Thomas Calculus 11th Edition 99 153

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch02p073-146 8/19/04 11:00 AM Page 84
84 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws
HISTORICAL ESSAY* In Section 2.1 we used graphs and calculators to guess the values of limits. This section
presents theorems for calculating limits. The first three let us build on the results of Exam-
Limits
ple 8 in the preceding section to find limits of polynomials, rational functions, and powers.
The fourth and fifth prepare for calculations later in the text.
The Limit Laws

The next theorem tells how to calculate limits of functions that are arithmetic combina-
tions of functions whose limits we already know.
THEOREM 1 Limit Laws

If L, M, c and k are real numbers and
lim ƒsxd = L and lim gsxd = M, then
x:c x:c
1. Sum Rule: lim sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M

x:c
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
2. Difference Rule: lim sƒsxd - gsxdd = L - M
x:c
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.
3. Product Rule: lim sƒsxd # gsxdd = L # M
x:c
The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits.
To learn more about the historical figures and the development of the major elements and topics of calcu-
lus, visit www.aw-bc.com/thomas.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 85
4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim sk # ƒsxdd = k # L

x:c
The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
ƒsxd L
5. Quotient Rule: lim = , M Z 0
x:c gsxd M
The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided
the limit of the denominator is not zero.
6. Power Rule: If r and s are integers with no common factor and s Z 0, then
lim sƒsxddr>s = L r>s
x:c
provided that L r>s is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that L 7 0.)
The limit of a rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the func-
tion, provided the latter is a real number.
It is easy to convince ourselves that the properties in Theorem 1 are true (although
these intuitive arguments do not constitute proofs). If x is sufficiently close to c, then ƒ(x)
is close to L and g(x) is close to M, from our informal definition of a limit. It is then rea-
sonable that ƒsxd + gsxd is close to L + M; ƒsxd - gsxd is close to L - M; ƒ(x)g(x) is
close to LM; kƒ(x) is close to kL; and that ƒ(x)>g(x) is close to L>M if M is not zero. We
prove the Sum Rule in Section 2.3, based on a precise definition of limit. Rules 2–5 are
proved in Appendix 2. Rule 6 is proved in more advanced texts.
Here are some examples of how Theorem 1 can be used to find limits of polynomial
and rational functions.
EXAMPLE 1 Using the Limit Laws

Use the observations limx:c k = k and limx:c x = c (Example 8 in Section 2.1) and the
properties of limits to find the following limits.
x4 + x2 - 1
(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d (b) lim (c) lim 24x 2 - 3
x:c x:c x2 + 5 x: -2
Solution
(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d = lim x 3 + lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Sum and Difference Rules

x:c x:c x:c x:c
= c 3 + 4c 2 - 3 Product and Multiple Rules
4 2
lim sx + x - 1d
x4 + x2 - 1 x:c
(b) lim = Quotient Rule
x:c x2 + 5 lim sx 2 + 5d
x:c
lim x 4 + lim x 2 - lim 1
x:c x:c x:c
= Sum and Difference Rules
lim x 2 + lim 5
x:c x:c
c4 + c2 - 1
= Power or Product Rule
c2 + 5

(c) lim 24x 2 - 3 = 2 lim s4x 2 - 3d Power Rule with r>s = 12
x: -2 x: -2
= 2 lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Difference Rule
x: -2 x: -2
= 24s -2d2 - 3 Product and Multiple Rules
= 216 - 3
= 213
Two consequences of Theorem 1 further simplify the task of calculating limits of polyno-
mials and rational functions. To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function as x ap-
proaches c, merely substitute c for x in the formula for the function. To evaluate the limit
of a rational function as x approaches a point c at which the denominator is not zero, sub-
stitute c for x in the formula for the function. (See Examples 1a and 1b.)
THEOREM 2 Limits of Polynomials Can Be Found by Substitution

If Psxd = an x n + an - 1 x n - 1 + Á + a0 , then
lim Psxd = Pscd = an c n + an - 1 c n - 1 + Á + a 0 .
x:c
THEOREM 3 Limits of Rational Functions Can Be Found by Substitution

If the Limit of the Denominator Is Not Zero
If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Qscd Z 0, then
Psxd Pscd
lim = .
x:c Qsxd Qscd
EXAMPLE 2 Limit of a Rational Function
x 3 + 4x 2 - 3 s -1d3 + 4s -1d2 - 3 0
lim = = = 0
x: -1 x2 + 5 s -1d2 + 5 6
This result is similar to the second limit in Example 1 with c = -1, now done in one step.
Identifying Common Factors Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

It can be shown that if Q(x) is a Theorem 3 applies only if the denominator of the rational function is not zero at the limit
polynomial and Qscd = 0 , then point c. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator and de-
sx - cd is a factor of Q(x). Thus, if nominator may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at c. If this
the numerator and denominator of a
happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified fraction.
rational function of x are both zero at
x = c , they have sx - cd as a common
factor. EXAMPLE 3 Canceling a Common Factor
Evaluate
x2 + x - 2
lim .
x:1 x2 - x

y Solution We cannot substitute x = 1 because it makes the denominator zero. We test the
2
y x x2 numerator to see if it, too, is zero at x = 1. It is, so it has a factor of sx - 1d in common
x2 x with the denominator. Canceling the sx - 1d’s gives a simpler fraction with the same val-
(1, 3) ues as the original for x Z 1:
3
x2 + x - 2 sx - 1dsx + 2d x + 2
2
= = x , if x Z 1.
x - x xsx - 1d
x
–2 0 1 Using the simpler fraction, we find the limit of these values as x : 1 by substitution:
x2 + x - 2 x + 2 1 + 2
(a) lim = lim x = = 3.
x:1 x2 - x x:1 1
y
See Figure 2.8.
yx2
x
(1, 3) EXAMPLE 4 Creating and Canceling a Common Factor
3
Evaluate
2x 2 + 100 - 10
lim .
–2 0 1
x x:0 x2
Solution This is the limit we considered in Example 10 of the preceding section. We

