Name: ERIC P.

ALIM Year & Section: CMT-1

Summative Assessment Tasks Perform the FF...

1.Present research findings on recent studies on child development and their implication to the
teaching learning process, teacher learner centered relationship and child care.
Child Development and Early Learning: A Foundation for Professional Knowledge and Competencies
Children are already learning at birth, and they develop and learn at a rapid pace in their early years.
This provides a critical foundation for lifelong progress, and the adults who provide for the care and
education of children from birth through age 8 bear a great responsibility for their health, development,
and learning. Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8, a 2015 report from the
Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, explores the implications of the science of child
development for the professionals who work with these children.
Young children thrive when they have secure, positive relationships with adults who are knowledgeable
about how to support their development and learning. The science of child development and early
learning makes clear the importance and complexity of working with young children from infancy
through the early elementary years. Research during the past decade has revealed much about how
children learn and develop. Studies have shown that early childhood is a time when developmental
changes are happening that can have profound and lasting consequences for a child’s future. While
people have long debated whether “nature” or “nurture” plays the stronger role in child development,
recent studies reveal the importance of how the two influence each other as a child develops: what a
child experiences and is exposed to interacts with his or her underlying biological makeup. Research has
also shown that much more is going on cognitively, socially, and emotionally in young children –
including infants – than scientists or care and education professionals previously knew. Even in their
earliest years, children are starting to learn about their world in sophisticated ways that are not always
reflected in their outward behavior. Learning and development for young children is both rapid and
cumulative, continuously laying a foundation for later learning. These and related insights emerging
from research have strong implications for settings where young children are cared for and educated.
This booklet provides an overview of this research and its implications for what educators and other
adults who work with children need to know and be able to do in order to best support children’s
healthy development.

The Biology of Early Child Development

Research in developmental biology and neuroscience offers four broad insights about the role of the
developing brain and other biological systems in early childhood development:
The developmental window (rapidity of brain development during early childhood). The brain develops
through a dynamic interaction between underlying biological processes and exposures and experiences
in the environment. This process begins at conception and continues throughout life. During a child’s
early years, the brain develops in rapid and fundamental ways, and connections among neurons are
reinforced. Because of this, early childhood is a window of both great risk of vulnerability to disruption
and great potential for the impact of positive developmental influences.
The interplay of genes and environment.

In many or even most cases, the causes of healthy, normal development – as well as disease, disorders,
and developmental problems – are best viewed as an interplay between genes and environment. While
a child’s genetic makeup has an influence on how strongly he or she is affected by some environmental
factors or experiences, emerging research also shows that influences in the environment can shape
whether genes are turned off or on. Neither environment nor biology alone is destiny.

The impact of stress on development.

There is now strong evidence that early psychological and social adversities – beginning even during
fetal development – can have important short- and long-term effects on the brain’s development and
the way the brain and body handle stress. In addition to the brain, multiple systems are involved in the
response to stress and can be affected by chronic adversity, including the immune system and the
endocrine system. While enriching experiences in the early years will support healthy brain
development, disturbances or deficiencies before birth or in early childhood can interrupt or alter the
growing brain, resulting in changes that range from subtle incapacities to generalized developmental
disabilities. Examples of serious stressors faced by many children include abuse or neglect, the death of
a parent, food insufficiency, housing instability, a parent living with mental illness, or exposure to
conflict or violence in the home or neighborhood. Although children at any socioeconomic level can
experience stressors, children in marginalized populations or who experience chronic economic
adversity face a disproportionate risk of experiencing a confluence of multiple sources of chronic stress.

Individual differences in sensitivity to environments.

There are substantial individual differences in how susceptible children are to influences in their
environment. Some individuals seem more sensitive to both positive and negative influences; others
survive challenging environments and seem to thrive with little detrimental effect. Together, these four
broad insights have reshaped understanding of the formative experiences of children in their families,
communities, health care settings, childcare and preschool centers, and schools. These insights also have
implications for those who educate and care for young children – and they make clear the complexity
and importance of this role.

Together with the research in developmental biology and neuroscience, research in developmental,
cognitive, and educational psychology has contributed to a greater understanding of the developing
child. The picture that has emerged is remarkably complex and reveals that many aspects of
development and learning are interrelated. For example, a child relies on developing an ability to
regulate emotions and attention in order to concentrate and stay engaged long enough to learn new
ideas and skills. Similarly, while certain skills and concepts are distinct to particular subject areas,
learning in these subject areas also relates to general cognitive skills such as reasoning, attention, and
memory. Learning is also influenced by a child’s developing relationships with adults and peers. A child’s
security both physically and in relationships creates the context in which learning is achievable. Physical
health matters as well; studies have linked food insecurity among children and their families to poor
academic outcomes, for example, while increased physical activity has been linked to improved
academic performance. Keeping in mind that there are multiple interrelated and mutually reinforcing
aspects of child development, the sections that follow describe developmental processes in three areas:
1. General cognitive development,
2. Subject-area learning, and
3. Social and emotional development.

Supporting Children’s Cognitive Development

Studies of cognitive development have led researchers to understand the developing mind as
astonishingly active and insightful from a very young age. As early as infancy, for example, children
derive theories to explain the behavior of people and the actions of objects. Being aware of what
research has discovered about babies’ and young children’s cognitive development can help adults who
work with children better support their learning.

