments such as Term Period Examinations will be separated from the
module. The accomplishment of each task is on your comfort, however following the scheduled
submission of every module.
THINGS TO REMEMBER!
1.) Carefully read all the information sheets,

2.) Follow the directions in answering all the tasks, or exercises,
3.) Answer all the exercises, and accomplish your performance task,
4.) Submit the worksheets based on the scheduled date,
5.) Do not write unnecessary markings inside the module,
6.) All questions should only be answered on the given worksheet after every lesson.
7.) Lastly, inform your parents/guardians to affix their signatures on the sheet that will
be provided on the scheduled day of module distribution.
Should you have any questions about this module, please do not hesitate to reach us via email,
group chat, or mobile number as projected on the instructor’s information above.
For the schedule of module distribution/submission and date of examination, refer to the
information box below. Please take note that the distribution of modules for Prelim will
be done inside the SMC campus; for the succeeding Term Periods (Midterm to Final),
modules shall be distributed per barangay.
Overview
The contemporary world is an ever-changing mix of social and political changes. While
religious, political, and ethnic conflicts continue, we are currently living in one of the most peaceful
eras in the history of the planet. Challenges of the 21st century include emerging technologies,
health care, overpopulation, climate change, poverty, illiteracy, disease, and migration. How we
choose to deal with these emerging frontiers will shape this unit for future generations.
COURSE OUTLINE
Program : BEED, BSED – Math, Sci & Eng Term Period : Prelim

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Year Level : First Year Time Frame : Three (3) Weeks
Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of the term period, you will be able to:
1. distinguish different interpretations of and approaches to globalization
2. describe the emergence of global economic, political, social, and cultural systems
5. assess the effects of globalization on different social units and their responses
Course Requirements
• Accomplished Worksheets
• Essays
• Performance Tasks
Week Lesson Topics

Week 1 Lesson 1: Introduction to Chapter 1- Introduction to the
Globalization Study of Globalization
Week 2 Lesson 2: The Structures of Chapter 2 - The Global Economy

Globalization Chapter 3 - Market Integration
Chapter 4 - The Global Interstate
System
Chapter 5 - Contemporary Global
Governance
Week 3 Lesson 3: A World of Regions Chapter 6 - Global Divides: The North
and the South
Chapter 7 - Asian Regionalism
MY TIMELINE
August 25, 2021 September 13-14, 2021
Distribution of Module Prelim Examination
(First Term, First Sem)
Submission of PT’s
Return of Worksheets
September 6, 2021
Submission of:
Self-Checks (Chapters 1-7)
& Worksheets (1 & 4)
LEARNING OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION

5
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INFORMATION SHEET A.1

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION
WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION?
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and
governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided
by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political
systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies
around the world.
MAIN APPROACHES TO GLOBALIZATION
The following approaches are sources of globalization research in contemporary sociology:
1. The world-systems approach
This approach is based on the distinction between core, semi-peripheral and peripheral countries
in terms of their changing roles in the international division of labour dominated by the capitalist
world-system. World-systems as a model in social science research, inspired by the work of
Immanuel Wallerstein, has been developed in a large and continually expanding body of literature
since the 1970s (see Wallerstein 1979, and Shannon, 1989 for a good overview). The world-
systems approach is, unlike the others to be discussed, not only a collection of academic writings
but also a highly institutionalized academic enterprise. It is based at the Braudel Center at SUNY
Bingham-ton, supports various international joint academic ventures, and publishes the journal,
Review. Though the work of world-systems theorists cannot be said to be fully a part of the
globalization literature as such (see King, ed., 1990), the institutionalization of the world-systems
approach undoubtedly prepared the ground for globalization in the social sciences.
2. The global culture approach
A second model of globalization derives specifically from research on the ‘globalization of culture’.
The global culture approach focuses on the problems that a homogenizing mass media-based
culture poses for national identities. As we shall see below, this is complementary to, rather than
in contradiction with, the global society approach, which focuses more on ideas of an emerging
global consciousness and their implications for global com-munity, governance and security. This
is well illustrated in the collection of articles in book-form from the journal Theory, Culture and
Society (TCS) edited by Featherstone (1990) under the title Global Culture. TCS has brought
together groups of like-minded theorists through the journal and conferences, which has resulted
in an institutional framework and an intellectual critical mass for the development of a culturalist

6
approach to globalization. Of the writers associated with TCS who have made notable contributions
to this effort, Robertson-who has been credited with introducing the term globalization into
sociology (Waters 1995, p.2)-is probably the most infl uential. Although these researchers cannot
be identified as a school in the same way as world-system researchers can be, their works do
constitute a relatively coherent whole. First, they tend to prioritize the cultural over the political
and/or the economic. Second, there is a common interest in the question of how individual and/or
national identity can survive in the face of an emerging ‘global culture’.
3. The global society approach
Inspiration for this general conception of globalization is often located in the pictures of planet
earth sent back by space explorers. A classic statement of this was the report of Apollo XIV
astronaut Edgar Mitchell in 1971: It was a beautiful, harmonious, peaceful-looking planet, blue with
white clouds, and one that gave you a deep sense...of home, of being, of identity. It is what I
prefer to call instant global consciousness. 7 Had astronaut Mitchell penetrated a little through the
clouds, he would also have seen horrific wars in Vietnam and other parts of Asia, bloody repression
by various dictatorial regimes in Africa and Latin America, dead and maimed bodies as a result of
sectarian terrorism in Britain and Ireland, as well as a terrible toll of human misery from hunger,
disease, drug abuse and carnage on roads all round the world as automobile cultures intensified
their own peculiar structures of globalization. Nevertheless, some leading globalization theorists,
for example Giddens (1991) and Robertson (1992), do attribute great significance to ideas like
‘global awareness’ and ‘planetary consciousness’.
Historically, global society theorists argue that the concept of world or global society has become
a believable idea only in the modern age and, in particular, science, technology, industry and
universal values are increasingly creating a twentieth century world that is different from any past
age. The globalization literature is full of discussions of the decreasing power and significance of
the nation-state and the increasing significance
4. The global capitalism approach
A fourth model of globalization locates the dominant global forces in the structures of an ever-
more globalizing capitalism (for example, Ross and Trachte 1990, Sklair 1995, McMichael 1996;
see also Robinson 1996). While all of these writers and others who could be identified with this
approach develop their own specific analyses of globalization, they all strive towards a concept of
the ‘global’ that involves more than the relations between nation-states and state-centrist
explanations of national economies competing against each other. Ross and Trachte focus specifi
cally on capitalism as a social system which is best analyzed on three levels, namely the level of
the internal logic of the system (inspired by Marx and Adam Smith), the structural level of historical
development and the level of the specific social formation, or society. They explain the
deindustrialization of some of the heartland regions of capitalism and the transformations of what
we still call the Third World in these terms and argue that the globalization of the capitalist system
is deeply connected to the capitalist crises of the 1970s and after (oil price shocks, rising
unemployment, and increasing insecurity as the rich countries experience problems in paying for
their welfare states). This leads them to conclude that: ‘We are only at the beginning of the global
era’ (Ross and Trachte, 1990, p.230). Sklair proposes a more explicit model of the global system
based on the concept of transnational practices, practices that originate with non-state actors and
cross state borders. They are analytically distinguished in three spheres: economic, political and
cultural-ideological. Each of these practices is primarily, but not exclusively, characterized by a
major institution.
The transnational corporation (TNC) is the most important institution for economic transnational
practices; the transnational capitalist class (TCC) for political transnational practices; and the
culture-ideology of consumerism for transnational cultural-ideological practices (Sklair 1995). The
research agenda of this theory is concerned with how TNCs, transnational capitalist classes and
the culture-ideology of consumerism operate to transform the world in terms of the global capitalist
project.
ON GLOBALIZATION
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According to a widely accepted great interpretation, globalization is a science of extensive
problems, each of which concern everyone, and humanity in general as well, in new, qualitative,
and in their tendencies existential ways. In this sense, the legitimate fields of globalization
are e.g. the issues of ecology, raw materials, migration, the global health problems of the world
(for they cannot be restricted beyond state limits any more), the global positive or negative
tendencies of population, energy, arms trading, the drug crisis, or dilemmas of integration and
world economy.
There is another huge interpretation as well – and that is what we follow in our present
work – which does not bind the problems and phenomena of globalization to concrete and
singularly appearing ‘global’ issues (or to a random set made up of them), but examines structural
and functional connections of the whole new global situation.
The world-historical turn of 1989 is an outstanding stage in the evolving of globalization.

The primary cause of this is the fact that up to 1989, the mere existence of the two world regimes
restricted the process of globalization in the center, between concrete, down-to-earth limits. Each
carefully selected element of globalization could get through the systems of these regimes only by
extraordinary efforts.
The great leap of globalization that started in 1989 implemented one of the possible
versions of globalization, i.e. the one related to monetarism and the international debt
crisis, therefore the all-penetrating practice of globalization shall be related to both the problems
of monetarism and those of the international debt crisis.
One of the most important and also the most difficult fields of the social-philosophical
research of globalization is the continual way its functional and non-functional elements and
moments are interconnected, like the cogs of a machine. The more the global processes fulfill
their global character, the more obviously they feature ‘clearly’ functional characteristics in their
operations. For example, the more obviously ‘global’ the structure of world economy gets, the more
clearly do the functional theoretical definitions prevail. From a theoretical aspect, functional and
non-functional elements are heterogenic, but from a practical aspect, they fit into one another in
an organic and homogenous manner.
Globalization is therefore neither a new, yet unknown center of power, nor a world
government, but in principle it is a qualitatively new system of the relations of all actors. One of its
specific traits is the possibility of access to global processes and networks in a rather ‘democratic’
way. It would absolutely make sense to describe the fundamental phenomenon of globalization
with the criteria of access and accessibility. But this is also the field where we can find the two
weakest points of globalization. Globalization demolishes a whole row of particular differences and
limits by ensuring in principle total accessibility. In this sense it is therefore ‘democratic’: the
participation in global processes could even outline a new concept of ‘equality’. Globalization that
builds in elements of discrimination in its dynamic progress would be a contradiction not only in a
theoretical, but in a practical sense as well.
NEOLIBERALISM: A GLOBAL IDEOLOGY
Neoliberalism: A political and economic ideology that attempts to improve human well-
being by promoting individual self-interest; it advocates for the withdrawal of government
interventions in the economy (such as tariff and quotas, but also government services); it strives
for the free movement of goods, services, people, and money.
THE ORIGINS OF NEOLIBERALISM
The theoretical foundations of the ideology were first developed by economists at

Chicago, such as Milton Friedman, and Austria, such as Frederick Von Hayek.

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Politically, neoliberalism became a global force under Ronald Reagan (US) and Margaret
Thatcher (UK) around 1980.
THE STATED PURPOSE OF NEOLIBERALISM
Neoliberal ideology attempts to improve the

well-being of the earth’s population.
How is well-being measured?
*Increased per capita GDP.

Why is this metric problematic?
*Utility and increased consumption.
Why is this problematic?
*Other forms of well-being that is not examined
under this ideology. Human Development Index.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX
THE EFFECTS OF NEOLIBERALISM
Neoliberal policies have led to dramatic increases in wealth accumulation. However, this
increase in wealth has been highly concentrated.
Since the late 1970s CEOs have gone from making 25 times more than their average employee
to 400 times more.
HOW WERE NEOLIBERAL POLICIES SPREAD TO THE DEVELOPING WORLD?
1. The Washington Consensus:

a. The US government
b. The World Bank
c. The International Monetary Fund
d. World Trade Organization
2. Structural Adjustment:
The case of Mexico, 1982
3. Who wins and who losses?
COLONIALISM

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European colonialism: “The practice of taking over the human and natural resources of
often distant places in order to produce wealth for Europe”
Colonialism dramatically transformed the lives and landscapes of both the colonized
regions and the colonial metropoles.
Example: Black tea plantations and English tea time.

European colonialism did not formally end until the 1970’s with the
decolonization of Africa.
COLONIALISM AND IMAGINED GEOGRAPHIES
Many of the contemporary political boundaries we see on the map today are the direct
result of political negotiations and the use of force that occurred during the colonial era.
Few of the world’s political boundaries reflect pre-colonial ethnic and/or cultural groupings.
The impact of this arbitrary division of the world’s surface into nation-states continues to
be felt today: ethnic conflict, immigration, nationalist movements, and “terrorism”.
COLONIALISM AND RACISM
Colonial expansion into the tropical regions of the world was justified in part by the
“White Man’s Burden”: It was believed that the wisdom of the Enlightenment and European
technological superiority was absent in the tropical regions of the world. It was therefore the
duty of the European powers to “save the savages from their own irrationality and
backwardness”
COLONIALISM AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
• Colonies generally served as sources of raw materials and natural resources for the colonial
powers.
• Colonial powers had the technological capability to transform raw materials into industrially
produced consumer goods.
• Colonies would export cheap raw materials and import expensive industrial goods.
• This pattern of “uneven terms of trade” continues into the present day: e.g. chocolate

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CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
The term globalization should be used to refer to a set of social processes that are thought to
transform our present social condition into one of globality. At its core, globalization is about shifting forms
of human contact.
Such a general definition tells us very little about its remaining qualities. Four distinct qualities or
characteristics lie at the core of globalization:
1. Globalization involves the creation of new and the multiplication of existing social networks and
activities that increasingly overcome traditional political, economic, cultural and geographic
boundaries
2. Expansion and stretching of social relations, activities and interdependencies.
3. Globalization involves the intensification and acceleration of social exchanges and activities
4. Involves the subjective plane of human consciousness of growing manifestations of social
interdepence and enormous acceleration of social interactions.
Globalization is not a single process but a set of processes that operate simultaneously and
unevenly
on several levels and in various dimensions.
Economic dimension of globalization refers to the intensification and stretching of economic

interrelations across the globe. International Monetary Fund was created to administer the internal
monetary system. The World Bank was designed to provide loans for Europe’s postwar reconstruction.
World Trade Organization enforced multilateral trade agreements.
Some national economies have increased their productivity as a result of free trade. There are also
benefits through specialization, competition and spread of technology. But it is less clear whether the profits
resulting from free trade have been distributed fairly within and among countries.
Transnational corporations = TNCs
The TNCs control much of the world’s investment capital, technology and access to international
market. Critics have characterized globalization as “corporate globalization”. TNCs become extremely
important players that influence the economic, political and social welfare
of many nations. Global economic interconnection is rather set into motion by a series of political decisions.
Political globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the
globe. Led to the artificial division of planetary social space into domestic and foreign spheres (us

11
and them) Hyperglobalizers: the minimalist political order of the future will be determined by regional
economies linked together in an almost seamless global web of production and exchange. Anti globalizers:
central role of politics in unleashing the forces of globalization. On the global level, governments have
formed a number of international organizations (UN, NATO, WTO)
SELF CHECK A.1

CHAPTER 1
12
Answer the Self-check Questions below. This process is to determine if you comprehend what
you were reading. If in case, you have not answered them correctly, please read again the module.
The Self-check paper should be submitted together with Performance Task Exercises Sheet as
scheduled by your professor.
Name:__________________________________ Year Level:_____________ Score:__________
I. Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is a science of extensive problems, each of which concern everyone, and humanity in general as
well, in new, qualitative, and in their tendencies existential ways.
a. Globalization
b. Culture approach
c. Global capitalism approach
d. All of the above
2. This approach is based on the distinction between cores, semi-peripheral and peripheral countries
in terms of their changing roles in the international division of labor dominated by the capitalist
world-system.
a. The world-systems approach
b. The global culture approach
c. The global society approach
d. The global capitalism approach
3. The neoliberalism became a global force under
a. Ronald Thatcher (US) and Margaret Thatcher (UK) around 1981.
b. Ronald Reagan (US) and Margaret Thatcher (UK) around 1980.
c. Thomas Reagan (US) and Margaret Thatcher (UK) around 1983.
d. Margaret Reagan (US) and Ronald Thatcher (UK) around 1985.
4. This is a political and economic ideology that attempts to improve human well-being by promoting
individual self-interest which advocates for the withdrawal of government interventions in the
economy such as tariff and quotas, but also government services and it strives for the free
movement of goods, services, people, and money.
a. Neoliberalism
b. Colonialism
c. Liberalism
d. Globalization
5. This is a second model of globalization derives specifically from research on the ‘globalization of
culture’.
6. The TNCs mean

a. Transportation cooperatives
b. Transnational corporations
c. Transnational corporations
d. None of the above
7. The following are effects of neoliberalism except;

a. Neoliberal policies have led to dramatic increases in wealth accumulation. However, this
increase in wealth has been highly concentrated.

13
b. Since the late 1970s CEOs have gone from making 25 times more than their average
employee to 400 times more.
c. The income gap between rich countries and poor countries has grown dramatically.
d. All of the above
8. It refers to the intensification and stretching of economic interrelations across the globe.
a. Political dimension of globalization
b. Economic dimension of globalization
c. Cultural dimension of globalization
9. The neoliberal ideology attempts to improve the well-being of the earth’s population and is well-
being measured through
a. Increased per capita GDP.
b. Utility and increased consumption.
c. Human Development Index.
d. All of the above
10. This is a fourth model of globalization locates the dominant global forces in the structures of an
ever-more globalizing capitalism

By the end of this chapter, you
should be able to
14
The lesson explains economic globalization, the
actors that facilitate economic globalization,
1. Define economic globalization modern world system, and a global economic
2. Identify the actors that facilitate integration.
economic globalization
3. Define the modern world system
4. Articulate a stance on global

economic integration
INFORMATION SHEET A. 2
CHAPTER 2 - The Structures of Globalization: The Global Economy
INSTITUTIONS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
By institutions we mean rules of structural social interaction (both formal and informal) –
they structure incentives in human exchange (be it economic, political or social).
Formal Institutions – it refers to the property rights, legal system, rule of law, constitution.
Informal Institutions – it is how to behave in everyday life which linked to religion, history, social
acceptability.
HOW DO INSTITUTIONS FORM?
I. Efficiency or Social Conflict view of Institutions:
(1) Institutions affect economic outcomes but society will choose those institutions that maximize
social surplus (North and Thomas, Demsetz).
(2) Institutions are not always chosen by all of society but instead by the few, hence not
efficient. Coase Theorum does not apply, i.e. the winners do not fully compensate the losers.
(3) North (1981) argues that institutions act to constrain the individual in order to enhance the
welfare of the ‘principals’.
Institutions can and will likely result in an elite forming who will attempt to retain their
position of power. There may be successful or may not be, but they can be replaced by
alternative elite.
For the basis of this lecture we assume that institutions can be (i) developmental or (ii) predatory
(i) Developmental Institutions – encourage investment, growth and productivity.
(ii) Predatory – extractive institutions that favour the few.
FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES OF GROWTH

15
Economics Institutions: encouraging investment through incentives, human capital,
entrepreneurship, innovation, occupational choice, land ownership.
Cultures: values, beliefs, religions
Geography: climate (affect productivity and worker effort), agricultural (technological)
productivity higher in temperate zones than in tropics, burden of infectious diseases, natural
endowments, transport costs
Trade and Integration: affects productivity changes.
EVIDENCE OF INSTITUTIONS AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
Korea has natural experiment since split into North and South Korea in 1948. They have
the same geography, history and culture. North Korea went Dictator and Socialism, South
Korea went Dictator and Capitalist that involved private property rights and in 1980 to a
democracy.
Micro level evidence of importance land property rights have on investment in agriculture
in LDCs.
Macro level evidence looking at within country and between country – problem with this
is though that we cannot control for whether ‘better’ institutions cause growth or growth then
leads to ‘better’ institutions.
TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS
(i) Institutions that protect individual property rights – e.g. defend against expropriation of
resources.
(ii) Institutions related to democratic political rights (Sen)
(iii) Institutions correcting co-ordination failure – efficiency of government for example in
implementing policy (e.g. South Korea).
Countries can have good and bad institutions then – e.g. South Korea has one party political
system.
PRIMACY OF INSTITUTIONS
Acemoglu et al control for settler mortality as an instrument to control for endogeneity in

their growth model. The variables in the model are
M = settler mortality
S = Colonial Settlements
R = Early Institutions and Modern Institutions
Y = Economic Performance
Settlements lead to the export of colonial institutions such as property rights. Where
settlements failed or were not attempted (due to high settler mortality) only extractive
institutions were exported.
Institutional Proxy is captured by either index of protection against expropriation or by

constraints on the executive.
Main Issues from Acemoglu et al (2001)
(i) Colonial Experience – Settler Mortality is an interesting and clever instrument for identifying
the Institutional variable.
(Q) However, what about differences in growth between Finland, China, Luxembourg who had no
colonial history?
(ii) Pre-colonial histories are important. Brazil and India have different histories prior to
colonization. Extractive institutions such as the land revenue system attributed to Britain in India were
present during the Moghul period.
(iii) Acemoglu et al (2001) fail to consider political institutions.
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IS COLONIAL DEATH RATE REALLY CAPTURING THE UNDER LYING CAUSE OF INSTITUTIONS?
Decisions to settle maybe caused by whether there is a need to settle in the first place.
Other factors influence the decision to settle too.
There is also the view that the proxy for institutions (risk of expropriation by the
government) is not really picking up any permanent set of rules of a country.
Rather this in itself is an outcome of what has gone before. This measure of institutions
also rises with (i) per capita GDP and is (ii) highly volatile.
II. The Developmental View
Those institutions form and emerge from within countries over time and that economic,
political and social development cause institutions to change.
Opposite of Acemoglu et al.
Development and Institutions are caused by human capital – Lipset (1960) argued that
through greater education people would be likely and more able to resolve differences by
negotiation and reach a more Coase-type end game.
Externality of higher initial education of a population is greater political and social

stability as well as economic spillovers in terms of productivity and technology.
We base this view on Glaeser et al paper Journal of Economic Growth (2004).
Glaeser et al argue that measures of institutional quality such as risk of expropriation

(used in Acemoglu et al 2001), government effectiveness and constraints on the executive are
‘outcomes’ and do not represent ‘deep’ institutions.
Example:
Constraints on the executive is measured as a score between ‘1’ (bad institutions) and ‘7’
(good institutions). If this was a measure of a ‘set of rules’ as North argues institutions are
defined as, then why do they change so much?
Because they are outcomes from other factors – Haiti gets score of ‘1’ under dictatorship
during 1960-89, then a score of ‘6’ when Aristide is elected in 1990, drops to ‘1’ again when he’s
ousted between 1991-93 and rises again to 6 when Aristride returns to power and falls to 3
during 2000-01. How can institutions change so quickly? Glaeser argues they cannot.
WHAT CAN WE SAY ABOUT INSTITUTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT?
Measuring institutions is difficult. Popular measures are subject to criticism since they
are (i) ‘outcomes’ rather than anything ‘deep’ (ii) they are also largely subjective (iii) when non-
outcome proxies for institutions are used they are insignificant.
Looking at the country specific evidence through both the Institutional View and the
Developmental View have strengths but are not universal.
Development View - Some countries have very different initial institutions and different
histories, but have the same level of economic development and have very similar current
institutions, e.g. Tiger Economies - Taiwan and South Korea with Japanese colonialisation then
US occupation compared to Hong-Kong and Singapore with British colonial past and less
intervention)
III. Institutional Primacy View – Countries have similar backgrounds and histories but start from
different institutions and hence diverge onto different growth paths.
17
Example: North and South Korea, East and West Germany, Burma and Thailand.
THE ECONOMIC DIMENSION
The Economic theory relates globalization to the model of a free world market without
restriction of competition and mobility, a global mass culture and a world-encompassing
information society. According to neo-liberal thinking, the world market efficiently fulfills its
allocation function to guide flows of goods, services, capital information and labor to that places
wherever they are needed Transnational competition, processes of selection and fit enough to
scale will single out those enterprises that are not fit enough to survive. Consumers benefits from
this competitive market by availability of products at low prices.
This approach shows that the neo-liberal market model of domestic economic has simply
been shifted to the world market level. While in the course of western liberalism a mere
condition for the emergence of market society was successful individuation – the liberation of
people from communal and hierarchical constraints – globalization means that in addition in
these processes, people (and enterprise) have to be liberated from nation-state constrains (e.g.,
taxation on foreign goods, subsidies to national industries, etc.) that hinder the free flow of
goods, services finance and knowledge.
In the course of revitalization of modernization theory redressing internal development

constraints with a policy of structural adjustment and deregulation solves the problems of the
periphery, so that market forces can take over self-regulation.
However, with the world financial crisis this neo-liberal market fundamentalism13 of the
1990s has been scrutinized, and the call for regulating international institutions of the world
economy and particularly the financial sector, as well as for protectionist policies, has become
louder, Faced with a rapid decline of social security systems, people in Continental Europe doubts
a self-regulation of the market within a socially acceptable dimension, but also they do no longer
believe in an efficient state interventionism on behalf of socially disadvantaged people.
Communitarian’ therefore proclaims to reconstruct communities (neighborhoods, families) as
helping as well as controlling entries.
The economic dimension of globalization refers to an increasing interconnectedness and

interdependence of enterprises through the world market. This interdependence results from
world trade, foreign and joint venture investments, world-wide consumer markets, processes of
concentration, international financial speculation international labor migration.
Computer networks, etc. labor intensive production processes lare shifted to economies
with low salaries (or non-wage labor production forms). While the headquarters with their
planning, marketing and financial divisions remain in the western and some East Asian global
cities. A certain consumer or luxury product is nowadays rarely national; because most of its
inputs consist of imported goods, (therefore certain nationalist campaigns to buy only national
products are far from reality).
The top capital and knowledge-intensive service enterprises (i.e., banking and insurance
companies and certain professional produces services are located in global cities – a hierarchical
network business centers that are more closely connected to each other than to their immediate
environment within the cities. In these business centers jobs that are particularly valuable for the
global economy receive top incomes. Former production centers and manufacturing jobs, on the
other hand, have been downgraded. Global cities, however, require an infrastructure: various
low-paid services jobs from the sweeper to the taxi-driver, which are often organized according
to ethnic lines. An outcome of this development is a bipolarization of societies.
FROM ECONOMICS TO GLOBALIZATION OF ECONOMIS AND DEVELOPMENT

18
Economics - The social science that deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services and with the theory and management of economies or economic systems.
• Macroeconomics - The study of the overall aspects and workings of a national economy, such as
income, output, and the interrelationship among diverse economic sectors.
• Mega economics – It studies the interaction of national economies through comparative analysis
of the economic systems.
• International Economics - A branch of economics that studies economic interactions among
different countries, including foreign trade (exports and imports), foreign exchange (trading
currency), balance of payments, and balance of trade. The study of interational economics
focusses on two related areas - international trade and international finance
• Civilizations – they have originated independently from one another and have had common
standards and rules of life;
• Religions – they have monotheistic character, universality of values and trends towards
expansion of ideas;
• Colonizational processes – they have similarity of reasons, forms and consequences: creation of
one-sided economic relations;
• From the great migration of peoples till now – there is a tendency for decreasing the uncertainty
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION ON DIFFERENT SPHERES OF LIFE

• Economic – the trade roads were built; global companies started their functions; global economy
and finance system have been created.
• Political – tribes transformed to peoples, nations and states formed, after that regional unions
and finally international authorities of governance.
• Geographical – the great migration of peoples started, new lands were founded, empires created.
• Ideological – unified social ideas spread on huge territories
• Informational – the speech and writing were created, after that literature, finally massmedia and
Internet
Common Characteristics of the Globalization Process

• The dynamic development of the globalization process follows the development of the society.
• As a phenomenon it has two levels – general civilization and formative ones
• Contradictory process which has its positive and negative sides
• It is pursued by anti-social phenomena
CH
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY

19
Economics is the social science that deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of
goods and services and with the theory and management of economies or economic systems.
By institutions we mean rules of structural social interaction (both formal and informal) – they
structure incentives in human exchange (be it economic, political or social). Institutions can and will likely
result in elite forming who will attempt to retain their position of power. There may be successful or may
not be, but they can be replaced by alternative elite. The fundamental causes of growth are economics
institutions, cultures, geography, and trade and integration. There is also the view that the proxy for
institutions (risk of expropriation by the government) is not really picking up any permanent set of rules of
a country. Rather this in itself is an outcome of what has gone before. This measure of institutions also
rises with (i) per capita GDP and is (ii) highly volatile. Those institutions form and emerge from within
countries over time and that economic, political and social development cause institutions to change.
The Economic theory relates globalization to the model of a free world market without restriction
of competition and mobility, a global mass culture and a world-encompassing information society. This
approach shows that the neo-liberal market model of domestic economic has simply been shifted to the
world market level.
In the course of revitalization of modernization theory redressing internal development constraints

with a policy of structural adjustment and deregulation solves the problems of the periphery, so that market
forces can take over self-regulation.
SELF-CHECK A.2
CHAPTER 2

20
I. Multiple Choice. Read the sentence carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. It refers to the property rights, legal system, rule of law, constitution.

a. Formal Institutions
b. Informal Institutions
c. Institutions
d. All of the above
2. It is how to behave in everyday life which linked to religion, history, social acceptability.
a. Formal Institutions
b. Informal Institutions
c. Institutions
d. All of the above
3. Economics Institutions means

a. values, beliefs, religions
b. encouraging investment through incentives, human capital, entrepreneurship, innovation,
occupational choice, land ownership.
c. affecting productivity changes
d. climate (affect productivity and worker effort), agricultural (technological) productivity higher
in temperate zones than in tropics, burden of infectious diseases, natural endowments,
transport costs
4. It refers to values, beliefs, and religions.

a. Cultures
b. Geography
c. Economics
d. Trade and Integration
5. It is captured by either index of protection against expropriation or by constraints on the executive.

a. Colonial Experience
b. Proxy
c. Institutional Proxy
6. Colonial Experience means

a. Decisions to settle maybe caused by whether there is a need to settle in the first place. Other
factors influence the decision to settle too.
b. An outcome of what has gone before
c. Those institutions form and emerge from within countries over time and that economic, political
and social development cause institutions to change.
d. Settler Mortality is an interesting and clever instrument for identifying the Institutional variable.
7. It relates globalization to the model of a free world market without restriction of competition and
mobility, a global mass culture and a world-encompassing information society
a. The Globalization Theory
b. The Political Theory
c. The Economic Theory
d. The Sociological Theory

21
8. This approach shows that the neo-liberal market model of domestic economic has simply been
shifted to the world market level.
a. The Globalization Theory
b. The Political Theory
c. The Economic Theory
d. The Sociological Theory
9. It is the internal development constraints with a policy of structural adjustment and deregulation
solves the problems of the periphery, so that market forces can take over self-regulation.
a. The Modernization Theory
b. The Globalization Theory
c. The Political Theory
d. The Economic Theory
10. It is a branch of economics that studies economic interactions among different countries,
including foreign trade (exports and imports), foreign exchange (trading currency), balance of
payments, and balance of trade.
a. International Economics
b. Civilizations
c. Religions Colonizational Processes
d. All of the above

22
should be able to Chapter 3 Illustrates the role international
financial institutions in the creation of a global
1. Explain the role of international
financial institutions in the creation economy, global market integration in the
of a global economy twentieth century, and the attributes of global
corporations.
2. Narrate a short history of global
market integration in the twentieth
century
3. Identify the attributes of global

corporations
CHAPTER 3 - The Structures of Globalization: Market Integration
ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE CREATION OF A GLOBAL

ECONOMY
In many parts of the world, international financial institutions (IFIs) play a major role in
the social and economic development programs of nations with developing or transitional
economies. This role includes advising on development projects, funding them and assisting in
their implementation. Characterized by AAA-credit ratings and a broad membership of borrowing
and donor countries, each of these institutions operates independently. All however, share the
following goals and objectives:
• to reduce global poverty and improve people's living conditions and standards;
• to support sustainable economic, social and institutional development; and
• to promote regional cooperation and integration.
IFIs achieve these objectives through loans, credits and grants to national governments.
Such funding is usually tied to specific projects that focus on economic and socially sustainable
development. IFIs also provide technical and advisory assistance to their borrowers and
conduct extensive research on development issues. In addition to these public
procurement opportunities, in which multilateral financing is delivered to a national
government for the implementation of a project or program, IFIs are increasingly lending
directly to non-sovereign guaranteed (NSG) actors. These include sub-national government
entities, as well as the private sector.
Canada is a partner and shareholder in the World Bank, which is the major global IFI,
and in several regional development banks. This membership permits Canadian firms and
individuals to compete for procurement opportunities in bank-funded projects and programs.
Canada's Offices of Liaison with International Financial Institutions (OLIFIs) can help you learn
about IFIs, including information on where and how funds are spent, and how to find and pursue
these opportunities. To find out more, refer to OLIFI.
BERNANKE: A SHORT HISTORY OF GLOBAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION

23
Ben Bernanke opens the Fed conference at Jackson Hole with a discussion about economic
integration. The talk has two sections, the history of economic integration, and the current episode
of economic integration. Once conclusion from the history section is that, while economic
integration is beneficial overall, the costs are not shared equally:
A third observation is that social dislocation, and consequently often social resistance, may
result when economies become more open. An important source of dislocation is that--as the
principle of comparative advantage suggests--the expansion of trade opportunities tends to change
the mix of goods that each country produces and the relative returns to capital and labor. The
resulting shifts in the structure of production impose costs on workers and business owners in
some industries and thus create a constituency that opposes the process of economic integration.
More broadly, increased economic interdependence may also engender opposition by stimulating
social or cultural change, or by being perceived as benefiting some groups much more than others.
His quote of Martin Luther from 1524 is one illustration of this: But foreign trade, which
brings from Calcutta and India and such places wares like costly silks, articles of gold, and spices-
-which minister only to ostentation but serve no useful purpose, and which drain away the money
of the land and people--would not be permitted if we had proper government and princes. God has
cast us Germans off to such an extent that we have to fling our gold and silver into foreign lands
and make the whole world rich, while we ourselves remain beggars. (James, 2001, p. 8) As for the
current episode: In yet another parallel with the past, however, social and political opposition to
rapid economic integration has also emerged. As in the past, much of this opposition is driven by
the distributional impact of changes in the pattern of production, but other concerns have been
expressed as well for example, about the effects of global economic integration on the environment
or on the poorest countries.
Global Economic Integration: What's New and What's Not?, by Ben S. Bernanke, Federal
Reserve Bank of Kansas City's Thirtieth Annual Economic Symposium, Jackson Hole, Wyoming
When geographers study the earth and its features, distance is one of the basic measures
they use to describe the patterns they observe. Distance is an elastic concept, however. The
physical distance along a great circle from Wausau, Wisconsin to Wuhan, China is fixed at 7,020
miles. But to an economist, the distance from Wausau to Wuhan can also be expressed in other
metrics, such as the cost of shipping goods between the two cities, the time it takes for a message
to travel those 7,020 miles, and the cost of sending and receiving the message. Economically
relevant distances between Wausau and Wuhan may also depend on what trade economists refer
to as the "width of the border," which reflects the extra costs of economic exchange imposed by
factors such as tariff and nontariff barriers, as well as costs arising from differences in language,
culture, legal traditions, and political systems.
One of the defining characteristics of the world in which we now live is that, by most
economically relevant measures, distances are shrinking rapidly. The shrinking globe has
been a major source of the powerful wave of worldwide economic integration and increased
economic interdependence that we are currently experiencing. The causes and implications of
declining economic distances and increased economic integration are, of course, the subject of this
conference.
The pace of global economic change in recent decades has been breathtaking indeed, and
the full implications of these developments for all aspects of our lives will not be known for many
years. History may provide some guidance, however. The process of global economic integration
has been going on for thousands of years, and the sources and consequences of this integration
have often borne at least a qualitative resemblance to those associated with the current episode.
In my remarks today I will briefly review some past episodes of global economic integration, identify
some common themes, and then put forward some ways in which I see the current episode as
similar to and different from the past. In doing so, I hope to provide some background and context
for the important discussions that we will be having over the next few days.
A Short History of Global Economic Integration As I just noted, the economic integration
of widely separated regions is hardly a new phenomenon. Two thousand years ago, the Romans
24
unified their far-flung empire through an extensive transportation network and a common
language, legal system, and currency. One historian recently observed that "a citizen of the empire
traveling from Britain to the Euphrates in the mid-second century CE would have found in virtually
every town along the journey foods, goods, landscapes, buildings, institutions, laws, entertainment,
and sacred elements not dissimilar to those in his own community." (Hitchner, 2003, p. 398). This
unification promoted trade and economic development.
A millennium and a half later, at the end of the fifteenth century, the voyages of Columbus,
Vasco da Gama, and other explorers initiated a period of trade over even vaster distances. These
voyages of discovery were made possible by advances in European ship technology and navigation,
including improvements in the compass, in the rudder, and in sail design. The sea lanes opened
by these voyages facilitated a thriving intercontinental trade--although the high costs of and
the risks associated with long voyages tended to limit trade to a relatively small set of commodities
of high value relative to their weight and bulk, such as sugar, tobacco, spices, tea, silk, and precious
metals. Much of this trade ultimately came under the control of the trading companies created by
the English and the Dutch. These state sanctioned monopolies enjoyed--and aggressively
protected--high markups and profits. Influenced by the prevailing mercantilist view of trade as a
zero-sum game, European nation-states competed to dominate lucrative markets, a competition
that sometimes spilled over into military conflict.
The expansion of international trade in the sixteenth century faced some domestic
opposition. For example, in an interesting combination of mercantilist thought and social
commentary, the reformer Martin Luther wrote in 1524: But foreign trade, which brings from
Calcutta and India and such places wares like costly silks, articles of gold, and spices--which
minister only to ostentation but serve no useful purpose, and which drain away the money of the
land and people--would not be permitted if we had proper government and princes... God
has cast us Germans off to such an extent that we have to fling our gold and silver into foreign
lands and make the whole world rich, while we ourselves remain beggars. (James, 2001, p. 8)
Global economic integration took another major leap forward during the period between
the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the beginning of World War I. International trade
again expanded significantly as did cross-border flows of financial capital and labor. Once again,
new technologies played an important role in facilitating integration: Transport costs plunged as
steam power replaced the sail and railroads replaced the wagon or the barge, and an ambitious
public works project, the opening of the Suez Canal, significantly reduced travel times between
Europe and Asia. Communication costs likewise fell as the telegraph came into common use. One
observer in the late 1860s described the just completed trans-Atlantic telegraph cable as having
"annihilated both space and time in the transmission of intelligence" (Standage, 1998, p. 90).
Trade expanded the variety of available goods, both in Europe and elsewhere, and as the trade
monopolies of earlier times were replaced by intense competition, prices converged globally for a
wide range of commodities, including spices, wheat, cotton, pig iron, and jute (Findlay and
O'Rourke, 2002).
The structure of trade during the post-Napoleonic period followed a "core-periphery"

pattern. Capital-rich Western European countries, particularly Britain, were the center, or core, of
the trading system and the international monetary system. Countries in which natural resources
and land were relatively abundant formed the periphery. Manufactured goods, financial capital,
and labor tended to flow from the core to the periphery, with natural resources and agricultural
products flowing from the periphery to the core. The composition of the core and the periphery
remained fairly stable, with one important exception being the United States, which, over the
course of the nineteenth century, made the transition from the periphery to the core. The share of
manufactured goods in U.S. exports rose from less than 30 percent in 1840 to 60 percent in 1913,
and the United States became a net exporter of financial capital beginning in the late 1890s.1
For the most part, government policies during this era fostered openness to trade, capital
mobility, and migration. Britain unilaterally repealed its tariffs on grains (the so-called corn
laws) in 1846, and a series of bilateral treaties subsequently dismantled many barriers to trade in
Europe. A growing appreciation for the principle of comparative advantage, as forcefully articulated