(b) cannot substitute x = 0, and the numerator and denominator have no obvious common
factors. We can create a common factor by multiplying both numerator and denominator
FIGURE 2.8 The graph of
by the expression 2x 2 + 100 + 10 (obtained by changing the sign after the square root).
ƒsxd = sx 2 + x - 2d>sx 2 - xd in
The preliminary algebra rationalizes the numerator:
part (a) is the same as the graph of
g sxd = sx + 2d>x in part (b) except 2x 2 + 100 - 10 2x 2 + 100 - 10 # 2x 2 + 100 + 10
2
=
at x = 1 , where ƒ is undefined. The x x2 2x 2 + 100 + 10
functions have the same limit as x : 1 2
x + 100 - 100
x A 2x 2 + 100 + 10 B
(Example 3). =
2
x2
x 2 A 2x 2 + 100 + 10 B
= Common factor x2
1
= . Cancel x2 for x 0
2x + 100 + 10
2
Therefore,
2x 2 + 100 - 10 1
lim = lim
x:0 x2 x:0 2x 2 + 100 + 10
Denominator
1
= not 0 at x 0;
20 + 100 + 10
2
substitute
1
= = 0.05.
20
This calculation provides the correct answer to the ambiguous computer results in Exam-
ple 10 of the preceding section.
The Sandwich Theorem

The following theorem will enable us to calculate a variety of limits in subsequent chap-
ters. It is called the Sandwich Theorem because it refers to a function ƒ whose values are

y sandwiched between the values of two other functions g and h that have the same limit L at
a point c. Being trapped between the values of two functions that approach L, the values of
h ƒ must also approach L (Figure 2.9). You will find a proof in Appendix 2.
f
L
THEOREM 4 The Sandwich Theorem

g
Suppose that gsxd … ƒsxd … hsxd for all x in some open interval containing c,
x
except possibly at x = c itself. Suppose also that
0 c
lim gsxd = lim hsxd = L.
x:c x:c
FIGURE 2.9 The graph of ƒ is Then limx:c ƒsxd = L.
sandwiched between the graphs of g and h.
y 2 The Sandwich Theorem is sometimes called the Squeeze Theorem or the Pinching Theorem.
y1 x
2
EXAMPLE 5 Applying the Sandwich Theorem
2
y u(x) Given that
x2 x2
1 1 - … usxd … 1 + for all x Z 0,
2 4 2
y1 x
4
find limx:0 usxd, no matter how complicated u is.
x
–1 0 1
Solution Since
FIGURE 2.10 Any function u(x) lim s1 - sx 2>4dd = 1 and lim s1 + sx 2>2dd = 1,
whose graph lies in the region between x:0 x:0
y = 1 + sx 2>2d and y = 1 - sx 2>4d has the Sandwich Theorem implies that limx:0 usxd = 1 (Figure 2.10).
limit 1 as x : 0 (Example 5).
EXAMPLE 6 More Applications of the Sandwich Theorem
(a) (Figure 2.11a). It follows from the definition of sin u that - ƒ u ƒ … sin u … ƒ u ƒ for all u,
and since limu:0 s - ƒ u ƒ d = limu:0 ƒ u ƒ = 0, we have
lim sin u = 0 .
u:0
y
y y  
y   2
y sin
1 1
y 1 cos

– –2 –1 0 1 2
–1 y –   (b)
(a)
FIGURE 2.11 The Sandwich Theorem confirms that (a) limu:0 sin u = 0 and
(b) limu:0 s1 - cos ud = 0 (Example 6).

(b) (Figure 2.11b). From the definition of cos u, 0 … 1 - cos u … ƒ u ƒ for all u, and we
have limu:0 s1 - cos ud = 0 or
lim cos u = 1 .
u:0
(c) For any function ƒ(x), if limx:c ƒ ƒsxd ƒ = 0, then limx:c ƒsxd = 0. The argument:
- ƒ ƒsxd ƒ … ƒsxd … ƒ ƒsxd ƒ and - ƒ ƒsxd ƒ and ƒ ƒsxd ƒ have limit 0 as x : c.
Another important property of limits is given by the next theorem. A proof is given in
the next section.
THEOREM 5 If ƒsxd … gsxd for all x in some open interval containing c, except
possibly at x = c itself, and the limits of ƒ and g both exist as x approaches c,
then
lim ƒsxd … lim gsxd.

x:c x:c
The assertion resulting from replacing the less than or equal to … inequality by the strict
6 inequality in Theorem 5 is false. Figure 2.11a shows that for u Z 0,
- ƒ u ƒ 6 sin u 6 ƒ u ƒ , but in the limit as u : 0, equality holds.

EXERCISES 2.2
Limit Calculations Find the limits in Exercises 19–36.