Infants and toddlers

Research has shown that what is going on in babies’ and young children’s minds is much more complex
and sophisticated than their outward behavior reveals. Early learning occurs on two levels: the growth
of knowledge that is visible and apparent – language learning, for example, and learning about how
objects work – and the growth of implicit learning, which is harder to observe. Many of the strikingly
competent and insightful things going on in young children’s minds are not transparent in their
behavior. Because of this, the cognitive abilities of young children are easily underestimated. Some of
the recent research has shown that even very early, children:
Have a “theory of mind.” Babies have a capacity to reason about and understand the mental lives and
intentions of others. For example, when 1-year-olds are faced with something or someone unfamiliar,
they look at their mothers to read her expression to determine whether the unfamiliar person or object
is benign or dangerous. Babies as young as 14 months old who see an adult struggling to reach for an
object will interrupt their play to crawl over and hand the object to the adult.
Have theories of numbers. Even babies seem capable of intuitively understanding something that
approximates addition and subtraction, and they are surprised when something counter to these
principles occurs. For example, when babies see an object that is then screened from view and then they
see that another object is placed behind the screen, they are surprised when the screen is lowered if
there is only one object there.
Can make inferences about cause and effect. Young children can experience observations and
learning that allow them to conclude that a particular factor X causes (or prevents) an effect Y. In one
study, for example, preschool children were shown a machine and told that “blickets” make the
machine go. Block A placed on the machine always made it go. Block B was associated with the machine
turning on but only when Block A was also on the machine. Children correctly identified Block A as the
“blicket” and not Block B. They were also able to intervene correctly to make the machine stop by
removing Block A and not Block B.
Are sensitive to the statistical probability of events. In one set of studies, for example, 11-month-
old babies were shown an opaque box full of many red balls and only a few white balls. The babies
showed surprise when balls were poured out of the box and all of them happened to be white, or when
someone reached into the box and happened to retrieve all white balls. The babies were registering the
low proportion of white balls and recognizing the improbability of these events. However, if the
experimenter looked into the box as she picked up the balls, the babies were not surprised if all white
balls were selected. This suggests that babies’ implicit knowledge of theory of mind – in this case,
understanding that a person can deliberately select objects – will trump their reasoning about statistical
likelihood.
Are sensitive to teaching cues. As early as infancy, children devote special attention to social
situations that are likely to represent learning opportunities because adults communicate their intention
to teach something. When adults make eye contact, call a baby’s name, and point for the baby’s benefit,
these signals lead babies to recognize that someone is teaching them, and this awareness can affect how
and what they learn.

These research findings need to be part of the core knowledge that influences how care and education
professionals support young children’s learning. In the past, the prevalent belief that children are
“concrete” thinkers – they cannot deal with abstraction or reason hypothetically – led educators to
focus on simple, descriptive activities and miss opportunities to explore cause and effect, theories of
numbers, and statistical probability. Educators can support the growth of these cognitive abilities – for
example, by using an abundance of child-directed language during social interaction, by playing sorting
and counting games (for example, while stacking blocks), by putting words to why somebody looks sad,
and by exploring together what happens when objects collide. These and other shared activities build on
understandings that young children are implicitly developing.

https://www.nap.edu/resource/19401/ProfKnowCompFINAL.pdf

2.Present different models and designs of pedagogies of learning and teaching, that are
supportive of learners at each development level.
PEDAGOGIES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
The Pedagogical Model describes what effective teachers do in their classrooms to engage students in
intellectually challenging work. It provides an overview of the learning cycle and breaks it down into five
domains or phases of instruction: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate.

The Pedagogical Model domains are elements of one complete model of teaching rather than separate,
self-contained components. In some lessons, students will move through all five domains. In other
lessons, teachers will naturally switch between domains in response to student needs and learning
program requirements. The Pedagogical Model respects this kind of flexibility – it is not designed as a
template for linear or prescriptive lesson plans.
How does the Pedagogical Model fit into the Victorian Teaching and Learning Model?
The Victorian Teaching and Learning Model brings FISO into the classroom, creating a line of sight
between the whole-school improvement approach and classroom practice. It assists principals, school
leaders, teachers, students and parents/careers to work together in strong, effective learning
communities that create and sustain better outcomes for students. The Victorian Teaching and Learning
Model allows teachers and school leaders to focus on high impact improvement initiatives and to drive
those initiatives through evidence-based decisions about their teaching and student learning.

The Victorian Teaching and Learning Model consists of four components: The Vision for Learning,
Practice Principles, Pedagogical Model, and HITS. These components have a common foundation: the
FISO Improvement Model, the FISO Continua of Practice and the FISO Improvement Cycle. Each
component articulates how FISO is enacted in teaching and learning.
3. Illustrate how teaching can be differentiated for diverse learners.
TEACHING CAN BE DIFFRENTIATED FOR DIVERSE LEARNERS
1. Key Vocabulary
Educators work with students to help them identify, recognize, develop, and use new terminology. A
glossary of vocabulary exists in all of PLT’s curriculum materials and glossary terms are found in bold and
italics within the curriculum’s text. Consider matching key vocabulary with one of the other
differentiated instruction techniques below to engage all your students. Create a jeopardy or
memory/match game to learn and review key vocabulary terms.