25
by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, may have made governments more receptive to the view
that international trade is not a zero-sum game but can be beneficial to all participants.
That said, domestic opposition to free trade eventually intensified, as cheap grain from the
periphery put downward pressure on the incomes of landowners in the core. Beginning in the late
1870s, many European countries raised tariffs, with Britain being a prominent exception. Britain
did respond to protectionist pressures by passing legislation that required that goods be stamped
with their country of origin. This step provided additional grist for trade protesters, however,
as the author of one British anti-free-trade pamphlet in the 1890s lamented that even the pencil
he used to write his protest was marked "made in Germany" (James, 2001, p. 15). In the United
States, tariffs on manufactures were raised in the 1860s to relatively high levels, where they
remained until well into the twentieth century. Despite these increased barriers to the
importation of goods, the United States was remarkably open to immigration throughout this
period.
Unfortunately, the international economic integration achieved during the nineteenth

century was largely unraveled in the twentieth by two world wars and the Great Depression. After
World War II, the major powers undertook the difficult tasks of rebuilding both the physical
infrastructure and the international trade and monetary systems. The industrial core--now
including an emergent Japan as well as the United States and Western Europe--ultimately
succeeded in restoring a substantial degree of economic integration, though decades passed before
trade as a share of global output reached pre-World War I levels.
One manifestation of this re-integration was the rise of so-called intra-industry trade.
Researchers in the late-1960s and the 1970s noted that an increasing share of global trade
was taking place between countries with similar resource endowments, trading similar types of
goods--mainly manufactured products traded among industrial countries. Unlike international
trade in the nineteenth century, these flows could not be readily explained by the perspectives of
Ricardo or of the Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin that emphasized national
differences in endowments of natural resources or factors of production. In influential work, Paul
Krugman and others have since argued that intra-industry trade can be attributed to firms' efforts
to exploit economies of scale, coupled with a taste for variety by purchasers.
Postwar economic re-integration was supported by several factors, both technological and
political. Technological advances further reduced the costs of transportation and
communication, as the air freight fleet was converted from propeller to jet and intermodal
shipping techniques (including containerization) became common. Telephone communication
expanded, and digital electronic computing came into use. Taken together, these advances allowed
an ever-broadening set of products to be traded internationally. In the policy sphere, tariff barriers-
-which had been dramatically increased during the GreatDepression--were lowered, with
many of these reductions negotiated within the multilateral framework provided by the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Globalization was, to some extent, also supported by
geopolitical considerations, as economic integration among the Western market economies
became viewed as part of the strategy for waging the Cold War. However, although trade expanded
significantly in the early post-World War II period, many countries--recalling the exchange-rate and
financial crises of the 1930s--adopted regulations aimed at limiting the mobility of financial capital
across national borders.
Several conclusions emerge from this brief historical review. Perhaps the clearest
conclusion is that new technologies that reduce the costs of transportation and communication
have been a major factor supporting global economic integration. Of course, technological advance
is itself affected by the economic incentives for inventive activity; these incentives increase with
the size of the market, creating something of a virtuous circle. For example, in the nineteenth
century, the high potential return to improving communications between Europe and the
United States prompted intensive work to betterunderstand electricity and to improve telegraph
technology--efforts that together helped make the trans-Atlantic cable possible.
A second conclusion from history is that national policy choices may be critical determinants
of the extent of international economic integration. Britain's embrace of free trade and free capital
26
flows helped to catalyze international integration in the nineteenth century. Fifteenth-century China
provides an opposing example. In the early decades of that century, the Chinese sailed great fleets
to the ports of Asia and East Africa, including ships much larger than those that the Europeans
were to use later in the voyages of discovery. These expeditions apparently had only limited
economic impact, however. Ultimately, internal political struggles led to a curtailment of further
Chinese exploration (Findlay, 1992). Evidently, in this case, different choices by political leaders
might have led to very different historical outcomes.
A third observation is that social dislocation, and consequently often social resistance, may
result when economies become more open. An important source of dislocation is that--as the
principle of comparative advantage suggests--the expansion of trade opportunities tends to change
the mix of goods that each country produces and the relative returns to capital and labor. The
resulting shifts in the structure of production impose costs on workers and business owners in
some industries and thus create a constituency that opposes the process of economic integration.
More broadly, increased economic interdependence may also engender opposition by stimulating
social or cultural change, or by being perceived as benefiting some groups much more than others.
THE CURRENT EPISODE OF GLOBAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
How does the current wave of global economic integration compare with previous episodes?
In a number of ways, the remarkable economic changes that we observe today are being
driven by the same basic forces and are having similar effects as in the past. Perhaps most
important, technological advances continue to play an important role in facilitating global
integration. For example, dramatic improvements in supply-chain management, madepossible by
advances in communication and computer technologies, have significantly reduced the costs of
coordinating production among globally distributed suppliers.
Another common feature of the contemporary economic landscape and the experience of
the past is the continued broadening of the range of products that are viewed as tradable. In part,
this broadening simply reflects the wider range of goods available today--high-tech consumer
goods, for example-as well as ongoing declines in transportation costs. Particularly striking,
however, is the extent to which information and communication technologies now facilitate active
international trade in a wide range of services, from call center operations to sophisticated financial,
legal, medical, and engineering services.
The critical role of government policy in supporting, or at least permitting, global economic
integration, is a third similarity between the past and the present. Progress in trade liberalization
has continued in recent decades--though not always at a steady pace, as the recent Doha Round
negotiations demonstrate. Moreover, the institutional framework supporting global trade, most
importantly the WorldTrade Organization, has expanded and strengthened over time. Regional
frameworks and agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and the European
Union's "single market," have also promoted trade. Government restrictions on international
capital flows have generally declined, and the "soft infrastructure" supporting those flows--for
example, legal frameworks and accounting rules--have improved, in part through international
cooperation.
In yet another parallel with the past, however, social and political opposition to rapid
economic integration has also emerged. As in the past, much of this opposition is driven by the
distributional impact of changes in the pattern of production, but other concerns have been
expressed as well--for example, about the effects of global economic integration on the
environment or on the poorest countries.
What, then, is new about the current episode? Each observer will have his or her own
perspective, but, to me, four differences between the current wave of global economic integration
and past episodes seem most important. First, the scale and pace of the current episode is
unprecedented. For example, in recent years, global merchandise exports have been above 20
percent of world gross domestic product, compared with about 8 percent in 1913 and less than 15
percent as recently as 1990; and international financial flows have expanded even more quickly.3
27
But these data understate the magnitude of the change that we are now experiencing. The
emergence of China, India, and the former communist-bloc countries implies that the greater part
of the earth's population is now engaged, at least potentially, in the global economy. There are no
historical antecedents for this development. Columbus's voyage to the New World ultimately led to
enormous economic change, of course, but the full integration of the New and the Old Worlds took
centuries. In contrast, the economic opening of China, which began in earnest less than three
decades ago, is proceeding rapidly and, if anything, seems to be accelerating.
Second, the traditional distinction between the core and the periphery is becoming
increasingly less relevant, as the mature industrial economies and the emerging-market economies
become more integrated and interdependent. Notably, the nineteenth-century pattern, in which
the core exported manufactures to the periphery in exchange for commodities, no longer holds, as
an increasing share of world manufacturing capacity is now found in emerging markets. An even
more striking aspect of the breakdown of the core-periphery paradigm is the direction of
capital flows: In the nineteenth century, the country at the center of the world's economy,
Great Britain, ran current account surpluses and exported financial capital to the periphery.
Today, the world's largest economy, that of the United States, runs a current-account deficit,
financed to a substantial extent by capital exports from emerging-market nations.
Third, production processes are becoming geographically fragmented to an unprecedented

degree.4 Rather than producing goods in a single process in a single location, firms are
increasingly breaking the production process into discrete steps and performing each step in
whatever location allows them to minimize costs. For example, the U.S. chip producer AMD locates
most of its research and development in California; produces in Texas, Germany, and Japan; does
final processing and testing in Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, and China; and then sells to
markets around the globe. To be sure, international production chains are not entirely new: In
1911, Henry Ford opened his company's first overseas factory in Manchester, England, to be closer
to a growing source of demand. The factory produced bodies for the Model A automobile, but
imported the chassis and mechanical parts from the United States for assembly in Manchester.
Although examples like this one illustrate the historical continuity of the process of
economic integration, today the geographical extension of production processes is far more
advanced and pervasive than ever before. As an aside, some interesting economic questions are
raised by the fact that in some cases international production chains are managed almost entirely
within a single multinational corporation (roughly 40 percent of U.S. merchandise trade is
classified as intra-firm) and in others they are built through arm's-length transactions among
unrelated firms. But the empirical evidence in both cases suggests that substantial productivity
gains can often be achieved through the development of global supply chains.
The final item on my list of what is new about the current episode is that international
capital markets have become substantially more mature. Although the net capital flows of a
century ago, measured relative to global output, are comparable to those of the present, gross
flows today are much larger. Moreover, capital flows now take many more forms than in the
past: In the nineteenth century, international portfolio investments were concentrated in
the finance of infrastructure projects (such as the American railroads) and in the purchase of
government debt. Today, international investors hold an array of debt instruments, equities, and
derivatives, including claims on a broad range of sectors. Flows of foreign direct investment are
also much larger relative to output than they were fifty or a hundred years ago. As I noted
earlier, the increase in capital flows owes much to capital-market liberalization and factors such as
the greater standardization of accounting practices as well as to technological advances.
Conclusion
By almost any economically relevant metric, distances have shrunk considerably in recent
decades. As a consequence, economically speaking, Wausau and Wuhan are today closer and
more interdependent than ever before. Economic and technological changes are likely to shrink
effective distances still further in coming years, creating the potential for continued
improvements in productivity and living standards and for a reduction in global poverty.

28
Further progress in global economic integration should not be taken for granted, however.
Geopolitical concerns, including international tensions and the risks of terrorism, already constrain
the pace of worldwide economic integration and may do so even more in the future. And, as in the
past, the social and political opposition to openness can be strong. Although this opposition has
many sources, I have suggested that much of it arises because changes in the patterns of
production are likely to threaten the livelihoods of some workers and the profits of some firms,
even when these changes lead to greater productivity and output overall.
The natural reaction of those so affected is to resist change, for example, by seeking the
passage of protectionist measures. The challenge for policymakers is to ensure that the benefits of
global economic integration are sufficiently widely shared--for example, by helping displaced
workers get the necessary training to take advantage of new opportunities--that a consensus for
welfare-enhancing change can be obtained. Building such a consensus may be far from easy, at
both the national and the global levels. However, the effort is well worth making, as the potential
benefits of increased global economic integration are large indeed.
GLOBAL CORPORATIONS IN FINANCE
In the world of finance and investing, a global corporation is one that has significant
investments and facilities in multiple countries and lacks a dominant headquarters. Global
corporations are governed by the laws of the country where they are incorporated. A global
business connects its talent, resources and opportunities across political boundaries. Because a
global corporation is more invested in its overseas locations, it can be more sensitive to local
opportunities -- and also more vulnerable to threats. A company that does business in Africa, for
example, might find itself dealing with the implication from a local Ebola outbreak as well as its
commercial operations.
In contrast, an international company is one that is headquartered in the United States,

but also does business overseas and might have a large presence in multiple areas. This company
would be governed by U.S. regulations, assuming its headquarters remain here, but may also
have foreign subsidiaries governed by local laws.
ACADEMIC DEFINITION
Business analysts and academics, such as the groundbreaking Michael Porter at Harvard
University, tend to define global businesses more narrowly and distinguish them from other
operations overseas. This approach defines a global business as one that maintains a strong
headquarters in one country, but has investments in multiple foreign locations. Such investments
may involve direct investments in foreign assets, such as manufacturing facilities or sales offices.
The headquarters generally is its home country, though some move to more favorable regulatory
or taxation locations over time. Global corporations strive to create economies of scale by selling
the same products in multiple locations, limiting local customization.
In contrast:
An international company has no foreign direct investment and makes its wares only in
its home country. Its involvement outside its borders is essentially limited to importing and
exporting goods.
A multinational company invests directly in foreign nations, but this is usually limited to
a few areas. Products are customized to local preferences, rather than homogenized, limiting the
ability to create economies of scale.
Transnational companies take the global corporation a step further. A transnational
company invests directly in dozens of countries and distributes decision-making capabilities to
its various local operations.

29
CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY
International financial institutions (IFIs) play a major role in the social and economic
development programs of nations with developing or transitional economies. This role includes
advising on development projects, funding them and assisting in their implementation.
Characterized by AAA-credit ratings and a broad membership of borrowing and donor countries,
each of these institutions operates independently. All however, share the following goals and
objectives: reduce global poverty and improve people's living conditions and standards; to support
sustainable economic, social and institutional development; and to promote regional cooperation
and integration.
IFIs achieve these objectives through loans, credits and grants to national governments.
Such funding is usually tied to specific projects that focus on economic and socially sustainable
development. IFIs also provide technical and advisory assistance to their borrowers and conduct
extensive research on development issues. In addition to these public procurement opportunities,
in which multilateral financing is delivered to a national government for the implementation of a
project or program, IFIs are increasingly lending directly to non-sovereign guaranteed (NSG)
actors. These include sub-national government entities, as well as the private sector.
SELF CHECK A.3

CHAPTER 3
Name:__________________________________ Year Level:_____________Score:__________

30
1. The following statements are goals and objectives of IFI except

a. to reduce global poverty and improve people's living conditions and standards
b. to support sustainable economic, social and institutional development
c. to promote regional cooperation and integration
d. to promote total formation of individual
2. He opened the Fed conference at Jackson Hole with a discussion about economic integration.
a. Ben Bernanke
b. Thomas Berke
c. William Hole
d. Jacks Smith
3. It is an elastic concept used by the geographers when they study the earth and its features.
a. miles
b. distance
c. centimeter
d. meter
4. The structure of trade during the post-Napoleonic period follows

a. "semi-periphery" pattern
b. "periphery" pattern.
c. "core-periphery" pattern
d. All of the above
5. It is one of the significant investments and facilities in multiple countries and lacks a dominant
headquarters.
a. global opportunity
b. global corporation
c. global interdependence
d. all of the above
6. It is governed by the laws of the country where they are incorporated.

a. global corporations
b. global opportunity
c. global interdependence
d. all of the above
7. It is headquartered in the United States, but also does business overseas and might have a large
presence in multiple areas.
a. Globalization
b. International company
c. Global Interdependence
d. Global Opportunity
8. It has no foreign direct investment and makes its wares only in its home country. Its involvement
outside its borders is essentially limited to importing and exporting goods.
a. Globalization
9. It invests directly in foreign nations, but this is usually limited to a few areas. Products are customized
to local preferences, rather than homogenized, limiting the ability to create economies of scale.
a. Multinational company
31
10. It takes the global corporation a step further and invests directly in dozens of countries and
distributes decision-making capabilities to its various local operations.
a. Transnational company

Globalization
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on governments, governing international
1. Explain the effects of
globalization on
relations, and the concept of internationalism
governments from globalism
2. Identify the institutions

that govern international
relations
3. Differentiate
internationalism from
globalism
CHAPTER
S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education 4 - The Structures
Program|Module_GE ofSemester
3|First Term, First Globalization:Page|
32
The Global Interstate System
THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON GOVERNMENTS
The biggest effect is a reduction of economic independence. The increasing market size
with the effects of Absolute or Comparative Advantages in manufacturing creates the need to
specialize in narrow product production or service areas to be able to compete successfully. This
requires “OPEN MARKET” policies.
On the opposite end of the spectrum, it could just as easily result in “PROTECTIONIST”
policies to restrict domestic access to markets using the tools of import quotas and/or tariffs on
imported goods. The main problem with restricting market access using such tools is RETALIATION
from other countries in implementing similar policies against that country. The popular press refers
to this as a “Trade War.”
When this happens, the larger market has a distinct advantage as its people can better
afford slightly higher prices for imported goods. Global corporations don’t generally like that an
excise tax is being applied to their goods that will impact sales volumes and profits to their
shareholders. If a marketing study shows sales volumes are significantly affected in revenue losses.
Global Corporations simply establish Wholly Owned Subsidiaries in the countries where
their brands are already well-established, and continue selling them without the excise taxes being
applied. In other cases, third countries, not involved in such Trade Disputes called “Terms of
Trade,” are used to funnel goods without being subject to the import tax. Cyprus is often used a
gateway to import Turkish products into the European Union without going through procedures to
declare Value Added Taxes for such goods making them far cheaper on European markets.
Spanish Sahara is often used as a colony to Made in EU products using non-EU citizens in
Africa, to get around import laws for access to EU markets. The large Spanish retail giant that
owns the Bershika, Zara, and Stradavarious brands has clothing made on a large floating
platform in the Mediterranean Sea to get around EU Safety at Work labor laws and import
restrictions. Turkey sold refined Iranian petroleum to Syria during a UN Sec Council embargo for
such imports to ISIL (Da’esh). If there is a will and a market, there is always a method to get
around them.
400 years ago the earth had no boundaries. It was infinite in size. 200 years ago the world
had established boundaries, but to experience all cultures it has to offer was impossibility. A lifetime
was not long enough. Now we can circle it in hours, and see into 90 percent of the cultures with
the click of a button. I would imagine in another 50 or so years, visiting another continent will be
like driving across town.
We the people have the right to life liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. To be ourselves,
to be different, and to be diverse is like the very smart Judge said, “I knew I made the right decision
by the way both parties did not like it”.
INSTITUTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF THE

GATT AND THE WTO ON WORLD TRADE
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization
(WTO) have been touted as premier examples of international institutions, but few studies have
offered empirical proof. This article comprehensively evaluates the effects of the GATT/WTO and
other trade agreements since World War II.

33
The analysis is organized around two factors: institutional standing and institutional
embeddedness. As observed, many countries had rights and obligations, or institutional standing,
in the GATT/WTO even though they were not formal members of the agreement.
Using data on dyadic trade since 1946, the GATT/WTO substantially increased trade for
countries with institutional standing, and that other embedded agreements had similarly positive
effects.
Moreover, evidence suggests that international trade agreements have complemented,

rather than undercut, each other. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 99th Annual
Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Philadelphia, and August 28–31, 2003.
INTERNATIONALISM AND GLOBALISM
Internationalism is a political, economic and cultural cooperation between nations

while globalism is an ideology based on the belief that people, goods and information ought to be
able to cross national borders unfettered.
CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY
The effect of globalization on governments is a reduction of economic independence. The

increasing market size with the effects of Absolute or Comparative Advantages in manufacturing
creates the need to specialize in narrow product production or service areas to be able to compete
successfully.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization
(WTO) have been touted as premier examples of international institutions, but few studies have
offered empirical proof. This article comprehensively evaluates the effects of the GATT/WTO and
other trade agreements since World War II.

while globalism is an ideology based on the belief that people, goods and information ought to be
able to cross national borders unfettered.
SELF CHECK A. 4
CHAPTER 4

34
1. This policy restricts domestic access to markets using the tools of import quotas and/or tariffs on
imported goods.
a. Retaliation
b. Trade War
c. Protectionist
d. Formal Institution
2. It is a term used to funnel goods without being subject to the import tax.
a. “Terms of Trade”
b. “Terms of Globalization”
c. “Terms of Agreement”
3. It is often used a gateway to import Turkish products into the European Union without going
through procedures to declare Value Added Taxes for such goods making them far cheaper on
European markets.
a. Product
b. Service
c. Cyprus
d. Marketing Strategy
4. It is often used as a colony to Made in EU products using non-EU citizens in Africa, to get around
import laws for access to EU markets.
a. Europe
b. Spanish Sahara
c. US Sahara
d. Philippine Products
5. GATT means
a. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
b. General Association on Tariffs and Trade
c. Generated Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
d. Generating Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
6. It is a political, economic and cultural cooperation between nations.

a. Internationalism
b. Globalism
c. Humanism
d. All of the above
7. It is an ideology based on the belief that people, goods and information ought to be able to cross
national borders unfettered.
a. Internationalism
b. Globalism
c. Humanism
d. All of the above
8. The increasing market size with the effects of Absolute or Comparative Advantages in
manufacturing creates the need to specialize in narrow product production or service areas to be
able to compete successfully. This requires
a. “CLOSE MARKET” policies
b. “OPEN MARKET” policies
c. “OPEN BORDER” policies

35
9. Using data on dyadic trade since 1946, this substantially increased trade for countries with
institutional standing, and that other embedded agreements had similarly positive effects.
a. WTO/NATO
b. ASEAN
c. GATT/WTO
d. All of the above
10. When this happens, the larger market has a distinct advantage as its people can better afford
slightly higher prices for imported goods
a. “Trade War”
b. “Trade Opportunity”
c. “Trade Levelling”
d. “Trade Industry”

should be able to conceptions.
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The lesson explains the roles and functions of
1. Identify the roles and functions of the United Nations, global governance in the
the United Nations 21st century, and the relevance
of the state amid globalization.
2. Identify the challenges of global
governance in the twenty-first
century
3. Explain the relevance of the state

amid globalization

36
CHAPTER 5 - The Structures of Globalization:
Contemporary Global Governance
MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY
The main function of the United Nations is to preserve international peace and security.
Chapter 6 of the Charter provides for the pacific settlement of disputes, through the intervention
of the Security Council, by means such as negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and judicial
decisions. The Security Council may investigate any dispute or situation to determine whether it
is likely to endanger international peace and security. At any stage of the dispute, the council may
recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment, and, if the parties fail to settle the
dispute by peaceful means, the council may recommend terms of settlement.
The goal of collective security, whereby aggression against one member is met with
resistance by all, underlies chapter 7 of the Charter, which grants the Security Council the power
to order coercive measures—ranging from diplomatic, economic, and military sanctions to the use
of armed force in cases where attempts at a peaceful settlement have failed. Such measures were
seldom applied during the Cold War, however, because tensions between the United States and
the Soviet Union prevented the Security Council from agreeing on the instigators of aggression.
Instead, actions to maintain peace and security often took the form of preventive diplomacy and
peacekeeping. In the post-Cold War period, appeals to the UN for peacekeeping and related
activities increased dramatically, and new threats to international peace and security were
confronted, including AIDS and international terrorism.
Notwithstanding the primary role of the Security Council, the UN Charter provides for the
participation of the General Assembly and non-member states in security issues. Any state whether
it is a member of the UN or not, may bring any dispute or situation that endangers international
peace and security to the attention of the Security Council or the General Assembly.
The Charter authorizes the General Assembly to “discuss any questions relating to the
maintenance of international peace and security” and to “make recommendations with regard to
any such questions to the state or states concerned or to the Security Council or to both.” This
authorization is restricted by the provision that, “while the Security Council is exercising in respect
of any dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the General Assembly
shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless the Security
Council so requests.” By the “Uniting for Peace” resolution of November 1950, however, the General
Assembly granted to itself the power to deal with threats to the peace if the Security Council fails
to act after a veto by a permanent member.
Although these provisions grant the General Assembly a broad secondary role, the Security
Council can make decisions that bind all members, whereas the General Assembly can make only
recommendations.
PEACEKEEPING, PEACEMAKING, AND PEACE BUILDING
International armed forces were first used in 1948 to observe cease-fires in Kashmir and
Palestine. Although not specifically mentioned in the UN Charter, the use of such forces as a buffer
between warring parties pending troop withdrawals and negotiations—a practice known as
peacekeeping—was formalized in 1956 during the Suez Crisis between Egypt, Israel, France, and
the United Kingdom. Peacekeeping missions have taken many forms, though they have in common
the fact that they are designed to be peaceful, that they involve military troops from several

37
countries, and that the troops serve under the authority of the UN Security Council. In 1988 the
UN Peacekeeping Forces were awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace.
During the Cold War, so-called first-generation, or “classic,” peacekeeping was used in
conflicts in the Middle East and Africa and in conflicts stemming from decolonization in Asia.
Between 1948 and 1988 the UN undertook 13 peacekeeping missions involving generally lightly
armed troops from neutral countries other than the permanent members of the Security Council—
most often Canada, Sweden, Norway, Finland, India, Ireland, and Italy. Troops in these missions,
the so-called “Blue Helmets,” were allowed to use force only in self-defense. The missions were
given and enjoyed the consent of the parties to the conflict and the support of the Security Council
and the troop-contributing countries.
With the end of the Cold War, the challenges of peacekeeping became more complex. In
order to respond to situations in which internal order had broken down and the civilian population
was suffering, “second-generation” peacekeeping was developed to achieve multiple political and
social objectives. Unlike first-generation peacekeeping, second-generation peacekeeping often
involves civilian experts and relief specialists as well as soldiers. Another difference between
second-generation and first-generation peacekeeping is that soldiers in some second-generation
missions are authorized to employ force for reasons other than self-defense. Because the goals of
second-generation peacekeeping can be variable and difficult to define, however, much controversy
has accompanied the use of troops in such missions.
In the 1990s, second-generation peacekeeping missions were undertaken in Cambodia

(1991–93), the former Yugoslavia (1992–95), Somalia (1992–95), and elsewhere and included
troops from the permanent members of the Security Council as well as from the developed and
developing world (e.g., Australia, Pakistan, Ghana, Nigeria, Fiji, India). In the former Yugoslav
province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Security Council created “safe areas” to protect the
predominantly Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) population from Serbian attacks, and UN troops were
authorized to defend the areas with force. In each of these cases, the UN reacted to threats to
peace and security within states, sometimes taking sides in domestic disputes and thus jeopardizing
its own neutrality. Between 1988 and 2000 more than 30 peacekeeping efforts were authorized,
and at their peak in 1993 more than 80,000 peacekeeping troops representing 77 countries were
deployed on missions throughout the world. In the first years of the 21st century, annual UN
expenditures on peacekeeping operations exceeded $2 billion.
In addition to traditional peacekeeping and preventive diplomacy, in the post-Cold War

era the functions of UN forces were expanded considerably to include peace making and peace
building. Former UN secretary-general Boutros Boutros-Ghali described these additional
functions in his reports An Agenda for Peace [1992] and Supplement to an Agenda for Peace
[1995].
For example, since 1990 UN forces have supervised elections in many parts of the world,
including Nicaragua, Eritrea, and Cambodia; encouraged peace negotiations in El Salvador, Angola,
and Western Sahara; and distributed food in Somalia. The presence of UN troops in Yugoslavia
during the violent and protracted disintegration of that country renewed discussion about the role
of UN troops in refugee resettlement. In 1992 the UN created the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations (DPKO), which provides administrative and technical support for political and
humanitarian missions and coordinates all mine-clearing activities conducted under UN auspices.
The UN’s peacekeeping, peace-making, and peace-building activities have suffered from
serious logistical and financial difficulties. As more missions are undertaken, the costs and
controversies associated with them have multiplied dramatically. Although the UN reimburses
countries for the use of equipment, these payments have been limited because of the failure of
many member states to pay their UN dues.

38
SANCTIONS AND MILITARY ACTION
By subscribing to the Charter, all members undertake to place at the disposal of the
Security Council armed forces and facilities for military sanctions against aggressors or disturbers
of the peace. During the Cold War, however, no agreements to give this measure effect were
concluded. Following the end of the Cold War, the possibility of creating permanent UN forces was
revived.
During the Cold War the provisions of chapter 7 of the UN Charter were invoked only twice
with the support of all five permanent Security Council members—against Southern Rhodesia in
1966 and against South Africa in 1977. After fighting broke out between North and South Korea in
June 1950, the United States obtained a Security Council resolution authorizing the use of force to
support its ally, South Korea, and turn back North Korean forces. Because the Soviet Union was at
the time boycotting the Security Council over its refusal to seat the People’s Republic of China,
there was no veto of the U.S. measure. As a result, a U.S.-led multinational force fought under the
UN banner until a cease-fire was reached on July 27, 1953.
The Security Council again voted to use UN armed forces to repel an aggressor following
the August 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. After condemning the aggression and imposing
economic sanctions on Iraq, the council authorized member states to use “all necessary means” to
restore “peace and security” to Kuwait. The resulting Persian Gulf War lasted six weeks, until Iraq
agreed to comply with UN resolutions and withdraw from Kuwait. The UN continued to monitor
Iraq’s compliance with its resolutions, which included the demand that Iraq eliminate its weapons
of mass destruction. In accordance with this resolution, the Security Council established a UN
Special Mission (UNSCOM) to inspect and verify Iraq’s implementation of the cease-fire terms. The
United States, however, continued to bomb Iraqi weapons installations from time to time, citing
Iraqi violations of “no-fly” zones in the northern and southern regions of the country, the targeting
of U.S. military aircraft by Iraqi radar, and the obstruction of inspection efforts undertaken
by UNSCOM.
The preponderant role of the United States in initiating and commanding UN actions in
Korea in 1950 and the Persian Gulf in 1990–91 prompted debate over whether the requirements
and spirit of collective security could ever be achieved apart from the interests of the most
powerful countries and without U.S. control. The continued U.S. bombing of Iraq subsequent to
the Gulf War created further controversy about whether the raids were justified under previous
UN Security Council resolutions and, more generally, about whether the United States was entitled
to undertake military actions in the name of collective security without the explicit approval and
cooperation of the UN. Meanwhile some military personnel and members of the U.S.
Congress opposed the practice of allowing U.S. troops to serve under UN command, arguing that
it amounted to an infringement of national sovereignty. Still others in the United States
and Western Europe urged a closer integration of United States and allied command structures in
UN military operations.
In order to assess the UN’s expanded role in ensuring international peace and security
through dispute settlement, peacekeeping, peace building, and enforcement action,
a comprehensive review of UN Peace Operations was undertaken. The resulting Brahimi Report
(formally the Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations), issued in 2000, outlined
the need for strengthening the UN’s capacity to undertake a wide variety of missions. Among the
many recommendations of the report was that the UN maintain brigade-size forces of 5,000 troops
that would be ready to deploy in 30 to 90 days and that UN headquarters be staffed with trained
military professionals able to use advanced information technologies and to plan operations with a
UN team including political, development, and human rights experts.
ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT
The UN’s founders hoped that the maintenance of international peace and security would
lead to the control and eventual reduction of weapons. Therefore the Charter empowers the

39
General Assembly to consider principles for arms control and disarmament and to make
recommendations to member states and the Security Council.
The Charter also gives the Security Council the responsibility to formulate plans for arms
control and disarmament. Although the goal of arms control and disarmament has proved elusive,
the UN has facilitated the negotiation of several multilateral arms control treaties.
Because of the enormous destructive power realized with the development and use of
the atomic bomb during World War II, the General Assembly in 1946 created the Atomic Energy
Commission to assist in the urgent consideration of the control of atomic energy and in the
reduction of atomic weapons.
The United States promoted the Baruch Plan, which proposed the elimination of existing
stockpiles of atomic bombs only after a system of international control was established and
prohibited veto power in the Security Council on the commission’s decisions. The Soviet Union,
proposing the Gromyko Plan, wanted to ensure the destruction of stockpiles before agreeing to an
international supervisory scheme and wanted to retain Security Council veto power over the
commission. The conflicting positions of the two superpowers prevented agreement on the
international control of atomic weapons and energy.
In 1947 the Security Council organized the Commission for Conventional Armaments to
deal with armaments other than weapons of mass destruction, but progress on this issue also was
blocked by disagreement between the Soviet Union and the Western powers.
As a result, in 1952 the General Assembly voted to replace both of these commissions with
a new Disarmament Commission. Consisting of the members of the Security Council and Canada,
this commission was directed to prepare proposals that would regulate, limit, and balance reduction
of all armed forces and armaments; eliminate all weapons of mass destruction; and ensure
international control and use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes only. After five years of
vigorous effort and little progress, in 1957 the International Atomic Energy Agency was established
to promote the peaceful uses of atomic energy.
In 1961 the General Assembly adopted a resolution declaring the use of nuclear or
thermonuclear weapons to be contrary to international law, to the UN Charter, and to the laws of
humanity. Two years later, on August 5, 1963, the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty was signed by the
Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The treaty to which more than 150 states
later adhered—prohibited nuclear tests or explosions in the atmosphere, in outer space, and
underwater. In 1966 the General Assembly unanimously approved a treaty prohibiting the
placement of weapons of mass destruction in orbit, on the Moon, or on other celestial bodies and
recognizing the use of outer space exclusively for peaceful purposes.
In June 1968 the Assembly approved the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons, which banned the spread of nuclear weapons from nuclear to nonnuclear powers;
enjoined signatory nonnuclear powers, in exchange for technical assistance in developing nuclear
power for “peaceful purposes,” not to develop or deploy nuclear weapons; and committed the
nuclear powers to engage in measures of disarmament.
The treaty represented a significant commitment on the part of more than 140 (now 185)
signatory powers to control nuclear weapons proliferation; nevertheless, for many years the treaty,
which went into effect in 1970, was not ratified by significant nuclear powers
including China and France and many “near-nuclear” states
(including Argentina, Brazil, Egypt, Israel, Pakistan, and South Africa). Some of these states signed
the treaty in the early 1990s: South Africa signed in 1991, followed by France and China in 1992.
The UN has been active in attempting to eliminate other weapons of mass destruction of
a variety of types and in a variety of contexts. In 1970 the General Assembly approved a treaty
banning the placement of weapons of mass destruction on the seabed.