Find the limits in Exercises 1–18. x - 5 x + 3
19. lim 20. lim
1. lim s2x + 5d 2. lim s10 - 3xd x:5 x 2 - 25 x: -3 x 2 + 4x + 3
x: -7 x: 12
x 2 + 3x - 10 x 2 - 7x + 10
3. lim s -x 2 + 5x - 2d 4. lim sx 3 - 2x 2 + 4x + 8d 21. lim 22. lim
x: -5 x + 5 x:2 x - 2
x:2 x: -2
5. lim 8st - 5dst - 7d 6. lim 3ss2s - 1d t2 + t - 2 t 2 + 3t + 2
t:6 s: 2>3 23. lim 24. lim
t: 1 t2 - 1 t: -1 t2 - t - 2
x + 3 4
7. lim 8. lim -2x - 4 5y 3 + 8y 2
x:2 x + 6 x: 5 x - 7 25. lim 26. lim
x: -2 x 3 + 2x 2 y:0 3y 4 - 16y 2
y2 y + 2
9. lim 10. lim u4 - 1 y3 - 8
y: -5 5 - y y: 2 y 2 + 5y + 6 27. lim 28. lim
u:1 u3 - 1 y: 2 y4 - 16
11. lim 3s2x - 1d2 12. lim sx + 3d1984
x: -1 x: -4 2x - 3 4x - x 2
29. lim 30. lim
13. lim s5 - yd 4>3
14. lim s2z - 8d 1>3 x:9 x - 9 x:4 2 - 2x
y: -3 z: 0
3 5 x - 1 2x 2 + 8 - 3
15. lim 16. lim 31. lim 32. lim
x:1 2x + 3 - 2 x: -1 x + 1
h: 0 23h + 1 + 1 h :0 25h + 4 + 2
23h + 1 - 1 25h + 4 - 2 2x + 12 - 4
2
x + 2
17. lim 18. lim 33. lim 34. lim
h: 0 h h :0 h x:2 x - 2 x: -2 2x + 5 - 3
2

2 - 2x 2 - 5 4 - x 42. Suppose that limx:-2 psxd = 4, limx:-2 r sxd = 0 , and

35. lim 36. lim limx:-2 ssxd = -3 . Find
x: -3 x + 3 x: 4 5 - 2x + 92
a. lim spsxd + r sxd + ssxdd
x: -2
b. lim psxd # r sxd # ssxd
Using Limit Rules x: -2
c. lim s -4psxd + 5r sxdd>ssxd
37. Suppose limx:0 ƒsxd = 1 and limx:0 g sxd = -5 . Name the x: -2
rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps (a), (b), and
(c) of the following calculation. Limits of Average Rates of Change
lim s2ƒsxd - g sxdd Because of their connection with secant lines, tangents, and instanta-
2ƒsxd - g sxd x: 0
lim = (a) neous rates, limits of the form
x: 0 sƒsxd + 7d2>3 lim sƒsxd + 7d2>3
x: 0 ƒsx + hd - ƒsxd
lim 2ƒsxd - lim g sxd lim
h:0 h
x: 0 x:0
A lim A ƒsxd + 7 B B 2>3

= (b)
occur frequently in calculus. In Exercises 43–48, evaluate this limit
x: 0 for the given value of x and function ƒ.
2 lim ƒsxd - lim g sxd
x: 0 x:0 43. ƒsxd = x 2, x = 1 44. ƒsxd = x 2, x = -2
A lim ƒ(x) + lim 7 B
= (c)
2>3
45. ƒsxd = 3x - 4, x = 2 46. ƒsxd = 1>x, x = -2
x: 0 x:0
47. ƒsxd = 2x, x = 7 48. ƒsxd = 23x + 1, x = 0
s2ds1d - s -5d 7
= =
s1 + 7d2>3 4
Using the Sandwich Theorem
38. Let limx:1 hsxd = 5, limx:1 psxd = 1 , and limx:1 r sxd = 2 .
49. If 25 - 2x 2 … ƒsxd … 25 - x 2 for -1 … x … 1 , find
Name the rules in Theorem 1 that are used to accomplish steps
limx:0 ƒsxd .
(a), (b), and (c) of the following calculation.
50. If 2 - x 2 … g sxd … 2 cos x for all x, find limx:0 g sxd .
lim 25hsxd
25hsxd x: 1 51. a. It can be shown that the inequalities
lim = (a)
x:1 psxds4 - rsxdd lim spsxds4 - rsxddd x2 x sin x
x: 1
1 - 6 6 1
6 2 - 2 cos x
2 lim 5hsxd
x: 1
A lim p(x) B A lim A 4 - r(x) B B

= (b) hold for all values of x close to zero. What, if anything, does
x: 1 x: 1
this tell you about
25 lim hsxd lim
x sin x
?
x: 1 2 - 2 cos x
A lim p(x) B A lim 4 - lim r (x) B
= (c) x:0
x: 1 x: 1 x:1 Give reasons for your answer.

2s5ds5d 5 T b. Graph
y = 1 - sx 2>6d, y = sx sin xd>s2 - 2 cos xd, and y = 1
= =
s1ds4 - 2d 2
together for -2 … x … 2 . Comment on the behavior of the
39. Suppose limx:c ƒsxd = 5 and limx:c g sxd = -2 . Find
graphs as x : 0 .
a. lim ƒsxdg sxd b. lim 2ƒsxdg sxd
x:c x: c 52. a. Suppose that the inequalities
ƒsxd
c. lim sƒsxd + 3g sxdd d. lim 1 x2 1 - cos x 1
x:c x: c ƒsxd - g sxd - 6 6
2 24 x2 2
40. Suppose limx:4 ƒsxd = 0 and limx:4 g sxd = -3 . Find
hold for values of x close to zero. (They do, as you will see in
a. lim sg sxd + 3d b. lim xƒsxd Section 11.9.) What, if anything, does this tell you about
x:4 x: 4
g sxd 1 - cos x
c. lim sg sxdd2 d. lim lim ?
x:4 x: 4 ƒsxd - 1 x:0 x2
41. Suppose limx:b ƒsxd = 7 and limx:b g sxd = -3 . Find Give reasons for your answer.
a. lim sƒsxd + g sxdd b. lim ƒsxd # g sxd b. Graph the equations y = s1>2d - sx 2>24d,
x:b x: b
y = s1 - cos xd>x 2 , and y = 1>2 together for -2 … x … 2 .
c. lim 4g sxd d. lim ƒsxd>g sxd
x:b x: b Comment on the behavior of the graphs as x : 0 .