2. Prior Knowledge Links

This technique taps into students’ prior experiences and knowledge. Have students interview each other
to learn about their own individual experiences in reference to a certain topic. You can also address
pointed questions to the entire group, such as:

Have you ever visited a forest? What was it like? Did you like it? (PreK-8 Activity 8, The Forest of S.T.
Shrew)
Where does rain come from? Where do puddles go when they dry up? (PreK-8 Activity 44, Water
Wonders)
Are trees alive? How do you know? (PreK-8 Activity 79, Tree Lifecycle)
3. Paired and Cooperative Learning
Combine students with varying learning abilities, interests, language proficiencies, or other skill
strengths into groups of two or more to provide peer support throughout a lesson. You may want to
alter the makeup of working groups according to the activity at hand, e.g. sometimes heterogeneous
grouping is appropriate, where at other times, same-language or more homogenous groups may work
best.

This group of students (pictured left) is working together to measure tree height and diameter on their
school grounds (Activity 1, Monitoring Forest Health in PLT’s Focus on Forests secondary module). Once
back in the classroom, they will use a carbon calculator to estimate the amount of carbon stored within
the trees (Activity 8, Climate Change and Forests).

4. Nonlinguistic Representations
Help students learn using modalities other than the printed word, such as singing, role-playing,
sketching, taking photographs, etc. Try teaching a few words using American Sign Language and
challenge students to communicate their observations without words (for example, see Early Childhood
Activity 2, Sounds Around). Create a visual graphic organizer to collect and display data (Early Childhood
Activity 5, Signs of Fall), or use picture flash cards to learn a few words in a new language (PreK-8 Activity
13, We All Need Trees).

5. Realia and Hands-on Learning

Provide students with tangible objects to illustrate what is being discussed, and get students to
participate through the use or creation of materials to engage multiple learning modalities. For example,
have students collect leaves and create representations of animals and insects using the natural shapes
they find (Early Childhood Activity 5, Signs of Fall). Use tree parts when discussing a tree lifecycle, or
have students count the rings of a cross-section to determine tree age (PreK-8 Activity 76, Tree Cookies).

6. Curricular and Personal Connections

Help students make connections with other content and discipline areas by relating new concepts to
previously learned ones. This can be accomplished using group questioning, hands-on realia, or a more
formal assessment. For example,
Have students describe animals or plants that they have seen with unusual characteristics, and discuss
how these life forms benefit from them. (PreK-8 Activity 11, Can It Be Real?)
Have students make a model of a tree using common classroom objects, then label all the tree parts
they have learned about. (PreK-8 Activity 61, The Closer You Look)
What do you do with your trash? Where does it go after it leaves your curb? What are the pros and
cons of landfills? (PreK-8 Activity 37, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
7. Oral, Reading, and Writing Skills
Encourage students to integrate the three learning modalities of speaking, reading, and writing. For
example, challenge students to visually depict a tree’s lifecycle and present their interpretation to the
class (PreK-8 Activity 79, Tree Life Cycle).

Get students to investigate their school’s energy or water use, and present their findings to their
classmates, school administration, or the community.

8. Higher Order Thinking

Challenge students to go beyond comprehension of basic material by moving them toward more
abstract reasoning, such as making inferences, predictions, and appropriate connections. This can also
be accomplished using group questioning or a more formal assessment. For example,

What happens when we remove a link in the forest ecosystem? (PreK-8 Activity 13, We All Need Trees)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using this particular energy source? (PreK-8 Activity 39,
Energy Sleuths)
How might the change in atmospheric CO2 levels affect the global society? (PreK-8 Activity 84, The
Global Climate)

References:
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. NewYork: Basic
Books.

4.Describe the developmental characteristics of learner’s Present diff models and designs of pedagogies
of learning and teaching for each developmental level.

THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF CHILDHOOD

Pedagogy is the art and science of helping children to learn (Knowles, 1990; Knowles, Holton, &
Swanson, 2011). The different stages of childhood are divided according to what developmental
theorists and educational psychologists define as speci fic patterns of behavior seen in particular phases
of growth and development. One common attribute observed throughout all phases of childhood is that
learning is subject centered. This section reviews the developmental characteristics in the four stages of
childhood and the teaching strategies to be used in relation to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
maturational levels indicative of learner readiness (Table 5-1).
Infancy (First 12 Months of Life) and Toddlerhood (1-2 Years of Age)
The field of growth and development is highly complex, and at no other time is physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial maturation so changeable as during the very early years of childhood. Because of the
dependency of members of this age group, the main focus of instruction for health maintenance of
children is geared toward the parents, who are considered to be the primary learners rather than the
very young child (Crandell et al., 2012; Palfrey et al., 2005; Santrock, 2011). However, the older toddler
should not be excluded from healthcare teaching and can participate to some extent in the education
process.
PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
At no other time in life is physical maturation so rapid as during the period of development from infancy
to toddlerhood (London, Ladewig, Ball, Bindler, & Cowen, 2011). Exploration of self and the
environment becomes paramount and stimulates further physical development (Crandell et al., 2012).
Patient education must focus on teaching the parents of very young children the importance of
stimulation, nutrition, the practice of safety measures to prevent illness and injury, and health
promotion (Polan & Taylor, 2011).
Piaget (1951, 1952, 1976)—a noted expert in defining the key milestones in the cognitive development
of children—labels the stage of infancy to toddlerhood as the sensorimotor period. This period refers to
the coordination and integration of motor activities with sensory perceptions. As children mature from
infancy to toddlerhood, learning is enhanced through sensory experiences and through movement and
manipulation of objects in the environment. Toward the end of the second year of life, the very young
child begins to develop object permanence—that is, recognition that objects and events exist even when
they cannot be seen, heard, or touched (Santrock, 2011). Motor activities promote toddlers’
understanding of the world and an awareness of themselves as well as others’ reactions in response to
their own actions. Encouraging parents to create a safe environment can allow their child to develop
with a decreased risk for injury.
The toddler has the rudimentary capacity for basic reasoning, understands object permanence, has the
beginnings of memory, and begins to develop an elementary concept of causality, which refers to the
ability to grasp a cause-and-effect relationship between two paired, successive events (Crandell et al.,
2012). With limited ability to recall past happenings or anticipate future events, the toddler is oriented
primarily to the here and now and has little tolerance for delayed gratification. The child who has lived
with strict routines and plenty of structure has more of a grasp of time than the child who lives in an
unstructured environment.
Children at this stage have short attention spans, are easily distracted, are egocentric in their thinking,
and are not amenable to correction of their own ideas. Unquestionably, they believe their own
perceptions to be reality. Asking questions is the hallmark of this age group, and curiosity abounds as
they explore places and things. They can respond to simple, step-by-step commands and obey such
directives as “give Grandpa a kiss” or “go get your teddy bear” (Santrock, 2011).
Language skills are acquired rapidly during this period, and parents should be encouraged to foster this
aspect of development by talking with and listening to their child. As they progress through this phase,
children begin to engage in fantasizing and make-believe play. Because they are unable to distinguish
fact from fiction and have limited cognitive capacity for understanding cause and effect, the disruption
in their routine during illness or hospitalizations, along with the need to separate from parents, are very
stressful for the toddler (London et al., 2011). Routines give these children a sense of security, and they
gravitate toward ritualistic ceremonial-like exercises when carrying out activities of daily living.
Separation anxiety is also characteristic of this stage of development and is particularly apparent when
children feel insecure in an unfamiliar environment. This anxiety is often compounded when they are
subjected to medical procedures and other healthcare interventions performed by people who are
strangers to them (London et al., 2011).
According to Erikson (1963), the noted authority on psychosocial development, the period of infancy is
one of trust versus mistrust. During this time, children must work through their first major dilemma of
developing a sense of trust with their primary caretaker. As the infant matures into
toddlerhood, autonomy versus shame and doubt emerges as the central issue. During this period of
psychosocial growth, toddlers must learn to balance feelings of love and hate and learn to cooperate
and control willful desires (Table 5-2).
Children progress sequentially through accomplishing the tasks of developing basic trust in their
environment to reaching increasing levels of independence and self-assertion. Their newly discovered
sense of independence often is expressed by demonstrations of negativism. Children may have difficulty
in making up their minds, and, aggravated by personal and external limits, they may express their level
of frustration and feelings of ambivalence in words and behaviors, such as by engaging in temper
tantrums to release tensions (Falvo, 1994). With peers, play is a parallel activity, and it is not unusual for
them to end up in tears because they have not yet learned about tact, fairness, or rules of sharing
(Babcock & Miller, 1994; Polan & Taylor, 2011).
TEACHING STRATEGIES
Patient education for infancy through toddlerhood need not be illness related. Usually, less time
is devoted to teaching parents about illness care, and considerably more time is spent teaching
aspects of normal development, safety, health promotion, and disease prevention. When the child
is ill or injured, the first priority for teaching interventions would be to assess the parents’ and
child’s anxiety levels and to help them cope with their feelings of stress related to uncertainty
and guilt about the cause of the illness or injury. Anxiety on the part of the child and parents can
adversely affect their readiness to learn.
Although teaching activities primarily are directed to the main caregiver(s), children at this
developmental stage in life have a great capacity for learning. Toddlers are capable of some
degree of understanding procedures and interventions that they may experience. Because of the
young child’s natural tendency to be intimidated by unfamiliar people, it is imperative that a
primary nurse is assigned and time is taken to establish a relationship with the child and parents.
This approach not only provides consistency in the teaching-learning process but also helps to
reduce the child’s fear of strangers. Parents should be present whenever possible during formal
and informal teaching and learning activities to allay stress, which could be compounded by
separation anxiety (London et al., 2011).
Ideally, health teaching should take place in an environment familiar to the child, such as the
home or daycare center. When the child is hospitalized, the environment selected for teaching
and learning sessions should be as safe and secure as possible, such as the child’s bed or the
playroom, to increase the child’s sense of feeling protected.
Movement is an important mechanism by which toddlers communicate. Immobility resulting
from illness, hospital confinement, or disability tends to increase children’s anxiety by restricting
activity. Nursing interventions that promote children’s use of gross motor abilities and that
stimulate their visual, auditory, and tactile senses should be chosen whenever possible.
Developing rapport with children through simple teaching helps to elicit their cooperation and
active involvement. The approach to children should be warm, honest, calm, accepting, and
matter-of-fact. A smile, a warm tone of voice, a gesture of encouragement, or a word of praise
goes a long way in attracting children’s attention and helping them adjust to new circumstances.
Fundamental to the child’s response is how the parents respond to healthcare personnel and
medical interventions.
The following teaching strategies are suggested to convey information to members of this age
group. These strategies feed into children’s natural tendency for play and their need for active
participation and sensory experiences.
For Short-Term Learning
●Read simple stories from books with lots of pictures.
●Use dolls and puppets to act out feelings and behaviors.
●Use simple audiotapes with music and videotapes with cartoon characters.
●Role-play to bring the child’s imagination closer to reality.
●Give simple, concrete, nonthreatening explanations to accompany visual and tactile
experiences.
●Perform procedures on a teddy bear or doll first to help the child anticipate what an
experience will be like.
●Allow the child something to do—squeeze your hand, hold a Band-Aid, sing a song, cry
if it hurts—to channel his or her response to an unpleasant experience.
●Keep teaching sessions brief (no longer than about 5 minutes each) because of the
child’s short attention span.
●Cluster teaching sessions close together so that children can remember what they
learned from one instructional encounter to another.
●Avoid analogies and explain things in straightforward and simple terms because
children take their world literally and concretely.
●Individualize the pace of teaching according to the child’s responses and level of
attention.
For Long-Term Learning
●Focus on rituals, imitation, and repetition of information in the form of words and
actions to hold the child’s attention. For example, practice washing hands before and after eating
and toileting.
●Use reinforcement as an opportunity for children to achieve permanence of learning
through practice.
●Employ the teaching methods of gaming and modeling as a means by which children
can learn about the world and test their ideas over time.
●Encourage parents to act as role models, because their values and beliefs serve to
reinforce healthy behaviors and significantly influence the child’s development of attitudes and
behaviors.