40
A convention prohibiting the manufacture, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons was
approved by the Assembly in 1971 and took effect in 1975, though many states have never acceded
to it.
In 1991 the UN General Assembly passed a resolution on the registration of conventional
arms that required states to submit information on major international arms transfers. During the
first several years of the registry, fewer than half of the UN’s members submitted the required
information; by 2000 about three-fifths of governments filed annual reports. In 1993 the Chemical
Weapons Convention, which prohibited the development, production, stockpiling, and use
of chemical weapons and called for the destruction of existing stockpiles within 10 years, was
opened for signature.
In 1996 the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, which prohibited the testing of

nuclear weapons, was signed—though it has not yet entered into force and two years later a treaty
banning the production and export of antipersonnel land mines (Convention on the Prohibition of
the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction)
was concluded. Despite international pressure, the United States refused to sign both the test ban
and the land mine agreements.
Many negotiations on disarmament have been held in Geneva. Negotiations have been
conducted by the Ten-Nation Committee on Disarmament (1960); the Eighteen-Nation Committee
on Disarmament (1962–68); the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (1969–78); and
the Disarmament Commission (1979), which now has more than 65 countries as members. Three
special sessions of the General Assembly have been organized on disarmament, and, though the
General Assembly sessions have produced little in the way of substantive agreements, they have
served to focus public attention on the issue.
In other forums, significant progress has been made on limiting specific types of
armaments, such as bacteriologic, chemical, nuclear, and toxic weapons.
ECONOMIC WELFARE AND COOPERATION
The General Assembly, ECOSOC, the Secretariat, and many of the subsidiary organs and
specialized agencies are responsible for promoting economic welfare and cooperation in areas such
as postwar reconstruction, technical assistance, and trade and development.
ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION
The devastation of large areas of the world and the disruption of economic relations
during World War II resulted in the establishment (before the UN was founded) of the United
Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) in 1943. The UNRRA was succeeded by
the International Refugee Organization, which operated from 1947 to 1951.
To assist in dealing with regional problems, in 1947 ECOSOC established the Economic
Commission for Europe and the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East. Similar
commissions were established for Latin America in 1948 and for Africa in 1958.
The major work of economic reconstruction, however, was delegated to the International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), one of the major financial institutions
created in 1944 at the UN Monetary and Financial Conference (commonly known as the Bretton
Woods Conference).
Although the World Bank is formally autonomous from the UN, it reports to ECOSOC as
one of the UN’s specialized agencies. The World Bank works closely with donor countries, UN
programs, and other specialized agencies.
FINANCING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

41
The World Bank is also primarily responsible for financing economic development. In 1956
the International Finance Corporation was created as an arm of the World Bank specifically
to stimulate private investment flows. The corporation has the authority to make direct loans to
private enterprises without government guarantees and is allowed to make loans for other than
fixed returns. In 1960 the International Development Association (IDA) was established to
make loans to less-developed countries on terms that were more flexible than bank loans.
The UN itself has played a more limited role in financing economic development. The
General Assembly provides direction and supervision for economic activities, and ECOSOC
coordinates different agencies and programs. UN development efforts have consisted of two
primary activities. First, several regional commissions (for Europe, Asia and the Pacific, Latin
America, and Africa) promote regional approaches to development and undertake studies and
development initiatives for regional economic projects. Second, UN-sponsored technical assistance
programs, funded from 1965 through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
provide systematic assistance in fields essential to technical, economic, and social development of
less-developed countries. Resident representatives of the UNDP in recipient countries assess local
needs and priorities and administer UN development programs.
TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT
After the massive decolonization of the 1950s and early 1960s, less-developed countries
became much more numerous, organized, and powerful in the General Assembly, and they began
to create organs to address the problems of development and diversification in developing
economies. Because the international trading system and the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade dealt primarily with the promotion of trade between advanced industrialized countries, in
1964 the General Assembly established the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) to address issues of concern to developing countries. Toward that end,
UNCTAD and the Group of 77 less-developed countries that promoted its establishment tried to
codify principles of international trade and arrange agreements to stabilize commodity prices.
UNCTAD discussions resulted in agreements on a Generalized System of Preferences,

providing for lower tariff rates for some exports of poorer countries, and on the creation of a
Common Fund to help finance buffer stocks for commodity agreements. UNCTAD also has
discussed questions related to shipping, insurance, commodities, the transfer of technology, and
the means for assisting the exports of developing countries.
The less-developed countries attempted a more concerted and wide-ranging effort to

redistribute wealth and economic opportunities through demands for a New International Economic
Order, made in 1974 by the Group of 77 (which had become a permanent group representing the
interests of less-developed states in the UN and eventually came to include more than 120 states).
Encouraged by the successful demonstration of economic power by the oil-producing countries
during the embargo of 1973–74, developing states demanded greater opportunities for
development finance, an increase in the percentage of gross national product allocated by the
advanced industrialized states to foreign aid, and greater participation in the specialized agencies
created to deal with monetary and development issues, including the World Bank and the IMF.
These demands resulted in limited modification of aid flows and of the practices of specialized
agencies and produced much greater debate and publicity surrounding development issues.
Following the East Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s, UNCTAD and other UN agencies took
part in discussions aimed at creating a new international financial architecture designed to control
short-term capital flows.
SOCIAL WELFARE AND COOPERATION
The United Nations is concerned with issues of human rights, including the rights of women
and children, refugee resettlement, and narcotics control. Some of its greatest successes have
been in the area of improving the health and welfare of the world’s population. In the 1990s,
despite severe strains on the resources of UN development programs and agencies resulting from
massive refugee movements and humanitarian crises, the UN increased its emphasis on social
development.
42
REFUGEES
After World War II the International Refugee Organization successfully resettled,

repatriated, transported, and maintained more than one million European and Asian refugees. It
was abolished in 1952 and replaced by a new international refugee structure. In
1951 ECOSOC drew up, and the General Assembly approved, a Convention Relating to the Status
of Refugees. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was then appointed
and directed to act under this convention, and ECOSOC appointed an Advisory Commission to assist
the high commissioner.
The work of the UNHCR has become increasingly important since the late 1980s, involving
major relief operations in Africa, Asia (particularly Southeast and Central Asia), Central America,
western and central Europe, and the Balkans. At the end of the 1990s approximately 20 million
people had been forced to migrate or had fled oppression, violence, and starvation. The UNHCR
works in more than 120 countries and cooperates with more than 450 NGOs to provide relief and
to aid in resettlement. For its services on behalf of refugees, the Office of the UNHCR was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1954 and 1981.
A separate organization, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine
Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), administers aid to refugees in the Middle East.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Unlike the League of Nations, the United Nations incorporated the principle of respect for
human rights into its Charter, affirming respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for
all without regard to race, sex, language, or religion.
According to the Charter, the General Assembly is charged with initiating studies and
making recommendations, and ECOSOC is responsible for establishing commissions to fulfill this
purpose. Consequently, the Commission on Human Rights, originally chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt,
was created in 1946 to develop conventions on a wide range of issues, including an international
bill of rights, civil liberties, the status of women (for which there is now a separate
commission), freedom of information, the protection of minorities, the prevention
of discrimination on the grounds of race, sex, language, or religion, and any other human rights
concerns. The commission prepared the nonbinding Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which
was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948.
After the declaration, the commission began drafting two covenants, one on civil and
political rights and another on economic and cultural rights. Differences in economic and social
philosophies hampered efforts to reach agreement, but the General Assembly eventually adopted
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights in 1966.
The covenants, which entered into force in 1976, are known collectively, along with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as the international bill of rights. Although all countries
have stated support for the 1948 declaration, not all observe or have ratified the two covenants.
In general, Western countries have favored civil and political rights (rights to life, liberty, freedom
from slavery and arbitrary arrest, freedom of opinion and peaceful assembly, and the right to vote),
and developing countries have stressed economic and cultural rights such as the rights to
employment, shelter, education, and an adequate standard of living.
The Commission on Human Rights and its sub commission meet annually in Geneva to
consider a wide range of human rights issues. Human rights violations are investigated by a Human
Rights Committee set up according to the provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights.

43
The commission and sub commission also carry out special responsibilities delegated by
the General Assembly or by ECOSOC. The commission and sub commission have strengthened
human rights norms and expanded the range of recognized rights, in part by drafting additional
conventions on matters such as women’s rights, racial discrimination, torture, labour
laws, apartheid, and the rights of indigenous peoples.
In particular, the UN has acted to strengthen recognition of the rights of women and
children. It established a special Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women, which was approved in 1979 and has been ratified by some 170 countries, and
the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, which has been ratified by more than 190 countries.
In 1995 the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, developed a Platform for Action
to recognize women’s rights and improve women’s livelihood worldwide, and follow-up meetings
monitored progress toward meeting these goals. UNIFEM, the United Nations Development Fund
for Women, has worked since 1995 to implement the Beijing Platform for Action.
The UN, through special rapporteurs and working groups, monitors compliance with
human rights standards. In 1993 the General Assembly established the post of United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR), which is the focal point within the UN Secretariat for
human rights activity.
CONTROL OF NARCOTICS
The Commission on Narcotic Drugs was authorized by the General Assembly in 1946 to
assume the functions of the League of Nations Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other
Dangerous Drugs. In addition to reestablishing the pre-World War II system of narcotics control,
which had been disrupted by the war, the United Nations addressed new problems resulting from
the development of synthetic drugs. Efforts were made to simplify the system of control by drafting
one convention incorporating all the agreements in force. The UN established the Office for Drug
Control and Crime Prevention (ODCCP) in 1997 to address problems relating to drugs, crime, and
international terrorism.
HEALTH AND WELFARE ISSUES
The UN, through the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and specialized agencies
such as the World Health Organization (WHO), works toward improving health and welfare
conditions around the world. UNICEF, originally called the UN International Children’s Emergency
Fund, was established by the General Assembly in December 1946 to provide for the needs of
children in areas devastated by World War II.
UNICEF was made a permanent UN organization in 1953. Financed largely by the

contributions of member states, it has helped feed children in more than 100 countries,
provided clothing and other necessities, and sought to eradicate diseases such
as tuberculosis, whooping cough, and diphtheria. UNICEF promotes low-cost preventive health
care measures for children, including the breast-feeding of infants and the use of oral rehydration
therapy to treat diarrhea, the major cause of death in children. UNICEF has key monitoring
responsibilities under the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
WHO is the primary UN agency responsible for health activities. Among its
major initiatives have been immunization campaigns to protect populations in the developing
world, regulation of the pharmaceutical industry to control the quality of drugs and to ensure the
availability of lower-cost generics, and efforts to combat the spread of HIV/AIDS.
The UN has responded to the AIDS epidemic through the establishment of UNAIDS, a
concerted program of cosponsoring agencies, including UNICEF, WHO, UNDP, UNESCO, and
the World Bank. UNAIDS is the leading advocate of global action on AIDS, supporting programs to
prevent transmission of the disease, providing care for those infected, working to reduce the vulnerability
of specific populations, and alleviating the economic and social impact of the disease. In 2001 UNAIDS
coordinated a General Assembly special session on the disease.

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THE ENVIRONMENT
In response to growing worldwide concern with environmental issues, the General

Assembly organized the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, which was held
in Stockholm in 1972 and led to the creation of the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) in the same year. UNEP has attempted to find solutions to various
environmental problems, including pollution in the Mediterranean Sea; the threat to aquatic
resources posed by human economic activity; deforestation, desertification, and drought; the
depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer by human-produced chemicals; and global warming. Much
disagreement has arisen regarding the scientific bases of environmental concerns and the question
of how to combine the goals of environmental protection and development.
Although both developed and developing countries recognize the need to preserve natural
resources, developing countries often charge that the environment has been despoiled primarily
by the advanced industrialized states, whose belated environmental consciousness now hampers
development for other countries. In other instances, developed countries have objected to the
imposition of environmental standards, fearing that such regulations will hamper economic
growth and erode their standard of living.
UNEP succeeded in establishing, through the General Assembly, a World Commission on

Environment and Development and in 1988 outlined an environmental program to set priorities for
the 1990–95 period. International conferences, such as the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (the “Earth Summit”), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, have
continued to focus attention on environmental issues. The Earth Summit, which was far larger than
any previous intergovernmental global conference, incorporated input from numerous NGOs. It
produced a Convention on Biological Diversity; a Framework Convention on Climate Change, or
Global Warming Convention; the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (the Rio
Declaration); a Statement of Principles on Forests; and a plan for the sustainable development of
the Earth’s resources into the 21st century (Agenda 21).
The Global Warming Convention was amended in 1997 by the Kyoto Protocol and in 2015
by the Paris Agreement on climate change, both of which aimed to limit global average
temperature increases through reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.
DEPENDENT AREAS
The United Nations has expressed concern for people living in non-self-governing
territories. Most importantly, the UN has affirmed and facilitated the transition to independence of
former colonies. The anticolonial movement in the UN reached a high point in 1960, when the
General Assembly adopted a resolution sponsored by more than 40 African and Asian states. This
resolution, called the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and
Peoples, condemned “the subjection of peoples to alien subjugation, domination and exploitation”
and declared that “immediate steps shall be taken to transfer all powers” to the peoples in the
colonies “without any conditions or reservations, in accordance with their freely expressed will and
desire in order to enable them to enjoy complete independence and freedom.”
After the decolonization period of the 1950s and ’60s, new states exerted increasing power
and influence, especially in the General Assembly. With the admission of the new states of Africa
and Asia to the United Nations in the 1960s and ’70s and the end of the Cold War in 1991, politics
within the General Assembly and the Security Council changed as countries formed regional voting
blocs to express their preferences and principles.
UN efforts to gain independence for Namibia from South Africa, carried out from the 1940s
to the ’80s, represent perhaps the most enduring and concerted attempt by the organization to
promote freedom for a former colony. In 1966 the General Assembly took action to end the League
of Nations mandate for South West Africa, providing for a United Nations Council for South West
Africa in 1967 to take over administrative responsibilities in the territory and to prepare it for
independence by 1968. South Africa refused to acknowledge the council, and the General
Assembly, secretary-general, and Security Council continued to exert pressure through the 1970s.
45
In 1978 the General Assembly adopted a program of action toward Namibian
independence, and the Security Council developed a plan for free elections. In 1988, with Namibian
independence and the departure of Cuban troops from neighbouring Angola implicitly linked, South
Africa finally agreed to withdraw from Namibia. In the following year a UN force—United Nations
Temporary Auxiliary Group (UNTAG)—supervised elections and assisted in repatriating refugees.
Namibia gained formal independent status in 1990.
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
The United Nations, like the League of Nations, has played a major role in defining,
codifying, and expanding the realm of international law. The International Law Commission,
established by the General Assembly in 1947, is the primary institution responsible for these
activities.
The Legal Committee of the General Assembly receives the commission’s reports and
debates its recommendations; it may then either convene an international conference to draw up
formal conventions based on the draft or merely recommend the draft to states.
The International Court of Justice reinforces legal norms through its judgments. The
commission and the committee have influenced international law in several important domains,
including the laws of war, the law of the sea, human rights, and international terrorism.
The work of the UN on developing and codifying laws of war was built on the previous
accomplishments of the Hague Conventions (1899–1907), the League of Nations, and the Kellog-
Briand Pact (1928). The organization’s first concern after World War II was the punishment of
suspected Nazi war criminals.
The General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to formulate the
principles of international law recognized at the Nürnberg trials, in which German war criminals
were prosecuted, and to prepare a draft code of offenses against the peace and security of
mankind. In 1950 the commission submitted its formulation of the Nürnberg principles, which
covered crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.
In the following year the commission presented to the General Assembly its draft articles,
which enumerated crimes against international law, including any act or threat
of aggression, annexation of territory, and genocide. Although the General Assembly did not adopt
these reports, the commission’s work in formulating the Nürnberg principles influenced the
development of human rights law.
The UN also took up the problem of defining aggression, a task attempted unsuccessfully
by the League of Nations. Both the International Law Commission and the General Assembly
undertook prolonged efforts that eventually resulted in agreement in 1974.
The definition of aggression, which passed without dissent, included launching military
attacks, sending armed mercenaries against another state, and allowing one’s territory to be used
for perpetrating an act of aggression against another state.
In 1987 the General Assembly adopted a series of resolutions to strengthen legal norms in
favour of the peaceful resolution of disputes and against the use of force.
The UN has made considerable progress in developing and codifying the law of the sea as
well. The International Law Commission took up the law of the sea as one of its earliest concerns,
and in 1958 and 1960, respectively, the General Assembly convened the First and the
Second United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
The initial conference approved conventions on the continental shelf, fishing, the high
seas, and territorial waters and contiguous zones, all of which were ratified by the mid-1960s.

46
During the 1970s it came to be accepted that the deep seabed is the “common heritage of mankind”
and should be administered by an international authority.
In 1973 the General Assembly called UNCLOS III to discuss the conflicting positions on this
issue as well as on issues relating to navigation, pollution, and the breadth of territorial waters.
The resulting Law of the Sea Treaty (1982) has been ratified by some 140 countries. The original
treaty was not signed by the United States, which objected to the treaty’s restrictions on seabed
mining. The United States signed a revised treaty after a compromise was reached in 1994, though
the agreement has yet to be ratified by the U.S. Senate.
The UN has worked to advance the law of treaties and the laws regulating relations
between states. In 1989 the General Assembly passed a resolution declaring 1990–99 the UN
Decade of International Law, to be dedicated to promoting acceptance and respect for the
principles and institutions of international law.
In 1992 the General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a
draft statute for an International Criminal Court. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal
Court (ICC) was adopted in July 1998 and later signed by more than 120 countries. The ICC, which
was located at The Hague following ratification of the statute by at least 60 signatory countries,
has jurisdiction over crimes against humanity, crimes of genocide, war crimes, and crimes of
aggression. Under the terms of the convention, no person age 18 years or older is immune from
prosecution, including presidents or heads of state.
Since 1963 the United Nations has been active in developing a legal framework for
combating international terrorism. The General Assembly and specialized agencies such as
the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Atomic Energy
Agency established conventions on issues such as offenses committed on aircraft, acts jeopardizing
the safety of civil aviation, the unlawful taking of hostages, and the theft or illegal transfer of
nuclear weapons technology.
In 2001, in the wake of devastating terrorist attacks that killed thousands in the United
States, the General Assembly’s Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism continued work on
a comprehensive convention for the suppression of terrorism.
ASSESSMENT
The United Nations is the only global international organization that serves multiple
functions in international relations. The UN was designed to ensure international peace and
security, and its founders realized that peace and security could not be achieved without attention
to issues of rights including political, legal, economic, social, environmental, and individual. Yet the
UN has faced difficulties in achieving its goals, because its organizational structure still reflects the
power relationships of the immediate post 1945 world, despite the fact that the world has changed
dramatically particularly with respect to the post-Cold War relationship between the United
States and Russia and the dramatic increase in the number of independent states.
The UN is a reflection of the realities of international politics, and the world’s political and
economic divisions are revealed in the voting arrangements of the Security Council, the blocs and
cleavages of the General Assembly, the different viewpoints within the Secretariat, the divisions
present at global conferences, and the financial and budgetary processes.
Despite its intensively political nature, the UN has transformed itself and some aspects of
international politics. Decolonization was successfully accomplished, and the many newly
independent states joined the international community and have helped to shape a new
international agenda. The UN has utilized Charter provisions to develop innovative methods to
address peace and security issues.
The organization has tried new approaches to economic development, encouraging the
establishment of specialized organizations to meet specific needs. It has organized global

47
conferences on urgent international issues, thereby placing new issues on the international agenda
and allowing greater participation by NGOs and individuals.
Notwithstanding its accomplishments, the United Nations still operates under the basic
provision of respect for national sovereignty and non-interference in the domestic affairs of states.
The norm of national sovereignty, however, runs into persistent conflict with the constant demand
by many in the international community that the UN take a more active role in combating
aggression and alleviating international problems.
For example, the United States appealed to the issue of national sovereignty to justify its
opposition to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Criminal Court. Thus
it is likely that the UN will continue to be seen by its critics as either too timid or too omnipotent
as it is asked to resolve the most pressing problems faced by the world’s most vulnerable citizens.
CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY
On 13 June, The Hague Institute welcomed Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO,

and candidate for the Secretary-Generalship of the United Nations, to speak on “Challenges of Global
Governance in the 21st Century” as part of the ongoing Distinguished Speaker Series at the
Institute.
Dr. Abi Williams, President of The Hague Institute, provided welcoming remarks,
highlighting the primordial role of UNESCO as a defender of peace. Through its central role in global
cooperation in education, culture and science, UNESCO contributes to the prevention of conflicts
and the development of robust and agile responses to contemporary global challenges. Advances
in science, technology and connectivity offer new opportunities to address these challenges, which
are beyond the control of any single state.
Opening with a congratulatory message to The Hague Institute on its 5th anniversary,
Bokova reiterated the special role that The Hague, as the international city of peace and justice,
plays in confronting global challenges. This role, now amplified by the Netherlands’ Presidency of
the EU, stretches from the days of Hugo Grotius to the present.
In her remarks, Bokova noted that while new technologies have created new pathways to
prosperity, trade and inter-cultural dialogue, the increasing fragmentation of the international
community is a cause for concern. Climate change, poverty, violent conflict, intolerance and
extremism present direct threats to the unity and well-being of the international community.
Bokova emphasized that we must learn, at the heart of our cities and communities, to live together.
She mentioned The Hague Institute’s recent report on the role of cities in conflict prevention as a
good example of how to develop innovative and sustainable practices to foster communal harmony.
Bokova also observed that the alarming number of individuals displaced by conflict, which
reached a record high in 2015, continues to put pressure on countries across the globe. Migration
to Europe has put core values to the test, while the capacities of receiving states in the Middle
East, like Lebanon and Jordan, are being pushed to the limit. Attacks on cultural rights and cultural
heritage, particularly in Syria, Iraq and Mali, threaten inter-cultural tolerance.
Bokova suggested three points of focus for efforts to address these challenges. First,
openness of mind and out-of-the-box thinking is crucial. New ideas must be transformed into
norms. Bokova highlighted the historic changes brought about by the idea of human rights and
human dignity. In this, the United Nations must take a leading role.
UNESCO, as a facilitator of inter-cultural dialogue and proponent of education, can also

effect change. Its efforts to teach people about the history of the Holocaust, as well as programs
promoting internet literacy, help to instill common values in youth and create environments that
are conducive to respectful dialogue.
Secondly, the international community must focus on building resilient societies. By fighting
exclusion and fostering inclusion, societies become stronger. Key to this resilience is the role of
48
women. Currently, Bokova argues, this is the weakest aspect of the international community’s
work. To facilitate meaningful change, the international community must improve the standing and
participation of women in all sectors.
Presently, only 60% of countries have achieved gender parity in primary education, and
only 38% in secondary education. Education must also be a priority where refugees are concerned,
in order to avoid a “lost generation” of youth.
Third, Bokova urged new thinking about peacebuilding. The world urgently needs
legitimate and effective peace efforts, before, during and after conflicts. Preventive measures are
key, and must involve the soft power embodied by UNESCO’s educational and inter-cultural
programs.
In response to questions posed during the Q&A session, Bokova also discussed how the
United Nations and UNESCO could address conflicts related to water and enforce the protection of
world heritage.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE NATION-STATE IN GLOBALIZATION?
The role of the nation-state in globalization is a complex one in part due to the varying
definitions and shifting concepts of globalization. While it has been defined in many ways,
globalization is generally recognized as the fading or complete disappearance of economic, social,
and cultural borders between nation-states. Some scholars have theorized that nation-states, which
are inherently divided by physical and economic boundaries, will be less relevant in a globalized
world.
While increasingly reduced barriers regarding international commerce and communication

are sometimes seen as a potential threat to nation-states, these trends have existed throughout
history. Air and sea transportation that made same-day travel to other continents possible and
greatly expanded trade among countries did not abolish the sovereignty of individual nations.
Instead, globalization is a force that changed the way nation-states deal with one another,
particularly in the area of international commerce.
GLOBALIZATION FAVORS WESTERNIZATION
One commonly recognized effect of globalization is that it favors Westernization, meaning

that other nation-states are at a disadvantage when dealing with the Americas and Europe. This is
particularly true in the agricultural industry, in which second- and third-world nations face
competition from Western companies. Another potential effect is that nation-states are forced to
examine their economic policies in light of the many challenges and opportunities that multinational
corporations and other entities of international commerce present.
Multinational corporations, in particular, challenge nation-states to confront the unique

issue of foreign direct investments, forcing nation-states to determine how much international
influence they allow in their economies. Globalization also creates a sense of interdependence
among nations, which could create an imbalance of power among nations of different economic
strengths.
The role of the nation-state in a global world is largely a regulatory one as the chief factor
in global interdependence. While the domestic role of the nation-state remains largely unchanged,
states that were previously isolated are now forced to engage with one another to set international
commerce policies. Through various economic imbalances, these interactions may lead to
diminished roles for some states and exalted roles for others.
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY

49
The goal of collective security, whereby aggression against one member is met with
resistance by all, underlies chapter 7 of the Charter, which grants the Security Council the power
to order coercive measuresranging from diplomatic, economic, and military sanctions to the use of
armed force in cases where attempts at a peaceful settlement have failed. Such measures were
seldom applied during the Cold War, however, because tensions between the United States and
the Soviet Union prevented the Security Council from agreeing on the instigators of aggression.
Instead, actions to maintain peace and security often took the form of preventive diplomacy and
peacekeeping. In the post-Cold War period, appeals to the UN for peacekeeping and related
activities increased dramatically, and new threats to international peace and security were
confronted, including AIDS and international terrorism.
International armed forces were first used in 1948 to observe cease-fires in Kashmir and
Palestine. Although not specifically mentioned in the UN Charter, the use of such forces as a buffer
between warring parties pending troop withdrawals and negotiations a practice known as
peacekeeping—was formalized in 1956 during the Suez Crisis between Egypt, Israel, France, and
the United Kingdom. Peacekeeping missions have taken many forms, though they have in common
the fact that they are designed to be peaceful, that they involve military troops from several
countries, and that the troops serve under the authority of the UN Security Council. In 1988 the
UN Peacekeeping Forces were awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace.
In addition to traditional peacekeeping and preventive diplomacy, in the post-Cold War era
the functions of UN forces were expanded considerably to include peace making and peace
building. The United Nations is the only global international organization that serves multiple
functions in international relations. The UN was designed to ensure international peace and
security, and its founders realized that peace and security could not be achieved without attention
to issues of rights including political, legal, economic, social, environmental, and individual. The UN
is a reflection of the realities of international politics, and the world’s political and economic divisions
are revealed in the voting arrangements of the Security Council, the blocs and cleavages of the
General Assembly, the different viewpoints within the Secretariat, the divisions present at global
conferences, and the financial and budgetary processes.
UNESCO, as a facilitator of inter-cultural dialogue and proponent of education, can also

effect change. Its efforts to teach people about the history of the Holocaust, as well as programs
promoting internet literacy, help to instill common values in youth and create environments that
are conducive to respectful dialogue. The role of the nation-state in globalization is a complex one
in part due to the varying definitions and shifting concepts of globalization. While it has been
defined in many ways, globalization is generally recognized as the fading or complete
disappearance of economic, social, and cultural borders between nation-states. Some scholars have
theorized that nation-states, which are inherently divided by physical and economic boundaries,
will be less relevant in a globalized world.
SELF CHECK A. 5
CHAPTER 5

50
1. The main function of the United Nations is
a. to preserve international peace and security
b. to provide for the pacific settlement of disputes, through the intervention of the Security
Council, by means such as negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and judicial decisions
c. to investigate any dispute or situation to determine whether it is likely to endanger international
peace and security
d. to recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment, and, if the parties fail to
settle the dispute by peaceful means, the council may recommend terms of settlement
2. It is used in conflicts in the Middle East and Africa and in conflicts stemming from decolonization
in Asia.
a. peace-making
b. peacekeeping
c. world peace
d. all of the above
3. It has been active in attempting to eliminate other weapons of mass destruction of a variety of
types and in a variety of contexts.
a. UN
b. USA
c. ASEAN
d. Philippines
4. In what year that the UN General Assembly passed a resolution on the registration of conventional
arms that required states to submit information on major international arms transfers.
a. 1991
b. 1992
c. 1993
d. 1994
5. It is primarily responsible for financing economic development.
a. WTO
b. World Bank
c. IFIs
d. BPO
6. The UNDP means
a. United Nations Development Protocol
b. United Nations Developing Programme
c. United Nations Development Programme
d. All of the above
7. It provides systematic assistance in fields essential to technical, economic, and social development
of less-developed countries.
a. NATO
b. WTO
c. UNDP
d. GATT
8. It is concerned with issues of human rights, including the rights of women and
children, refugee resettlement, and narcotics control.
a. The United Nations
b. The Human Rights
c. Department of Justice
d. All of the above
9. It is authorized by the General Assembly in 1946 to assume the functions of the League of Nations
Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs.
a. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs
b. The Commission on Higher Education
c. The World Trade Organization
d. All of the above
10. It is the primary UN agency responsible for health activities.
a. WTO
51
b. DOH
c. UNICEF
d. WHO

should be able to Chapter 6 explains the term “Global South” from
the Third World, and how a new conception of
1. Define the term “Global
South” global relations emerged from the experiences of
2. Differentiate the Global Latin American countries.
South from the Third
World
3. Analyze how a new
conception of global
relations emerged from
the experiences of Latin
American countries

52
CHAPTER 6 - A World of Regions: Global Divides:
The North and the South (focus on Latin America)
THE GLOBAL SOUTH
The Global South is an emerging term, used by the World Bank and other organizations,
identifying countries with one side of the underlying global North–South divide, the other side being
the countries of the Global North.
As such the term does not inherently refer to a geographical south, for example most of
the Global South is within the Northern Hemisphere.
The term was first introduced as a more open and value free alternative to "third world"
and similar valuing terms.
Countries of the Global South have been described as newly industrialized or in the process
of industrializing, are largely considered by freedom indices to have lower-quality democracies, and
frequently have a history of colonialism by Northern, often European states.
The countries Brazil, India, China, and Indonesia have the largest population’s economies
among Southern states. The overwhelming majority of these countries is located in, or near
the tropics and have at least one neglected tropical disease.
The first use of this Global South in a contemporary political sense was in 1969 by Carl
Oglesby, writing in Catholic journal Commonweal in a special issue on the Vietnam War. Oglesby
argued that centuries of northern "dominance over the global south has converged to produce an
intolerable social order."
The term gained appeal throughout the second half of the 20th century, which rapidly
accelerated in the early 21st century. It appeared in fewer than two dozen publications in 2004,
but in hundreds of publications by 2013. The emergence of the new term meant looking at the
troubled realities of its predecessors, i.e. Third World or Developing World. The term is less
hierarchical.
In a scholarly overview of the concept of the Global South, social psychiatrist Vincenzo Di
Nicola offers a broader view of the historical associations and meanings of this term across a wide
variety of domains of theory and practice, including culture (e.g., the négritude movement), history
and politics (e.g., the Third World, the non-aligned movement), education (e.g., Paolo
Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed), theology (e.g., Liberation theology, and mental health and
psychiatry (e.g., Frantz Fanon).
Global South "emerged in part to aid countries in the southern hemisphere to work in
collaboration on political, economic, social, environmental, cultural, and technical issues." This is
called South–South cooperation (SSC), a "political and economical term that refers to the long-
term goal of pursuing world economic changes that mutually benefit countries in the Global South
and lead to greater solidarity among the disadvantaged in the world system."
The hope is that countries within the Global South will "assist each other in social, political,
and economic development, radically altering the world system to reflect their interests and not
just the interests of the Global North in the process." It is guided by the principles of "respect
for national sovereignty, national ownership, independence, equality, non-conditionality, non-
interference in domestic affairs, and mutual benefit."

53
Countries using this model of South–South cooperation see it as a "mutually beneficial
relationship that spreads knowledge, skills, expertise and resources to address their development
challenges such as high population pressure, poverty, hunger, disease, environmental
deterioration, conflict and natural disasters." These countries also work together to deal with "cross
border issues such as environmental protection, HIV/AIDS," and the movement of capital and
labor.
As Global South leaders became more assertive in world politics in the 1990s and 2000s,
South-South cooperation has increased to "challenge the political and economic dominance of the
North."
This cooperation has become a popular political and economic concept following
geographical migrations of manufacturing and production activity from the North to the Global
South and the diplomatic action of several states, like China.
These contemporary economic trends have "enhanced the historical potential of economic
growth and industrialization in the Global South," which has renewed targeted SSC efforts that
"loosen the strictures imposed during the colonial era and transcend the boundaries of postwar
political and economic geography." Used in several books and American Literature special issue,
the term Global South, recently became prominent for U.S. literature.
Social psychiatrist Vincenzo Di Nicola has applied the Global South as a bridge between
the critiques globalization and the gaps and limitations of the Global Mental Health Movement
invoking Boaventura de Sousa Santos' notion of "epistemologies of the South" to create a new
epistemology for social psychiatry.
GOVERNMENT, POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION
Generally, states in the Global South have only attained full self-
determination and democracy after the second half of the 20th century. Many were governed by
an imperial European power until decolonization.
Political systems in the Global South are diverse, but most states had established some
form of democratic governments by the early 21st century, with varying degrees of success
and political liberty.
Many are considered un-free or flawed democracies by freedom indices such as

the Democracy Index, Freedom in the World and Index of Freedom in the World and Following
decolonization and independence, elites have often had oligarchic control of the government.
The establishment of a healthy democratic state has often been challenged by

widespread corruption and nepotism and a low confidence and participation in democratic process.
The inhabitants of the Global South were introduced to democratic systems later and more abruptly
than their Northern counterparts and were sometimes targeted by governmental and non-
governmental efforts to encourage participation.
Effective citizenship is defined by sociologist Patrick Heller as: "closing the gap between
formal legal rights in the civil and political arena, and the actual capability to meaningfully practice
those rights". Beyond citizenship, the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in the Global
South has also shed valuable light in migration debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus
on the Global North.
Political scientists Fiona B. Adamson and Gerasimos Tsourapas identify a 'typology

of nationalizing, developmental, and neoliberal migration management regimes' across the Global
South.
ECONOMY - WORLDS REGIONS BY TOTAL WEALTH (IN TRILLIONS USD), 2018

54
Developing countries loosely refers to the Global South.
Following independence and decolonization in the 20th century, these states had dire need of
new infrastructure, industry and economic stimulation.
Many relied on foreign investment. This funding focused on improving infrastructure and
industry, but led to a system of systemic exploitation. They exported raw materials, such as rubber,
for a bargain. Companies based in the Western world have often used the cheaper labor in the
Global South for production. The West benefited significantly from this system, but left the Global
South undeveloped.
This arrangement is sometimes called neocolonialism, meaning a system in which less-

developed countries are taken advantage of by developed countries. It does not necessarily mean
that former colonies are still controlled by their former colonizer; it refers to colonial-like
exploitation.
Third world countries are often helping further develop rich countries, rather than being
developed them. Several institutions have been established with the goal of putting an end to this
system. One of these institutions is the New International Economic Order. They have a 'no-strings-
attached' policy that promotes developing countries remaining or becoming self-sufficient. More
specifically, they advocate sovereignty over natural resources and industrialization.
The global issues most often discussed by nations from the Global
South include globalization, global health governance, health, and prevention needs. This is
contrasted by issues Western nations tend to address, such as innovations in science and
technology.
The comparison in healthcare between the Global North and Global south is substantially
different. Coalitions of developing nations, like the NIEO, frequently lobby for parity in the world
stage. The rise of China might imply the rise of the BRIC countries.
ASSOCIATED THEORIES
The term of the Global South has many researched theories associated with it. Since many
of the countries that are considered to be a part of the Global South were first colonized by Global
North countries, they are at a disadvantage to become as quickly developed. Dependency
theorists suggest that information has a top-down approach and first goes to the Global North
before countries in the Global South receive it.
Although many of these countries rely on political or economic help, this also opens up
opportunity for information to develop Western bias and create an academic dependency. Meneleo
Litonjua describes the reasoning behind distinctive problems of dependency theory as "the basic
context of poverty and underdevelopment of Third World/Global South countries was not their
traditionalism, but the dominance-dependence relationship between rich and poor, powerful and
weak counties."
What brought about much of the dependency was the push to become modernized. After
World War II, the U.S. made effort to assist developing countries financially in attempt to pull them
out of poverty. Modernization theory "sought to remake the Global South in the image and
likeliness of the First World/Global North." In other terms, "societies can be fast-tracked to
modernization by 'importing' Western technical capital, forms of organization, and science and
technology to developing countries."
With this ideology, as long as countries follow in Western ways, they can develop quicker.
After modernization attempts took place, theorists started to question the effects through post-
development perspectives.
Post-Development theorists try to explain that not all developing countries need to follow
Western ways but instead should create their own development plans. Felix Olatunji and Anthony
Bature explain, “societies at the local level should be allowed to pursue their own development
55
path as they perceive it without the influences of global capital and other modern choices, and thus
a rejection of the entire paradigm from Eurocentric model and the advocation of new ways of
thinking about the non-Western societies."
The goals of post-development were to reject development rather than reform by choosing
to embrace non-Western ways.
MEDIA AND THE GLOBAL SOUTH
The Global South's often discussed struggle is to be equally represented in

the media compared to the North. When looking at media coverage of developing countries, a
generalized view has developed through Western media. Negative images and coverage of
the poverty are frequent in the mass media when talking about third world countries.
This common coverage has created a dominant stereotype of the Global South. Elisabeth
Farny describes this as, "the 'South' is characterized by socioeconomic and political backwardness,
measured against Western values and standards."
Mass media's role often compares the Global South to the North and is thought to be an
aid in the divide. They have played a role in what information the Global South receives. The news
often covers developed countries and creates an imbalance of information flow. The Global South
does not often receive coverage of the other parts of the South but instead gets generous amounts
of coverage on the North.
THIRD WORLD
The term "Third World" arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-
aligned with either NATO or the Warsaw Pact. The United States, Canada, Japan, South
Korea, Western European nations and their allies represented the First World, while the post-Soviet
Union countries, China, Cuba, and their allies represented the Second World.
This terminology provided a way of broadly categorizing the nations of the Earth into three
groups based on political and economic divisions. Since the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of
the Cold War, the term Third World has decreased in use. It is being replaced with terms such
as developing countries, least developed countries or the Global South. The concept itself has
become outdated as it no longer represents the current political or economic state of the world.
The Third World was normally seen to include many countries with colonial pasts
in Africa, Latin America, Oceania and Asia. It was also sometimes taken as synonymous with
countries in the Non-Aligned Movement. In the dependency theory of thinkers like Raúl
Prebisch, Walter Rodney, Theotonio dos Santos, and Andre Gunder Frank, the Third World has also
been connected to the world-systemic economic division as "periphery" countries dominated by
the countries comprising the economic "core".
Due to the complex history of evolving meanings and contexts, there is no clear or agreed-
upon definition of the Third World. Some countries in the Communist Bloc, such as Cuba, were
often regarded as "Third World". Because many Third World countries were economically poor,
and non-industrialized, it became a stereotype to refer to poor countries as "third world countries",
yet the "Third World" term is also often taken to include newly industrialized countries like Brazil,
India and China now more commonly referred to as part of BRIC.
Historically, some European countries were non-aligned and a few of these were and are
very prosperous, including Ireland, Austria, Sweden, Finland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia.