Theory and Examples a. lim ƒsxd b. lim

ƒsxd
4 2 2 4 x: -2 x: -2 x
53. If x … ƒsxd … x for x in [-1, 1] and x … ƒsxd … x for
x 6 -1 and x 7 1 , at what points c do you automatically know ƒsxd - 5
57. a. If lim = 3 , find lim ƒsxd .
limx:c ƒsxd ? What can you say about the value of the limit at x:2 x - 2 x:2
these points? ƒsxd - 5
b. If lim = 4 , find lim ƒsxd .
54. Suppose that g sxd … ƒsxd … hsxd for all x Z 2 and suppose that x:2 x - 2 x:2
ƒsxd
lim g sxd = lim hsxd = -5 . 58. If lim 2 = 1 , find
x: 2 x: 2 x:0 x
ƒsxd
Can we conclude anything about the values of ƒ, g, and h at a. lim ƒsxd b. lim x
x = 2 ? Could ƒs2d = 0 ? Could limx:2 ƒsxd = 0 ? Give reasons x:0 x:0
for your answers. T 59. a. Graph g sxd = x sin s1>xd to estimate limx:0 g sxd , zooming
ƒsxd - 5 in on the origin as necessary.
55. If lim = 1 , find lim ƒsxd .
x:4 x - 2 x: 4 b. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.
2 3
ƒsxd T 60. a. Graph hsxd = x cos s1>x d to estimate limx:0 hsxd , zooming
56. If lim = 1 , find in on the origin as necessary.
x: -2 x2
b. Confirm your estimate in part (a) with a proof.

2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit 91
2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit
Now that we have gained some insight into the limit concept, working intuitively with the
informal definition, we turn our attention to its precise definition. We replace vague
phrases like “gets arbitrarily close to” in the informal definition with specific conditions
that can be applied to any particular example. With a precise definition we will be able to
prove conclusively the limit properties given in the preceding section, and we can establish
other particular limits important to the study of calculus.
To show that the limit of ƒ(x) as x : x0 equals the number L, we need to show that the gap
between ƒ(x) and L can be made “as small as we choose” if x is kept “close enough” to x0 .
Let us see what this would require if we specified the size of the gap between ƒ(x) and L.
EXAMPLE 1 A Linear Function

y Consider the function y = 2x - 1 near x0 = 4. Intuitively it is clear that y is close to 7
y 2x 1 when x is close to 4, so limx:4 s2x - 1d = 7. However, how close to x0 = 4 does x have
to be so that y = 2x - 1 differs from 7 by, say, less than 2 units?
Upper bound:
y9 Solution We are asked: For what values of x is ƒ y - 7 ƒ 6 2? To find the answer we
9
To satisfy  first express ƒ y - 7 ƒ in terms of x:
this 7
 ƒ y - 7 ƒ = ƒ s2x - 1d - 7 ƒ = ƒ 2x - 8 ƒ .
5
Lower bound: The question then becomes: what values of x satisfy the inequality ƒ 2x - 8 ƒ 6 2? To
y5
find out, we solve the inequality:
x ƒ 2x - 8 ƒ 6 2
0 3 4 5
2x - 8 6 2



-2 6
Restrict
to this 6 6 2x 6 10
3 6 x 6 5
FIGURE 2.12 Keeping x within 1 unit
of x0 = 4 will keep y within 2 units of -1 6 x - 4 6 1.
y0 = 7 (Example 1). Keeping x within 1 unit of x0 = 4 will keep y within 2 units of y0 = 7 (Figure 2.12).

y In the previous example we determined how close x must be to a particular value x0 to

ensure that the outputs ƒ(x) of some function lie within a prescribed interval about a limit
1
value L. To show that the limit of ƒ(x) as x : x0 actually equals L, we must be able to show
L that the gap between ƒ(x) and L can be made less than any prescribed error, no matter how
10
f(x)
f(x) lies small, by holding x close enough to x0 .
L in here
L
1 Definition of Limit
10
for all x x0 Suppose we are watching the values of a function ƒ(x) as x approaches x0 (without taking on
in here the value of x0 itself). Certainly we want to be able to say that ƒ(x) stays within one-tenth of
a unit of L as soon as x stays within some distance d of x0 (Figure 2.13). But that in itself is
x
x not enough, because as x continues on its course toward x0 , what is to prevent ƒ(x) from jit-
0 x0 x0 x0
tering about within the interval from L - (1>10) to L + (1>10) without tending toward L?
We can be told that the error can be no more than 1>100 or 1>1000 or 1>100,000.
FIGURE 2.13 How should we define
Each time, we find a new d-interval about x0 so that keeping x within that interval satisfies
d 7 0 so that keeping x within the
the new error tolerance. And each time the possibility exists that ƒ(x) jitters away from L at
interval sx0 - d, x0 + dd will keep ƒ(x)
some stage.
within the interval aL - b?
1 1
10
,L +
10
The figures on the next page illustrate the problem. You can think of this as a quarrel
between a skeptic and a scholar. The skeptic presents P-challenges to prove that the limit
does not exist or, more precisely, that there is room for doubt, and the scholar answers
every challenge with a d-interval around x0 .
y How do we stop this seemingly endless series of challenges and responses? By prov-
ing that for every error tolerance P that the challenger can produce, we can find, calculate,
or conjure a matching distance d that keeps x “close enough” to x0 to keep ƒ(x) within that
L
tolerance of L (Figure 2.14). This leads us to the precise definition of a limit.
f(x) lies
L in here
f(x) DEFINITION Limit of a Function
L
Let ƒ(x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0 itself. We
say that the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches x0 is the number L, and write
lim ƒsxd = L,
for all x x 0 x:x0
in here
if, for every number P 7 0, there exists a corresponding number d 7 0 such that
for all x,
x
x
0 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P.
x0 x0 x0
FIGURE 2.14 The relation of d and P in

the definition of limit. One way to think about the definition is to suppose we are machining a generator
shaft to a close tolerance. We may try for diameter L, but since nothing is perfect, we must
be satisfied with a diameter ƒ(x) somewhere between L - P and L + P. The d is the
measure of how accurate our control setting for x must be to guarantee this degree of accu-
racy in the diameter of the shaft. Notice that as the tolerance for error becomes stricter, we
may have to adjust d. That is, the value of d, how tight our control setting must be, de-
pends on the value of P, the error tolerance.
Examples: Testing the Definition