Early Childhood (3-5 Years of Age)

Children in the preschool years continue with development of skills learned in the earlier
years of growth. Their sense of identity becomes clearer, and their world expands to encompass
involvement with others external to the family unit. Children in this developmental category
acquire new behaviors that give them more independence from their parents and allow them to
care for themselves more autonomously. Learning during this time period occurs through
interactions with others and through mimicking or modeling the behaviors of playmates and
adults (Crandell et al., 2012; Santrock, 2011).

PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The physical maturation during early childhood is an extension of the child’s prior growth. Fine
and gross motor skills become increasingly more refined and coordinated so that children are
able to carry out activities of daily living with greater independence (Crandell et al.,
2012; Santrock, 2011). Although their efforts are more coordinated, supervision of activities is
still required because they lack judgment in carrying out the skills they have developed.
The early childhood stage of cognitive development is labeled by Piaget (1951, 1952, 1976) as
the preoperational period. This stage, which emphasizes the child’s inability to think things
through logically without acting the situation out, is the transitional period when the child starts
to use symbols (letters and numbers) to represent something (Crandell et al., 2012; Santrock,
2011; Snowman, McCown, & Biehler, 2012).
Children in the preschool years begin to develop the capacity to recall past experiences and
anticipate future events. They can classify objects into groups and categories but have only a
vague understanding of their relationships. The young child continues to be egocentric and is
essentially unaware of others’ thoughts or the existence of others’ points of view. Thinking
remains literal and concrete—they believe what is seen and heard Precausal thinking allows
young children to understand that people can make things happen, but they are unaware of
causation as the result of invisible physical and mechanical forces. They often believe that they
can influence natural phenomena, and their beliefs reflect animistic thinking—the tendency to
endow inanimate objects with life and consciousness (Pidgeon, 1977; Santrock, 2011).
Preschool children are very curious, can think intuitively, and pose questions about almost
anything. They want to know the reasons, cause, and purpose for everything (the why), but are
unconcerned at this point with the process (the how). Fantasy and reality are not well
differentiated. Children in this cognitive stage mix fact and fiction, tend to generalize, think
magically, develop imaginary playmates, and believe they can control events with their thoughts.
At the same time, they do possess self-awareness and realize that they are vulnerable to outside
influences (Crandell et al., 2012; Santrock, 2011).
The young child also continues to have a limited sense of time. For children of this age, being
made to wait 15 minutes before they can do something can feel like an eternity. They do,
however, understand the timing of familiar events in their daily lives, such as when breakfast or
dinner is eaten and when they can play or watch their favorite television program. As they begin
to understand and appreciate the world around them, their attention span (ability to focus) begins
to lengthen such that they can usually remain quiet long enough to listen to a song or hear a short
story read (Santrock, 2011).
In the preschool stage, children begin to develop sexual identity and curiosity, an interest that
may cause considerable discomfort for their parents. Cognitive understanding of their bodies
related to structure, function, health, and illness becomes more specific and differentiated. They
can name external body parts but have only an ill-defined concept of the size and shape of
internal organs and the function of body parts (Kotchabhakdi, 1985).
Explanations of the purpose and reasons for a procedure remain beyond the young child’s level
of reasoning, so any explanations must be kept very simple and matter-of-fact (Pidgeon, 1985).
Children at this stage have a fear of body mutilation and pain, which not only stems from their
lack of understanding of the body but also is compounded by their active imagination. Their
ideas regarding illness also are primitive with respect to cause and effect; illness and
hospitalization are seen as a punishment for something they did wrong, either through omission
or commission (London et al., 2011). Children’s attribution of the cause of illness to the
consequences of their own transgressions is known as egocentric causation (Polan & Taylor,
2011; Richmond & Kotelchuck, 1984).
Erikson (1963) has labeled the psychosocial maturation level in early childhood as the period
of initiative versus guilt. Children take on tasks for the sake of being involved and on the move
(Table 5-2). Excess energy and a desire to dominate may lead to frustration and anger on their
part. They show evidence of expanding imagination and creativity, are impulsive in their actions,
and are curious about almost everything they see and do. Their growing imagination can lead to
many fears—of separation, disapproval, pain, punishment, and aggression from others. Loss of
body integrity is the preschool child’s greatest threat, which significantly affects his or her
willingness to interact with healthcare personnel (Poster, 1983; Vulcan, 1984).
In this phase of development, children begin interacting with playmates rather than just playing
alongside one another. Appropriate social behaviors demand that they learn to wait for others,
give others a turn, and recognize the needs of others. Play in the mind of a child is equivalent to
the work performed by adults. Play can be as equally productive as adult work and is a means for
self-education of the physical and social world (Whitener, Cox, & Maglich, 1998). It helps the
child act out feelings and experiences so as to master fears, develop role skills, and express joys,
sorrows, and hostilities. Through play, children in the preschool years also begin to share ideas
and imitate parents of the same sex. Role playing is typical of this age as the child attempts to
learn the responsibilities of family members and others in society (Santrock, 2011).