56
ETYMOLOGY
French demographer, anthropologist and historian Alfred Sauvy, in an article published in

the French magazine L'Observateur, August 14, 1952, coined the term Third World (French: Tiers
Monde), referring to countries that were unaligned with either the Communist Soviet bloc or the
Capitalist NATO bloc during the Cold War. His usage was a reference to the Third Estate, the
commoners of France who, before and during the French Revolution, opposed the clergy and
nobles, who composed the First Estate and Second Estate, respectively. Sauvy wrote, "This third
world ignored, exploited, despised like the third estate also wants to be something." He conveyed
the concept of political non-alignment with either the capitalist or communist bloc.
THIRD WORLD VS. THREE WORLDS
The "Three Worlds Theory" developed by Mao Zedong is different from the Western theory
of the Three Worlds or Third World.
For example, in the Western theory, China and India belong respectively to the second
and third worlds, but in Mao's theory both China and India are parts of the Third World which he
defined as consisting of exploited nations.
THIRD WORLDISM
Third Worldism is a political movement that argues for the unity of third-world nations
against first-world influence and the principle of non-interference in other countries' domestic
affairs. Groups most notable for expressing and exercising this idea are the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) and the Group of 77 which provide a base for relations and diplomacy between
not just the third-world countries, but between the third-world and the first and second worlds.
The notion has been criticized as providing a fig leaf for human-rights violations and political
repression by dictatorships.
Since 1990, this term has been redefined to make it more correct politically. Initially, the
term “third world” meant that a nation is “under-developed”. However, today it is replaced by the
term “developing.” The world today is more plural than what it needs to be, and so the third world
is not just an economic state. These nations have overcome many setbacks and are now developing
rapidly. Thus, this categorization becomes anachronistic in a diverse society.
HISTORY
Most Third World countries are former colonies. Having gained independence, many of
these countries, especially smaller ones, were faced with the challenges of nation- and
institution-building on their own for the first time. Due to this common background, many of
these nations were "developing" in economic terms for most of the 20th century, and many still
are.
This term, used today, generally denotes countries that have not developed to the same
levels as OECD countries, and are thus in the process of developing.
In the 1980s, economist Peter Bauer offered a competing definition for the term "Third
World". He claimed that the attachment of Third World status to a particular country was not
based on any stable economic or political criteria, and was a mostly arbitrary process.
The large diversity of countries considered part of the Third World — from Indonesia to
Afghanistan — ranged widely from economically primitive to economically advanced and from
politically non-aligned to Soviet- or Western-leaning. An argument could also be made for how
parts of the U.S. are more like the Third World.
The only characteristic that Bauer found common in all Third World countries was that
their governments "demand and receive Western aid," the giving of which he strongly opposed.
Thus, the aggregate term "Third World" was challenged as misleading even during the Cold War

57
period, because it had no consistent or collective identity among the countries it supposedly
encompassed.
DEVELOPMENT AID
During the Cold War, unaligned countries of the Third World were seen as potential allies
by both the First and Second World. Therefore, the United States and the Soviet Union went to
great lengths to establish connections in these countries by offering economic and military support
to gain strategically located alliances (e.g., United States in Vietnam or Soviet Union in Cuba).
By the end of the Cold War, many Third World countries had adopted capitalist or
communist economic models and continued to receive support from the side they had chosen.
Throughout the Cold War and beyond, the countries of the Third World have been the priority
recipients of Western foreign aid and the focus of economic development through mainstream
theories such as modernization theory and dependency theory.
By the end of the 1960s, the idea of the Third World came to represent countries in Africa,
Asia and Latin America that were considered underdeveloped by the West based on a variety of
characteristics (low economic development, low life expectancy, high rates of poverty and disease,
etc.).
These countries became the targets for aid and support from governments, NGOs and
individuals from wealthier nations. One popular model, known as Rostow's stages of growth,
argued that development took place in 5 stages (Traditional Society; Pre-conditions for Take-off;
Take-off; Drive to Maturity; Age of High Mass Consumption). W. W. Rostow argued that Take-
off was the critical stage that the Third World was missing or struggling with. Thus, foreign aid was
needed to help kick-start industrialization and economic growth in these countries.
Great Divergence and Great Convergence
Density function of the world's income distribution in 1970 by continent, logarithmic scale:
The division of the world into "rich" and "poor" is striking, and the world's poverty is concentrated
in Asia. Density function of the world's income distribution in 2015 by continent, logarithmic scale:
The division of the world into "rich" and "poor" was vanished, and the world's poverty can be found
mainly in Africa.
Many times there is a clear distinction between First and Third Worlds. When talking about
the Global North and the Global South, the majority of the time the two goes hand in hand. People
refer to the two as "Third World/South" and "First World/North" because the Global North is more
affluent and developed, whereas the Global South is less developed and often poorer.
To counter this mode of thought, some scholars began proposing the idea of a change in
world dynamics that began in the late 1980s, and termed it the Great Convergence. As Jack A.
Goldstone and his colleagues put it, "in the twentieth century, the Great Divergence peaked before
the First World War and continued until the early 1970s, then, after two decades of indeterminate
fluctuations, in the late 1980s it was replaced by the Great Convergence as the majority of Third
World countries reached economic growth rates significantly higher than those in most First World
countries".
A Perceived "End of the Third World"
Since 1990 the term "Third World" has been redefined in many evolving dictionaries in
several languages to refer to countries considered to be underdeveloped economically and/or
socially. From a "political correctness" standpoint the term "Third World" may be considered
outdated, which its concept is mostly a historical term and cannot fully address what means
by developing and less-developed countries today.
Around the early 1960s, the term "underdeveloped countries" occurred and the Third World
serves to be its synonym, but after it has been officially used by politicians, 'underdeveloped

58
countries' is soon been replaced by 'developing' and 'less-developed countries,' because the prior
one shows hostility and disrespect, in which the Third World is often characterized with stereotypes.
The whole 'Four Worlds' system of classification has also been described as derogatory
because the standard mainly focused on each nation’s Gross National Product. While the Cold War
Period ends and many sovereign states start to form, the term Third World becomes less usable.
Nevertheless, it remains in popular use around the world, including the Latin American Spanish-
language media, where "tercermundista" (an adjective) can refer to not just lower levels of
development but also something of low quality or in other ways deficient.
The planet is far more plural than what it is used to be and the Third World can no longer
be used to symbolize current political or economic state. The general definition of the Third World
can be traced back to the history that nations positioned as neutral and independent during the
Cold War were considered as Third World Countries, and normally these countries are defined by
high poverty rates, lack of resources, and unstable financial standing.
However, based on the rapid development of modernization and globalization, countries

that were used to be considered as Third World countries achieve big economic growth, such as
Brazil, India, and Indonesia, which can no longer be defined by poor economic status or low GNP
today. The differences among nations of the Third World are continually growing throughout time,
and it will be hard to use the Third World to define and organize groups of nations based on their
common political arrangements since most countries live under diverse creeds in this era, such as
Mexico, El Salvador, and Singapore, which they all have their own political system.
The Third World categorization becomes anachronistic since its political classification and
economic system are distinct to be applied in today's society. Based on the Third World standards,
any region of the world can be categorized into any of the four types of relationships among state
and society, and will eventually end in four outcomes: praetorianism, multi-authority, quasi-
democratic and viable democracy. However, political culture is never going to be limited by the
rule and the concept of the Third World can be circumscribed.
The Third World is often broadly connected to colonialism and poverty, but through
decolonization and evolution in transport and communications, the World is shrinking and each
nation forms a strong interlinkage with each other so that the 'Four Worlds' system is left behind
and the world is more likely to be considered as a united one.
Moreover, the Four Worlds' categorization also reinforces competition and superiority
among nations. The Third World is a controversial topic, and "political correctness" in some media
and academic settings insist that it is no longer used very often although there are still many
countries that share similar developmental experiences.
It has been partially replaced by developing countries and less-developed countries, which
they do not have obvious negative implications as the Third World. However, the Latin American
media continue to frequently employ the equivalent Spanish language expression, "Tercer Mundo.
"
COMPETING IN EMERGING COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF LATIN AMERICA
For the past decade, decision-makers in major banks and multinational companies have
been focusing their attention on one of the hottest "growth frontiers": emerging markets,
specifically Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent and Latin America.
During much of the 1980's, the prospects in most emerging countries were quite bleak:
the debt crisis, inflation and domestic political turbulence turned these regions into a planner's
nightmare. Then a number of "economic miracles" began to pop up, drawing attention to Asia,
Eastern Europe, China, India and, toward the end of the 80's, Latin America.
Why are "emerging countries" now at the top of the decision-makers' agenda? The obvious
first answer is sheer mathematics. As Willie Sutton used to say, in explaining his interest in banks,
59
"That's where the money is." Well, when it comes to the world economy, that's where the growth
is:
• Emerging countries now represent the clear majority of the world's population.
• Their growth prospects range from 4 to 5 percent per year in Latin America to 6
to 7 percent in East Asia to 10 percent in China. These are typically two to three times the expected
growth rates of developed countries.
• In all of these countries, growth will invariably entail the expansion of new middle
classes, with outsized needs for consumer durables, housing and mobility. For example, in most of
the market-planning exercises in which Booz-Allen & Hamilton is involved, emerging countries
represent anywhere from 50 to 80 percent of the growth in consumer durables over the next 10
years.
• This growth will call for unprecedented investments in infrastructure. For the
world's leading engineering and construction companies and the major builders of capital goods,
long-term survival hinges on the effectiveness with which they capitalize on the growth
opportunities offered by emerging countries.
This massive shift in the world's "center of gravity of opportunity" is reflected in the way
in which leading political analysts are arguing about the foreign policy priorities for the United
States and other developed countries. Two examples illustrate the point:
• A Foreign Affairs article, written by a team led by Paul Kennedy, argues that
American foreign policy should focus on "a small number of countries whose fate is uncertain and
whose future will profoundly affect their surrounding regions."(1) These "pivotal states" are
identified as Algeria, Brazil, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Pakistan, South Africa and Turkey.
• In an article published in Foreign Policy, international analyst John Stremlou

contends that the priorities of American foreign policy should be the "10 big emerging countries,"
namely Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Poland, South Africa, South Korea and
Turkey.(2) In the article, Mr. Stremlou estimates that these 10 countries will account for 44 percent
of the non-American growth in world imports, and that by 2010, they could be responsible for more
trade with the United States than Europe and Japan combined.
This shift in strategic focus has translated into major growth in foreign direct investment
and portfolio flows to emerging countries. (F.D.I. represents investments in plants and equipment
while portfolio flows are directed at debt and equity positions.) The stock of F.D.I. in emerging
countries has soared from about $100 billion in 1980 to more than $700 billion in 1995, and it is
not surprising to find the same familiar names among the host nations. By decreasing size of F.D.I.
stock, they are China, Mexico, Singapore, Indonesia, Brazil, Malay-sia, Argentina and Hong
Kong.(3)
Given this extremely attractive outlook for growth, it is not surprising that Booz-Allen has
witnessed the following evolution in the behavior of leading multinationals, local enterprises and
local governments with which the firm works in designing and implementing strategic agenda:
• Multinationals are busy concentrating their investment efforts in emerging

countries. This requires either entry strategies into new, unfamiliar countries or growth strategies
in countries that are opening up or deregulating their markets.
• Local enterprises that are typically dominant in their home countries find
themselves facing serious challenges when their governments start dismantling the import-
substitution policies that had protected them for so long. Those companies need to decide whether
they can adapt to their new environment (by trying to grow internationally or developing alliances
with world-class players) or simply exit the business by selling out to a multinational.
• National governments are involved in a broad range of efforts to persuade

multinationals to bring plants and skilled personnel to their countries. These efforts range from the
urge to obtain a favorable rating in the various "competitiveness" or "economic freedom" rankings
(4) to very focused campaigns intended to attract major production facilities of automotive,
electronics and durable-goods manufacturers.
60
TRANSFORMATION IN LATIN AMERICA
During most of the 1980's, Latin America struggled with the heavy burdens of the debt
crisis, hyperinflation, recession and the transition from authoritarian to democratic governments.
In fact, most analysts call the 80's Latin America's "Lost Decade."
It is striking how a few numbers can capture the extent of the decay suffered by the
region: While the gross domestic product of Asian countries grew by almost 7 percent a year (6
percent a year in per-capita terms) from 1986 to 1995, Latin America's G.D.P. advanced at a rate
of little more than 2 percent, translating into virtually zero growth in per-capita terms. In similar
fashion, Argentina's per-capita G.D.P. dropped to just 29 percent of the per-capita average in
O.E.C.D. countries, from 44 percent, between 1970 and 1995.
The only Latin American country that systematically improved its competitive positioning
during the Lost Decade was Chile. Chile is the country in the region that can be compared to an
"Asian Tiger" in terms of its economic performance, and its institutional transformation during the
80's led the way for the reform processes of the region.
Toward the end of the 80's, most governments in the area came to the realization that
they were gradually becoming "irrelevant" to the investment decisions of major international
players and that they would slowly but surely lose ground to Asia and Eastern Europe in the
competition for capital and employment opportunities. As a result, most of the countries started
adopting what some analysts call "democratically led transformation programs," efforts that are
widely known as variants of the "Washington consensus."
In our view, the different policy initiatives were all aimed at sharply increasing the
attractiveness of the countries to international investors. Mexico in the late 80's, Argentina starting
in 1987-89 and Brazil in 1990 all designed transformation policies that targeted the following
objectives:
• Attaining economic stabilization and a functioning price mechanism as the fundamental building
block of a capitalist economy. The Salinas, Cavallo and Real plans are all variations of the same
programs, which are designed to build the basis for rational economic decision-making.
• Creating the conditions for a massive recovery in domestic demand. The stabilization efforts,
combined with a steady exchange rate, translated quickly into sharp recoveries in real wages, with
a resulting surge in demand for packaged goods and consumer durables.
• Launching large-scale privatization programs. By shifting the ownership of most state-owned

utilities, governments were trying to reduce their financing needs. But they were also trying to
offer businesses with huge untapped potentials to foreign companies. By doing so, billions of dollars
of investments have poured into the region, from such leading players as STET, Telefónica de
España, France Telecom, GTE, Lyonnaise des Eaux, EDF, British Gas and several Chilean
companies.
• Launching regional integration initiatives. Most of the countries in the region realized that they
would have to join forces to become more interesting to multinationals. At the same time, they
saw the need to offer their own domestic corporations a more "tolerant" environment to reorganize
and grow. The two major initiatives in this respect are Mercosur and the Andean Pact.
These efforts are slowly combining to form an image of Latin American transformation
among decision-makers that is translating into sharply enhanced investment flows into the
region. That perception is based on the following favorable determinants:
• Countries in Latin America are now democratically led, capitalist societies in which the process of
transformation is quite advanced and large-scale violence and upheaval are seen as highly
improbable.

61
• Clusters of urban areas in both the "Caracas-Bogotá-Quito corridor" and the "Santiago de Chile-
Belo Horizonte corridor" are now significant centers of demand.
Inter-American Development Bank, cited in Business Latin America, April 1996, and
International Monetary Fund statistics.
The exciting part of the story is that the region shows a remarkable potential for growth
in consumer durables. The level of ownership of cars, computers and other products is so low,
relative to European standards, that the untapped market is simply enormous.
For example, to reach the level of car ownership in Greece would mean more than doubling
the present stock of cars in this region; to reach the level in Spain would require multiplying that
stock by a factor of almost four.(6) And in computers, a gain of 250 percent would be needed to
match the penetration level in Portugal. Numbers like these always make corporate planners
dreamy.
But the tantalizing market for consumer durables is just for openers. Because of regulatory
and socio-demographic changes, most countries in the region are slated to undergo significant
"discontinuities" that will create major shifts in demand:
• There are enormous shortages of decent housing in the region; estimates of shortfalls range from
3 million dwellings in Argentina to more than 10 times that number in Brazil. The growth potential
for quality, low-cost housing is enormous.
• The state-owned pension systems are not viable (as is also the case in most developed countries).
Chile led the way in establishing a privately run pension fund industry, which now manages $30
billion and has become a major driver of investments in Chile and abroad. Argentina reformed its
systems in 1994, Uruguay did so in 1996 and Brazil will be next. The prospect of managing funds
reaching $200 billion by 2010 is attracting all leading world players to this market.
• The population is steadily getting older, and the growth prospects for services to elderly people
are huge. The government supply of these services is nonexistent or of unacceptable quality. For
that reason, sharply growing segments of middle-class elderly people will have to pay for such
services.
In summary, it should be clear by now that the "emerging clusters" in the north
(Caracas-Bogotá-Quito) and in the south (Santiago de Chile to Belo Horizonte) offer enormous
growth opportunities for multinationals -- on a scale that can be compared only to the potential
of India's middle class in the consumer goods, durables and service sectors.
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR MULTINATIONAL PLAYERS
When we analyze the prospects for multinationals in addressing the growth opportunities
in the region, it is useful to differentiate among three very contrasting situations in which they
find themselves:
• The "multidomestic player" that must move to a regional footprint and management model.
• The multinational player that is starting to expand in the region.
• The multinational player that is entering, or considering entering, the region.
Let's look at each of these strategic situations in turn.
The multidomestic player. Some multinationals have been household names in Latin
America for several decades. Most of these companies grew by creating country-specific positions
to take advantage of the import-substitution policies of each country.
By the early 90's, however, the compounded effects of the opening up of the import
barriers and the formation of regional integration agreements led these multinationals to sharply
rethink their strategies, production footprints and management models.
62
In fact, most of the multinationals were facing situations that they had already seen in
Europe in the 70's:
• a production footprint made up of too many plants, many of them subscale and with too wide a
product range.
• a number of "self-contained" country units, each with its own management and administrative
functions.
• limited trade and cooperation among the country units.
• a "multidomestic" culture with little knowledge creation and exchange among the country units.
Booz-Allen has been involved in the redesign of several of these management models,
ranging from strategy review to the development of a new organization structure and a number
of "regional key management processes."
In doing so, the firm has studied the lessons learned in the reorganization of major
multinationals in Europe in the period leading up to 1992 as well as similar efforts by
multinationals in emerging countries. The models include the following features:
• Rearranging country units into "regional clusters" that each combine several countries.
• Moving toward a matrix in which product and functional expertise starts becoming a partner to
geographically focused capabilities.
• Generating interactions between the "country manager" and two new actors: the "regional product
or capability manager" and the "regional functional manager."
• Moving toward a new production footprint, which implies greater specialization of production
facilities, more intra-regional trade (maybe even plugging the regional plant into the worldwide
trading network of the corporation) and, in some cases, capability consolidation.
• Creating regional units for capabilities such as product development, industry-specific expertise
and functional areas where cost is important (such as logistics and administrative services) or
where uniform quality and common standards are paramount (as in human resources and
information technology).
The design and implementation phases are extremely complex and conflict-ridden. But
we have found that multinationals that manages to implement the transition from a
"multidomestic" perspective to a "regional" perspective wind up creating a powerful platform for
future success.
In fact, they typically start reaping a number of benefits:
• Growth in revenues. By creating a regional product or expertise that each country unit would be
incapable of developing, the range of products is streamlined and the marketing focus is tightened.
That typically translates into market-share gains.
• Reduction in costs. The combination of a reduction in administrative costs (by merging several
previously independent country units) and in operating expenses (by streamlining and merging
production facilities and functional units) can result in a cost savings of up to 30 percent in overall
regional operations.
• Attractiveness to top-quality human resources. By adopting a regional approach, the corporation

now offers much greater career opportunities to its management. The product line manager in
Chile, for example, now has the opportunity to run a Southern Cone unit that is 10 times the size
of his or her previous responsibilities.
The multinational that is starting to expand. In a number of sectors that were originally
dominated by local players, such as packaged food stuffs, there has been a remarkable shift in
the past five years toward ownership by multinationals. Merger and acquisition activity has
increased dramatically in the region, as industry giants such as Procter & Gamble, Nabisco,
Parmalat and BSN, among others, have acquired local players. (This is also the case, incidentally,
of such leading financial services players as Banco Bilbao Vizcaya and Santander from Spain and
63
ABN AMRO from the Netherlands, which have grown substantially via recent acquisitions.) For
these players, the opportunity for growth is substantial, but it entails dealing with a number of
challenges:
• How to capitalize on well-known local brands with a healthy local franchise, which typically have
mediocre product ranges and very ineffective delivery systems.
• How to start complementing the local range of products with world "category killers" and how to
allocate resources between the "local" and "global" product lines.
• How to significantly upgrade the quality of product manufacturing, packaging, distribution and
channel relations. In short, how to bring a sleepy, but successful local player" into a global network.
• How to handle human resources. In the typical company that is acquired, a layer of self-taught
managers nearing retirement age is coexisting with a very weak middle-management and some
bright youngsters, all within a paternalistic and authoritarian culture. How to start injecting new
blood while making sure that expatriates do not destroy that culture is the greatest challenge of
all.
Here again, there are already a number of success and failure stories that we can
analyze across the region. In general, most "disaster stories" in acquisitions and entry strategies
have a number of common traits (which, incidentally, parallel the cases we ran across in Europe
in the late 80's):
• Extremely high acquisition prices. There is always a moment in these transformation programs
(Spain in the mid-80's, Argentina in 1993-94, Brazil right now), when there is a "stampede" of
eager multinationals, all running after the same 10 local companies. The results are superficial
evaluations, widely inflated "synergies" and, in general, unrealistic estimates of financial return.
• Investment horizons that are too short. Having overpaid for the acquisition in the first place,
managers are then under pressure to deliver very high returns very soon. The resulting race to
produce financial results leads to a number of strategic errors, including milking successful brands
and underinvesting in new brands or in infrastructure.
• Limited attention to culture and human resources. While it is clear that the multinational is normally
bringing superior human resources and management practices, the key factor is how these
capabilities are planted in the local corporation. Subsidiaries that end up relying heavily on
expatriate staff because they have not been able to retain or attract skilled local managers are
typically losers over the long run.
The multinational that is entering the region, and

for several multinationals that have woken up only recently to the promise of Latin America, the
challenge is how to build a viable regional presence while the "window of opportunity" is still
open.
Interestingly, this is also the case for leading Chilean corporations, which are finding
limits to growth in their domestic markets and are now expanding to Argentina, Brazil and Peru.
Most of these companies are facing the following challenges:
• Confirming market potential. On paper, the region offers boundless potential for everything from
toiletries to software to consumer banking. The key questions are: how much potential, and by
when? We have seen several cases of corporations wildly overestimating potentials for product/
service adoption, based on their home country or European experience. Careful segmentation and
understanding of consumer dynamics are a must in avoiding costly failures.
• Designing viable entry strategies. For years, the conventional wisdom has been that it is better to
acquire than to start from scratch in a new, unfamiliar market. We believe that deregulation and
shifts in consumer attitudes and in human resource markets now argue for a wholesale rethinking
of this approach. In our experience, one should always start with a "clean sheet of paper" approach,
64
to be abandoned only in the face of immovable obstacles or if an incredibly attractive
acquisition/alliance opportunity crops up.
• Competing for top human resources. Throughout the region, the pool of human resources is very
small. Ask for a top consumer goods marketing manager or a world-class retail financial services
marketer and you will seldom find more than 10 to 15 attractive candidates in each country! Coming
up with an appealing business proposition, using headhunters effectively and mixing local and
international resources adequately are all keys for success.
These are all illustrations of the opportunities and challenges confronting multinationals in
one of the world's most attractive regions. Since Booz-Allen is continuously involved in research
efforts related to strategies and transformations pursued by major economic actors in the region,
the firm would like to report on the results of these efforts in upcoming issues of Strategy &
Business.
What follows is a sample of the topics that we will be addressing:
• Local companies. Local corporations are finding significant opportunities and challenges in this new
Latin American playground. They are typically family owned, undercapitalized and with limited
human resources. They are also under pressure to design new strategies, create alliances or
internationalize.
• The regional multinational. Forming a very interesting subset of these local corporations are those
that are placing brave bets on becoming regional multinationals. Companies like Chile's Lucchetti,
Argentina's Alpargatas and Brazil's Sadia are all expanding into neighboring countries, launching
brands, creating new country units and starting to deal with the promises and frustrations of
internationalization.
• Consumer markets. In the Latin American consumer markets, the basis for competition is being
transformed by the combination of a growing middle class and the internationalization of the
higher-income segments of the population. These markets show the simultaneous effects of rapid
growth and the emergence of differentiated segments. All of a sudden, it is becoming attractive to
segment the markets and specialize the product/ service range accordingly.
• Strategic alliances and acquisitions. For companies planning to enter this marketplace, or for local
competition pondering their future, the issue of strategic alliances and acquisitions is becoming
critical. We have analyzed and executed a number of alliances across the region and will present
the lessons we have learned.
• Media/entertainment and tele-communications. A number of "new" industries are emerging in this

region. We will focus on the cases of media/entertainment and telecommunications. In both
marketplaces, we are witnessing dramatic growth, the entrance of leading multinationals and
sharply increasing competitive stakes. Local groups such as Carbajal, Globo, RBS and Clarin are all
implementing aggressive strategies for growth. In telecommunications, we are witnessing a major
showdown among the likes of GTE, Motorola, Telefónica de España, France Telecom and STET.
This listing of issues, which is still incomplete, is intended to portray to the readers a
number of considerations that they should bear in mind when addressing the challenges and
opportunities offered by one of the most dynamic regions in the world.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY

65
Countries of the Global South have been described as newly industrialized or in the process
of industrializing, are largely considered by freedom indices to have lower-quality democracies, and
frequently have a history of colonialism by Northern, often European states. The term gained
appeal throughout the second half of the 20th century, which rapidly accelerated in the early 21st
century. It appeared in fewer than two dozen publications in 2004, but in hundreds of publications
by 2013. The emergence of the new term meant looking at the troubled realities of its predecessors,
i.e. Third World or Developing World. The term is less hierarchical.
Political systems in the Global South are diverse, but most states had established some
form of democratic governments by the early 21st century, with varying degrees of success
and political liberty. Many are considered un-free or flawed democracies by freedom indices such
as the Democracy Index, Freedom in the World and Index of Freedom in the World and Following
decolonization and independence, elites have often had oligarchic control of the government.
Effective citizenship is defined by sociologist Patrick Heller as: "closing the gap between
formal legal rights in the civil and political arena, and the actual capability to meaningfully practice
those rights". Beyond citizenship, the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in the Global
South has also shed valuable light in migration debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus
on the Global North.
Third world countries are often helping further develop rich countries, rather than being
developed them. Several institutions have been established with the goal of putting an end to this
system. One of these institutions is the New International Economic Order. They have a 'no-strings-
attached' policy that promotes developing countries remaining or becoming self-sufficient. More
specifically, they advocate sovereignty over natural resources and industrialization.
In our view, the different policy initiatives were all aimed at sharply increasing the
attractiveness of the countries to international investors. Mexico in the late 80's, Argentina starting
in 1987-89 and Brazil in 1990 all designed transformation policies that targeted the following
objectives such as attaining economic stabilization and a functioning price mechanism as the
fundamental building block of a capitalist economy, creating the conditions for a massive recovery
in domestic demand, launching large-scale privatization programs, and launching regional
integration initiatives.
Countries in Latin America are now democratically led, capitalist societies in which the
process of transformation is quite advanced and large-scale violence and upheaval are seen as
highly improbable.
Inter-American Development Bank, cited in Business Latin America, April 1996, and
International Monetary Fund statistics.

66
SELF CHECK A. 6
CHAPTER 6
1. It is an emerging term, used by the World Bank and other organizations, identifying countries with
one side of the underlying global North–South divide, the other side being the countries of
the Global North.
a. The Global North
b. The Global West
c. The Global South
d. The Global East
2. It is the term that was first introduced as a more open and value free alternative to
a. "first world"
b. "second world"
c. "third world"
d. "fourth world"
3. The countries that have the largest population’s economies among Southern states.
a. Philippines, China, India, and Malaysia
b. Brazil, India, China, and Indonesia
c. Columbia, Philippines, Malaysia, and Singapore
d. Singapore, Brazil, Australia, and India
4. It is the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in the Global South has also shed valuable
light in migration debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus on the Global North.
a. Effective citizenship
67
b. Effective partnership
c. Effective leadership
d. Effective friendship
5. The goals of post-development were

a. to promote development rather than reform by choosing to embrace non-Eastern ways
b. to promote development rather than reform by choosing to embrace non-Western ways
c. to develop development rather than reform by choosing to embrace Western ways
d. to reject development rather than reform by choosing to embrace non-Western ways.
6. They are busy concentrating their investment efforts in emerging countries, and requires either
entry strategies into new, unfamiliar countries or growth strategies in countries that are opening
up or deregulating their markets.
a. Multinationals
b. Transnational
c. WTO
d. All of the above
7. They are involved in a broad range of efforts to persuade multinationals to bring plants and skilled
personnel to their countries.
a. World Bank
b. National governments
c. International Monetary Fund
d. Multinationals
8. It is by creating a regional product or expertise that each country unit would be incapable of
developing, the range of products is streamlined and the marketing focus is tightened that typically
translates into market-share gains.
a. Reduction in costs
b. Attractiveness to top-quality human resources
c. Growth in revenues
d. All of the above
9. It is the combination of a reduction in administrative costs by merging several previously

independent country units and in operating expenses by streamlining and merging production
facilities and functional units can result in a cost savings of up to 30 percent in overall regional
operations.
d. All of the above
10. It is by adopting a regional approach, the corporation now offers much greater career opportunities
to its management.
d. All of the above

68
INTRODUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

should be able to Chapter 7 explains the factors leading to a
greater integration of the Asian region, and how
1. Differentiate between
regionalization and globalization different Asian states confront the challenges of
globalization and regionalization
2. Identify the factors leading to a
greater integration of the Asian
region
3. Analyze how different Asian

states confront the challenges of
globalization and regionalization
CHAPTER 7 - A World of Regions: Asian regionalism
REGIONALIZATION VS GLOBALIZATION
It is the process of dividing an area into smaller segments called regions. For example, the
division of nation into states or provinces, and business also use regionalization as management
tool. It is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views,
products, ideas, and other aspects such as technology etc.

69
Nature: Globalization promotes the integration of economies across state borders all
around the world, but regionalization is precisely the opposite because it is dividing an area into
smaller segments.
Market: Globalization allows many corporations to trade on international level so it allows

free market but in regionalized system, monopolies are more likely to develop.
Cultural & Societal Relations: Globalization acceleration to multiculturalism by free and

inexpensive movement of people. But, regionalization does not support this.
Aid: Globalized international community is also more willing to come to the aid of a country
stricken by a natural disaster but, a regionalized system not get involved in the affairs of other
areas.
Technological Advances: Globalization has driven great advances in technology but,

advanced technology is rarely available in one country or region.
The entire world is moving towards integration, it is inevitable. But a regional partnership
is the first step, we can see this in the EUROPEAN UNION, AFRICAN UNION, UNION OF SOUTH
AMERICAN NATIONS, and there is more on the way.
In Asia, the Southeast Asian countries have already formed ASEAN (ASSOCIATION OF
SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS. This regional power block appears to work fine, the member states
fit very well together because of the following factors:
1. Mutual benefit - when it comes to trade, these nations can readily supply each other’s needs.
2. Mutual goals
3. Similar culture - the people of this region are generally alike in appearance, temperament which is
seemingly peaceful. They tend to get along quite well even on an individual level.
4. Similar security needs - aside from small localized rebels, this association needs only to contend
with foreign-supported terrorist groups which are usually handled well.
The Asian region extends beyond the territories of the ASEAN member nations. The
northern Asian countries like Japan, Taiwan, North Korea, and South Korea do not get along and
appears to distrust each other. Of course the invisible walls between these nations will fall
someday, and hopefully, they will realize the benefit of integration with regional AUTONOMY.
GLOBALIZATION AND ASIA: THE CHALLENGES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION AND THE
IMPLICATIONS FOR HONG KONG
Hong Kong is an ideal location to discuss this topic, since many of the East Asian
economies, and Hong Kong in particular, represent the very essence of globalization open,
dynamic economies that continue to amaze the world with their rapid economic growth and
development.
It is this success the so-called "Asian miracle" that so many countries the world over are
trying to emulate today. I would add that today’s discussion takes place less than 120 days before
the resumption of Chinese sovereignty a historic event that highlights the benefits of combining
further world economic integration and local adjustment within a sound policy framework. It is
plain to see that globalization has changed Asia’s role in the world. Less obvious, perhaps, are the
changes that globalization is bringing about within Asia.
What does the increasing integration of world trade and financial markets mean for Asia?
What are the key challenges for Asian policymakers arising from globalization? And what can Asia,
as a region, do to enhance its bright prospects in the global economy?
These are the questions I would like to discuss with you today. I will then turn to the role
of Hong Kong and explain why I have great confidence in the bright future of this city and its
people.
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Clearly, globalization has had a major impact on Asia’s role in the world economy. As
recently as a decade ago, the developing countries of Asia accounted for only one-sixth of world
output. But with many countries in the region having followed sound domestic economic policies,
mobilized large amounts of domestic savings, and attracted substantial private capital inflows, Asia,
excluding Australia, Japan, and New Zealand, now accounts for about one quarter of world GDP
on purchasing power parity-adjusted terms. On this trend, the region could account for one-third
of world output by the year 2005.
Similarly, over the last decade the developing countries of Asia have seen their share of
world exports nearly double, to about one-fifth of the total. These countries are also taking a
growing share of industrial country exports, a factor that helped cushion the impact of successive
recessions in industrial countries during 1990-1993. These developments have been very positive,
not only for Asia, but for the global economy as a whole.
But what of the changes that globalization is bringing about within Asia? To begin with,
there is an ongoing transformation in the composition of production and trade as the comparative
advantage of many Asian economies continues to change.
In particular, economies with relatively high wage costs are shifting toward higher value-
added products, including services. The shift of labor-intensive manufacturing out of Hong Kong
into mainland China and the associated boost to Hong Kong’s economy from the growth of trade
and financial services is perhaps the most dramatic example of this process.
Similar trends are also evident in the financial area. The continued growth in net private
capital inflows to the region to over $100 billion in 1995, or well over half of total private capital
flows to developing countries has been accompanied by a change in the composition of these flows.
Between 1990 and 1995, foreign direct investment in the region increased more than fourfold.
Portfolio investment flows have also risen dramatically and, in the process, have helped deepen
domestic capital markets in Asia.
In fact, in some countries the relative size of the equity markets now matches that in many
industrial countries. For example, in Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore, stock market
capitalization as a share of GDP, exceeds that of France, Germany, and Italy.
At the same time, financial flows within the region have become more significant. True,
the developing countries of Asia still rely heavily on London and New York to intermediate foreign
savings to the region. But Japan is, and is likely to remain, the world’s largest exporter of capital,
and the far-reaching reforms recently announced by the Japanese government are likely to
enhance Tokyo’s role as an international financial market.
Moreover, Hong Kong and Singapore with their well-capitalized banks, efficient clearing
and settlement systems, and expanding range of financial products have also emerged as major
financial centers. Increasingly, these centers are intermediating savings within Asia, as well as
channeling saving to Asia from other parts of the world.
In particular, Hong Kong is the main conduit for investment in China and arranges a
significant proportion of Asia’s syndicated borrowing. Singapore, for its part, has evolved into the
main banking center for Southeast Asia.
What do these trends Asia’s increasing integration into the global economy, on the one
hand, and its increasing regional integration, on the other suggest for the future? Although a
number of countries in the region face some important policy challenges, their record to date
suggests that they will make the necessary policy adjustments which have been the secret of their
success, enabling them to continue to perform well.
In this connection, I would note that the recent slowdown in economic activity in East Asia
represents primarily a cyclical correction that is not expected to be deep or prolonged.