The formal definition of limit does not tell how to find the limit of a function, but it en-
ables us to verify that a suspected limit is correct. The following examples show how the

y y y y
y f (x) y f (x) y f (x) y f (x)

1 1
L L
10 10 1 1
L L
100 100
L L L L
1 1
1 1 L L
L 100 100
10 L
10
x x x x
0 x0 0 x0 0 x0 0 x0
x 0 1/10 x 0 1/10 x 0 1/100 x 0 1/100
The challenge: Response: New challenge: Response:
Make f (x) – L 1 x x 0 1/10 (a number) Make f (x) – L 1 x x 0 1/100
10 100
y y
y f (x) y f (x)
1 1
L L
1000 1000
L L
1 1
L L
1000 1000
x x
0 x0 0 x0
New challenge: Response:

1 x x 0 1/1000
1000
y y y
y f (x) y f (x) y f (x)
1 1
L L
100,000 100,000
L L L
1 1
L L
100,000 100,000
x x x
0 x0 0 x0 x0
0
New challenge: Response: New challenge:
1

100,000 x x 0 1/100,000 ...
definition can be used to verify limit statements for specific functions. (The first two ex-
amples correspond to parts of Examples 7 and 8 in Section 2.1.) However, the real purpose
of the definition is not to do calculations like this, but rather to prove general theorems so
that the calculation of specific limits can be simplified.

y EXAMPLE 2 Testing the Definition

y 5x 3
Show that
2
lim s5x - 3d = 2.
x:1
2
Solution Set x0 = 1, ƒsxd = 5x - 3, and L = 2 in the definition of limit. For any given
2 P 7 0, we have to find a suitable d 7 0 so that if x Z 1 and x is within distance d of
x0 = 1, that is, whenever
x
0 1 1 1 0 6 ƒ x - 1 ƒ 6 d,
5 5
it is true that ƒ(x) is within distance P of L = 2, so
ƒ ƒsxd - 2 ƒ 6 P.
We find d by working backward from the P-inequality:
–3
ƒ s5x - 3d - 2 ƒ = ƒ 5x - 5 ƒ 6 P
NOT TO SCALE
5ƒx - 1ƒ 6 P
FIGURE 2.15 If ƒsxd = 5x - 3 , then ƒ x - 1 ƒ 6 P>5.
0 6 ƒ x - 1 ƒ 6 P>5 guarantees that
Thus, we can take d = P>5 (Figure 2.15). If 0 6 ƒ x - 1 ƒ 6 d = P>5, then
ƒ ƒsxd - 2 ƒ 6 P (Example 2).
ƒ s5x - 3d - 2 ƒ = ƒ 5x - 5 ƒ = 5 ƒ x - 1 ƒ 6 5sP>5d = P,
which proves that limx:1s5x - 3d = 2.
The value of d = P>5 is not the only value that will make 0 6 ƒ x - 1 ƒ 6 d imply
ƒ 5x - 5 ƒ 6 P. Any smaller positive d will do as well. The definition does not ask for a
“best” positive d, just one that will work.
EXAMPLE 3 Limits of the Identity and Constant Functions

y
yx
Prove:
x0 (a) lim x = x0 (b) lim k = k (k constant).
x:x0 x:x0
x0
x0 Solution
x0
(a) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find d 7 0 such that for all x
x0
0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d implies ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 P.
The implication will hold if d equals P or any smaller positive number (Figure 2.16).
x
0 x0 x0 x0 This proves that limx:x0 x = x0 .
(b) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find d 7 0 such that for all x
FIGURE 2.16 For the function ƒsxd = x ,
0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d implies ƒ k - k ƒ 6 P.
we find that 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d will
guarantee ƒ ƒsxd - x0 ƒ 6 P whenever Since k - k = 0, we can use any positive number for d and the implication will hold
d … P (Example 3a). (Figure 2.17). This proves that limx:x0 k = k.
Finding Deltas Algebraically for Given Epsilons

In Examples 2 and 3, the interval of values about x0 for which ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ was less than P
was symmetric about x0 and we could take d to be half the length of that interval. When

y such symmetry is absent, as it usually is, we can take d to be the distance from x0 to the in-
terval’s nearer endpoint.
yk
k
k EXAMPLE 4 Finding Delta Algebraically
k
For the limit limx:5 2x - 1 = 2, find a d 7 0 that works for P = 1. That is, find a
d 7 0 such that for all x
x 0 6 ƒx - 5ƒ 6 d Q ƒ 2x - 1 - 2 ƒ 6 1.
0 x0 x0 x0
FIGURE 2.17 For the function ƒsxd = k , Solution We organize the search into two steps, as discussed below.
we find that ƒ ƒsxd - k ƒ 6 P for any
1. Solve the inequality ƒ 2x - 1 - 2 ƒ 6 1 to find an interval containing x0 = 5 on
positive d (Example 3b).
which the inequality holds for all x Z x0 .
ƒ 2x - 1 - 2 ƒ 6 1
-1 6 2x - 1 - 2 6 1
1 6 2x - 1 6 3
1 6 x - 1 6 9
2 6 x 6 10
The inequality holds for all x in the open interval (2, 10), so it holds for all x Z 5 in
this interval as well (see Figure 2.19).
2. Find a value of d 7 0 to place the centered interval 5 - d 6 x 6 5 + d (centered
at x0 = 5) inside the interval (2, 10). The distance from 5 to the nearer endpoint of
(2, 10) is 3 (Figure 2.18). If we take d = 3 or any smaller positive number, then the
inequality 0 6 ƒ x - 5 ƒ 6 d will automatically place x between 2 and 10 to make
ƒ 2x - 1 - 2 ƒ 6 1 (Figure 2.19)
0 6 ƒx - 5ƒ 6 3 Q ƒ 2x - 1 - 2 ƒ 6 1.
y 兹x 1
3
1
3 3
3 3
x x
2 5 8 10 0 1 2 5 8 10
NOT TO SCALE
FIGURE 2.18 An open interval of
radius 3 about x0 = 5 will lie inside the FIGURE 2.19 The function and intervals
open interval (2, 10). in Example 4.