TEACHING STRATEGIES
The nurse’s interactions with preschool children and their parents are often sporadic, usually
occurring during occasional well-child visits to the pediatrician’s office or when minor medical
problems arise. During these interactions, the nurse should take every opportunity to teach
parents about health promotion and disease prevention measures, to provide guidance regarding
normal growth and development, and to offer instruction about medical recommendations related
to illness or disability. Parents can be a great asset to the nurse in working with children in this
developmental phase, and they should be included in all aspects of the educational plan and the
actual teaching experience. Parents can serve as the primary resource to answer questions about
children’s disabilities, their idiosyncrasies, and their favorite toys—all of which may affect their
ability to learn (Hussey & Hirsh, 1983; Ryberg & Merrifield, 1984; Woodring, 2000).
Children’s fear of pain and bodily harm is uppermost in their minds, whether they are well or ill.
Because young children have fantasies and active imaginations, it is most important for the nurse
to reassure them and allow them to express their fears openly (Heiney, 1991). Nurses need to
choose their words carefully when describing procedures and interventions. Preschool children
are familiar with many words, but using terms such as cut and knife is frightening to them.
Instead, nurses should use less threatening words such as fix, sew, and cover up the hole. Band-
Aids is a much more understandable term than dressings, and bandages are often thought by
children to have magical healing powers (Babcock & Miller, 1994).
Although still dependent on family, the young child has begun to have increasing contact with
the outside world and is usually able to interact more comfortably with others. Nevertheless,
signi ficant adults in a child’s life should be included as participants during teaching sessions.
They can provide support to the child, substitute as the teacher if their child is reluctant to
interact with the nurse, and reinforce teaching at a later point in time. The primary caretakers,
usually the mother and father, are the recipients of the majority of the nurse’s teaching efforts.
They are the learners who will assist the child in achieving desired health outcomes (Kaakinen,
Gedaly-Duff, Coehlo, & Hanson, 2010; Whitener et al., 1998).

The following specific teaching strategies are recommended:

For Short-Term Learning
●Provide physical and visual stimuli because language ability is still limited, both for
expressing ideas and for comprehending verbal instructions.
●Keep teaching sessions short (no more than 15 minutes) and scheduled sequentially at
close intervals so that information is not forgotten.
●Relate information needs to activities and experiences familiar to the child. For
example, ask the child to pretend to blow out candles on a birthday cake to practice deep
breathing.
●Encourage the child to participate in selecting between a limited number of teaching-
learning options, such as playing with dolls or reading a story, which promotes active
involvement and helps to establish nurse-client rapport.
●Arrange small-group sessions with peers as a way to make teaching less threatening and
more fun.
●Give praise and approval, through both verbal expressions and nonverbal gestures,
which are real motivators for learning.
●Give tangible rewards, such as badges or small toys, immediately following a successful
learning experience as reinforcers in the mastery of cognitive and psychomotor skills.
●Allow the child to manipulate equipment and play with replicas or dolls to learn about
body parts. Special kidney dolls, ostomy dolls with stomas, or orthopedic dolls with splints and
tractions provide opportunities for hands-on experience.
 ●Use storybooks to emphasize the humanity of healthcare personnel; to depict
relationships between the child, parents, and others; and to assist with helping the child identify
with particular situations.

For Long-Term Learning

●Enlist the help of parents, who can play a vital role in modeling a variety of healthy
habits, such as practicing safety measures and eating a balanced diet; offer them access to
support and follow-up as the need arises.
●Reinforce positive health behaviors and the acquisition of specific skills.

Middle and Late Childhood (6-11 Years of Age)

In middle and late childhood, children have progressed in their physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial skills to the point where most begin formal training in structured school systems.
They approach learning with enthusiastic anticipation, and their minds are open to new and
varied ideas.
Children at this developmental level are motivated to learn because of their natural curiosity and
their desire to understand more about themselves, their bodies, their world, and the influence that
different things in the world have on them (Whitener et al., 1998). This stage is a period of great
change for them, when attitudes, values, and perceptions of themselves, their society, and the
world are shaped and expanded. Visions of their own environment and the cultures of others take
on more depth and breadth (Santrock, 2011).

PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The gross- and fine-motor abilities of school-aged children become increasingly more
coordinated so that they are able to control their movements with much greater dexterity than
ever before. Involvement in all kinds of curricular and extracurricular activities helps them to
fine-tune their psychomotor skills. Physical growth during this phase is highly variable, with the
rate of development differing from child to child. Toward the end of this developmental period,
girls more so than boys on the average begin to experience prepubescent bodily changes and tend
to exceed the boys in physical maturation. Growth charts, which monitor the rate of growth, are a
more sensitive indicator of health or disability than actual size (Crandell et al., 2012; Santrock,
2011).
Piaget (1951, 1952, 1976) labeled the cognitive development in middle and late childhood as the
period of concrete operations. During this time, logical, rational thought processes and the
ability to reason inductively and deductively develop. Children in this stage are able to think
more objectively, are willing to listen to others, and selectively use questioning to find answers
to the unknown. At this stage, they begin to use syllogistic reasoning—that is, they can consider
two premises and draw a logical conclusion from them (Elkind, 1984; Steegen & De Neys,
2012). For example, they comprehend that mammals are warm-blooded and whales are
mammals, so whales must be warm-blooded.
Also, children in this age group are intellectually able to understand cause and effect in a
concrete way. Concepts such as conservation, which is the ability to recognize that the properties
of an object stay the same even though its appearance and position may change, are beginning to
be mastered. For example, they realize that a certain quantity of liquid is the same amount
whether it is poured into a tall, thin glass or into a short, squat one (Snowman et al., 2012).
Fiction and fantasy are separate from fact and reality. The skills of memory, decision making,
insight, and problem solving are all more fully developed (Protheroe, 2007).
Children in this developmental phase are capable of engaging in systematic thought through
inductive reasoning. They are able to classify objects and systems, express concrete ideas about
relationships and people, and carry out mathematical operations. Also, they begin to understand
and use sarcasm as well as to employ well-developed language skills for telling jokes, conveying
complex stories, and communicating increasingly more sophisticated thoughts (Snowman et al.,
2012).
Nevertheless, thinking remains quite literal, with only a vague understanding of abstractions.
Early on in this phase, children are reluctant to do away with magical thinking in exchange for
reality thinking. They cling to cherished beliefs, such as the existence of Santa Claus or the tooth
fairy, for the fun and excitement that the fantasy provides them, even when they have
information that proves contrary to their beliefs.
Children passing through elementary and middle schools have developed the ability to
concentrate for extended periods, can tolerate delayed gratification, are responsible for
independently carrying out activities of daily living, have a good understanding of the
environment as a whole, and can generalize from experience (Crandell et al., 2012). They
understand time, can predict time intervals, are oriented to the past and present, have some grasp
and interest in the future, and have a vague appreciation for how immediate actions can have
implications over the course of time. Special interests in topics of their choice begin to emerge,
and they can pursue subjects and activities with devotion to increase their talents in particular
areas.
Children at this cognitive stage can make decisions and act in accordance with how events are
interpreted, but they understand only to a limited extent the seriousness or consequences of their
choices. Children in the early period of this developmental phase know the functions and names
of many common body parts, whereas older children have a more specific knowledge of
anatomy and can differentiate between external and internal organs with a beginning
understanding of their complex functions (Kotchabhakdi, 1985).
As part of the shift from precausal thinking to causal thinking, the child begins to incorporate the
idea that illness is related to cause and effect and can recognize that germs create disease. Illness
is thought of in terms of social consequences and role alterations, such as the realization that they
will miss school and outside activities, people will feel sorry for them, and they will be unable to
maintain their usual routines (Banks, 1990; Koopman, Baars, Chaplin, & Zwinderman, 2004).
Research indicates, however, that systematic differences exist in children’s reasoning skills with
respect to understanding body functioning and the cause of illness as a result of their experiences
with illness. Children suffering from chronic diseases have been found to have more
sophisticated conceptualization of illness causality and body functioning than do their healthy
peers. Piaget (1976) postulated that experience with a phenomenon catalyzes a better
understanding of it.
Conversely, the stress and anxiety resulting from having to live with a chronic illness or
disability can interfere with a child’s general cognitive performance. Chronically ill children
have a less refined understanding of the physical world than healthy children do, and the former
often are unable to generalize what they learned about a specific illness to a broader
understanding of illness causality (Perrin, Sayer, & Willett, 1991). Thus illness may act as an
intrusive factor in overall cognitive development (Palfrey et al., 2005).
Erikson (1963) characterized school-aged children’s psychosocial stage of life as industry versus
inferiority. During this period, children begin to gain an awareness of their unique talents and the
special qualities that distinguish them from one another (Table 5-2). They begin to establish their
self-concept as members of a social group larger than their own nuclear family and start to
compare their own family’s values with those of the outside world.
The school environment, in particular, facilitates children of this age in gaining a sense of
responsibility and reliability. With less dependency on family, they extend their intimacy to
include special friends and social groups (Santrock, 2011). Relationships with peers and adults
external to the home environment become important influences in their development of self-
esteem and their susceptibility to social forces outside the family unit. School-aged children fear
failure and being left out of groups. They worry about their inabilities and become self-critical as
they compare their own accomplishments to those of their peers. They also fear illness and
disability that could significantly disrupt their academic progress, interfere with social contacts,
decrease their independence, and result in loss of control over body functioning.