71
Indeed, in a number of cases, the slowdown has been a welcome response to policy
tightening aimed at reducing inflationary pressures. However, the slowdown has been
accentuated by a weakening of the external environment and, hence, in export demand. This has
left some countries in the region with high current account deficits, suggesting a need for
further policy correction.
But beyond these short-term developments, increasing trade and financial sector
integration in the global economy and in the region offers enormous potential benefits, but will
also pose new challenges for Asian countries. First, because as these economies develop, their
comparative advantages will continue to change. Moreover, these changes are likely to occur
more rapidly in a globalized economy.
Thus, efficiency and flexibility will become all the more important for continued economic
success. Second, as the trade and financial links within Asia intensify, developments in one
economy will have a larger impact on the others.
Accordingly, individual economies will have an increasing interest in the economic

stability and prosperity of the others. Of course, this is also true at the global level, particularly as
Asia’s share in the global economy increases.
In my view, these considerations point to challenges in three related areas: trade,

financial flows, and regional cooperation. Let me say a few words about each.
First, on trade in Hong Kong, there is no need to preach the merits of open trade
regimes. Although a number of countries in the region still have some ways to go on trade
liberalization, much of Asia’s dynamism can be traced to the openness of its economies, and to
the competitiveness and transfer of technology that this openness has encouraged.
Countries that have yet to open their economies significantly should do so, so that they
too can reap these benefits. By the same token, countries that have already benefited from trade
liberalization must ensure that the openness that has served them so well in the past is
extended to the new trade frontiers, notably services.
At the same time, it will be important to increase transparency and the free flow of
information on which the service and financial sectors and, indeed, the modern economy depend.
And as production shifts to higher value-added products, countries will need to develop effective
"exit" policies for non-competitive industries.
These structural changes will inevitably require other adjustments, as well. To sustain
growth, a number of countries will need to improve their infrastructure, especially in transportation,
telecommunications, and power supply. The challenge will be to do all of this without
unduly straining public finances or external positions.
In this regard, private sector participation can be very helpful, although some countries
will need to increase the transparency of their regulatory regimes and clarify pricing policies in
order to attract substantial private interest in such investment.
In any event, the public sector is likely to continue to have a role to play in the development
of infrastructure. This, in turn, points to the need to strengthen public finances by reducing
outlays in other, less productive areas, such as military expenditure.
Meanwhile, it will be important to ensure that regional trade initiatives are compatible with
further global trade liberalization. In this regard, I am optimistic that Asia’s emphasis on a
cooperative approach to trade matters will complement and enhance the global framework
being developed through the WTO.
Second, the challenges in the financial area at the domestic policy level, there is no
substitute for stable macroeconomic policies that give confidence to financial markets and attract
private savings. Likewise, transparent and predictable regulatory policies, and a reliable legal
72
framework are essential ingredients in creating a favorable investment climate. Certainly, Hong
Kong’s record shows the value of such policies.
But the quickening pace of financial innovation and integration raises other challenges, as
well. To begin with, the presence of large capital inflows reduces the room for policy maneuver
and limits the scope for policy mistakes.
Moreover, financial sector reforms and increased access to international markets expose
domestic financial systems to new risks. In many countries, in Asia and elsewhere, prudential
regulation and supervision have not kept pace with the new complexities of the banking business.
If left unaddressed, this gap could pose dangers for domestic and external stability.
Indeed, all countries must be vigilant about the strength of their banking systems, so that
the monetary authorities can tighten policy when needed, without fear of aggravating banking
sector problems.
Beyond this, Asia needs a stronger, more dynamic financial infrastructure that can handle
the increasingly complex intermediation requirements of the region. As Mr. Yam has observed on
several occasions, Asia still relies significantly on European and North American financial markets
to intermediate its huge savings pool. I have no doubt that Asia’s major financial markets Tokyo,
Hong Kong and Singapore will continue to grow. This, and the development of other financial
centers, such as Shanghai, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, and Seoul, will eventually create a network of
modern financial centers in Asia that will help meet the region’s immense financial intermediation
needs.
Third, the challenges for regional policy coordination with countries becoming more closely
integrated, each country has an increasing stake in the sound policies of the others.
Accordingly, countries of the region can play a constructive role in encouraging each other
to maintain sound policies. The swap arrangements among a number of Asian central banks are a
good example of constructive cooperation to maintain regional stability. Certainly, it would be
worthwhile exploring how such initiatives can be further developed.
Moreover, the effectiveness of bank supervision will be enhanced by greater cooperation
between national supervisors in the region, as part of the development of a more global approach
to such issues.
In this regard, I also welcome the membership of several newly emerging market
economies in Asia in the Bank for International Settlements, as well as their full support for the
strengthening of the surveillance role of the IMF, strongly endorsed by the Interim Committee.
Clearly, there is a broader need to reduce risks in the global economy and strengthen
financial safety nets. Of course, whenever a country faces a difficult situation, whether the problem
is of a short-term nature or a more fundamental disequilibrium, the Fund is ready to help with
policy advice and with financial assistance, if warranted. Toward this end, our strengthened
surveillance leads us to give greater attention to capital account developments, the soundness of
domestic banking systems, the quality and timeliness of data countries released to the public, and
other issues of particular relevance to emerging market economies, including those in Asia.
The Fund is a cooperative institution based on quotas, and its strength and credibility
depend on maintaining its quota strength. To this end, the membership will soon be deciding on a
quota increase, which I believe will need to be substantial.
I have outlined what I believe globalization means for the emerging market economies of
Asia. You will have noted that globalization makes imperative not only the maintenance, but also
the continued expansion, of a network of well-equipped, first-class regional financial centers. This
is why the IMF sees as essential the contribution Hong Kong will have to continue to provide in the
future to the prosperity of Asia. Let me conclude with some more specific remarks on Hong Kong.

73
Hong Kong is a prime example of an economy that has managed rapid structural
transformation in an increasingly integrated world economy in a most successful way. And indeed,
its history, geographic location, openness to trade and importance as a financial center all point to
its critical interest in continued global integration an interest that is shared in China, in the region,
and in the rest of the world.
Hong Kong’s prudent monetary policy built around the exchange rate link to the dollar and
supported by a tight, rule based fiscal policy has created an environment of macroeconomic stability
and investor confidence.
The Joint Declaration and the Basic Law, which together enshrine the principle of "one
country, two systems" provide confidence that this policy framework will continue. And the
arrangements for the Hong Kong Monetary Authority and the People’s Bank of China to operate as
two mutually independent, but cooperating, monetary authorities have been wisely and clearly
established.
As you know, the IMF generally visits each of its member countries at least once a year to
review its economic policies, performance, and prospects. In the IMF’s annual review of Hong
Kong’s situation and prospects, completed only two weeks ago, the IMF Executive Board strongly
endorsed this policy framework; I am also pleased to confirm that these consultations will continue
on a regular basis after the transfer of sovereignty.
Second, its flexible product and labor markets, the lack of flexibility, especially in labor
markets, is the "Achilles heel" of many advanced economies. This has not been the case in Hong
Kong. Indeed, the entrepreneurial and management skills of the people of Hong Kong are second
to none.
Third, the openness of its economy with a free port and no capital controls, Hong Kong is
one of the most open economies in the world. China is also moving toward greater openness: the
renminbi now trades on a market basis in China, and exchange controls on current transactions
have been eliminated.
But I do not believe that China will want to stop there; of course, prudence is in order in
view of the complexity of the issues still to be resolved, but the Chinese authorities know quite well
that the sooner China moves to fuller trade liberalization and creates the conditions allowing for
the progressive liberalization of all capital transactions, the more it, too, will benefit further from
globalization. One can easily see how promising these converging trends in China and Hong Kong
are.
Fourthly, steps being taken to ensure that Hong Kong continues to develop as a world
financial center. Hong Kong’s prudential supervision is already of the highest standard; banks are
highly capitalized; and official foreign exchange reserves are large by any standard. Thus, Hong
Kong is well placed to deal with any pressures that may arise.
Fifth is the Hong Kong’s sound legal and administrative framework, the neutrality of its
civil service, the impartiality of its judicial system and its freedom of information. All have been
critical to Hong Kong’s economic success to date and will remain so in the future. Here, I salute
the wisdom of the Chinese, British, and Hong Kong authorities for incorporating these principles
into the Joint Declaration and the Basic Law.
And sixth, the continued economic development of the mainland. This vast market provides
excellent trade and investment opportunities for Hong Kong, just as Hong Kong’s own dynamism
will provide further impetus for China’s growth and development.
Let me conclude by noting that transitions always present some degree of uncertainty;
that is their nature. But the remarkable wisdom of the Chinese, Hong Kong and British authorities
in devising the "one country, two systems" approach will help ensure that the transition runs
smoothly and the uncertainty is short-lived. IMF and World Bank members will have the opportunity
to see the "one country, two systems" approach in action in September, when they come to Hong
Kong for the 1997 Annual Meetings.
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CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY
Globalization promotes the integration of economies across state borders all around the
world, but regionalization is precisely the opposite because it is dividing an area into smaller
segments. It allows many corporations to trade on international level so it allows free market but
in regionalized system, monopolies are more likely to develop. Globalization acceleration to
multiculturalism by free and inexpensive movement of people. But, regionalization does not support
this.
In particular, economies with relatively high wage costs are shifting toward higher value-
added products, including services. The shift of labor-intensive manufacturing out of Hong Kong
into mainland China and the associated boost to Hong Kong’s economy from the growth of trade
and financial services is perhaps the most dramatic example of this process.
Accordingly, countries of the region can play a constructive role in encouraging each other
to maintain sound policies. The swap arrangements among a number of Asian central banks are a
good example of constructive cooperation to maintain regional stability. Certainly, it would be
worthwhile exploring how such initiatives can be further developed. The Fund is a cooperative
institution based on quotas, and its strength and credibility depend on maintaining its quota
strength.

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SELF CHECK A. 7
CHAPTER 7
1. Globalization promotes the integration of economies across state borders all around the world, but
regionalization is precisely the opposite because it is dividing an area into smaller segments.
a. Nature
b. Market
c. Cultural & Societal Relations
d. Aid
2. Globalization allows many corporations to trade on international level so it allows free market but
in regionalized system, monopolies are more likely to develop.
a. Nature
b. Market
d. Aid
3. Globalization acceleration to multiculturalism by free and inexpensive movement of people. But,

regionalization does not support this.
a. Nature
b. Market
d. Aid
4. Globalized international community is also more willing to come to the aid of a country stricken by
a natural disaster but, a regionalized system not get involved in the affairs of other areas.
a. Nature
b. Market
d. Aid
5. Globalization has driven great advances in technology but, advanced technology is rarely available
in one country or region.

76
a. Nature & Market
b. Cultural & Societal Relations
c. Aid
d. Technological Advances
6. It is a term used when it comes to trade where nations can readily supply each other’s needs.
a. Similar culture
b. Globalization
c. Mutual Agreement
d. Mutual benefit
7. It is when people of this region are generally alike in appearance, temperament which is seemingly
peaceful, and tend to get along quite well even on an individual level.
a. Similar culture
b. Globalization
c. Mutual Agreement
d. Mutual benefit
8. It is from small localized rebels, this association needs only to contend with foreign-supported
terrorist groups which are usually handled well.
a. Similar culture
b. Similar security needs
c. Mutual Agreement
d. Mutual benefit
9. It is an ideal location to discuss this topic, since many of the East Asian economies, and Hong Kong
in particular, represent the very essence of globalization open, dynamic economies that continue
to amaze the world with their rapid economic growth and development.
a. Japan
b. Hong Kong
c. China
d. Philippines
10. It is a cooperative institution based on quotas, and its strength and credibility depend on
maintaining its quota strength.
a. Budget
b. Fund
c. Allowance
d. All of the above

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GE 3 WORKSHEET 1
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
General Instruction: Read and answer the following questions below, and submit based on the scheduled
date of submission. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. Find and read three newspaper op-eds (local or international) discussing globalization. Write
50-word summaries of each op-ed, identifying what the underlying definitions of globalization the
op-ed writers use.
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GE 3 WORKSHEET 2
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
1. Give your insight about the statement “That global free trade has done more harm than good.”
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GE 3 WORKSHEET 3
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
1. Choose at least one Latin American country, and explain their contemporary foreign and economic policies.
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GE 3 WORKSHEET 4
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
Instruction: Read and answer the following questions below. Write your answer on the space provided.
• Write 2,000 word essays answering one of these two questions:
1. How do we make globalization more just?

2. How is the state affected by globalization?
3. How is the nation affected by globalization?
4. Do these institutions/concepts remain relevant? Why/why not?
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References
1. Textbook: Steger, Manfred B., Paul Battersby, and Joseph M. Siracusa, eds. 2014. The SAGE
Handbook of Globalization. Two Volumes.
2. Trends and Issues.” International Social Science Journal 52 (165): 269–281. Carter, April. 2001.
“Global Civil Society: Acting as Global Citizens” in The Political Theory of Global Citizenship, pp.
147-176 London: Routledge. Connell, Raewyn. 2007. “Dependency, Autonomy and Culture. In
Southern Theory: The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science, pp. 139-163. Cambridge,
UK: Polity Press. Hobsbawm, Eric J. 1996. “The Future of the State.” Development and Change
27(2): 267–278. Lee, Ronald. 2003. “The Demographic Transition: Three Centuries of Fundamental
Change.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 17(4): 167–190.
3. The Contemporary World Page 1 of 2 Lesthaeghe, Ron. 2010. “The Unfolding Story of the Second
Demographic Transition.” Population and Development Review 36(2): 211–251
Glossary
Anti-Globalizers it refers to the central role of politics in unleashing the forces of

globalization. On the global level, governments have formed a
number of international organizations (UN, NATO, WTO)
Developmental Institutions it encourages investment, growth and productivity
Economics it is the social science that deals with the production,

distribution, and consumption of goods and services and with
the theory and management of economies or economic systems
Economic Dimension of it refers to the intensification and stretching of economic

Globalization interrelations across the globe

83
Economic Theory it relates globalization to the model of a free world market without
restriction of competition and mobility, a global mass culture and
a world-encompassing information society
Formal Institutions it refers to the property rights, legal system, rule of law,
constitution
Fund it is a cooperative institution based on quotas, and its strength
and credibility depend on maintaining its quota strength
Global Capitalism Approach it is a fourth model of globalization which locates the dominant
global forces in the structures of an ever-more globalizing
capitalism
Global Culture Approach it is a second model of globalization derives specifically from

research on the ‘globalization of culture’ which focuses on the
problems that a homogenizing mass media-based culture poses
for national identities
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people,

companies, and governments of different nations, a process
driven by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology
Global Society Approach it is often located in the pictures of planet earth sent back by
space explorers.
Global South is an emerging term, used by the World Bank and other
organizations, identifying countries with one side of the
underlying global North–South divide, the other side being the
countries of the Global North
Hyper globalizers it is the minimalist political order of the future will be determined
by regional economies linked together in an almost seamless
global web of production and exchange
Informal Institutions it is how to behave in everyday life which linked to religion,

history, social acceptability
Institution it refers to rules of structural social interaction both formal and

informal, they structure incentives in human exchange, be it
economic, political or social

while globalism is an ideology based on the belief that people,
goods and information ought to be able to cross national borders
unfettered
International Economics it is a branch of economics that studies economic interactions

among different countries, including foreign trade (exports and
imports), foreign exchange (trading currency), balance of
payments, and balance of trade. The study of interational
economics focusses on two related areas - international trade
and international finance.
International Monetary Fund it is created to administer the internal monetary system
Macroeconomics it is the study of the overall aspects and workings of a national

economy, such as income, output, and the interrelationship
among diverse economic sectors
84
Mega economics it studies the interaction of national economies through
comparative analysis of the economic systems
Neoliberalism it is a political and economic ideology that attempts to improve

human well-being by promoting individual self-interest
Political globalization it refers to the intensification and expansion of political

interrelations across the globe
Predatory it is an extractive institutions that favor the few
TNCs it refers to transnational corporations
World Bank it is primarily responsible for financing economic development
World-Systems Approach this approach is based on the distinction between core, semi-
peripheral and peripheral countries in terms of their changing
roles in the international division of labor dominated by the
capitalist world-system
World Trade Organization it enforces multilateral trade agreements

85
CONTACT US
D. Professor

Phone Number : +639270882097
E. Program Head
Name : ANGEL MAE M. PONTILLO

Email Address : educprogramhead@smcbaganga.com
Phone Number : +639956989236
F. Reproduction In-Charge
Name : ANNIE M. MADUAY

Email Address : anniemaduay@gmail.com
Phone Number : +639094401026/+639759219372
Facebook : www.facebook.com/annie.maduay

86
The Marian Way
God listens to true prayers. During this trying time, we encourage
our Marians to religiously ask for the guidance of our Almighty.
The plague dramatically breaks out borders to borders. Millions of people died, and overwhelming
numbers of infected people caused fear and panic amongst us. Let us continue to pray and
practice the Ignacian-Marian way. Together, we will survive and heal as one.
Vision Mission
Dynamic and Holistically We commit ourselves to:

developed individuals 5. promote the total formation of persons through
actively witnessing the quality instruction and integration of activities
gospel values in the 6. form vibrant, responsible community leaders
community. inspired by the virtues of Mo. Ignacia and imbued
with the Gospel values;
7. provide development programs for the acquisition of
appropriate skills, promotion of positive attitudes
and enhancement of personal discipline;
8. foster the development of multiple and holistic
competencies to ensure work effectiveness.
GOAL STATEMENT
St. Mary’s College is a Catholic School that is an instrumentality of the Congregation of the
Religious of the Virgin Mary that aims to provide within its community of students and personnel
Catholic values. Its goal is to provide an educational program and environment animated by
Catholic doctrine, beliefs, teachings, traditions, and practices, the exercise of which is protected
by, among others, Article III, Section 5 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution. In order for us to
approximate our vision and live our mission, we dedicate to produce graduates who are God-
fearing, capable of independent learning and critical thinking, enabling them to respond
successfully by continuing education in a technologically advanced world and to serve the
society, promoting justice and peace and protecting the youth against harassment and
immorality.
QUALITY POLICY
We, at the St. Mary’s College, commit to provide quality Catholic Ignacian Marian education
to mold students to be Ignacian Marian leaders of faith, excellence, and service wherever
they are at all times. We commit to collaboratively comply and maintain an effective quality
management system by periodically reviewing and validating the processes and services in
line with the quality objectives and standards for continual improvement.

87
Course Code/Name : GE 3 – Contemporary World
Course Credits : 3 units
Course Description : This course introduces students to the contemporary world by
examining the multifaceted phenomenon of globalization. Using
the various disciplines of the social sciences, it examines the
economic, social, political, technological, and other
transformations that have created an increasing awareness of
the interconnectedness of peoples and places around the globe.
To this end, the course provides an overview of the various
debates in global governance, development, and sustainability.
Beyond exposing the student to the world outside the
Philippines, it seeks to inculcate a sense of global citizenship and
global ethical responsibility.
This course includes mandatory topics on population education

in the context of population and demography.
Prerequisite : None
Timeframe : 3 hours every week for 18 weeks or 54 hours in a semester
Course Objectives/ : At the end of the term, you will be able to:
Outcomes A. Competencies
11. distinguish different interpretations of and approaches to
globalization
12. describe the emergence of global economic, political,
social, and cultural systems
15. assess the effects of globalization on different social
units and their responses
B. Skills
16. analyze contemporary news events in the context of
globalization
17. analyze global issues in relation to Filipinos and the
Philippines
18. write a research paper with proper citations on a topic
related to globalization
C. Values
19. articulate personal positions on various global issues
20. identify the ethical implications of global citizenship
Course Requirements : 1. Regular quizzes
2. Midterm analysis paper
3. Final research paper
Grading System : Quiz 30%
Performance Task 40%
Major Exam 30%
-------------
100%

88
How to Use the Module
In this module, you will undergo through a series of learning/ experiential activities to
accomplish requirements as projected in each lesson and subtopics. Each term period
containsAssessment Sheets, Lesson or topic exercise sheet, and Performance Task
Exercises Sheet.
Summative Assessments such as Term Period Examinationswill be separated from the

module. The accomplishment of each task is on your comfort, however following the scheduled
submission of every module.
THINGS TO REMEMBER!
8.) Carefully read all the information sheets,

9.) Follow the directions in answering all the tasks, or exercises,
10.) Answer all the exercises, and accomplish your performance task,
11.) Submit the worksheets based on the scheduled date,
12.) Do not write unnecessary markings inside the module,
13.) All questions should only be answered on the given worksheet after every lesson.
14.) Lastly, inform your parents/guardians to affix their signatures on the sheet that will
be provided on the scheduled day of module distribution.
Should you have any questions about this module, please do not hesitate to reach us via email,
group chat, or mobile number as projected on the instructor’s information above.
For the schedule of module distribution/submission and date of examination, refer to the
information box below. Please take note that the distribution of modules for Prelim will
be done inside the SMC campus; for the succeeding Term Periods (Midterm to Final),
modules shall be distributed per barangay.
Overview
The contemporary world is an ever-changing mix of social and political changes. While
religious, political, and ethnic conflicts continue, we are currently living in one of the most peaceful
eras in the history of the planet. Challenges of the 21st century include emerging technologies,
health care, overpopulation, climate change, poverty, illiteracy, disease, and migration. How we
choose to deal with these emerging frontiers will shape this unit for future generations.
COURSE OUTLINE

89
Program : BEED, BSED – Math, Sci & Eng Term Period : Midterm

Course Requirements
• Essays
Week Lesson Topics

Weeks 1-3 Lesson 4: A World of Ideas, and Chapter 8 - Global Media Cultures
Global Population and Mobility Chapter 9 - The Globalization of Religion
Chapter 10- The Global City
Chapter 11- Global Demography
Chapter 12- Global Migration
MY TIMELINE
September 21, 2021

Submission of: Sept. 30 – Oct. 1, 2021
Self-Checks (Chapters 8-12) Midterm Examination
& Worksheets (1 & 5) (First Term, First Sem)
Return of Examination Paper Submission of PT’s
and PTs Return of Worksheets

90

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4.) 1. Analyze how various media drive
between local and global cultural production.
various forms of global integration
5.)
6.) 2. Explain the dynamic between
local and global cultural production
7.)

CHAPTER 8 - GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES
GLOBALIZATION OF MEDIA
The media industry is, in many ways, perfect for globalization, or the spread of global trade without
regard for traditional political borders. The low marginal costs of media mean that reaching a wider market
creates much larger profit margins for media companies. Because information is not a physical good,
shipping costs are generally inconsequential. The global reach of media allows it to be relevant in many
different countries.
However, some have argued that media is actually a partial cause of globalization, rather than just
another globalized industry. Media is largely a cultural product, and the transfer of such a product is likely
to have an influence on the recipient’s culture. Increasingly, technology has also been propelling
globalization. Technology allows for quick communication, fast and coordinated transport, and efficient
mass marketing, all of which have allowed globalization—especially globalized media—to take hold.
Globalized Culture, Globalized Markets
Much globalized media content comes from the West, particularly from the United States. Driven
by advertising, U.S. culture and media have a strong consumerist bent (meaning that the ever-increasing
consumption of goods is encouraged as an economic virtue), thereby possibly causing foreign cultures to
increasingly develop consumerist ideals. Therefore, the globalization of media could not only provide
content to a foreign country, but may also create demand for U.S. products. Some believe that this will
“contribute to a one-way transmission of ideas and values that result in the displacement of indigenous
cultures (Santos, 2001).”
Globalization as a world economic trend generally refers to the lowering of economic trade borders,
but it has much to do with culture as well. Just as transfer of industry and technology often encourages
outside influence through the influx of foreign money into the economy, the transfer of culture opens up
these same markets.
As globalization takes hold and a particular community becomes more like the United States
economically, this community may also come to adopt and personalize U.S. cultural values. The outcome
of this spread can be homogenization (the local culture becomes more like the culture of the United States)
or heterogenization (aspects of U.S. culture come to exist alongside local culture, causing the culture to
become more diverse), or even both, depending on the specific situation (Rantanen, 2005).

91
Making sense of this range of possibilities can be difficult, but it helps to realize that a mix of many
different factors is involved. Because of cultural differences, globalization of media follows a model unlike
that of the globalization of other products. On the most basic level, much of media is language and culture
based and, as such, does not necessarily translate well to foreign countries. Thus, media globalization often
occurs on a more structural level, following broader “ways of organizing and creating media (Mirza, 2009).”
In this sense, a media company can have many different culturally specific brands and still maintain an
economically globalized corporate structure.
Vertical Integration and Globalization
Because globalization has as much to do with the corporate structure of a media company as with
the products that a media company produces, vertical integration in multinational media companies
becomes a necessary aspect of studying globalized media. Many large media companies practice vertical
integration: Newspaper chains take care of their own reporting, printing, and distribution; television
companies control their own production and broadcasting; and even small film studios often have parent
companies that handle international distribution.
A media company often benefits greatly from vertical integration and globalization. Because of the
proliferation of U.S. culture abroad, media outlets are able to use many of the same distribution structures
with few changes. Because media rely on the speedy ability to react to current events and trends, a
vertically integrated company can do all of this in a globalized rather than a localized marketplace; different
branches of the company are readily able to handle different markets.
Further, production values for single-country distribution are basically the same as those for
multiple countries, so vertical integration allows, for example, a single film studio to make higher-budget
movies than it may otherwise be able to produce without a distribution company that has as a global reach.
Foreign Markets and Titanic
The movie Titanic, which became the highest-grossing movie of all time, made twice as much
internationally as it did domestically.
Scott Smith – Best In Film: American Film Institute Showcase – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
Worth considering is the reciprocal influence of foreign culture on American culture. Certainly,
American culture is increasingly exported around the world thanks to globalization, and many U.S. media

92
outlets count strongly on their ability to sell their product in foreign markets. But what Americans consider
their own culture has in fact been tailored to the tastes not only of U.S. citizens but also to those of
worldwide audiences. The profit potential of foreign markets is enormous: If a movie does well abroad, for
example, it might make up for a weak stateside showing, and may even drive interest in the movie in the
United States.
One prime example of this phenomenon of global culture and marketing is James Cameron’s 1997
film Titanic. One of the most expensive movies ever produced up to that point, with an official budget of
around $200 million, Titanic was not anticipated to perform particularly well at the U.S. box office. Rather,
predictions of foreign box-office receipts allowed the movie to be made. Of the total box-office receipts
of Titanic, only about one-third came from the domestic market. Although Titanic became the highest-
grossing film up to that point, it grossed just $140 million more domestically than Star Wars did 20 years
earlier (Box Office Mojo). The difference was in the foreign market. While Star Wars made about the same
amount—$300 million—in both the domestic and foreign markets, Titanic grossed $1.2 billion in foreign
box-office receipts. In all, the movie came close to hitting the $2 billion mark, and now sits in the No. 2
position behind Cameron’s 2009 blockbuster, Avatar.
One reason that U.S. studios can make these kinds of arrangements is their well-developed ties
with the worldwide movie industry. Hollywood studios have agreements with theaters all over the world to
show their films. By contrast, the foreign market for French films is not nearly as established, as the industry
tends to be partially subsidized by the French government. Theaters showing Hollywood studio films in
France funnel portions of their box-office receipts to fund French films. However, Hollywood has lobbied
the World Trade Organization—a largely pro-globalization group that pushes for fewer market restrictions—
to rule that this French subsidy is an unfair restriction on trade (Terrill, 1999).
In many ways, globalization presents legitimate concerns about the endangerment of indigenous
culture. Yet simple concerns over the transfer of culture are not the only or even the biggest worries caused
by the spread of American culture and values.
SELF CHECK A.1

CHAPTER
S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term,8
First Semester Page|
93
The self-check paper should be submitted together with the worksheets as scheduled by your
professor.
II. Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is perfect for globalization, or the spread of global trade without regard for traditional
political borders.
a. media industry b. music industry c. globalization d. technology
2. It allows for quick communication, fast and coordinated transport, and efficient mass
marketing, all of which have allowed globalization especially globalized media to take hold.
a. media industry b. music industry c. globalization d. technology
3. It is largely a cultural product, and the transfer of such a product is likely to have an influence
on the recipient’s culture.
a. media b. industry c. globalization d. technology
4. It has a strong consumerist bent which means that the ever-increasing consumption of goods
is encouraged as an economic virtue in United States.
a. economic virtue b. technology c. culture and media d. industry
5. It provides content to a foreign country, but may also create demand for U.S. products.
a. economic virtue b. globalization of media c. culture and media d. industry
6. It refers to the lowering of economic trade borders, but it has much to do with culture as well.
a. Globalization as a world economic trend
b. Globalization as an economic virtue
c. Globalization as media industry
d. All of the above
7. It benefits greatly from vertical integration and globalization.

a. Media company b. globalization of media c. culture and media d. industry
8. It is the prime example of global culture and marketing.

a. James Cameron’s 1995 film Titanic
b. James Cameron’s 1996 film Titanic
b. James Cameron’s 1997 film Titanic
d. James Cameron’s 1998 film Titanic
9. It is the reason why U.S. studios can make these kinds of arrangements because of ______.
a. well-developed ties with the worldwide movie industry
b. well-improved country
c. good leadership and partnership with other countries
d. all of the above

94

should be able to The lesson explains how globalization affects
Religious practices, beliefs, the relationship
1. Explain how globalization affects
religious practices and beliefs
between religion and global conflict and,
conversely, global peace.
2. Analyze the relationship between
religion and global conflict and,
conversely, global peace
CHAPTER 9 - THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION
RELIGION AND GLOBALIZATION: BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES

By Monaim El Azzouzi
Meknes – Religion and globalization persistently engage in a flexible relationship in which the former relies
on the latter in order to thrive and flourish while at the same time challenging its (globalization’s) hybridizing
effects.
Globalization, due to the advent of communication and transportation technology and the roles played by
the media has contributed to the deterritorialization and the blurring of geographical spaces and
boundaries. This has resulted apparently in making the world a small village where people, cultures, and
identities come in daily face-to-face contact with each other.
Undoubtedly, religion is not immune from these changes and their burgeoning effects brought
about by globalization. However, religions still have their respective homes in specific territorial spaces
where they originally appeared and where their respective shrines exist.
The inner nature of religions and the purpose to be embraced and practiced by people all over the
world prompts it to spread throughout all the world’s geographical spaces. In order to emerge and spread,
therefore, religions make good use of the technologies of globalisation. Having geographical boundaries
and frontiers blurred and dissolved, religions find it easy to spread and reach every part of the world.
Since globalization, according to many scholars, is aimed at the hybridisation of the world cultures
around the pattern of the Western culture; and since it entails liberal values and norms, religion
(particularly Islam) constitutes a challenge to it. This is because Islam’s norms and values are incompatible
with the liberal values of globalisation.
Globalization has played a tremendous role in providing a context for the current considerable
revival and the resurgence of religion. Today, most religions are not relegated to the few countries where
they began. Religions have, in fact, spread and scattered on a global scale. Thanks to globalisation, religions
have found a fertile milieu to spread and thrive.
As Jan Aart Scholte makes clear:

95
“ACCELERATED GLOBALIZATION OF RECENT TIMES HAS ENABLED CO-RELIGIONISTS ACROSS THE
PLANET TO HAVE GREATER DIRECT CONTACT WITH ONE ANOTHER. GLOBAL COMMUNICATIONS,
GLOBAL ORGANIZATIONS, GLOBAL FINANCE AND THE LIKE HAVE ALLOWED IDEAS OF THE
TRANSWORLD UMMA OF MUSLIMS AND THE UNIVERSAL CHRISTIAN CHURCH TO BE GIVEN CONCRETE
SHAPE AS NEVER BEFORE.”
Information technologies, transportation means, and the media are deemed important means on
which religionists rely in the dissemination of their religious ideas. For instance, countless websites
providing information about religions have been created. This makes pieces of information and explanations
about different religions readily at the disposal of any person regardless of his or her geographical location.
In addition, the internet allows people to contact each other worldwide and therefore hold forums and
debates that allow religious ideas to spread.
Furthermore, the media plays the same important role in the dissemination of religious ideas. In
this respect, a lot of TV channels, radio stations and print media are founded solely for advocating religions.
Taking Islam as an example, we find such T.V channels as Iqrae, Ennass, Majd, El Houda, Erahma, etc. as
purely religious channels created for the strengthening and the fortification of Islam.
Transportation means – as a technology of globalisation as well–have contributed considerably to

the emergence, revivalism and fortification of religion. In this respect, Turner, S. Bryan states that the
“Islamic revivalism in Asia is related to the improvement in transportation that has allowed many Muslims
to travel to Mecca, and return with reformist ideas.” Globalization technologies, therefore, have helped
religions of different forms i.e., fundamentalist, moderate, etc. to cross geographical boundaries and be
present everywhere. Thanks to globalization, religion or faith has gained considerable significance and
importance as a non-territorial touchstone of identity. Being a source of identity and pride, religion is being
always promoted by its practitioners to reach the level of globality and be embraced by as many people as
possible.
Muslims, for instance, aspire to establish the Islamic Umma, a community of believers. Having
paved the way for religions to come in contact with each other and provided a context for their flourishing
and thriving, globalisation has brought such religions to a circle of competition and conflicts.
As Turner, S. Bryan explains, globalization transforms the generic ‘religion’ into a world-system of
competing and conflicting religions. This process of institutional specialization has transformed local, diverse
and fragmented cultural practices into recognizable systems of religion. Globalization has therefore had the
paradoxical effect of making religions (via their religious leaders and clites) more self-conscious of
themselves as being ‘world religions.
Such conflicts among the world religions exhibit a solid proof confirming the erosion and the failure
of hybridity. Globalization, as stated in the above excerpt, makes religions more conscious of themselves
as being ‘world religions’ reinforcing their respective specific identities. These identities get strengthened
by globalization and cannot in any way intermingle or hybridize.
Since religions have distinct internal structures, their connections to different cultures and their
inclusion of different worshiping ways and practices, as the case with Islam and Christianity, contradict and
are mostly incompatible with each other, such religions cannot become hybridized or homogenized, as it is
claimed, though they always come in contact.
Such religions tend, as a result, to be more inclined towards clashes and competition. Since
globalization is said to bring the world cultures, identities, and religions in direct contacts with each other
and make everything hybrid, the competition and conflicts of religions that it gives rise to constitute a
challenge to it and its hybridizing effects.
Though religion is strengthened and fortified by globalization, it represents a challenge to its

(globalization’s) hybridizing effects. Religion seeks to assert its identity in the light of globalization. As a
result, different religious identities come to the fore and assert themselves.
Such assertions of religious identities constitute a defensive reaction to globalization. Scholte, in this
respect, maintains that “At the same time as being pursued through global channels, assertions of religious
identity have, like nationalist strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction to globalization’’.
96
Globalization is associated, as an American or a Western project, with westernisation and
Americanization. The dominance and hegemony exerted by these two processes, particularly on the Third
World countries, makes religions-related cultures and identities take defensive measures to protect
themselves.
In this respect, Islam takes caution and resists the encroachment of globalization forces on its
cultures and livelihoods in many ways. Islam cannot contribute to the hybridizing consequences of
globalization not only because it is always resistant to and defiant of globalization but also because the
Islamic culture and identity in general are incompatible with the norms and the values that are related to
globalization and to other distinct religions (such as Christianity, Judaism, etc).
It has been difficult for religion to cope with values that accompany globalization like liberalism,
consumerism, rationalism, etc. Such phenomena advocate scientism and secularism. This, in fact, pushes
Scholte to speak of the anti-rationalist faiths. Since he equates rationalism with globalization and considers
religion anti-rationalist, it can be deduced that religion is anti-globalization.
To quote Scholte:
TRANSPLANETARY RELATIONS HAVE HELPED TO STIMULATE AND SUSTAIN SOME RENEWALS OF ANTI-
RATIONALIST FAITH, BUT GLOBAL NETWORKS HAVE MORE USUALLY PROMOTED ACTIVITIES
INVOLVING RATIONALIST KNOWLEDGE. CONTEMPORARY REVIVALIST MOVEMENTS HAVE LARGELY
REPLAYED A LONG-TERM TENDENCY –ONE THAT WELL PREDATES CONTEMPORARY ACCELERATED
GLOBALIZATION- WHEREBY CERTAIN RELIGIOUS CIRCLES HAVE FROM TIME TO TIME REVOLTED
AGAINST MODERN SECULARISM AND SCIENTISM.
It can be said that the anti-rationalist qualities ascribed to religion can be the characteristics of
fundamentalist and extremist forms of religion. We cannot consider religion as anti-rationalist since many
religious people reconcile reason and faith and make moderate trends within their religions.
Nevertheless, globalization’s strict rationalism manifested in such phenomena as liberalism and

secularism can be incompatible with the norms and the values of certain religions such as Islam.
Islamic norms and values contradict those advocated by globalization. As Anoushiravan Ehteshami points
out, “Globalization is not only seen as a rival of Islamic ways, but also as an alien force divorced from
Muslim realities. Stressing the negative impact of the loose morals of Western life is a daily feature of
airwaves in the Middle East.”
For Muslims, globalization is a source of the loose Western morals, according to the writer. The
imperialist aspirations of globalization and its incompatibility with Islam make the former completely alien
to the Muslim realities. In this respect, the leading Islamic scholar, Salim Al-Awwa, maintains, as
paraphrased by Ehteshami, that globalization is an invasion.
Since it is a cultural construct at its heart and its meaning is the Western discourse, Al-Awwa adds,
promoting and engaging with it on the part of Muslims is like accepting and promoting Western cultural
values and their dominance.
Al-Awwa’s conception derives from his fear of the challenge that is exceedingly exerted by
globalisation on religion. This conception seems, in fact, short-sighted since religious identities have to be
pursued through globalisation technologies for their assertions and fortification.
The challenges of globalisation to religion link automatically to the challenges of religion to

globalisation. To put it in other words, while religion takes caution against the norms and the values related
to globalization, it challenges the latter since it (religion) does not approve its hybridizing effects.
The idea of de-hybridizing effects of religion is approved also by Samuel Huntington Clash Theory which
maintains that such de-hybridising upshots spring also from the religious partitioning and clashes.
RELIGION IN WORLD AFFAIRS: ITS ROLE IN CONFLICT AND PEACE

97
In recent decades, religion has assumed unusual prominence in global affairs. The horrendous
events of 9/11, the conflagration in Iraq, and the aggressive assertiveness of quasi-theocratic Iran only
confirm in the popular mind that religion lies behind much of contemporary international conflict
Summary

98
• No major religion has been exempt from complicity in violent conflict. Yet we need to beware of an almost
universal propensity to oversimplify the role that religion plays in international affairs. Religion is not usually
the sole or even primary cause of conflict.
• With so much emphasis on religion as a source of conflict, the role of religion as a force in peacemaking is
usually overlooked.
• Religious affiliation and conviction often motivates religious communities to advocate particular peace-
related government policies. Religious communities also directly oppose repression and promote peace and
reconciliation.
• Religious leaders and institutions can mediate in conflict situations, serve as a communication link between
opposing sides, and provide training in peace-making methodologies. This form of religious peace-making
garners less public attention but is growing in importance.
• Interfaith dialogue is another form of religious peace-making. Rather than seeking to resolve a particular
conflict, it aims to defuse interfaith tensions that may cause future conflict or derive from previous conflict.
Interfaith dialogue is expanding even in places where interreligious tensions are highest. Not infrequently,
the most contentious interfaith relationships can provide the context for the most meaningful and
productive exchanges.
• Given religion’s importance as both a source of international conflict and a resource for peacemaking, it is
regrettable that the U.S. government is so ill equipped to handle religious issues and relate to religious
actors. If the U.S. government is to insert itself into international conflicts or build deeper and more
productive relationships with countries around the world, it needs to devise a better strategy to effectively
and respectfully engage with the religious realm.
In recent decades, religion has assumed unusual prominence in international affairs. A recent article in The
Economist asserts that, if there ever was a global drift toward secularism, it has been halted and probably
reversed.
In the article, Philip Jenkins, a noted scholar from Pennsylvania State University, predicts that when
historians look back at this century they will see religion as "the prime animating and destructive force in
human affairs, guiding attitudes to political liberty and obligation, concepts of nationhood and, of course,
conflicts and wars." The article then cites statistics from a public opinion survey in Nigeria demonstrating
that Nigerians believe religion to be more central to their identity than nationality. Nigerians are thus more
likely to identify themselves first and foremost as Christians or Muslims rather than as Nigerians. The
horrendous events of September 11, the conflagration in Iraq, and the aggressive assertiveness of quasi-
theocratic Iran only confirm in the popular mind that religion lies behind much of contemporary international
conflict.
About the Report
Since its creation in 2000, the United States Institute of Peace’s Religion and Peace-
making program has worked with local partners to promote religious peace-making in many parts of the
world, including Sudan, Nigeria, Iraq, Israel-Palestine, Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Philippines, and
Indonesia. This report represents reflections on that experience. David Smock has directed the Institute’s
Religion and Peace-making program since its inception. He is also the vice president of the Center for
Mediation and Conflict Resolution.
SELF-CHECK A.2

99
CHAPTER 9
professor.
II. Multiple Choice. Read the sentence carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is not the sole or even primary cause of conflict.

a. Culture b. Technology c. Ethnicity d. Religion
2. It often motivates religious communities to advocate particular peace-related government policies.

a. Religious affiliation and conviction
b. Religious campaign
c. Religious testimonies
d. all of the above
3. It plays international affairs.

a. Culture b. Technology c. Ethnicity d. Religion
4. It is another form of religious peace-making.

a. Interfaith dialogue
b. Confession
c. Faith Campaign
d. none of the above
5. It can provide the context for the most meaningful and productive exchanges.
a. Interfaith relationships c. Globaization
b. Interfaith dialogue d. All of the above

100
should be able to Chapter 10 illustrates the attributes of a global
city how cities serve as engines of globalization
1. Identify the attributes
of a global city
2. Analyze how cities

serve as engines of
globalization
CHAPTER 10 - THE GLOBAL CITY
GLOBAL CITY
A global city, also called a power city, world city, alpha city or world center, is a city which is a
primary node in the global economic network. The concept comes from geography and urban studies, and
the idea that globalization is created and furthered in strategic geographic locales according to a hierarchy
of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade.
The most complex node is the "global city", with links binding it to other cities having a direct and
tangible effect on global socio-economic affairs. The term "megacity" entered common use in the late 19th
or early 20th centuries; one of the earliest documented uses of the term was by the University of Texas in
1904. The term "global city", rather than "megacity", was popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her
1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. "World city", meaning a city heavily involved in
global trade, appeared in the May 1886 description of Liverpool, by The Illustrated London News. Patrick
Geddes later used the term "world city" in 1915. More recently, the term has focused on a city's financial
power and high technology infrastructure, with other factors becoming less relevant.
CRITERIA
Global city status is considered beneficial and desirable. Competing groups have developed multiple
alternative methods to classify and rank world cities and to distinguish them from non-world cities.
Although there is a consensus upon leading world cities, the chosen criteria affect which other cities are
included. Selection criteria may be based on a yardstick value (e.g., if the producer-service sector is the
largest sector then city X is a world city) or on an imminent determination (if the producer-service sector
of city X is greater than the combined producer-service sectors of N other cities then city X is a world city.)
Cities can fall from ranking, as in the case of cities that have become less cosmopolitan and less
internationally renowned in the current era.
Characteristics

101
Although criteria are variable and fluid, typical characteristics of world cities are:
1. A variety of international financial services, notably in finance, insurance, real

estate, banking, accountancy, and marketing
2. Headquarters of several multinational corporations
3. The existence of financial headquarters, a stock exchange, and major financial institutions
4. Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area
5. Major manufacturing centres with port and container facilities
6. Considerable decision-making power on a daily basis and at a global level
7. Centres of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, culture, and politics
8. Centres of media and communications for global networks
9. Dominance of the national region with great international significance
10. High percentage of residents employed in the services sector and information sector
11. High-quality educational institutions, including renowned universities, international student

attendance, and research facilities
12. Multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical, and entertainment
facilities in the country
13. High diversity in language, culture, religion, and ideologies
IS GLOBALIZATION NEW?
Globalization is by definition what characterizes the world today insofar as it is different from
yesterday. Although it has grown out of what we knew and studied before, the processes that changed our
relationship with each other, between our species and others and with the planet as a whole, what is
happening now is unprecedented not only in speed, and in scale, but in quality.
We are still on the trajectory that began with the migration of Homo sapiens out of Africa 100,000
years ago, but we are on the verge of a new socio-cultural phase of human experience in which as many
as ten billion individuals of one species will belong to one community in real time, irrespective of
geographical location.
The comprehensiveness of current change is so new that it was beyond the imagination of the
golden age of science fiction fifty years ago. But that does not mean that every part of the world is affected
by globalization in the same way. Globalization is not homogenization. Globalization is a gradual, irregular
and uneven process. In its most simple terms, it is the recontextualization of daily life in successively more
and more different parts of the world since the latter part of the 20th century.
Globalization affects different places and different dimensions of daily life in different ways, and to
different degrees, But it continues to gather pace, and it is changing the quality of life everywhere, whether
we like it or not.
Globalization involves the progressive inclusion of every part of every country into a single unitary but not
necessarily unified community, irrespective of the variables that governed our ability to interact in the past,
such as distance from cosmopolitan centers and geographical isolation.
IS GLOBALIZATION GOOD?