How to Find Algebraically a D for a Given f, L, x0 , and P>0

The process of finding a d 7 0 such that for all x
0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P
can be accomplished in two steps.
1. Solve the inequality ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P to find an open interval (a, b) contain-
ing x0 on which the inequality holds for all x Z x0 .
2. Find a value of d 7 0 that places the open interval sx0 - d, x0 + dd centered
at x0 inside the interval (a, b). The inequality ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P will hold for all
x Z x0 in this d-interval.
EXAMPLE 5 Finding Delta Algebraically

Prove that limx:2 ƒsxd = 4 if
x 2,
ƒsxd = e
x Z 2
1, x = 2.
y
Solution Our task is to show that given P 7 0 there exists a d 7 0 such that for all x
y x2
0 6 ƒx - 2ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - 4 ƒ 6 P.
4
1. Solve the inequality ƒ ƒsxd - 4 ƒ 6 P to find an open interval containing x0 = 2 on
which the inequality holds for all x Z x0 .
4 (2, 4)
For x Z x0 = 2, we have ƒsxd = x 2 , and the inequality to solve is ƒ x 2 - 4 ƒ 6 P:
4 ƒ x2 - 4 ƒ 6 P
-P 6 x 2 - 4 6 P
(2, 1)
4 - P 6 x2 6 4 + P
0 2
x 24 - P 6 ƒ x ƒ 6 24 + P Assumes P 6 4 ; see below.
兹4 兹4 24 - P 6 x 6 24 + P. An open interval about x0 = 2
that solves the inequality
The inequality ƒ ƒsxd - 4 ƒ 6 P holds for all x Z 2 in the open interval A 24 - P,

FIGURE 2.20 An interval containing
x = 2 so that the function in Example 5
satisfies ƒ ƒsxd - 4 ƒ 6 P . 24 + P B (Figure 2.20).
2. Find a value of d 7 0 that places the centered interval s2 - d, 2 + dd inside the in-
terval A 24 - P, 24 + P B .
Take d to be the distance from x0 = 2 to the nearer endpoint of A 24 - P, 24 + P B .
In other words, take d = min E 2 - 24 - P, 24 + P - 2 F , the minimum (the smaller)
of the two numbers 2 - 24 - P and 24 + P - 2. If d has this or any smaller positive
value, the inequality 0 6 ƒ x - 2 ƒ 6 d will automatically place x between 24 - P and
24 + P to make ƒ ƒsxd - 4 ƒ 6 P. For all x,
0 6 ƒx - 2ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - 4 ƒ 6 P.
This completes the proof.

Why was it all right to assume P 6 4? Because, in finding a d such that for all
x, 0 6 ƒ x - 2 ƒ 6 d implied ƒ ƒsxd - 4 ƒ 6 P 6 4, we found a d that would work for
any larger P as well.
Finally, notice the freedom we gained in letting d = min E 2 - 24 - P,
24 + P - 2 F . We did not have to spend time deciding which, if either, number was the
smaller of the two. We just let d represent the smaller and went on to finish the argument.
Using the Definition to Prove Theorems

We do not usually rely on the formal definition of limit to verify specific limits such as
those in the preceding examples. Rather we appeal to general theorems about limits, in
particular the theorems of Section 2.2. The definition is used to prove these theorems
(Appendix 2). As an example, we prove part 1 of Theorem 1, the Sum Rule.
EXAMPLE 6 Proving the Rule for the Limit of a Sum

Given that limx:c ƒsxd = L and limx:c gsxd = M, prove that
lim sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M.
x:c
Solution Let P 7 0 be given. We want to find a positive number d such that for all x
0 6 ƒx - cƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd + gsxd - sL + Md ƒ 6 P.
Regrouping terms, we get
ƒ ƒsxd + gsxd - sL + Md ƒ = ƒ sƒsxd - Ld + sgsxd - Md ƒ
Triangle Inequality:
… ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ + ƒ gsxd - M ƒ .
ƒa + bƒ … ƒaƒ + ƒbƒ
Since limx:c ƒsxd = L, there exists a number d1 7 0 such that for all x
0 6 ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d1 Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P>2.
Similarly, since limx:c gsxd = M, there exists a number d2 7 0 such that for all x
0 6 ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d2 Q ƒ gsxd - M ƒ 6 P>2.
Let d = min 5d1, d26, the smaller of d1 and d2 . If 0 6 ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d then ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d1 ,
so ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P>2, and ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d2 , so ƒ gsxd - M ƒ 6 P>2. Therefore
P P
ƒ ƒsxd + gsxd - sL + Md ƒ 6 2 + 2 = P.
This shows that limx:c sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M.

Let’s also prove Theorem 5 of Section 2.2.
EXAMPLE 7 Given that limx:c ƒsxd = L and limx:c gsxd = M, and that ƒsxd … g sxd
for all x in an open interval containing c (except possibly c itself), prove that L … M.
Solution We use the method of proof by contradiction. Suppose, on the contrary, that
L 7 M. Then by the limit of a difference property in Theorem 1,
lim s gsxd - ƒsxdd = M - L.
x:c
Therefore, for any P 7 0, there exists d 7 0 such that
ƒ sgsxd - ƒsxdd - sM - Ld ƒ 6 P whenever 0 6 ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d.