TEACHING STRATEGIES
Woodring (2000) emphasizes the importance of following sound educational principles with the
child and family, such as identifying individual learning styles, determining readiness to learn,
and accommodating particular learning needs and abilities to achieve positive health outcomes.
Given their increased ability to comprehend information and their desire for active involvement
and control of their lives, it is very important to include school-aged children in patient education
efforts. The nurse in the role as educator should explain illness, treatment plans, and procedures
in simple, logical terms in accordance with the child’s level of understanding and reasoning.
Although children at this stage of development are able to think logically, their ability to engage
in abstract thought remains limited. Therefore, teaching should be presented in concrete terms
with step-by-step instructions (Pidgeon, 1985; Whitener et al., 1998). It is imperative that the
nurse observe children’s reactions and listen to their verbal feedback to confirm that information
shared has not been misinterpreted or confused.
To the extent feasible, parents should be informed of what their child is being taught. Teaching
parents directly is encouraged so that they may be involved in fostering their child’s
independence, providing emotional support and physical assistance, and giving guidance
regarding the correct techniques or regimens in self-care management. Siblings and peers should
also be considered as sources of support. In attempting to master self-care skills, children thrive
on praise from others who are important in their lives as rewards for their accomplishments and
successes (Hussey & Hirsh, 1983; Santrock, 2011).
Education for health promotion and health maintenance is most likely to occur in the school
system through the school nurse, but the parents as well as the nurse outside the school setting
should be told which content is being addressed. Information then can be reinforced and
expanded when in contact with the child in other care settings. Numerous opportunities for
nurses to teach the individual child or groups of children about health promotion and disease and
injury prevention are available in schools, physicians’ offices, community centers, outpatient
clinics, or hospitals. Health education for children of this age can be very fragmented because of
the many encounters they have with nurses in a variety of settings.
The school nurse, in particular, is in an excellent position to coordinate the efforts of all other
providers so as to avoid duplication of teaching content or the giving of conflicting information
as well as to provide reinforcement of learning. According to Healthy People 2020 (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2012), health promotion regarding healthy eating
and weight status, exercise, sleep, and prevention of injuries, as well as avoidance of tobacco,
alcohol, and drug use, are just a few examples of objectives intended to improve the health of
American children. The school nurse can play a vital role in providing education to the school-
aged child to meet these goals (Leifer & Hartston, 2004). In support of this teaching-learning
process, Healthy People 2020 has introduced the topic area “Early and Middle Childhood,”
which recommends providing formal health education in the school setting (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2012). The school nurse has the opportunity to educate children not
only in a group when teaching a class, but also on a one-to-one basis when encountering an
individual child in the office for a particular problem or need.
The specific conditions that may come to the attention of the nurse in caring for children at this
phase of development include problems such as behavioral disorders, hyperactivity, learning
disorders, obesity, diabetes, asthma, and enuresis. Extensive teaching may be needed to help
children and parents understand a particular condition and learn how to overcome or deal with it.
The need to sustain or bolster their self-image, self-concept, and self-esteem requires that
children be invited to participate, to the extent possible, in planning for and carrying out learning
activities (Snowman et al., 2012). For young children receiving an X-ray or other imaging
procedure, for example, it would be beneficial to have them initially simulate the experience by
positioning a doll or stuffed animal under the machine as the technician explains the procedure.
This strategy allows them to participate and can decrease their fear. Because of children’s fears
of falling behind in school, being separated from peer groups, and being left out of social
activities, teaching must be geared toward fostering normal development despite any limitations
that may be imposed by illness or disability (Falvo, 1994; Leifer & Hartston, 2004).

https://nursekey.com/developmental-stages-of-the-learner/#R62-5

5.Present different models and designs of pedagogies of learning and teaching responsive to diverse
linguistic, cultural, socio economic and religious backgrounds...

Design Teaching Sequences Using Content and Strategies to Support the Needs and Strengths of
Students from Diverse Backgrounds.

Identify and critique resources (print, video, online sources) that have been developed to facilitate
student learning for students from a variety of backgrounds in remote areas.
 In developing curriculum content around diverse backgrounds: • Adopt a cultural lens
in the selection of resources. Of the resources used on your recent practicum how
many refer to people from non-English speaking backgrounds, portray different
ethnicity, use languages other than English? Find a substitute text to achieve the same
purpose which is more culturally inclusive. • Compile an annotated bibliography of
culturally inclusive resources.
 Take the quiz located on this page http://www.whatworks.edu.au/dbAction.do?cm
d=displaySitePage1&subcmd=select&id=510
  How well do you understand the policy context for inclusive education? Identify
legislation and policies that enshrine equity and diversity. What are the implications for
teaching and learning?
 Plan for the development of locally based resources e.g. use images of people and
places within the local community, use bi-lingual language and display examples around
the school.
Design Teaching Sequences Targeting Learning Area-Specific Literacy Needs of Students From
Diverse Backgrounds
 Learning from the local environment – design learning activities to enhance literacy
outcomes using the local external environment as a resource.
 “Teachers are expected to adapt and use ESL strategies for most of the students
throughout the school” (Fitzroy Valley DHS, 2012). Develop a database of ESL
teaching/learning strategies that suits the needs of your classroom: • Include the
strategy name and brief overview. • A resource to support the strategy. For example,
the Teaching strategies for English as a Second Language (Victorian Department of
Education and Early Childhood Development 2009), could be a good starting point for
this activity. Identify How Others Structure Learning to Address the Strengths and
Needs of Students from Diverse Backgrounds.
 How will you find out what your students’ strengths are? Examples include: •
Observations – what do they do well/easily? • Interest Survey – what do they like to
do? • Learning style assessment (Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences) – how do they learn
best? • Gather data from your colleagues. • Parent/teacher communication.

RESOURCES
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