102
As with all change, globalization helps some and hurts others. As with all new phenomena, we can only
guess in advance exactly what the future advantages and disadvantages may be.
How do we study Globalization?
PROGRAM for research cluster on global cities
Cities are the engines of globalization. They are social magnets, growing faster and faster. In the
current generation urban life has become the dominant form of human life throughout the world. The
problems generated by the present rate of urban growth are new, and cannot be solved on the basis of
the lessons of the past.
Our historical urban institutions are not adapting fast enough to the pace of growth. At Penn we
have the resources in a variety of disciplines and professions to gather, analyse and interpret the new types
of data that are necessary to enable us to catch up and plan for the urban future, in association with other
international initiatives such as the World Ur-ban Forum. An increasing number of large cities, with
populations of over five million, are al-ready identified as global cities, cities that are nodes of global as
much as national networks. In 2000, there were 18 megacities (over 10 million)‚ conurbations such as
Mumbai, Tokyo, New York City/Newark and Mexico City had populations in excess of 10 million inhabitants.
Greater Tokyo already has 35 million.
The Hong Kohn/Guangzhow area is even larger, perhaps 120 million. The social magnetism of
these urban areas is generating larger and denser metropolitan communities to the point were they are
joining together to become regional conurbations. In 1900 5% of world population was urban. In 2007 the
count passed 50%. By 2050 up to 75% is anticipated. Urban growth is faster outside the Western world,
fastest in the poorest areas, such as Africa and the poorer parts of Asia, producing the most serious
problems‚ problems which as the processes of globalization also progress will cease to be African and Asian
problems and will become global problems. Movement into cities increases political voice and participation,
as previously isolated rural populations become players on city streets, on the Internet, and in migration.
As the pace of growth accelerates the distinguishing cultural features of established historical cities
become diluted. Established institutional forms of governance and services do not work with larger
numbers. In the past cities worked differently in culturally different parts of the world, and experienced
different problems, now institutional innovation is failing to keep up with the rate of growth and change,
and the problems confronting urban populations depend more on size and the rate of growth than on
cultural expectations. In order to keep abreast of emerging problems we now need to plan and organize
the comparative study of global cities. The biggest problems are (a) political: inequality; (b) economic:
water, food, employment; (c) environmental: air quality, drainage; (d) leisure. If we make allowances for
differences relating to location (in relation to communications and resources) and economic focus
(manufacturing in relation to services), it would appear that the faster the rate of growth, the more the
influence of cultural factors fades into the background and the problems of governance and supply become
similar. For this reason a global approach is essential. The comparative study of global cities is imperative.
It will enable us to learn from the study of one for the solution of problems in others.
1. Population growth leads to urban growth (for reasons that are interesting to consider).
As cities become larger they become global cities, cities as hubs and gateways that articulate the
global political economy. a process that leads to global urbanization. New cities and new growth in old
cities break through the cultural rules that were the product of slower old growth, with the result that in
new urban growth the social growth supersedes the cultural differentiation of the cities of the past. New
cities are generic cities. In order to understand this process, and the problems that will confront us in the
coming decades, we need to study global cities comparatively, so that it will be easier to plan in more
general terms for a generically urban world.
2. Problems
Increasing densities of population over larger areas are changing the quality of human life by
changing its environmental context. As a result we are running into new problems, even new types of
problems. For example, diseases mutate faster than we can design drugs to cure them; people demand

103
different types of food, but perhaps most importantly the larger the population over a particular degree of
density the greater the social disorder. With every increase in com-munity size in world history there has
been an increase in the incidence of crime. Our current methods of dealing with crime were established
following the introduction of police forces in the 19th century. Since then there has been scissors-and-paste
updating, but no structural rethinking. The biggest changes have occurred recently with the emergence of
what we now define as terror-ism and the war on terror, and a difficult political debate about how to handle
it. But apart from terrorism, the world’s most urbanized societies have not only the fullest prisons but also
the highest rates of unsolved and even unreported crime. Incarceration is not only not solving the problem,
it cannot be allowed to continue to grow and it probably leads to an overall increase in crime through the
alienation of inmates.
Crime, or deficiencies in social order in an urbanizing world, can be divided into two types. The
first, and perhaps the largest in statistical terms, results from the emergence of social boundaries: groups
or categories of people who are disadvantaged or see themselves as disadvantaged, are alienated from the
mainstream and identify themselves in opposition to it (terrorism is the ultimate extreme of this case). The
second may be defined as hyper-entrepreneurship: individuals see ways to improve their situation by
circumventing conventions (Madoff is the ultimate extreme of this type). If we start from a position that
understands society today in terms of multiple superimposed networks, both of these problems may be
seen as a failure of networking mechanisms: the first type are excluded from the general networking; the
second type see ways to circumvent it and beat its controls.
3. Methods for policy-oriented research.
How can we prepare ourselves for dealing with these problems of social order as the growth and
morph into more difficult problems in the coming decades? We are faced with serious methodological
problems that make it difficult for us to get the sort of information we need in order to be able to deal with
these emerging practical problems. The reason is that all our current re-search methods are methods that
developed in response to the research questions we were asking about an earlier type of society, at an
earlier stage of social growth, particularly a society that was not changing so fast and which we could still
usefully study without paying much attention to the process of change. Those will no longer work. The
period of world history we are now in, which began perhaps fifty years ago, in which the population of the
world is growing in not much more than a single century from around 4 billion to around 10B, is for exactly
this reason the period of fastest change in world history, not only quantitative, but qualitative change. Up
until now it has worked for us to organize our research around the way things have come to be.
From now on we have to work out how to organize our research around how things are becoming.
In order to do this we have to be methodologically innovative and experimental. In relation to the problems
as introduced above, networking has to be investigated diachronically, as a process. We can no longer get
useful results by extrapolating from the particular that we observe to a generalization that has only static
connotations, like a community. We have to extrapolate to something that is explicitly a process. Over the
past year we have begun to do this, using student assistants working in different cities in America and
elsewhere. What we need to do now, and we are now ready to start doing it, is to professionalize it on a
comparative level, in selected cities.
SELF CHECK A.3

CHAPTER 10
professor.

104
1. It is considered the engines of globalization.

a. Cities b. Leaders c. Globalization d. Financial
2. It is a gradual, irregular and uneven process.

a. Cities b. Leaders c. Globalization d. Financial
3. It is a city which is a primary node in the global economic network.

a. World City b. U.S c. United Nation d. Global City
4. It is the term which was commonly used in the late 19th or early 20th centuries.
a. megacity b. global city c. world city d. power city
5. It is one of the characteristics of world cities.

a. Considerable decision-making power on a daily basis and at a global level
b. Centres of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, culture, and politics
c. Centres of media and communications for global networks
d. All of the above
6. It involves the progressive inclusion of every part of every country into a single unitary but not
necessarily unified community, irrespective of the variables that governed our ability to interact in
the past, such as distance from cosmopolitan centers and geographical isolation.
a. Technological b. Sociological c. Globalization d. Financial
7. It is considered as generic cities.

a. New Growth b. New Cities c. Old Cities d. World Cities
8. It breaks through the cultural rules that were the product of slower old growth, with the result
that in new urban growth the social growth supersedes the cultural differentiation of the cities of
the past.
a. New cities and new growth in old cities

b. Globalization and New Cities
c. World Cities
d. Global City

Globalization
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1. Explain the theory of
demographic
transition as it affects
global population

105
CHAPTER 11- GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
Populations change over time. The growth or decline of a population can have an effect on the
quality of life for people within that population. In this lesson, you'll learn about the theory of demographic
transition, which is a model used to study and predict population changes.
Demography
Demography : is the statistical study of human populations. Demographers look at

information in order to determine specific characteristics of a population.
In this lesson, we will use the fictitious population of Dharma Island that has recently formed in the ocean
to look at the theory of demographic transition, which is basically a population change model that
demographers can use to review how a population has changed in the past as well as how to make
predictions about the future of the population.
Demographic Terms
Before we can look at the theory of demographic transition using our population on Dharma, we
first need to go over a few terms that will be used.
Fertility rate refers to the number of births in a population. This is normally given as a number
out of another number.
For example, the fertility rate on Dharma was around 31 births per 1,000 women age 15 - 44. You may
also see it as the number of children per woman such as 1.6 children per woman. This is an average of
children who were born to women generally of reproductive age (around 15 - 44 years old).
Opposite of fertility rate is mortality rate, which is the number of deaths in a population. Again,
this is normally given as a number out of another number. On Dharma, the mortality rate was 8 out of
1,000 people.
Other terms that are used when talking about demography include age composition and life
expectancy. Life expectancy refers to the age at which someone is predicted to die. Again, let's look at
information about Dharma. The life expectancy of women was 81 years, and the life expectancy of men
was 76 years.
The age composition of a population can best be described as the age structure of the population.
This refers to the number of people in certain age groups. A population may be described as having a large
number of young people or maybe a large number of older individuals. Demographers often
use population pyramids in order to illustrate information about age composition and life expectancy.
Let's take a look at a few pyramids now to understand the basics.

106
This population pyramid shows a population whose life
expectancy is not very high
In this diagram, we have the number of males on the left in blue and the number of females on
the right in pink. The overall shape of the population looks like an upside down ice cream cone. We can
see from this that the age composition of the population is much larger at younger ages than older ages.
The number of females and males is about the same. The life expectancy is not very high as there are few
older people in the population.
This next diagram again has the males on the left in blue and the females on the right in pink. This
looks more like a triangle, but again, we can see that the age composition of the population is heavily
based in the younger population. The main difference between this pyramid and the first is that the life
expectancy is longer. We can see this by viewing the top of the pyramid. In this case, there are more
people alive in the older ages than on the first diagram.
This next population pyramid has a more even shape, indicating that the age composition is pretty
well balanced between the younger and older groups within the population. The life expectancy is greater
for this population than the previous population, which we can see by the large number of individuals in
the older age groups. We can also tell that the fertility rate isn't as high because the number of young
people is more even with the rest of the population.
In this last population pyramid, we can identify one main difference from the last graph. In this
population, the birth rate is declining. It may be difficult to see, but if we look closely at the bottom of the
diagram, we can see that there is a small dip indicating that the number of young people is lower than the
rest of the population.
The Theory of Demographic Transition
Theory of Demographic Transition is a theory that throws light on changes in birth rate and death rate and
consequently on the growth-rate of population.
Along with the economic development, tendencies of birth-rate and death rate are different.
Because of it, growth rate of population is also different.
“Demographic transition refers to a population cycle that begins with a fall in the death rate, continues with
a phase of rapid population growth and concludes with a decline in the birth rate”-E.G. Dolan.
According to this theory, economic development has the effect of bringing about a reduction in the death
rate.
The relationship between birth and death rates changes with economic development and a country has to
pass through different stages of population growth. C.P. Blacker divided population into five types as high,
stationary, early expanding, low stationary and diminishing. According to the theory of demographic
transition, population growth will have to pass through these different stages during the course of economic
development.

107
The four stages of demographic transition mentioned by Max are explained as follows:
First Stage:
This stage has been called high population growth potential stage. It is characterised by high and fluctuating
birth and death rates which will almost neutralize each other. People mostly live in rural areas and their
main occupation is agriculture which is in the stage of backwardness. The tertiary sector consisting of
transport, commerce banking and insurance is underdeveloped.
All these factors are responsible for low income and poverty of the masses. Social beliefs and customs play
an important role in keeping birth rate high. Death rate is also high because of primitive sanitation and
absence of medical facilities. People live in dirty and unhealthy surroundings.
As a result, they are disease ridden and the absence of proper medical care results in large deaths. The
mortality rate is highest among the poor. Thus, high birth rates and death rates remain approximately
equal over time so that a static equilibrium with zero population growth prevails.
Second Stage:
It is called the stage of Population Explosion. In this stage the death rate is decreasing while the birth rate
remains constant at a high level. Agricultural and industrial productivity increases, means of transport and
communication develops. There is great mobility of labour. Education expands. Income also increases.
People get more and better quality of food products. Medical and health facilities are expanded.
Demographic Transition of India
During the stage economic development is speeded up due to individual and government efforts. Increased
use of better technology, mechanization and urbanisation takes place. But there is no substantial change
in the men, attitude of the people and hence birth rate stays high i.e., economic development has not yet
started affecting the birth rate.
Due to the widening gap between the birth and death rates, population grows at an exceptionally high rate
and that is why it has been called the population explosion stage. This is an “Expanding” stage in population
development where population grows at an increasing rate, as shown in figure, with the decline in death
rate and no change in birth rate.
Demographic Transition of India
Third Stage:
It is also characterized as a population stage because the population continues to grow at a fast rate. In
this stage, birth rate as compared to the death rate declines more rapidly. As a result, population grows at
a diminishing rate. This stage witnesses a fall in the birth rate while the death rate stays constant because
it has already declined to the lowest minimum. Birth rate declines due to the impact of economic
development, changed social attitudes and increased facilities for family planning. Population continues to
grow fast because death rate stops falling whereas birth rate though declining but remains higher than
death rate.
Fourth Stage:
It is called the stage of stationary population. Birch rate and death rate are both at a low level and they
are again near balance. Birth rate is approximately equal to death rate and there is little growth in
population. It becomes more or less stationary at a low level.
These stages of demographic transition can be explained with the help of diagram 3 given below:
Stage I is characterized by high birth rate, death rate and low rate of population growth.

108
Stage II is characterized by high and stationary birth rate, rapidly declining death rate and very
rapid increase in population.
Stage III is characterized by a falling birth rate, low and stationary death rate and rapidly rising
population.
SELF CHECK A. 4
CHAPTER 11
professor.
1. It is often used by Demographers in order to illustrate information about age composition and
life expectancy.
a. Graph b. formula c. population map d. population pyramids
2. It is the number of deaths in a population.

a. demography b. mortality rate c. fertility rate d. morbidity rate
3. It is the life expectancy of men.

a. 73 years b. 74 years c. 75 years b. 76 years
4. It refers to the age at which someone is predicted to die.

a. Life span b. Life cycle c. Life expectancy d. both a and b
5. It refers to the number of births in a population. This is normally given as a number out of
another number.
6. It refers to the number of people in certain age groups.

a. age composition b. fertility rate c. morbidity rate d. life cycle
7. It is the statistical study of human populations. Demographers look at

information in order to determine specific characteristics of a population.
8. It is the life expectancy of women.

a. 80 years b. 81 years c. 82 years b. 83 years

should be able to
109
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CHAPTER 12 - GLOBAL MIGRATION
FACTORS INFLUENCING MIGRATION AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS
Many factors that influence migration are difficult to predict. While social, political and economic
developments are exceptionally difficult to predict precisely, judgements can be made based upon current
situations. Ecological disruption is easier to pre-empt as there is a large body of scientific evidence to
suggest that this factor will be a cause for concern in the near future. Environmental modelling, as well as
worsening food and water security in many countries, shows that ecological issues are already beginning
to present challenges globally. Ecological factors have the potential to become an increasingly significant
force influencing migration over the 21st century.
Migrants themselves can be divided into two broad categories: humanitarian and economic.
Humanitarian migrants include asylum seekers and refugees. These individuals generally migrate to
countries geographically close to their country of origin. Over the past decade, Afghanistan has been a
major source of humanitarian emigrants, with Pakistan and Iran becoming their main destination
countries. Economic migrants, on the other hand, migrates in order to find employment or improve their
financial circumstances. In the past, these migrants have generally moved from poorer to richer countries,
however, recent evidence suggests that this is beginning to change with increasing levels of south-south
and circular migration being seen.
Socio-political Factors
Social push factors can include ethnic, religious, racial, and cultural persecution. Warfare, or the
threat of conflict, is also a major push factor. In the Australian context, most asylum seekers arriving by
boat in the last decade have come from Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Sri Lanka. All of these countries, apart
from Iran, have undergone extremely destabilizing conflicts in recent years. On the other hand, while it is
free of violent conflict, Iran has one of the worst human rights records in the world leading many of its
citizens to seek asylum outside of its borders.
The politicization of religious and ethnic identities has the potential to cause significant levels of
conflict within states. Empirical evidence suggests that states undergoing a political transition from
authoritarian rule to democracy are at greater risk of instability and internal conflict. Often these states
lack the ability to properly respond to social instability. Several states within the Indian Ocean Region (IOR),
including Burma, have recently begun to democratize while failing to simultaneously develop a shared
national identity capable of tying together the various groups within their borders. In socially diverse states
the potential for conflict may be greater than in more homogenous or inclusive societies. The future level
of migration from these countries is wholly dependent upon the longevity and severity of any conflict that
could arise from social grievances.
Individuals migrating due to social or political conditions are more likely to do so as humanitarian
migrants. This will have an impact upon where they settle as some countries have more liberal approaches

110
to humanitarian migrants than others. In the first instance, these individuals are likely to move to the
nearest safe country that accepts asylum seekers. This does not, however, prevent them from undertaking
a second migration to a country that provides a broader range of legal rights to asylum seekers and
refugees.
Economic Factors
Economic factors relate to the labour standards of a country, its unemployment situation and the
overall health of its economy. If economic conditions are not favourable and appear to be at risk of declining
further, a greater number of individuals will probably emigrate to one with a better economy. Often this
will result in people moving from rural to urban areas while remaining within the confines of their state
borders. As the low- and middle-income countries of today continue to develop and the high-income
countries experience slower economic growth, migration from the former could decline.
Economic migrants are drawn towards international migration because of the prospect of higher
wages, better employment opportunities and, often, a desire to escape the domestic social and political
situation of their home country. These migrants are most likely to come from middle-income countries
where the population is becoming increasingly well educated. Salaries and wages, however, are likely to
remain relatively low compared to those of individuals with a similar educational background in other,
higher-income countries. This disparity has the potential to lead to some highly-skilled individuals from
developing countries migrating to more developed countries. This form of migration is known as south-
north migration and has historically been the main form of economic migration.
In south-north migration, individuals from developing countries moved to more developed

countries for work and sent remittances back to their country of origin. Over the past decade, however,
south-south migration has become increasingly common. In 2013, south-south migration accounted for 36
per cent of all international migration while south-north movements accounted for 35 per cent.
According to the Migration Policy Institute, migration between developing countries is built upon
proximity, identity networks, income differentials and seasonal migration. For these reasons, 80 per cent
of south-south migration occurs between states with contiguous borders where common cultural identities
are likely to be found.4 The increasing prevalence of south-south economic migration is likely to continue
as the barriers to migration are lower than south-north migration. Migrants from the south are generally
less skilled and lower-educated than their counterparts from the north, making it difficult for them to
migrate to more developed countries. Additionally, since migration occurs over smaller geographical
distances it is potentially less disruptive to migrants and communities.
Technological advancement, both in communications and transport, in addition to the liberalisation

of labour markets, has the potential to increase the rate of circular migration. This form of migration occurs
when individuals migrate between an origin and a destination on several separate occasions. Generally,
economic forces motivate individuals to move to countries where employment prospects are better before
returning to their country of origin. Studies have shown that circular migration can have positive
development outcomes. Most importantly, circular migrants are more likely to send larger remittances back
to their country of origin than those who permanently settle within their destination country. Furthermore,
issues relating to brain drain and a hollowing out of the labour force are largely averted. Problems of
exploitation still remain, suggesting that efforts need to be made to ensure that standardized regulations
are adopted to protect the rights of circular migrants.
Economic migrants have a greater degree of choice in determining their destination than
humanitarian migrants. Many asylum seekers will flee to the nearest safe country that will accept them
whereas economic migrants will move to countries that either require their skills or have better conditions
than their country of origin. Pull factors within the destination country are therefore more likely to influence
the decision making process of economic migrants.
Ecological Factors: Climate Disruption Exacerbates Other Forces
Of the ecological factors that push individuals to migrate, climate change is, arguably, the most
serious. Over the next decade, climate change has the potential to intensify the impacts of the social,
political and economic push factors described earlier in this paper. Even if individuals affected by climate
111
change move only short distances this has the potential to alter social, political and economic dynamics.
The possibility of social issues arising increases when tribal, ethnic and religious groups that were
historically separate are forced to intermingle due to traditional lands no longer being able to support
human settlement. Individuals engaged in agriculture, for example, could be forced to find alternative forms
of employment as their land is no longer capable of producing or sustaining viable quantities of goods.
Food and water prices are likely to increase in parts of the region due to greater scarcity of these resources.
These burdens place additional strain upon the capacity of the state to ensure welfare for all and, in some
cases, maintain its stability.
The observable impacts of climate change are likely to become more apparent over the course of
the next decade. States must utilize this time to prepare for the increased migratory flows that will be a
consequence of the inevitable disruption that will occur over the next century. Climate change will have an
impact upon water resources, agriculture, food security, public health and, in some instances, threaten the
very existence of some states.
The impacts of climate change will be most apparent in developing countries which lack the
wherewithal to adequately address, or adapt to, the changing environment.
Food and water security are expected to become more salient issues over the coming decades.
The most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report suggests that climate change will have
its largest impact upon food security by the middle of this century. Regions that can no longer sustain
agriculture are likely to experience rural to urban migration or, in some cases, increased levels of
international emigration. Another factor that can worsen food insecurity is water security. Increasing water
insecurity in parts of the IOR, especially, has the potential to influence international migration.
Individuals who are severely impacted by changing ecological conditions may choose to migrate
from their home state in search of more favourable environmental conditions elsewhere. Those who choose
to emigrate due to more frequent or more destructive natural disasters may identify as climate refugees
and seek asylum in other countries less affected by climatic extremes. Climate refugees are defined as
‘people who have to leave their habitats immediately or in the near future, because of sudden or gradual
alterations in their natural environment related to at least one of three impacts of climate change: sea-level
rise, extreme weather events, and drought and water scarcity.’ 7 This definition, however, has no standing
in international refugee law and organisations, including the United Nations, prefer to use the term
environmental migrant. Fearing that it is now too late to take action to prevent climate change the
international community is preparing measures for adaptation. Environmental migration is one such
adaptation measure that must be taken into greater consideration by the international community.
Conclusion
Increasing levels of intolerance, economic disparities between countries as well as the threat of climate
change and its associated impacts are all key factors that drive immigration and population movements.
This part of the paper has looked at the major factors that influence population movements and
immigration. The next will explore how these factors are likely to impact the IOR over the next decade.

112
Case Study: Overseas Filipino Workers (LOP 62 G)
Editor’s Note: This is an edited version of a paper delivered at the Consultation of the Lausanne Theology
Working Group in partnership with the WEA Theological Commission, ‘Following Jesus in our Broken World’,
held at Limuru, Kenya, 12-16 February 2007. © Lausanne Theology Working Group.
Globalization has engendered the phenomenal growth of transnational economic migration, with its
opportunities and heartaches. The economic interdependence of countries has resulted not only in the
exchange of goods but also in the exchange of services, in the form of the movement of migrant contract
workers from poorer economies to more affluent ones. However, the need to maximize profit by factoring
the least cost in production has brought about the massive importation of cheap labour.1In this case study,
I will set out the situation of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) and their families, and explore biblical and
theological themes relevant to their plight. Although I would reflect on the particular case of Filipino
economic migrants, many of the issues discussed here apply to other labour migrants as well.
I. The Broken World of OFWs

With about eight million Filipinos residing overseas, comprising 10 per-cent of the country’s population of
86 million, the Philippines has one of the largest proportion of migrant workers in relation to its total
population of all countries. For many Filipinos, migration is a symbol of hope because it provides an
alternative to being unemployed or underemployed, living in poverty, or having a life that is qualitatively
less than one’s aspirations. Remittances sent by a family member working overseas can give significant
economic help to a household in the Philippines. On a national scale, migration is seen as necessary for
national survival. The remittances of OFWs make up 20% of the country’s exports and 10% of GDP, which
are a lifeline to a government struggling with a large external debt. Because of the OFWs contribution to
the economy, the export of migrant workers has become part of national policy.2 However, labour
migration means also marginalization, social dislocation, downward social mobility, and family
fragmentation.
Filipino migrants experience marginalization in two ways. First, they become socially and structurally
invisible in relation to the host society. Even though they have college degrees and professional
backgrounds in the Philippines, and may have prominent roles in their family and community, they
disappear into other people’s homes, hospitals, nursing homes, manufacturing centres in other countries.
Second, they experience a subaltern existence. The pain of marginality is made acute by being regarded
as mere instruments of policy and by being subjected to ethnic, economic, and social differentiation. Migrant
workers are often seen as mere objects to advance the interests of both the country of destination and the
country of origin, without regard to the personal and family fragmentation and disempowerment that this
produces.
Those who work as domestic workers are vulnerable to abuse since, as live-in workers, they are dependent
on their employers and have no private spaces of their own or complete control of their time. As foreigners
who are employed in jobs on the lowest rung of the economic and social ladder, they are also subject to
prejudice. More-over, as temporary residents, they do not have adequate legal and civil rights to protect
them from being exploited. In addition, because migration holds the promise of economic advancement,
some Filipinos have resorted to illegal means to be able to work and live overseas. This has given Filipinos
the reputation of being law-breakers and has led to some humiliating deportations and imprisonment.
In addition, economic migration produces the phenomenon of transnational families, in which one or two
parents are abroad while children are reared by one parent or by relatives. This arrangement brings a lot
of emotional stress – guilt for parents, insecurity and loneliness for children, and emotional distance
between parents and children. This is especially the case when the migrant is the mother, a common
situation since women comprise more than fifty percent of OFWs. A conflict then results between the
economic security of the family and its emotional and psychological well-being.
On a national scale, the migration of so many nationals means massive brain drain as teachers, doctors,
nurses, engineers move to other parts of the world. This is tragic, considering that in many villages in the
Philip-pines, medical facilities are under-staffed, while vital infrastructures are needed for the development
of the local economy.
II. Biblical Themes and Texts

113
Christian responses to the OFW phenomenon are varied; thus, the theological themes and biblical texts
used are varied as well. The following sets forth briefly the different views, with the themes and texts that
are found to be relevant for each view.
1. The Migrant as Provider

Economic migration can be regarded as something God brought about in order to provide for the needy.
The globalized marketplace is considered as an opportunity for economic betterment, while the migrant
worker is viewed as a provider not only of the family, but also as a financial supporter of the local church
and its missionaries. The texts that fit this position are the stories of the migration of Jacob and his family
to Egypt, as well as the migration of Naomi and her family to Moab because of famine. Like Joseph, the
migrant is seen as a channel of God’s blessings for the family and for the nation. The theological themes
emphasized are God’s sovereignty and providence, so that God is seen as working out a plan to provide
for the family through the globalized environment. Anthropologically, economic migration is regarded as
part of the outworking of the Genesis mandate for human beings to exercise dominion over the created
order (Gen. 1:26-28). Concentrating on the economic contribution, however, has led to the neglect of the
spiritual, emotional, and social aspects of migration.
2. The Migrant as Missionary

Another positive view sees economic migration as something that God allowed in order to advance the
cause of global mission. Many evangelical groups espouse this view. God has a plan for the scattering of
Filipinos all over the world because Filipinos have the qualities needed to become an effective ‘tentmaker’.
They are adaptable, can easily learn another language, and have penetrated almost all industrial sectors in
over 180 countries, including those where traditional missionaries are not allowed to enter and share the
gospel.7Thus, they are well placed to become witnesses by doing their jobs well and seeking for
opportunities to share their faith.
The most relevant text for this view is Acts 18:2-4, in which Paul, along with Priscilla and Aquila, are shown
to be working on a trade as they preach the gospel. Other texts cited show God’s people being forcefully
brought to a foreign hostile culture, and being able to be a witness for God in that place: Joseph in Egypt
(Gen. 41:14-49), the captive servant girl of Naaman in Aram (2 Kgs. 5:1-15), Daniel in Baby-lon (Dan.
2:24-48), and Nehemiah in Persia (Neh. 2:1-9).8The Jewish dispersion in Acts due to persecution is also
used, since the scattering of the Jerusalem church resulted in a wider coverage for the proclamation of the
gospel (Acts 8:1-4; 11:19-21). A particular case is Philip who proclaimed the word in Samaria and to an
Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:5-13; 26-39).9Again, God’s sovereignty and providence are the main themes,
with the church’s mission to ‘make disciples of all nations’ being given emphasis.
Many OFWs have become Christians while working overseas and have grown in discipleship through the
ministry of other Filipino migrants. Many churches ministering to OFWs have been planted and are growing.
However, only sporadic fruit has been seen among non-Filipinos, especially in Muslim countries. At the
same time, since the contract of an OFW lasts only a few years, there is a rapid turnover of leadership in
the migrant church. Many of those active in ministry while overseas have become displaced upon their
return home, sometimes becoming alienated from the local church. The missionary model can gloss over
the negative effects of migration, extolling its virtues, without properly addressing its problems.
3. The Migrant as Sojourner and Pilgrim

Another view recognizes the reality of migration because of the economic need, but also sees the migrant’s
marginal status and vulnerability in relation to the host society. Catholic churches in the Philippines give
emphasis to this view. What is highlighted is the gift that the stranger brings to the host society and the
need to provide hospitality for them.10
Naomi loses her husband and two sons but she gains a faithful daughter-in-law in Ruth, who, as a migrant
in Israel, becomes a source of blessing for Naomi through a son that would continue her husband’s
lineage.11In the NT, the acceptance of the stranger is equated with the acceptance of Christ (Mt. 25:34-
45), in the same way that the reception accorded Christ’s disciples in their mission also indicated the degree
of their acceptance of Christ and his message (Lk. 10: 8-12, 16).12Thus, ‘the presence of God in the for-
eigner is the foundation for the duty of hospitality’.13

114
In the OT, a high value is given to hospitality to strangers and travellers (Gen. 18:1-6; 19:1-9; 24:15-33;
Ex. 2:15-22: 1 Kgs. 17:8-16). Hospitality is exemplified in the NT by the welcome that Mary and Martha
(Lk. 10:38-42) and Zaccheus (Lk. 19:1-10) gave to Jesus. Moreover, having experienced what it was like
to be an alien, Israel is enjoined not to oppress the alien (Ex. 23:9; Dt. 24:17-22), to ensure that there
would be food for them (Lev. 19:9-10; Deut. 14:28-29; 26:12-13), and to be inclusive in their worship by
allowing the alien to join in their celebrations and festivals (Lev. 19:9-10; Deut. 16:10-15).
The theological themes and images that are important for this view are the following: the welcoming God,
the church as a pilgrim people (1 Pet. 2:11), the church as a welcoming com-munity, and a theology of
work that sees gainful employment as a basic human right.
Some churches in western countries have provided welcome to migrants, enriching not only the migrant
but also their communities. However, the problems causing migration are not addressed. Moreover, there
is also a tension in host countries between pro-viding welcome to strangers and protecting their own
citizens. A more thorough theological response needs to be articulated regarding this issue.
4. The Migrant as Victim

A more negative view of labour migration highlights its effects on the individual and the family, on national
human resources, and on cultural values. Thus, migrants are presented as victims of global economic forces
beyond their control. Individually, migrants acquire consumerist values and they dream of upward mobility
while living overseas, thus making it difficult for them to return home permanently. Families become
vulnerable and children are deprived of the nurturing presence of parents. The services of the country’s
skilled labour are not employed in helping the country’s own people, but are exported to help those who
are better placed to avail of competent medical help and educational resources.
Thus, what is advocated is structural change, both in the sending country and the receiving one. For the
sending country, what needs to be addressed are the basic issues that lead to migration – unemployment,
poverty, lack of opportunity, colonial mentality, government policies that encourage migration, etc. For the
host country, what needs to be encouraged are policies that would see the migrant not solely as an
instrument of profit, but as a total person with human needs and basic rights.
The following theological themes can be used to support this view: the God of justice and righteousness,
the dignity of human beings made in the image of God and not just as instruments of production, the
importance of the family in the faith community, and the incarnation as an example of downward mobility.
The focus on the victimized state of migrants, although addressing structural issues, can fail to recognize
the migrants’ own agency. Thus, instead of empowering them to make decisions for themselves, it can
lead to greater dependency and hopelessness.
5. The Migrant as Liminal Person

This view sees temporary migration as a liminal experience, in which the migrant undergoes a rite-of-
passage that would enable him or her to negotiate a successful return to the home country.14 Although
migration is a place of marginality, it can be also be a place of possibility, if the migrant moves from
marginality to liminality and finally to reincorporation into the home community through reverse
migration.15Because migrants are able to develop a ‘plurality of vision’, they can be a great resource to
the home country upon their return.16 The early chapters of Exodus focus on the marginal experience of
migrants. On one hand, there is the account of Israelite migrants who were seen as threats to the security
of their host society, and were therefore subjected to different forms of ethnic cleansing and subjugation.
On the other hand, there is the depiction of Moses in Midian, who described himself as a ‘stranger’, and
whose life as a shepherd in a foreign land was hidden and invisible. By using ger as a self-description,
Moses acknowledged his marginal, dependent, and less privileged status as a foreigner living among the
native-born inhabitants of Midian.17These two pictures capture the general experience of Filipinos who
migrate to other lands.
Moses, however, did not remain in Midian. Through the call of God to return to Egypt, the marginal life in
Midian became imbued with a transitional character, an in-between state between the Egypt of Moses’
upbringing and the Egypt of his prophetic calling. It was in this liminal space that Moses was transformed,
receiving a new identity that enabled him to fulfil his role as God’s spokesperson to the Israelites.