Since L - M 7 0 by hypothesis, we take P = L - M in particular and we have a number

d 7 0 such that
ƒ sg sxd - ƒsxdd - sM - Ld ƒ 6 L - M whenever 0 6 ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d.
Since a … ƒ a ƒ for any number a, we have
sgsxd - ƒsxdd - sM - Ld 6 L - M whenever 0 6 ƒx - cƒ 6 d
which simplifies to
gsxd 6 ƒsxd whenever 0 6 ƒ x - c ƒ 6 d.
But this contradicts ƒsxd … gsxd. Thus the inequality L 7 M must be false. Therefore
L … M.

EXERCISES 2.3
Centering Intervals About a Point 9. 10.

f (x) 兹x y
In Exercises 1–6, sketch the interval (a, b) on the x-axis with the f(x) 2兹x 1
y x0 1
point x0 inside. Then find a value of d 7 0 such that for all L1 x0 3
x, 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q a 6 x 6 b . L4
1 y 兹x 0.2
5 4
1. a = 1, b = 7, x0 = 5
4
2. a = 1, b = 7, x0 = 2 1 y 2兹x 1
3 4.2
3. a = -7>2, b = -1>2, x0 = -3 4 4
3.8
4. a = -7>2, b = -1>2, x0 = -3>2
5. a = 4>9, b = 4>7, x0 = 1>2 x 2
0 9 1 25
6. a = 2.7591, b = 3.2391, x0 = 3 16 16
x
Finding Deltas Graphically –1 0 2.61 3 3.41
NOT TO SCALE
In Exercises 7–14, use the graphs to find a d 7 0 such that for all x
11. 12.
0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P .
y y
7. 8. f (x) 4 x 2
y f (x) x 2
y
f (x) – 3 x 3 x0 –1
x0 2
y 2x 4 2 L3
x0 –3 L4 0.25 3.25
L 7.5 1
6.2 f (x) 2x 4 0.15
6 x0 5 y 4 x2 3
y x2 5
5.8 L6 y –3 x 3
0.2 2
7.65 4 2.75
7.5 3
x 7.35
0 5
4.9 5.1 x
0 2
NOT TO SCALE 兹3 兹5
NOT TO SCALE
x
–3 0 x
–3.1 –2.9 兹5 –1 兹3 0
– –
NOT TO SCALE
2 2
NOT TO SCALE

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch02p073-146 9/17/04 1:46 PM Page 99
13. 14. More on Formal Limits

y y Each of Exercises 31–36 gives a function ƒ(x), a point x0, and a posi-
tive number P. Find L = lim ƒsxd. Then find a number d 7 0 such
f(x) ⫽ 2 x:x0
兹–x f (x) ⫽ 1x that for all x
x0 ⫽ –1
L⫽2 x0 ⫽ 1 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P .
2.01 2
⑀ ⫽ 0.5 L⫽2
⑀ ⫽ 0.01 31. ƒsxd = 3 - 2 x, x0 = 3, P = 0.02
y⫽ 2 2 32. ƒsxd = -3x - 2, x0 = -1, P = 0.03
兹–x 2
2.5 x - 4
1.99 33. ƒsxd = , x0 = 2, P = 0.05
x - 2
2
y ⫽ 1x
x 2 + 6x + 5
34. ƒsxd = , x0 = -5, P = 0.05
x + 5
1.5
35. ƒsxd = 21 - 5x, x0 = -3, P = 0.5
36. ƒsxd = 4>x, x0 = 2, P = 0.4
Prove the limit statements in Exercises 37–50.
x
x 37. lim s9 - xd = 5 38. lim s3x - 7d = 2
0 1 x:4 x:3
1 1
–16 –1 – 16 0 2
9 25 2.01 1.99 39. lim 2x - 5 = 2 40. lim 24 - x = 2
x:9 x:0
NOT TO SCALE
x 2,
ƒsxd = e
x Z 1
41. lim ƒsxd = 1 if
x:1 2, x = 1
Finding Deltas Algebraically x 2,
ƒsxd = e
x Z -2
Each of Exercises 15–30 gives a function ƒ(x) and numbers L, x0 and 42. lim ƒsxd = 4 if
x: -2 1, x = -2
P 7 0 . In each case, find an open interval about x0 on which the in-
equality ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P holds. Then give a value for d 7 0 such 1
43. lim x = 1
that for all x satisfying 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d the inequality x:1
ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P holds. 1 1
44. lim =
15. ƒsxd = x + 1, L = 5, x0 = 4, P = 0.01 x: 23 x2 3
16. ƒsxd = 2x - 2, L = -6, x0 = -2, P = 0.02 x2 - 9 x2 - 1
45. lim = -6 46. lim = 2
x: -3 x + 3 x:1 x - 1
17. ƒsxd = 2x + 1, L = 1, x0 = 0, P = 0.1
ƒsxd = e
4 - 2x, x 6 1
18. ƒsxd = 2x, L = 1>2, x0 = 1>4, P = 0.1 47. lim ƒsxd = 2 if
x:1 6x - 4, x Ú 1
19. ƒsxd = 219 - x, L = 3, x0 = 10, P = 1
ƒsxd = e
2x, x 6 0
20. ƒsxd = 2x - 7, L = 4, x0 = 23, P = 1 48. lim ƒsxd = 0 if
x:0 x>2, x Ú 0
21. ƒsxd = 1>x, L = 1>4, x0 = 4, P = 0.05 1
49. lim x sin x = 0
22. ƒsxd = x , 2
L = 3, x0 = 23, P = 0.1 x:0
y
23. ƒsxd = x 2, L = 4, x0 = -2, P = 0.5
24. ƒsxd = 1>x, L = -1, x0 = -1, P = 0.1
2
25. ƒsxd = x - 5, L = 11, x0 = 4, P = 1
26. ƒsxd = 120>x, L = 5, x0 = 24, P = 1
y ⫽ x sin 1x
27. ƒsxd = mx, m 7 0, L = 2m, x0 = 2, P = 0.03 – 1 1
2␲ 2␲
28. ƒsxd = mx, m 7 0, L = 3m, x0 = 3, x
1
–␲ 1
P = c 7 0 ␲
29. ƒsxd = mx + b, m 7 0, L = sm>2d + b,