115
The story of God’s call to Moses can inform the experience of Filipino migrants. First, it shows that they
need not be oriented by the global capitalistic consumerist mentality of success. There is an alternative
‘journey of achievement’ which is defined not by economics, but by commitment and service. Second, it
shows that there are other claims in life than the claims of one’s family and kin. The Exodus story helps to
relativize the claims of the family in light of God’s call and the claims of one’s own suffering community,
paving the way for return migration.
Again, structural issues may be glossed over in this view, although it gives a role to agency. Moreover, the
question of whether to return permanently to one’s country after migrating is not an easy one to answer,
and theological and pastoral guidance must be given to those who are contemplating doing so.
III. Following Jesus in the Context of Global Economic Migration

The above models show that discerning how to follow Jesus in the context of global economic migration is
not an easy path. In the first place, it involves several spheres: the migrant, the migrant’s family and
relatives, the migrant’s employer, the church, the sending country, and the host country. It is the church,
however, which is the locus of discipleship, since it is the church that oversees the formation and well-
being of migrants and their families, as well as the one that exercises a prophetic role in calling both the
sending society and the host society to policies that would reflect the values of God’s kingdom. The
challenge is to know the appropriate theological response to a particular situation, since it is possible to
have the right the-ology but apply it to the wrong context. What is clear, however, is that in forming a
theology that relates to the globalized marketplace, one must take into consideration the plight of the
migrant workers. This would involve recovering Jesus’ concern for the marginalized, the invisible people
who are often forgotten in today’s market-driven world.
WHAT IS HUMAN MIGRATION?
Migration (human) is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of
taking up permanent or semi-permanent residence, usually across a political boundary.
An example of "semi-permanent residence" would be the seasonal movements of migrant farm laborers.
People can either choose to move ("voluntary migration") or be forced to move ("involuntary migration").
Migrations have occurred throughout human history, beginning with the movements of the first human
groups from their origins in East Africa to their current location in the world.
Migration occurs at a variety of scales: intercontinental (between continents), intracontinental (between

countries on a given continent), and interregional (withincountries). One of the most significant migration
patterns has been rural to urban migration—the movement of people from the countryside to cities in
search of opportunities.
TYPES OF MIGRATION
1. Internal Migration : Moving to a new home within a state, country, or continent.

2. External Migration : Moving to a new home in a different state, country, or continent.
3. Emigration : Leaving one country to move to another (e.g., the Pilgrims emigrated
from England).
4. Immigration : Moving into a new country (e.g., the Pilgrims immigrated to America).
5. Population Transfer : When a government forces a large group of people out of a region,
usually based on ethnicity or religion. This is also known as an
involuntary or forced migration.
6. Impelled Migration (also called "reluctant" or "imposed" migration): Individuals are
not forced out of their country, but leave because of unfavorable
situations such as warfare, political problems, or religious persecution.
7. Step Migration : A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a person's place of
origin to final destination—such as moving from a farm, to a village, to a
town, and finally to a city.
8. Chain Migration : A series of migrations within a family or defined group of people. A
chain migration often begins with one family member who sends money
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to bring other family members to the new location. Chain migration
results in migration fields—the clustering of people from a specific region
into certain neighborhoods or small towns.
9. Return Migration : The voluntary movements of immigrants back to their place of origin.
This is also known as circular migration.
10. Seasonal Migration : The process of moving for a period of time in response to labor or
climate conditions (e.g., farm workers following crop harvests or working
in cities off-season; "snowbirds" moving to the southern and
southwestern United States during winter).
PEOPLE WHO MIGRATE
1. Emigrant : A person who is leaving a country to reside in another.

2. Immigrant : A person who is entering a country from another to take up new
residence.
3. Refugee : A person who is residing outside the country of his or her origin due to
fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership
in a particular social group, or political opinion.
4. Internally Displaced Person (IDP): A person who is forced to leave his or her home region
because of unfavorable conditions (political, social, environmental, etc.)
but does not cross any boundaries.
5. Migration Stream : A group migration from a particular country, region, or city to a certain
destination.
Why Do People Migrate?
People move for a variety of reasons. They consider the advantages and disadvantages of
staying versus moving, as well as factors such as distance, travel costs, travel time, modes of
transportation, terrain, and cultural barriers.
Push Factors: Reasons for emigrating (leaving a place) because of a difficulty (such as a
food shortage, war, flood, etc.).
Pull Factors: Reasons for immigrating (moving into a place) because of something desirable
(such as a nicer climate, better food supply, freedom, etc.).
Several types of push and pull factors may influence people in their movements (sometimes
at the same time), including:
1. Environmental (e.g., climate, natural disasters)

2. Political (e.g., war)
3. Economic (e.g., work)
4. Cultural (e.g., religious freedom, education)
Place Utility: The desirability of a place based on its social, economic, or environmental
situation, often used to compare the value of living in different locations. An individual’s idea
of place utility may or may not reflect the actual conditions of that location.
Intervening Opportunities: Opportunities nearby are usually considered more attractive

than equal or slightly better opportunities farther away, so migrants tend to settle in a
location closer to their point of origin if other factors are equal.
Distance Decay: As distance from a given location increases, understanding of that location
decreases. People are more likely to settle in a (closer) place about which they have more
knowledge than in a (farther) place about which they know and understand little.
Laws of Migration
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Geographer E.G. Ravenstein developed a series of migration 'laws' in the 1880s that form the
basis for modern migration theory. In simple language, these principles state:
• Most migrants travel only a short distance.

• Migrants traveling long distances usually settle in urban areas.
• Most migration occurs in steps.
• Most migration is rural to urban.
• Each migration flow produces a movement in the opposite direction ("counterflow").
• Most migrants are adults.
• Most international migrants are young males, while more internal migrants are female.
Impacts of Migration
Human migration affects population patterns and characteristics, social and cultural patterns and processes,
economies, and physical environments. As people move, their cultural traits and ideas diffuse along with
them, creating and modifying cultural landscapes.
Diffusion: The process through which certain characteristics (e.g., cultural traits, ideas, disease) spread
over space and through time.
Relocation Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc. that move with people from one place to another and do
not remain in the point of origin.
Expansion Diffusion: Ideas, cultural traits, etc., that move with people from one place to another but
are not lost at the point of origin, such as language.
Cultural markers: Structures or artifacts (e.g., buildings, spiritual places, architectural styles, signs, etc.)
that reflect the cultures and histories of those who constructed or occupy them.
Measuring Migration
In-migration: people moving into one place from another place within a nation (internal migration).
Out-migration: people moving out of one place to another place within a nation (internal migration).
Gross migration: total number of in-migrants and out-migrants (internal migration).
Net internal migration: the difference between in-migration and out-migration.
Movers from abroad: people coming into a nation from another country or part of the world.
Net migration: the difference between net internal migration and movers from abroad.
SELF CHECK A. 5
CHAPTER 12

118
professor.
1. It includes ethnic, religious, racial, and cultural persecution. Warfare, or the threat of conflict,
is also a major push factor.
a. Social push factors b. Economic factors
c. Globalization d. All of the above
2. IOR means
a. International Overseas Region b. Indian Ocean Region
c. Inter Office Region d. All of the above
3. It relates to the labor standards of a country, its unemployment situation and the overall
health of its economy.
a. Social push factors b. Economic factors
c. Globalization d. All of the above
4. It is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of taking
up permanent or semi-permanent residence, usually across a political boundary.
a. Step Migration b. Migration
c. Chain Migration d. None of the above
5. It is moving to a new home within a state, country, or continent.

a. Internal Migration b. External Migration
c. Step Migration d. Chain Migration
6. It is when a government forces a large group of people out of a region, usually based on
ethnicity or religion.
a. Population Transfer
7. It is a series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a person's place of origin to final
destination such as moving from a farm, to a village, to a town, and finally to a city.
8. It is moving to a new home in a different state, country, or continent.

9. It is leaving one country to move to another.

a. Immigration b. Population c. Refugee d. Emigration
10. It is moving into a new country

a. Immigration b. Population c. Refugee d. Emigration
GE 3 WORKSHEET 1

119
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
date of submission.Write your answer on the space provided.
Pick an Asian musical act that became internationally famous. Answer the following questions:
1. Where did the musical act/artist originate?

2. In which countries did the artist become famous?
3. How did the artist become famous?
4. Why do you think the artist became famous?
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120
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
Give at least one (1) example of a global city to discuss and research on. Answer the following questions
below.
1. How would you describe your city?

2. What is your city known for?
3. What makes your city a global city?
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GE 3 WORKSHEET 3

121
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
2. Short research paper to discuss the topic: Has the Philippines undergone the demographic
transition? Why or why not?
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122
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
1. OFW Interview: Interview a former or a current OFW (via online). Write the things you have learned
from the interview about transnationalism and the factors that affect global migrations.
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123
Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
1. Write a research paper proposal with proper citation about Global Population and Mobility.
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References
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U.S. Census Bureau
http://www.census.gov/
Population Reference Bureau

http://www.prb.org/Content/NavigationMenu/PRB/Educators/Human_Population/Migration2/M
igration1.htm
CSISS Classics: Ernest George Ravenstein—The Laws of Migration, 1885

http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/90
Ancestry.com: Thirteen Reasons Our Ancestors Migrated

http://www.ancestry.com/learn/library/article.aspx?article=1436
AngliaCampus: Migration
http://www.angliacampus.com/public/sec/geog/migrate/index.htm
RevisionNotes.Co.UK: Migration
http://www.revision-notes.co.uk/revision/171.html
Smithsonian Institution: Migrations in History

http://smithsonianeducation.org/migrations/start.html
Migration Information Source

http://www.migrationinformation.org/
UNHCR: The
Box Office Mojo, “All Time Domestic Box Office Results,”
http://boxofficemojo.com/alltime/domestic.htm.
Mirza, Jan. “Globalization of Media: Key Issues and Dimensions,” European Journal of Scientific
Research 29, no. 1 (2009): 66–75.
Rantanen, Terhi. The Media and Globalization (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005).
Santos, Josefina M. C. “Globalisation and Tradition: Paradoxes in Philippine Television and Culture,” Media
Development, no. 3 (2001): 43–48.
Terrill, Roman. “Globalization in the 1990s,” University of Iowa Center for International Finance and
Development, 1999, http://www.uiowa.edu/ifdebook/ebook2/contents/part3-I.shtml#B.
https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=mgdr
Glossary
125


constitution
Global Capitalism Approach it is a fourth model of globalization which locates the dominant
global forces in the structures of an ever-more globalizing
capitalism


space explorers.



126
unfettered





World-Systems Approach this approach is based on the distinction between core, semi-
peripheral and peripheral countries in terms of their changing
roles in the international division of labor dominated by the
capitalist world-system

127
CONTACT US
G. Professor

Phone Number : +639270882097
H. Program Head
Name : ANGEL MAE M. PONTILLO

Email Address : educprogramhead@smcbaganga.com
Phone Number : +639956989236

128
COURSE OUTLINE
Program : BEED, BSED – Math, Sci & Eng Term Period : Final

Course Requirements
• Essays
Week Lesson Topics

Weeks 1-3 Lesson 4: A World of Ideas, and Chapter 13 – Research Methods
Global Population and Mobility Chapter 14 - Sustainable Development
Chapter 15 - Global Food Security
Chapter 16 - Global Citizenship
MY TIMELINE
October 8, 2021
Submission of:
Self-Checks (Chapters 13-16)
& Worksheets (1-2)
October 14-15, 2021
Final Examination,
First Term
Submission of PTs and

Return of Worksheets

129

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9.)

CHAPTER 13 – RESEARCH METHODS
MEANING OF RESEARCH
• It is a multifaceted human endeavor.

• It is a difficult and demanding task.
• It is a complicated process for beginners.
• It is something that must be done to
complete a course requirement.
• It is a very fulfilling and exciting
challenge to those who value knowledge.
FROM DIFFERENT AUTHORS & RESEARCHERS
Aguinaldo (2002, p.2) - research is a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering,
classifying, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for
prediction, for intervention, for the discovery of truth or for verification of existing knowledge, all for the
preservation and improvement of quality of life
Calderon (1993, p.4) - research is a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering,
classifying, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for
prediction, for intervention, for the discovery of truth or for verification of existing knowledge, all for the
preservation and improvement of quality of human life.
Sevilla (1992, p.2) – defines research as searching for theory or for solving a theory. It means a
problem exists and has been identified and that the solution of the problem is necessary.
Andres (1998) – defines research as a careful, critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or
principles; a diligent investigation to ascertain something. It is an unbiased investigation of a problem
based on demonstrable facts and involves refined interpretations and usually some generalizations.
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTIC OF RESEARCH

(Henson & Soriano, 1999)
1. It is systematic – conduct the investigation in a step by step procedure

2. It is controlled – research instruments are properly prepared and its validity and reliability are
properly established. The research variables must be properly measured

130
3. It is empirical – there is a need to gather factual data which can be scrutinized and tested.
4. It is an inquiry – process that investigates or searches for problem, possible solutions, theories or
relevant studies.
5. It is about solving problems – essence of research is to find answers to problems raised.
Humankind has varied problems and situations that need improvement. It is the task of every
human being to use his intelligence, skill and existing knowledge to bring about progress and
development.
6. It is about adherence to a method – research is not just gathering data but is most concerned
with the “how”.
7. It concentrates on a specific subject/topic. - complex problems and issues are impossible to tackle
at a time . It must have scope and limits.
VALUE OF RESEARCH
1. Professionals/students/ service providers need information to make decisions or to perform their

functions more effectively.
2. Teachers need to know what teaching approaches and materials can be used to help students learn
better.
3. Service Providers need data in developing their programs and in improving delivery of services and
in identifying interventions that will improve the condition of individuals.
4. Decision maker needs accurate information before selecting a course of action.
5. Professionals/students/ service providers need information to make decisions or to perform their
functions more effectively.
6. Teachers need to know what teaching approaches and materials can be used to help students learn
better.
7. Service Providers need data in developing their programs and in improving delivery of services and
in identifying interventions that will improve the condition of individuals.
8. decision makers needs accurate information before selecting a course of action
Characteristics needed to be a Good Researcher.
CHARACTERISTICS NEEDED TO BE A GOOD RESEARCHER
1. Knowledge-oriented : prepared to do a lot of readings and frequent long trips,

believes in what he is doing, knows that the knowledge he will
find will make him a better person to attain a good life.
2. Open-minded : open to different ideas, views, criticisms and feedbacks from

other people or fellow researchers.
3. Hardworking : research is a difficult challenge, willing to make sacrifices in

order to complete the task.
4. Resourceful : research requires great deal of time, money, materials and

other resources, needs frequent trips, documents and
references, revision of the documents, certain number
of respondents/participants.
5. Scientific in attitude : treat data objectively, thorough analysis of the findings,

rational thinking rather than personal feelings, systematic in
acquiring, analyzing and interpreting data.

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COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN RESEARCH
1. Difficulty in Finding a Good Research problem
2. Scarcity or unavailability of updated and relevant references
3. Financial/Budget
4. Time constraints
5. How to put into writing one’s own ideas
6. Inadequate assistance/lack of teamwork
7. Uncooperative respondents/officials
8. Personal problems
ESSENTIAL FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
1. Men – needs personnel for assistance: statisticians, encoders, editors

2. Money – tuition, supplies, fees, transportation, panelist
3. Materials
RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identification of the Research Problem/Title - beginning activity of the research process and is often
difficult
2. Data collection – identification of samples, data gathering tools (interviews, observation, questionnaire:
open and closed)
3. Analysis – hypothesis testing
4. Summarizing results
5. Drawing Conclusions
GENERAL TYPES OF RESEARCH
A. Quantitative Research
• Seeks to quantify or reflect in numbers
• Requires statistical data
• Measures the number of participants
• Test the hypothesis based on the sample of observations
1. Descriptive Research – finds answer to the questions who, what, when, where and how. It
describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of specified factors and characteristics of
individuals and their conditions.
Examples:
a. Marketing Practices of an industry
b. The insecticidal properties of pepper
c. Tardiness among students
d. Management Styles of Administrators
e. Time Allocation Study
2. Explanatory/Correlation/Association Research
- goes beyond description

- explain the possible factors related to the problem
- answers the question why and how
- investigation of relationships between factors or variables
- researcher uses a theory or a hypothesis to explain the causes of the problems
Examples:
a. Work Performance of Local Government Employees

b. Financial Performance of Business Firms
c. Academic Performance of Students

132
d. Marketing strategies and Sales Performance of garment Industries in Davao City
3. Intervention/Experimental Research
a. Evaluates the effects or outcome of a particular intervention of treatment

b. Studies the cause and effect relationship of a certain phenomenon
c. Subjects are randomly assigned to the experimental group and control group
Examples:
The effect of multimedia in teaching Science
The effect of different levels of Applied Nitrogen on the yield of rice
B. Qualitative Research
• emphasizes verbal descriptions and explanations of human behavior and practices
• involve participant observation, informant interview, focus group discussion
• does not require statistical data
Examples:
Menopause: Womens’ Perceptions and experiences
The Life Journey of Special Children
C. Action Research
“Action research is the study of a social situation with a view to improving the quality of action
within it.” (Elliot, 1991) “Action research is a form of collective self-reflective inquiry undertaken by
participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or
educational practices, as well as their understanding of those practices and the situations in which the
practices are carried out… The approach is only action research when it is collaborative, though it is
important to realize that action research of the group is achieved through the critically examined action of
individual group members.” (Kemmis & McTaggart , 1988)
“It is an approach to improve your own teaching practice. You start with a problem you encounter.
Faced with the problem, the action researcher will go through a series of phases (reflect, plan, action,
observe) called the Action Research Cycle to systematically tackle the problem. Usually you discover ways
to improve your action plan in light of your experience and feedback from students. One cycle of planning,
acting, observing and reflecting, therefore usually leads to another, in which you incorporate improvements
suggested by the initial cycle. Projects often do not fit neatly into a cycle of planning, action, observation
and reflection. It is perfectly legitimate to follow a somewhat disjointed process if circumstances dictate.”
(Center for Enhanced Learning and Teaching, 2009, para. 4).
The term action research was introduced by social psychologist, Kurt Lewin. In his paper, “Action
Research and Minority Problems,” published when he was a professor , he described action research as “a
comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading
to social action” that uses “a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and
fact-finding about the result of the action.”(Wikepedia 2009, para. 3)
In essence, action research is a form of problem solving: a problem is identified to work on, with
the aim to improve or to solve it. The researcher gathers information on the problem and tries out new
procedures or makes some other change in practices to see if they result in a solution. Often, a group
identifies a problem, does something to resolve it, and assesses how successful their efforts were. If they
are not satisfied, they try again. This form of research has a history that is rooted in problem solving in
social and organizational settings.
Example of Research Titles
1. Applying Mathematical Problem Solving in Real Life Situation

2. Use of Teacher Questioning (Inquiry Approach) to increase Academic Achievement in Math
3. Improving Achievement and Attitude through Cooperative Learning in Math Class
4. Effect of Computer Aided Instruction on the Students’ Achievement in Mathematics
5. Conducting Remedial Classes in Math among Grade 10 Students with Low Academic Performance
133
at SMCB
6. Constructing NAT Like Test Questions in Grade 10 and Grade Six Math Examination to raise the
Achievement in National Achievement Test
7. Examining the Factors Affecting the Low Performance in Math in the NAT among the Grade 10 and
Grade Six of SMCB: A Basis for Intervention Program
8. Conducting Review Sessions to increase the Mean percentage Score in NAT among the Grade 6
and Grade 10
9. The impact of LAVI to the residents in Riverside, Baganga
10. The impact of SMC Catechetical works to the Public Schools in Baganga
11. The Management and Leadership Style of School Principals: Its influence on Employee Job
Satisfaction and Affective Commitment
12. Tardiness and absenteeism among high school students in SMC
13. A typical office day of a government employee: a time allocation study.
14. 4P’S and its impact to Quality Education
15. The Academic Journey of 4P’s Beneficiaries
16. The effect of fast turn-over of teachers in SMC
17. Relationship between socio-economic factors and absenteeism among high school students in the
public schools
18. Marketing Strategies and sales Performance of the BLRC in SMC
19. The impact of the BLRC & Assisted Microfinance Projects of the BSBA in SMC to the Living Condition
of the Beneficiaries
20. Board Performance of Education Graduates in SMC
21. Remedial Teaching: Its Effect on the Performance of Slow learners
22. The effect of Computer –Assisted Instruction on Students Achievement in Mathematics
23. Students’ perceptions on the Effect of Physical Punishment on the Self-Esteem and School
Performance
24. A Study on the Extent of Participation in School Activities of High School Students
25. A Comparative Study of the Effectiveness in the Implementation of K to 12 Curriculum in Public
and Private Institutions
26. Relationship Between TV Viewing and Academic Performance of Grade Six Pupils in Private and
Public Elementary School in Baganga
27. The Effect of Curfew on the Attitude of Students towards their Studies and Academic performance
28. Factors that influence of Extent of Participation in Household Decision-Making among Female
Married Professionals
29. Time Management and Coping Mechanism of the Fourth Year Education Students
30. Personal Attributes of Teachers, School Climate and Implementation of Field study Courses
31. Pedagogical beliefs and teaching styles of educ. 12 students

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SELF CHECK A.1
CHAPTER 13
professor.
III. Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Who is the author define research as searching for theory or for solving a theory. It means a
problem exists and has been identified and that the solution of the problem is necessary?
a. Aguinaldo (2002) c. Sevilla (1992)
b. Calderon (1993) d. Andres (1998)
2. Which of the following statement is TRUE about the characteristics needed to be a good researcher?
a. Knowledge-oriented c. Hardworking and Resourceful
b. Open-minded d. All of the above
3. What are the essential factors for effective research?

a. Men - needs personnel for assistance: statisticians, encoders, editors
b. Money - tuition, supplies, fees, transportation, panellist
c. Materials
d. All of the above
4. Who is the author define research as careful, critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or
principles; a diligent investigation to ascertain something. It is an unbiased investigation of a
problem based on demonstrable facts and involves refined interpretations and usually some
generalizations?
a. Aguinaldo (2002) c. Sevilla (1992)
b. Calderon (1993) d. Andres (1998)
5. What type of research is being referred by the statement “Finds answer to the questions who,
what, when, where and how. It describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of
specified factors and characteristics of individuals and their conditions”?
a. Descriptive Research c. Experimental Research
b. Association Research d. Qualitative Research

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should be able to The lesson explains the concept of stability,
sustainability, and models of global
1. Differentiate stability from
sustainable
sustainability
development.
2. Articulate models of global

sustainable development
CHAPTER 14 - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
FROM GLOBALIZATION TO GLOBAL SUSTAINABILITY: PERSPECTIVES ON TRANSITIONS
Introduction
Globalization is not entirely bad. Globalization presents various opportunities in different domains.
However, we cannot deny the fact that the current nature of globalization, in terms of the speed,
extensiveness and impacts on the earth system is unsustainable. The argument that globalization should
be steered towards sustainability is undeniable yet the daunting question is how can that be done? The
complexity of globalization and sustainability defy simplistic explanations, thus one should take an
interactive perspective on transition by looking at some key scenarios in global governance, global trade,
multinational corporations, markets and information systems. However, one ought to acknowledge that
transitions should be viewed in long term perspectives. Specific targets, indicators for transition and
importance vary.
There is no guarantee that transitions to sustainable globalization will be smooth thus, a number
of challenges can be seen such as lack of institutional mechanisms, resources, political and ideological
resistance among others. In this regard, the imperatives for understanding the necessity for transitions,
the possible scenarios and challenges will be understood by subjecting relevant literature to critical scrutiny
using the Critical Discourse Analysis approach.
Globalization, sustainability and transitions are too complex to be considered only from literature
reviews. However, on the basis of the literature I have reviewed, it has been possible to derive some
scenarios and conclusions on the transition to sustainable globalization.
Review and Definitions of Concepts
Globalization has a plurality of definitions, some of them proffered by the internalization,

liberalization, universalization, westernization, modernization and deterritorialization approaches.
Globalization refers to the unsustainable, accelerated integration, at the global level, of economic growth,
environmental problems, human development, cultural dynamics and political engagements.
Sustainability is a difficult concept to define for various reasons. It is normative and there is no
global consensus on what should be sustained. Some people argue for sustaining production systems whilst

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others argue for sustaining consumption patterns. At the same time, there are others who call for sustaining
environmental quality, economic and social capital (Kemp and Loorbach, 2003). Borrowing from the World
Commission on Environment and Development (1987), the issue of sustainability is related to development
or growth that meets the present needs without endangering the ability of future generations to meet their
needs. Sustainability should be about equal opportunities to utilize resources intra-generationally and inter-
generationally. Sustainability should also be based on the ethical principles of equity in distribution of
income, wealth and control of resources.
The National Research Council (1999), defines sustainability transition as meeting the needs of a
stabilizing future world population while reducing hunger, poverty and maintaining the planet’s life support
systems. The definitions by the World Commission on Environment and Development and the National
Research Council capture the three pillars of sustainability, which are economy, society and ecology on
which transitions to sustainability should focus. Grosskurth and Rotmans (2004), argue that one important
denominator of these definitions is an implied balance of economic, ecological and social developments.
The concept of sustainable development has received criticism from various angles, one example
being that it is considered as vague. Some scholars argue that the concept lacks definitional clarity thus it
is prone to manipulation. However, the lack of clarity can be a strength in the sense it allows for a
multiplicity of contextual interpretations which are absent in classical development discourses. At the same
time, sustainability in most cases is interpreted in economic terms to mean sustainable economic
development. Bensimon and Benatar (2006), for example argue that sustainable development should not
be considered in economic terms, but should reflect other important aspects that are needed for a decent
human life as well (e.g. education, a healthy living environment and democracy). As noted by Huynen
(2008), they propose an alternate concept the “development of sustainability” instead of sustainable
development.
Transition is also a highly contested concept, invoking various views from different scholars.
According to Rotmans (2000), referring to the ICIS-MERIT (International Center for Integrated Assessment
and Sustainable Development–Maastricht University Economic and Social Research Institute for Innovation
and Technology) Report, transition is a gradual process of societal change in which society or an important
sub-system of society structurally changes. Kemp and Loorbach, (2003) noted that transition is a result of
an interplay of developments that sustain and reinforce each other thus transitions are not caused by a
single variable and are non-linear in nature.
Thus, borrowing from Martens and Rotmans (2002), in this paper, transitions refer to possible
policies, strategies, paths or projects that can be undertaken towards the development of sustainability in
a globalizing world.
A CASE FOR TRANSITIONS TO SUSTAINABLE GLOBALIZATION
The phenomenon of globalization raises a number of questions or even quarrels and one of the
most imperative questions is on sustainability. Here I present why we need transitions to sustainability in
a globalizing world.
Supporters of globalization often associate it with unending prosperity and peace yet there are built
in contradictions that make globalization unsustainable. Globalization supporters address the question of
sustainability in a token fashion, if at all. The rapid growth of global markets and corporate capital is
evident; however this growth raises the issue of sustainability. Huynen (2008) noted that “today it is
acknowledged that achieving sustainable development on a global scale is one of the greatest challenges
for the 21st century” (p. 3).
In addition, a number of scholars converge on the idea that the current nature of globalization is
threatening the earth’s capacity to sustain life. Nagarajan (2006) noted that some global indicators of
change in the Earth’s landscape are distinct signs of human domination of the planet. These are increased
atmospheric carbon dioxide, substantial modification of the planet’s land surface, increased use of finite
fresh water supply, vastly modified nitrogen cycles, overexploitation or depleted fisheries and mass
extinction of species (Nagarajan, 2006). Global warming, the thinning of the ozone layer, pollution, loss of
biodiversity, depletion of natural resources, widespread desertification and deforestation are occurring
within the context of globalization. These environmental problems restrict the set of options at the disposal
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of future generations to meet their needs thus sustainability becomes problematic. Furthermore, massive
population movement and urbanization are also causing an ecological crisis. Ecological degradation reduces
land productivity, threatens human health and worsens the conditions of the poor. In this regard,
globalization is unsustainable.
Globalization may improve the material and social wellbeing of poor people but may be
economically, socially, politically and ecologically unsustainable. The volatility of global markets is evident
and history may repeat itself. The crash of the Argentine economy, the financial crisis in Asia in 1997 and
the 2008 worldwide financial crisis are clear indicators of how financial contagion can produce economic
depression. The volatility of global financial markets is systemic and there is nothing that is fully regulating
it. Electronic trading makes it impossible to regulate global financial markets and international financial
institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) are unable to do so.
The myth of free trade is causing instability and socio-economic exclusion of the poor. According
to Baum (2001), the current forms of globalization are making the world a safe place for unfettered market
liberalism and the consequent growth of inequities. The developed countries use protectionist policies and
subsidies on agricultural and cultural products whilst reducing protection over manufacturing industries.
This is leading to the marginalization of the less developed countries in the form of low trade. In addition,
there are myopic ideas of economic growth with prosperity. What is happening is not economic growth but,
growth of specialization of production in countries such as India and China. The question is who will
consume all the innovation and products? Another reason, globalization is economically unsustainable is
because of labour requirements and the devaluation of labour. The question is who will provide labour for
the entire world?
Globalization is socio-culturally unsustainable because it is exclusionary and uneven. Two thirds of

humanity is living in endemic poverty yet high growth rates are being witnessed. There is poverty among
plenty or growth with poverty. The trickledown effect that proponents of globalization talk about has
remained elusive. International and intra national income inequalities have widened. Globalization is
distorting and swallowing local and national cultural values. Globalization is destroying subsistence
economies of the poor, social security and moral geographies of poor nations.
The principles of sustainability are therefore distorted. McMichael, Smith and Corvalan (2000) noted
that it is because of unmanaged “transition” to development that is generalized to all countries in the form
of unsustainable production patterns and wasteful consumption of rich nations that a new system is
urgently required.
Financial assistance to the poor nations by the developed nations is reducing the poor nations to
super exploited neo-colonies relegated to the roles of primary commodity producers entirely dependent
and subordinate to the powers of multinational corporations. Globalization creates a risky and speculative
or spoiled dependency. The nation state is said to have been incapacitated by liberalization.
On another note, immigration policies of the developed countries are exclusionary. They regulate
the free movement of skilled labour yet they advocate free, unregulated trade. Globalization supposes
integration yet there are no equal opportunities between the rich and the poor. This inequality negatively
affects the economic performance of the poor countries. Global inequalities may also give rise to
nationalistic reactions, resentment and terrorism thus upsetting peace and political stability. Ultimately,
trade and the flow of people and goods are threatened. Consequently, the social, economic and political
sustainability of globalization is jeopardized. To this end, there is a strong case for transitions.
METHODOLOGY
This paper is essentially a “think piece” and is based on qualitative literature review. To avoid
omitting critical data, the review of literature did not follow a strict exclusion and inclusion criteria thus
literature that contains relevant information on the theme focused on in this paper was included. A rigorous
desk review was conducted to identify the relevant literature which includes journal articles, reports and
books. In reviewing the literature, Critical Discourse Analysis method/approach was employed.
A number of scholars acknowledge that the concept discourse is slippery thus does not have a
unitary definition. Jorgensen and Phillips (2002) define discourse as a “particular way of talking about and
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understanding the world or aspect of the world” (p. 1-229). The scholars go on to say that discourse can
be a group of ideas or patterned way of thinking which can be identified in text, verbal communication or
social structures or a form of social action that plays a part in producing and reproducing the social world.
On the other hand, Wood and Kroger (2000) state that “Discourse are possible statements about
a given area and organizes and, gives structure to the manner in which a particular topic, object, action
and process is talked about.” (p. 137). In this regard, narratives or debates about globalization, transitions,
and sustainability can be treated as discourse.
Wood and Kroger (2000) noted that “Discourse Analysis is a way of thinking about discourse,
treating data, action or spoken language”. (p. 156) Critical Discourse Analysis has been informed by
scholars such as Habermas, Lucas, Althusser, Gramsci, Ardono and Foucault and their main argument is
that critical theory should be directed towards critiquing, changing and improving the understanding of
society. Taylor (2004) regards Critical Discourse Analysis “as a framework for systematic analysis of multiple
and competing policy discourses” (p.1-20). Thus, in this paper, transitions and sustainability maybe
regarded as policy options. Critical Discourse Analysis is reflexive, open to multiple readings and accepts
the limits of objectivist impartiality (Flowerdew, 1999: 1093). Critical Discourse Analysis is an interpretive,
descriptive and explanatory form of critical research that rejects the dominance of value-free science and
disinterested facts. Flowerdew, 1999:1094), says that “Critical Discourse Analysis approach is dialogical and
it is made plausible by literature review and self-disclosure. To this end, the literature review looked at
debates, arguments and statements on transitions, globalization and sustainability are subjected to
systematic inquiry using Critical Discourse Analysis.
However, Critical Discourse Analysis approach has some limitations. Discourse and Critical
Discourse Analysis can be defined from any perspective and this may lead to conceptual confusion and
dangers of competing and uncontrolled methodologies. On the other hand, Stubbs (1997) acknowledged
that Critical Discourse Analysis is a disguised form of political correctness. Furthermore, there is no specific
method for conducting Critical Discourse Analysis thus replicability of methods of analysis maybe difficult.
PATHWAYS TO SUSTAINABLE GLOBALIZATION: KEY SCENARIOS
The necessity for a transition to sustainable globalization has been shown above. However the
actual transition processes may vary among global nations, from moderate to radical, incremental to
contingency or precautionary approaches. Some people would argue that moderate approaches, reforms
and management are what are necessary and feasible to correct imbalances created by globalization and,
to steer globalization in the direction of long term sustainability. Though not very explicit, there can also
be conditions that should be met for smooth transitions. In addition, we cannot deny the fact that transitions
can have very negative repercussions on nations and societies therefore there should be careful
considerations on which direction to take. In order to avoid misunderstandings, it is imperative for me to
state what this paper does not argue. The following views are not blueprints or prescriptions that should
be followed. These are desirable scenarios in order to make the transition to sustainable globalization.
GOVERNANCE SYSTEMS
Transitions require new forms of adaptive and dynamic systems of governance and strong
institutions. We need to acknowledge the limits of traditional global bureaucracies. “The sustainability
transition cannot be expected to occur on its own or as the inevitable outcome of current trends. It will
only occur if we make it happen, and so in the near future. This is a task for the international community,
as it feels its way towards more effective forms of global decision making” (McMichael, Smith and Corvalan,
2000).
McMichael et al. (2000) noted that the biggest motivation for transition will be to understand the risks to
human health posed by overloading the biosphere. In line with this, one can argue that transitions within
the ecological domain of globalization should focus first on the three cornerstones of global governance.
These are intergovernmental organizations, Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and finance
mechanisms. Intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
and World Trade Organization (WTO) are responsible for coordinating different policies at the international
level. According to the World Resources Institute (WRI, 2003), UNEP can be strengthened by substantial

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and reliable funding (including national contributions) and restructuring for effective coordination of
policies.
One can argue that transition within the current system of international environmental treaties for
sustainable globalization requires a mix of incremental policies and fundamental systems change. Goals
should be institutionalized within the United Nations frameworks. Borrowing from the WRI (2003),
harmonizing MEAs by cooperative research, shared capacity development, education programmes and
cooperative monitoring of compliance are steps that can be taken. For example the Kyoto Protocol is not
enough to reduce carbon emissions if there are no credible monitoring mechanisms.
The global financial regimes represented by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) are responsible for financing different mandates including environment policies. In light of this,
transition to sustainable globalization in this domain should be done by creating new rules for investment,
lending, and borrowing. There is a need to synchronize the environment management regimes with the
economic and financial policies and responsibilities of the World Bank and IMF. There is an urgent need for
transparency and accountability by the financial regimes so as to promote a sustainable system of financial
assistance to the developing countries. Though it is not clear how it can be done, the aid and debt regimes
should be such that they do not harm developing countries, they provide risk reduction and provide ways
towards international bankruptcy laws that specifically benefit poor nations (Stiglitz, 2006).
I would rather subscribe to Streck’s (2002) concept of “networked governance” than nothing. She presented
that “networked governance” brings together governments, the private sector, and civil society
organizations. There are also commendable recent trends in global governance that indicate that the focus
has shifted from intergovernmental activities to multi-sectoral initiatives such as changes from governance
at the international level to governance across different levels, and from a largely formal, legalistic process
to a less formal, more participatory and integrated approach. However, the successes of this framework
cannot be overstated.
Global public policy networks have been identified as a noble part of such governance framework
to address sustainability problems posed by globalization hence they should be supported. Global public
policy networks offer a promising model for how to handle new governance problems because complex
sustainability problems cannot be governed by a single sector, such as the public sector or from a single
level, such as the national level. Governance structures building on networks are able to bridge the gap
between the public, the for-profit, and the non-profit sectors and to integrate human and financial resources
to globalized multifaceted sustainability problems. Streck (2002:7) emphasized that:
The promise of these networks lies in two central domains. First, through their ability to formulate
quick responses to urgent problems, networks offer the opportunity to close the operational gap that
characterizes international environmental policy today. Second, through their multi- sectoral and non-
hierarchical structure, networks promise to bridge the participation gap that often is the main reason behind
international political deadlocks. Because of these two characteristics, global public policy networks
generate benefits that go beyond the sum of their parts. (p. 7)
For example, though not everyone would agree and of course there are some flaws, the World
Commission on Dams (WCD), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), and the flexible mechanisms of the
Kyoto Protocol are some of the cases of networks that have been instrumental in forging successful working
arrangements (Streck, 2002). Inclusiveness, openness, and transparency are the key principles around
which the WCD was formed. With funding from a variety of public, private, and civil society organizations,
the WCD conducted a comprehensive global review of the performance and impact of large dams. The
organization held public consultations on five continents and was funded through a new model involving
contributions from governments, businesses, and NGOs. One of the lessons learned from the WCD is that
establishing a basic measure of trust is critical for consensus building and standard setting in a conflict-
ridden environment, although it is time consuming and costly. In highly contentious policy arenas, a
participatory and inclusive approach, using open sourcing to pool knowledge, is imperative for producing
effective and politically sustainable results (Streck, 2002).
The GEF has attempted to operationalize a unique and integrative governing structure which
combines structural flexibility with a strong ability to adapt to a changing globalizing environment. Through
the restructuring process, the GEF became more transparent, more democratic (with a double majority
voting system), and more detached from the control of the World Bank (Streck, 2002). It built a significant
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role for NGOs, recognizing the value of institutionalizing alternative perspectives (Esty, 1998). NGOs within
the GEF contribute to consultations prior to each Council meeting; observe at Council meetings; engage in
working groups on demand by the GEF Secretariat; generate data, information, and independent analyses;
provide inputs to other activities initiated by the Secretariat (monitoring and evaluation activities, programs,
and operational strategies) and lobby for donor contributions.
In as much as I have problems with the Kyoto Protocol, I cannot deny the fact that some of its
aspects provide evidence of the strength of networked governance. Through the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI), the flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, the Parties
to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change established a platform that allows public-private
networks to develop, finance, and supervise projects. The Kyoto mechanisms surely present great examples
on deal making, matching interest and resources. In this regard, “ networked governance” through global
policy networks can be a great mover of the transition process.
TRADE
Trade is one of the major driving forces of globalization. As mentioned above, new systems of
global governance should be adopted and should, among others, be extended to governing trade. However
we cannot expect the World Trade Organization (WTO) to be democratic in a day. We should seek other
avenues thus, a dynamic transition towards more fair-trade and fair traders is necessary. Fair-trade has
some of the following characteristics: paying a fair wage in local context, public accountability, long term
trade relationships, transparency about production costs, and nutritional characteristics of products
(Becchetti and Adriani, 2004). Fair-trade must be a strategy towards global sustainability and to alleviate
poverty that goes a long way than economic benefits. Raynolds, Murray and Taylor (2004) noted that while
financial benefits of fair-trade appear the most significant in the short run, in the long run, it is the
empowerment and capacity building nature of fair-trade that will prove most important in fuelling
sustainable development. Becchetti and Adriani (2004) provide the bottom up approach in the fair trade
system whereby consumers in the developed countries can demand ethical products and fair prices for
goods from the developing countries. This also requires a transition from free traders to more fair traders.
Stiglitz (2006) has outlined some of the conditions necessary for the transition to a sustainable fair
trade system such as developed countries opening their markets without conditionalities, broadening
development alternatives of developing countries and moving away from reciprocal trade among all to
reciprocal trade among equals. In this case, medium income countries will trade with developing countries
in a more fair way because the development and power gaps are not as wide. However, transition is also
required in the developing countries for the fair trade system to take effect such as good governance,
knowledge, infrastructure and technology.
The relative success of fair trade movements and Alternative Trade Organizations (ATOs) as
highlighted by Leclair (2002) and Raynolds (2000) indicates that transition to global sustainability is
possible. Raynolds (2002), in her reference to global agriculture, noted that by demystifying global relations
of exchange and challenging capitalist market competitiveness, fair trade movements can create
progressive ways to bridge the North/South divide and end MNCs socially and environmentally destructive
business. New systems of production and trade in the agro-food system can be created through lobbying
for progressive alterations of international regulations, creating new networks and raising consumers’
consciousness.
Leclair (2002) showed that transition is possible as he outlines some of the achievements that have
occurred so far to promote the global fair trade agenda. By focusing on the most disadvantaged groups in
countries such as Kenya, India and Peruvia, ATOs have managed to foster product development, raise
consumer awareness, empower local producers and give producers a relatively stronger position in the
world market. On a different note, following the collapse of talks in Doha in 2006, the ideas of greening
trade and creating an open, non discriminatory multilateral trading system are still very challenging yet
they are crucial in sustainable globalization. Successful transitions can be achieved by widening the terrain
for negotiation, creating new regimes for partnerships, interactive and multidimensional synergies within
the global trading system.

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Multinational Corporations
Global sustainability transitions require some continuous redefinition of social responsibility of

corporations and economic responsibility of the state. This redefinition can be done within the realm of
global governance mentioned in the preceding paragraphs. Bhagwati (2004) said that the edifice of
corporate social responsibility should be based on altruism and regulations.
Stiglitz (2006) though not very explicit, suggested that the globalization of monopolies requires
global corporate laws that are enforceable. Stiglitz (2006) further argued that there should be polices to
limit the power of multinational corporations, improve corporate governance and systems to reduce the
scope of corruption by both governments and corporations. For example, let us examine global taxation
systems, particularly the harmful effects on developing nations when multinational corporations engage in
tax avoidance scams.
Singh (2005) agrees that tax issues have remained very essential in the debates of international
financial architecture. Gray (1998:82 ), noted that investment decisions are influenced by the ability of
transnational corporations to extract tax and regulatory concessions from competing governments, leading
to profound market distortions which undermine the assumptions of the global trade model. The world saw
in Germany in the summer of 2004, crowds of people joining together to act against tax avoidance carried
out by multinational telecom Vodafone and experts in taxation and activists of social movements from
India, UK, Belgium, Finland and Peru have also called for reforms against practices such as transfer pricing,
thin capitalization, and bank secrecy.
Regarding tax avoidance and other associated tax problems, several policy scenarios are necessary
though it is difficult to conclude which ones work. Some scholars such as Hampton and Christensen (2003)
proposed that the only way to effectively counter harmful tax practices is through global initiatives. Singh
(2005) goes for the Tobin tax and removing tax bureaucracy. On the other hand, Christensen, Coleman
and Kapoor (2005) argue that tax justice should be the focus of global activism. From all these scenarios,
I support that a multilateral framework is required to balance the need for sovereign states to protect their
tax revenues from aggressive tax avoidance, respecting the right of democratic governments to determine
a tax rate appropriate to their circumstances. At the same time, measures are required that will empower
governments to stem their tax losses and to resist pressure from transnational corporations to degrade
their tax regimes. For example, in 2003, the United Nations General Assembly signaled a move in this
direction when it decided to move towards the creation of an inter-governmental commission to re-orient
the international tax policy framework.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR), although regarded as a dubious agenda is one way in which
multinational corporations can move the transition process. I do not agree with the conclusion by Frynas
(2005) that “…, my argument is that there are fundamental problems about the capacity of private firms
to deliver development, and the aspiration of achieving broader development goals through CSR may be
flawed”. Multinational corporations (MNCs) can have a positive impact in developing countries, especially
through CSR initiatives focusing on sustainable development and co-operation with civil society (Ite, 2004).
I would agree with his conclusion that Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has a powerful potential to
make positive contributions to addressing the needs of disadvantaged communities if underlined by good
governance practices.
There is need to strengthen global corporate social responsibility movements like Amnesty
International, Human Rights Watch, Corporate Watch and Social Accountability International in their
endeavors to influence corporate behavior in socio-economic and environmental issues through rational
persuasion, litigations, consumer boycotts, shareholder activism, social auditing and selective purchasing
laws. There are some success stories such as those against Chevron and Shell in Nigeria, Unocal in Burma
and Texaco in Ecuador. Global corporate social responsibility movements may one day lead to the adoption
of globally enforceable legal standards that bind MNCs to their social and environmental responsibilities for
us to have a transition to sustainable globalization.
MARKETS

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In this area, new architecture and modest adjustments are required for transition to sustainable
globalization. Bhagwati (2004) talked about the new architecture of non governmental entities such as
Merck in Botswana, which can be platforms for economic transition and offer international alternatives to
global marketization. Though it seems utopian, some scholars have suggested global and regional social
contracts and surveillance of banking and finance systems by a central world institution. One can argue
that after the 2008 economic and financial crisis there is need for a transition towards new global market
and financial order around the nexus of partially regulated economic growth, financial discipline, social
development and environmental quality based on trustworthy partnerships between the public and private
spheres. Becchetti and Adriani (2002) noted that the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
supports the idea of creating global public goods, however the feasibility of the idea is questionable.
The deregulation of markets is not enough to ensure sustainability thus, rules of international
markets should be radically reformed by establishing a minimal but effective regulation of these markets.
The regulations of international markets should be done in a non bureaucratic and accountable way and it
should ensure the participation of all countries in the decision making process and its application. The
process of deregulation should be in line with environmental and social constraints that underlie the
sustainability of globalization. Regional markets and blocks, though their flaws cannot be underestimated
can also be alternatives to global neoliberalism and these should be taken seriously. For example, the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed in 1967 has recorded some notable successes.
GLOBAL ACTIVISM
Globalization can be managed and moderated if activism and public opinion pressure governments
and markets decisions for democracy, equal market competition and environmental sustainability or quality
to improve economic, ecological and social conditions. In Seattle in 1999 activists denounced starvation
wages, labor standards in Asia and inadequate work and health conditions. There were anti-IMF/WB
demonstrations in Washington in April 2000 and Prague in September 2000 and Mexican farmers
demonstrated in solidarity for credit at favorable interests for agricultural development and better
conditions of access of their products to North American markets.
Berchiesi (2001) looked at South African organized labour, with particular regard to the South
African Municipal Workers’ Union (SAMWU). SAMWU has been challenged by the pervasive penetration of
global capital and multinational corporations in schemes of “Public–Private partnership” in the delivery of
municipal infrastructures and it identified international action against global capitalism as a decisive terrain
of struggle for workers’ and citizens’ rights. Berchiesi noted that the struggles of South African municipal
workers underline the relevance of issues of privatization, both in linking union activism to the broader
demands of grassroots communities and in providing new potential connections between the discourses of
local specificity and globalised resistance. However, Berchiesi (2001) acknowledged the union’s difficulties
in articulating an effective confrontation reflects broader problems in internationalist approaches adopted
by South African labour.
The response of Brazil’s Central Única dos Trabalhadores to the challenges of liberalization posed
by the rise of the Common Market of the Southern Cone (MERCOSUR) shows the need for transnational
alliances:
With the globalization of economy, we will not be able to face problems like unemployment through
defensive and corporatist actions, confined to a national ambit. On the contrary, it will be by acting in an
integrated form with workers of other countries that we will confront the consequences of trade and
production liberalization. One of the weaknesses of our action has been the nonexistence of joint co-
ordination and action with other organisations of the social and popular movement. MERCOSUR affects the
sovereignty and the interests of the whole society and a charter of social rights must be a joint demand.
(Central Unica dos Trabalhadores, 1996, p. 12)
Global activism needs to be coordinated and solidarity negotiated. These organizations can be invaluable
allies to worker organizations as unions forge new networks of opposition to capitalism (Waterman, 2000).
These episodes and examples show how irresponsible and unsustainable globalization can be
challenged in order to make it sustainable. In line with activism is the promotion of policies on education
to redress inequality, particularly in the current phase of globalization characterized by increased mobility
of information. This should be linked to new institutions that ensure participation of all nations. These new
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institutions can also become strong platforms for global education, macro-economic policies, infrastructure
and rule of law.
TRANSITION CHALLENGES
Transition to sustainable globalization can be deterred by a number of challenges. Because of their

economic and political hegemony, developed nations reject alternatives by the developing countries such
as the removal of subsidies to farmers in developed countries. Realities in developing countries such as
poverty, meager human, technological and financial resources, political instability and HIV and AIDS are
setbacks towards sustainable globalization.
On the other hand, transition to democratic and fair systems of trade may not include progressive
forces, for example the creation of parallel markets and right wing corporate opposition. Cheru (2000)
noted that there are no basic institutional pillars for transitions such as education, democratic participatory
structures and infrastructure especially in developing nations. For example in some Asian and African
countries, administrative incapacity can make them fail to implement strategies and laws that are noble to
deter harmful corporate deeds by multinational corporations.
The other major challenges that we would face are issues of prioritization and disagreements on what really
needs to be sustained to achieve global sustainability. The cases in point are the debates on climate change
and biodiversity. As if geography, climate, population size and resource differences are not enough, there
are irreconcilable ideological differences for example between the Western and the Islamic worlds.
CONCLUSION
The transitions to sustainable globalization should be projects worth pursuing. The unsustainable
character of the current globalization process poses threats to the earth system and all life within it. In this
regard, there is needed to come up with effective transition policies and strategies. However, there is also
need to recognize that transitions cannot occur over night. It has been shown in this paper that a number
of impediments or setbacks stand in the way. It is very challenging to find solutions to these barriers but
it is worth trying. Among others, transnational non-governmental organizations and other global
movements can lobby governments through the United Nations for specific changes, strengthening informal
society groups, and informal economies, building inclusive alliances, monitoring Corporate Social
Responsibility of multinational corporations and promoting collective self reliance in developing countries.
There is need to create social protection networks to cushion those who are negatively affected by the
transition processes. It is also necessary to monitor trends, for example regionally, and assess progress
otherwise we will end up with unsustainable transitions. There is no doubt this will take new dynamics in
global partnership commitment and resources.
MODELS AND COMPLEXITIES OF ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainability as a concept is argued to be too vague to have a universally accepted definition;

leading to exploitation and “greenwashing”, sounding so good, it can have too many shallow definitions and
due to the absence of a standard theoretical framework can be interpreted to mean anything. (Caradonna,
2014, p.7). Sustainable development as a concept being notorious and elusive to define with at least 80
definitions which both compete and contradict. (Williams and Millington, 2004).
The concept was given a name in the early 18th

century as “Nachhaltigkeit” describing the practice of harvesting
timber. The world was not in a state of “perfection” back in that
era as an ecological problem existed. As the world developed into
the era of industrialization, plastic, high pollution rate from fossil
fuels, nuclear waste, synthetic chemicals all increased the impact
of man on the environment and resulted in environmental
degradation. There was awareness about forest exploitation with
surviving documents showing the roots of sustainability stretching
back to the pre-industrialized world. Present-day “sustainists”

144
would argue that we are 250 years into an unsustainable living
but the argument of what is determined as unstainable or
sustainable still stands. A great part of the world’s socio-
economic sector still embraces industrialization and capitalism, a
society that thrives on mechanization and the use of fossil fuels.
(Caradona, 2014, p 34)
From the era of pre-industrialized societies, era of colonial trade (consumer revolution) and
consumption of coffee, tobacco, sugar rooted in slavery to the era where humans were thought to hold
exalted place in the natural order to this present era, it is clear that the sustainability movement of the
present day is rooted in early pioneers of ecological thinking who were able to connect the three pillars of
modern sustainability human society, (albeit in an unrefined way) creating a foundation of what is today
called “sustainable development”.
Understanding Sustainability
Haughton (1999) outlined five equity principles on which sustainable development needs to be
based, regardless of the classification as social, economic, environmental or a mix of the three. Basing
sustainable development on principles gives it clarity, giving room for similar questions to be asked about
policies. It is also crucial in linking human equity to the environment, challenge meaningless interpretations
and provide a basis for evaluations.
1. Futurity — Inter-generational equity

2. Social Justice — intra-generational equity
3. Trans-frontier responsibility — Geographical equity
4. Procedural equity — people treated fairly and openly
5. Inter-species equity — Importance of biodiversity.
The Venn Diagram model (The Three E’s)
The recent commonly used sustainability model is known as the “tripartite Venn diagram” illustrates
the interconnectedness of the “there Es”; environment, economy and equity (social equality) (see Figure 1).
The 2005 United Nations endorsed model which is widely used in discussions centered on sustainable
development has a fourth “E” education added sometimes to demonstrate the need to educate in
establishing a sustainable society.
This model illustrated by equal-sized rings in a

symmetrical interconnection viewing the society (equity),
the environment and the economy as separate spheres
which are interconnected. It approaches and tackles the
issues of sustainable development in a
compartmentalized manner, distracting from the
connections between the three sectors, leading to
assumptions can trade-offs can easily be made.
(Giddings et al, 2002). Weak sustainability favors this
model giving priority to human-centered discourse
(anthropocentric), justifying the approach that natural and manufactured capital can be interchanged with
technology (Hopewood el al, 2005).
The Nested model
A more recent model which further develops the concept of the tripartite Venn diagram as a series
of circles, in which the environment is seen as the foundation for sustainability, with the economy and the
society is dependent on the environment.
Sustainability economists Peter Victor and Herman Daly argue that the environment should take
priority in the sustainability model as society and the economy could not exist without the environment.
“Nearly all human actions have an impact on the environment and human life itself depends on the

145
environment. Art, spiritual beliefs and technology draw on the environment. Waste which can also be
described as goods and services end up in the environment” (Giddings et al, 2002).
The ‘nested’ model rather than the three E model encourages a more conceptual outlook focused
on integration. The economy being placed at the center does not mean it should be a hub around other
sectors revolve but it is seen as a subset of the others and dependent on them. While human and society
depend on the environment, the environment can exist without society. (Lovelock, 1988).
The nested model has its limitations as the boundaries between each sector is not neat rather it is
fuzzy, there is a constant flow between human activities, materials, and energy that breaks down boundaries.
(Giddings et al, 2002). The Three sectors being considered as if there is only one type of environment or
one economy and one society strengthens the controversy around this model. There are multitudes of
environments (Antarctica, European forest, the Sahara and Mediterranean), societies and economies at
different spatial scales. This model undermines the constant change in the world giving credence to priorities
that are believed to have existed and will continue to exist.
ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Hopewood et al (2005) suggested a mapping methodology based on combining environmental and

economic issues to help understand sustainable development. Overlaid on the mapping methodology are
three broad views on the nature of changes, which they believe was required in political and economic
structures as well as human-environment relationships to achieve sustainable development.
1. Achieving sustainable development within the present structures (maintaining the

status quo). The argument that business drives sustainability as increased information and
changing values, improved management skills and new technology are the best means of achieving
sustainable development is reflected in many government policies and monopolized business
decisions(discourages competition) majorly in developing countries like Nigeria where the political
systems are driven by supporters of the status quo, keeping power, resources recycled among the
elite and keeps the global index score low with a huge percentage of the population battling
multidimensional poverty and making achieving the sustainable development an impossible task by
the 2030 target. Those within the corridors of power decide if economic growth should receive more
attention than the environment, climate change or equity.
2. Achieving sustainable development through reforms as the mounting problems faced by the
world today are rooted in the current economic and power structures of the society but do not
consider social system collapse. They recognize the government as playing a key role, accepting
dialogue and shift in policies as goals can be achieved over a period within the existing
socioeconomic structures. In this group are academics and NGO. The challenge with this
methodology is the issues of many NGOs and academia shifting the “goal post” when faced with the
politics of funding as regards research and execution of local projects. This is no longer a question
of ethics in convincing the government to redesign policies focused on the needs of the society, but
the dialogue is always in favor of those with power and influence.
3. Achieving sustainability through a radical transformation. Reform is never enough as radical

change is key to altering the human relationship with the environment which is at the core of the
issues in the present society. Environmentalist and climate activists use this approach. The challenge
with this methodology would be the case of morality. The fact that the morality of any proposed
radical transformation should be based on what is right or wrong. Who defines what is right and
what is wrong? Who determines if a habit or a lifestyle is sustainable or unsustainable? For a country
like Nigeria, how do you convince someone that eating meat is unsustainable when your argument
on eating meat is partly based on animal cruelty, industrialized meat packaging as common with the
western countries as against the way meat is sourced for food in Nigeria? Or how do you make a
solid case for the spotted owl to be protected according to the Endangered Species Act (ESA) if it
will cost human jobs in the timber industry, considering that the argument for human basic needs
will receive more support? (DesJardin, 2013)
A more structured view on achieving sustainable development is introduced by Sachs et al (2018).

Stating that complementary actions are required by stakeholders with a shared understanding on how the
146
17 SDGs can be operated, introducing the 6 SDG transformations, drawing on an earlier work by “The World
in 2050 initiative”. The transformations organize the 17 SDGs as modular building blocks, simplifying
interlinkages between the SDGs and interventions.
1. Transformation 1; Education, gender and inequality

2. Transformation 2; Health, well-being, and demography
3. Transformation 3; Energy decarbonization and sustainable industry
4. Transformation 4; Sustainable food land, land, water and oceans
5. Transformation 5; Sustainable cities and communities
6. Transformation 6; Digital revolution for sustainable development
These six transformations consider work on global, regional and national scales with adaptability in
the context of different countries at levels such as development, natural resource base, ecosystem challenges
and structures of governance requiring deliberate long-term structural changes in different sectors of social,
environmental and economic spheres to achieve development.
Leaving no one behind
All definition of the concept of sustainable development agrees on the need for balance and a deeper
understanding of the interconnectedness of the environment, the economy, and society.
The controversies surrounding the concept of sustainable development is what makes it interesting,
open to more discourse regardless of your stand on sustainability.
The undeniable effects of global warming (oceanic current shifts, worldwide drought, flooding),
combustion from fossil fuel being the largest source of health damaging pollutants and a major source of
greenhouse gas emissions requires we understand our limits and plan wisely for the future. (Kaygusuz,
2007).
Every country must take full responsibility for sustainable development to be achieved, there is very
little foreign aid can achieve if the underlining problem of poverty, hunger, corruption, infrastructure is not
addressed. The idea of leaving no one behind may just be another case of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs).
SELF-CHECK A.2
CHAPTER 14

147
professor.
III. Multiple Choice. Read the sentence carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is normative and there is no global consensus on what should be sustained.

a. Continuity b. Planning c. Sustainability d. All of the above
2. It is a highly contested concept, invoking various views from different scholars.

a. Continuity b. Transition c. Sustainability d. All of the above
3. It is a result of interplay of developments that sustain and reinforce each other thus transitions
are not caused by a single variable and are non-linear in nature.
a. Continuity b. Transition c. Sustainability d. All of the above
4. ICIS-MERIT means _________.

a. International Center for Integrated Assessment and Sustainable Development–Maastricht
University Economic and Social Research Institute for Innovation and Technology
b. International Call for International Association and Sustainable Development–Mainstream

c. Inter-agency Center for International Assessment and Sustainable Development–Maastricht

d. All of the above
5. It is a way of thinking about discourse, treating data, action or spoken language

a. Planning b. Globalization c. Discourse Analysis d. Course Analysis
6. It is responsible for coordinating different policies at the international level.

a. World Health Organization (WHO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF)
b. International Monetary Fund (IMF) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
c. World Trade Organization (WTO) and World Health Organization (WHO)
d.United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Trade Organization (WTO)
7. It is responsible for financing different mandates including environment policies.

a. World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
b. International Monetary Fund (IMF) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
c. World Trade Organization (WTO) and World Health Organization (WHO)
d.United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Trade Organization (WTO)
8. It is one of the major driving forces of globalization.

a. Trade b. Globalization c. Negotiation d. Course Analysis
INTRODUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

should be able to Chapter 15 explains the concept of global food
Security, and existing models of global food
security.
148
3. Define global food security
4. Critique existing models of

global food security
CHAPTER 15 - GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
The United States is leading international efforts to address the need that people around the world
have for reliable sources of quality food. American aid is, in part, directed to food security — ensuring every
nation has the ability to feed its population adequate amounts of nutritional foods.
IMPORTANCE OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
Growth in the agriculture sector has been found, on average, to be at least twice as effective in
reducing poverty as growth in other sectors. Food insecurity – often rooted in poverty – decreases the
ability of countries to develop their agricultural markets and economies.
Access to quality, nutritious food is fundamental to human existence. Secure access to food can produce
wide ranging positive impacts, including:
• Economic growth and job creation

• Poverty reduction
• Trade opportunities
• Increased global security and stability
• Improved health and healthcare
NIFA’S IMPACT
NIFA supports global efforts to strengthen agricultural production and end hunger by:
• Helping countries to improve their agricultural markets and increase food production
• Funding research to heighten disease resistance in beans and increase crop production
• Joining with USDA and other federal agencies on global initiatives intended to break the cycle of
hunger and poverty
• Developing and testing new food products designed to improve the nutritional value of the food
aid that is delivered overseas
• Strengthening developing countries’ extension systems
• Helping developing countries improve their agricultural economies

149
The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food
production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological
factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. A growing population
and rising incomes with the resultant nutritional transition of millions more people entering into the middle
class are some of the unprecedented challenges that mankind has never handled before.
Food production outpaced food demand over the past 50 years due to expansion in crop area and
irrigation, as well as supportive policy and institutional interventions that led to the fast and sustained
growth in agricultural productivity and improved food security in many parts of the world. However, future
predictions point to a slow-down in agricultural productivity and a food-gap mainly in areas across Africa
and Asia which are having ongoing food security issues.
The problem of food insecurity is expected to worsen due to, among others, rapid population
growth and other emerging challenges such as climate change and rising demand for biofuels. Climate
change poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the
energy and water sectors.
The major existing and emerging challenges to global food security are discussed in this chapter,
giving relevant examples from around the world. Strategic research priorities are outlined for a range of
sectors that underpin global food security, including: agriculture, ecosystem services from agriculture,
climate change, international trade, water management solutions, the water-energy-food security nexus,
service delivery to smallholders and women farmers, and better governance models and regional priority
setting.
There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies
if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. This requires both revisiting
the current approach of agricultural intervention and reorienting the existing agricultural research
institutions and policy framework.
Proactive interventions and policies for tackling food security are discussed which include issues
such as agriculture for development, ecosystem services from agriculture, and gender mainstreaming, to
extend the focus on food security within and beyond the agriculture sector, by incorporating cross-cutting
issues such as energy security, resource reuse and recovery, social protection programs, and involving civil
society in food policy making processes by promoting food sovereignty.
CITATION
Hanjra, Munir A.; Ferede, T.; Blackwell, J.; Jackson, T. M.; Abbas, A. 2013. Global food security: facts,
issues, interventions and public policy implications. In Hanjra, Munir A. (Ed.). Global food security: emerging
issues and economic implications. New York, NY, USA: Nova Science Publishers. pp.1-35. (Global
Agriculture Developments)
SELF CHECK A.3

CHAPTER 15

150
Answer the Self-check Questions below. This process is to determine if you comprehend what you
were reading. If in case, you have not answered them correctly, please read again the module. The self-
check paper should be submitted together with the worksheets as scheduled by your professor.
1. It is often rooted in poverty, decreases the ability of countries to develop their agricultural markets, and
economies.
a. Food insecurity c. Food Supply
b. Food budget d. Food Scarcity
2. It is leading international efforts to address the need that people around the world have for reliable
sources of quality food.
a. China b. Philippines c. United States d. Japan
3. It is fundamental to human existence.

a. House b. Parents c. Nutritious Food d. Boyfriend/Girlfriend
4. In securing access to food can __________.

a. produce wide ranging positive impacts
b. Economic growth and job creation
c. Poverty reduction
d. All of the above
5. In securing access to food can __________.

a. Economic growth and job creation
b. Trade opportunities
c. Increased global security and stability
d. All of the above

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global citizenship citizenship.
2. Appreciate the ethical obligations
S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester
of global citizenship
Page|
151
CHAPTER 16 - GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
WHAT IS GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP?
A global citizen is someone who is aware of and understands the wider world - and their place in
it. They take an active role in their community, and work with others to make our planet more equal, fair
and sustainable.
For Oxfam, global citizenship is all about encouraging young people to develop the knowledge,
skills and values they need to engage with the world. And it's about the belief that we can all make a
difference.
Education for global citizenship is not an additional subject - it's a framework for learning,
reaching beyond school to the wider community. It can be promoted in class through the existing curriculum
or through new initiatives and activities.
The benefits are felt across the school and beyond. Global citizenship helps young people to:
• Build their own understanding of world events.

• Think about their values and what's important to them.
• Take learning into the real world.
• Challenge ignorance and intolerance.
• Get involved in their local, national and global communities.
• Develop an argument and voice their opinions.
• See that they have power to act and influence the world around them.
Global citizenship inspires and informs teachers and parents, too. But above all, it shows young
people that they have a voice. The world may be changing fast, but they can make a positive difference -
and help build a fairer, safer and more secure world for everyone.
BY RON ISRAEL, CO-FOUNDER AND DIRECTOR, THE GLOBAL CITIZENS’ INITIATIVE/ JULY,
2015
A global citizen is someone who sees themselves as part of an emerging sustainable world
community, and whose actions support the values and practices of that community. Many people today
identify with being global citizens as more and more aspects of their lives become globalized.
Being a global citizen does not mean that you have to give up the other citizenship identities you
already have, e.g. your country citizenship, your allegiance to your local community, religious, or ethnic
group. Being a global citizen just means that you have another layer of identity (with the planet as a whole)
added on to who you are. And if you take that identity seriously, there are a new set of rights and
responsibilities that come with it.

152
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP RIGHTS
The rights of global citizens are imbedded in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, first
drafted in 1948 after World War II. The core nature of the Universal Declaration—grounded in individual
liberty, equality, and equity—has remained constant. However, the ways in human rights are applied
change over time, with changes that occur in the political, economic and social fabric of society. Also new
rights, that were not on the 1948 human rights agenda have emerged, for example, digital access rights,
LGBT rights, and environmental rights. Some people cite the emergence of new rights and changing political
systems as calling forth the need for an updated Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The main problem related to human rights has been the difficulties that the world has had in
enforcing them. There is a long and shameful history of disrespect for and abuse of human rights on the
part of sovereign states, religious institutions, corporations and others. A growing number of international
mechanisms have been established for reporting human rights abuses. There also are global, regional, and
national courts that exist to adjudicate incidences of human rights abuse. Yet, unfortunately, human rights
enforcement mechanisms still have limited legal jurisdiction, and many states have not agreed to participate
in them. This is yet another reason for a review and update of our current human rights policies and
programs.
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP RESPONSIBILITIES
A global citizen, living in an emerging world community, has moral, ethical, political, and economic
responsibilities. These responsibilities include:
#1 Responsibility to understand one’s own perspective and the perspectives of others on

global issues. Almost every global issue has multiple ethnic, social, political, and economic perspectives
attached to it. It is the responsibility of global citizens to understand these different perspectives and
promote problem-solving consensus among the different perspectives and the building of common ground
solutions. A global citizen should avoid taking sides with one particular point of view, and instead search
for ways to bring all sides together.
#2 Responsibility to respect the principle of cultural diversity: The multiple perspectives that exist
with most global issues often are a reflection of different cultural belief systems. Each of our major cultural
belief systems brings value-added to our search for solutions to the global issues we face. In building a
sustainable values-based world community it is important to maintain respect for the world’s different
cultural traditions; to make an effort to bring together the leaders of these different cultural traditions who
often have much in common with one another; and to help leaders bring the best elements of their cultures
to the task of solving global issues and building world community.
#3 Responsibility to make connections and build relationships with people from other
countries and cultures. Global citizens need to reach out and build relationships with people from other
countries and cultures. Otherwise we will continue to live in isolated communities with narrow conflict-
prone points of view on global issues. It is quite easy to build global relationships. Most countries, cities,
and towns are now populated with immigrants and people from different ethnic traditions. The Internet
offers a range of opportunities to connect with people on different issues. So even without traveling abroad
(which is a useful thing to do), it is possible to build a network of personal and group cross-country and
cultural relationships. Building such networks help those involved better understand their similarities and
differences and search for common solutions for the global issues that everyone faces.
#4 Responsibility to understand the ways in which the peoples and countries of the world are
inter-connected and inter-dependent: Global citizens have the responsibility to understand the many
ways in which their lives are inter-connected with people and countries in different parts of the world. They
need for example to understand they ways in which the global environment affects them where they live,
and how the environmental lifestyles they choose affect the environment in other parts of the world. They
need to understand the ways in which human rights violations in foreign countries affect their own human
rights, how growing income inequalities across the world affect the quality of their lives, how the global
tide of immigration affects what goes on in their countries.

153
#5 Responsibility to understand global issues: Global citizens have the responsibility to understand
the major global issues that affect their lives. For example, they need to understand the impact of the
scarcity of resources on societies; the challenges presented by the current distribution of wealth and power
in the world; the roots of conflict and dimensions of peace-building; the challenges posed by a growing
global populations.
#6 Responsibility to advocate for greater international cooperation with other nations: Global
citizens need to play activist roles in urging greater international cooperation between their nation and
others. When a global issue arises, it is important for global citizens to provide advice on how their countries
can work with other nations to address this issue; how it can work with established international
organizations like the United Nations, rather than proceed on a unilateral course of action.
#7 Responsibility for advocating for the implementation of international agreements,

conventions, treaties related to global issues: Global citizens have the responsibility to advocate for
having their countries ratify and implement the global agreements, conventions, and treaties that they have
signed.
#8 Responsibility for advocating for more effective global equity and justice in each of the
value domains of the world community. There are a growing number of cross-sector issues that
require the implementation of global standards of justice and equity; for example the global rise in military
spending, the unequal access by different countries to technology, the lack of consistent national policies
on immigration. Global citizens have the responsibility to work with one another and advocate for global
equality and justice solutions to these issues.
SELF CHECK A. 4
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154
professor.
1. It is someone who is aware of and understands the wider world and their place in it.
a. Global citizen c. Educational Leadership
b. Education d. Globalization citizenship
2. Global citizenship helps young people to ______.

a. Build own understanding of world events.
b. Think about their values and what's important to them.
c. Take learning into the real world.
d. All of the above
3. It is to encourage young people to develop the knowledge, skills and values they need to
engage with the world.
a. Education for global citizenship
b. Education for all
c. Global Education
d. Global Citizenship
4. It is not an additional subject but a framework for learning, reaching beyond school to the
wider community.
a. Education for global citizenship
b. Education for all
c. Global Education
d. Global Citizenship
5. Global citizenship helps young people to ______.

a. Challenge ignorance and intolerance.
b. Get involved in their local, national and global communities.
c. Develop an argument and voice their opinions.
d. All of the above
GE 3 WORKSHEET 1
Name :

155
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
date of submission.Write your answer on the space provided.
1. Create a personal definition of the global citizenship through a concept map. Afterwards, list down the
obligations of a global citizen.
Personal Concept Map of Global Citizenship

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GE 3 WORKSHEET 2

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Name :
Program/
:
Year Level/Major
1. Write a research paper on a topic related to globalization, with proper citation. Choose a particular method
for your research as mentioned on Chapter 13.
Note:
• You may exercise your academic freedom (Typewritten, Handwritten, and or Email)
• Essay type of research is accepted but make sure to include the introduction, details of the
research/topic, conclusion, and citation.
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References

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Barchiesi, F. (2001). Transnational Capital, Urban Globalization and Cross-Border Solidarity: the Case
of the South African Municipal Workers. Oxford. Blackwell Publishers.
Baum, F. (2001). Health, Equity, Justice and Globalization: Some Lessons from the People’s Health
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Flowerdew, J. (1999). Description and Interpretation in Critical Discourse Analysis. Journal of

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Frynas, J.G. (2005). The False Developmental Promise of Corporate Social Responsibility: evidence
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CONTACT US

Name : JOHN PHILIP M. CORTEZA, MAED

Name : ANGEL MAE M. PONTILLO, MAED

Name : ANNIE M. MADUAY

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

Dynamic and Holistically We commit ourselves to:

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

This course includes mandatory topics on population education

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

1.) Carefully read all the information sheets,

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

Desired Learning Outcomes

Week Lesson Topics

Week 2 Lesson 2: The Structures of Chapter 2 - The Global Economy

LEARNING OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

INFORMATION SHEET A.1

MAIN APPROACHES TO GLOBALIZATION

The following approaches are sources of globalization research in contemporary sociology:

1. The world-systems approach

2. The global culture approach

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

3. The global society approach

4. The global capitalism approach

The world-historical turn of 1989 is an outstanding stage in the evolving of globalization.

NEOLIBERALISM: A GLOBAL IDEOLOGY

THE ORIGINS OF NEOLIBERALISM

The theoretical foundations of the ideology were first developed by economists at

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

THE STATED PURPOSE OF NEOLIBERALISM

Neoliberal ideology attempts to improve the

*Increased per capita GDP.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX

THE EFFECTS OF NEOLIBERALISM

HOW WERE NEOLIBERAL POLICIES SPREAD TO THE DEVELOPING WORLD?

1. The Washington Consensus:

3. Who wins and who losses?

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

Example: Black tea plantations and English tea time.

COLONIALISM AND IMAGINED GEOGRAPHIES

COLONIALISM AND RACISM

COLONIALISM AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

Economic dimension of globalization refers to the intensification and stretching of economic

Transnational corporations = TNCs

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

SELF CHECK A.1

Name:__________________________________ Year Level:_____________ Score:__________

I. Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

6. The TNCs mean

7. The following are effects of neoliberalism except;

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

LEARNING OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION

S.Y. 2021-2022 |Education Program|Module_GE 3|First Term, First Semester Page|

3. Define the modern world system

4. Articulate a stance on global

CHAPTER 2 - The Structures of Globalization: The Global Economy

INSTITUTIONS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

HOW DO INSTITUTIONS FORM?

Name:____________________________ Year Level:_ Score:____

Name:____________________________ Year Level:_ Score:____

Name:____________________________ Year Level:_Score:____

Name:____________________________ Year Level:_Score:____