x0 = 1>2, P = c 7 0
30. ƒsxd = mx + b, m 7 0, L = m + b, x0 = 1,
P = 0.05

1 volts and I is to be 5 ; 0.1 amp . In what interval does R have to

50. lim x 2 sin x = 0
x: 0 lie for I to be within 0.1 amp of the value I0 = 5 ?
y

1 y x2 V I R

When Is a Number L Not the Limit of ƒ(x)

y x 2 sin 1x as x : x0 ?
x We can prove that limx:x0 ƒsxd Z L by providing an P 7 0 such that
–1 2
– 0 2 1
no possible d 7 0 satisfies the condition
For all x, 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P .
We accomplish this for our candidate P by showing that for each
d 7 0 there exists a value of x such that
–1 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d and ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ Ú P .
y –x 2
y
y f(x)
Theory and Examples
51. Define what it means to say that lim g sxd = k . L
x: 0
52. Prove that lim ƒsxd = L if and only if lim ƒsh + cd = L .
x: c h :0 L
53. A wrong statement about limits Show by example that the fol-
lowing statement is wrong. L
The number L is the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches x0 if ƒ(x) gets f (x)
closer to L as x approaches x0 .
Explain why the function in your example does not have the given x
value of L as a limit as x : x0 . 0 x0 x0 x0
54. Another wrong statement about limits Show by example that a value of x for which
the following statement is wrong. 0 x x 0 and f(x) L ⱖ
The number L is the limit of ƒ(x) as x approaches x0 if, given any
57. Let ƒsxd = e

P 7 0 , there exists a value of x for which ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P. x, x 6 1
Explain why the function in your example does not have the given x + 1, x 7 1.
value of L as a limit as x : x0 . y
T 55. Grinding engine cylinders Before contracting to grind engine
yx1
cylinders to a cross-sectional area of 9 in2 , you need to know how
much deviation from the ideal cylinder diameter of x0 = 3.385
in. you can allow and still have the area come within 0.01 in2 of 2
the required 9 in2 . To find out, you let A = psx>2d2 and look for y f(x)
the interval in which you must hold x to make ƒ A - 9 ƒ … 0.01 .
1
What interval do you find?
56. Manufacturing electrical resistors Ohm’s law for electrical cir- x
cuits like the one shown in the accompanying figure states that 1
V = RI . In this equation, V is a constant voltage, I is the current
in amperes, and R is the resistance in ohms. Your firm has been yx
asked to supply the resistors for a circuit in which V will be 120

a. Let P = 1>2 . Show that no possible d 7 0 satisfies the 60. a. For the function graphed here, show that limx : -1 g sxd Z 2 .
following condition: b. Does limx : -1 g sxd appear to exist? If so, what is the value of
For all x, 0 6 ƒx - 1ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - 2 ƒ 6 1>2. the limit? If not, why not?
That is, for each d 7 0 show that there is a value of x such that
y
0 6 ƒx - 1ƒ 6 d and ƒ ƒsxd - 2 ƒ Ú 1>2.
This will show that limx:1 ƒsxd Z 2 .
2
b. Show that limx:1 ƒsxd Z 1 .
c. Show that limx:1 ƒsxd Z 1.5 .
y g(x)
x 2, x 6 2
58. Let hsxd = • 3,
1
x = 2
2, x 7 2.
y x
–1 0
y h(x)
4
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
3 In Exercises 61–66, you will further explore finding deltas graphi-
y2 cally. Use a CAS to perform the following steps:
2
a. Plot the function y = ƒsxd near the point x0 being approached.
1 y x2 b. Guess the value of the limit L and then evaluate the limit
symbolically to see if you guessed correctly.
x c. Using the value P = 0.2 , graph the banding lines y1 = L - P
0 2
and y2 = L + P together with the function ƒ near x0 .
Show that d. From your graph in part (c), estimate a d 7 0 such that for all x
a. lim hsxd Z 4 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P .
x:2
b. lim hsxd Z 3 Test your estimate by plotting ƒ, y1 , and y2 over the interval
x:2
c. lim hsxd Z 2 0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d . For your viewing window use
x:2 x0 - 2d … x … x0 + 2d and L - 2P … y … L + 2P . If any
59. For the function graphed here, explain why function values lie outside the interval [L - P, L + P] , your
a. lim ƒsxd Z 4 choice of d was too large. Try again with a smaller estimate.
x:3
b. lim ƒsxd Z 4.8 e. Repeat parts (c) and (d) successively for P = 0.1, 0.05 , and
x:3 0.001.
c. lim ƒsxd Z 3
x:3 x 4 - 81
61. ƒsxd = , x0 = 3
y x - 3
5x 3 + 9x 2
62. ƒsxd = , x0 = 0
2x 5 + 3x 2
4.8
sin 2x
63. ƒsxd = , x0 = 0
4 3x
y f (x)
3 xs1 - cos xd
64. ƒsxd = , x0 = 0
x - sin x
2
3
x - 1
65. ƒsxd = , x0 = 1
x - 1
x 3x 2 - s7x + 1d2x + 5
0 3 66. ƒsxd = , x0 = 1
x - 1

2.4 One-Sided Limits and Limits at Infinity
y In this section we extend the limit concept to one-sided limits, which are limits as x ap-
proaches the number x0 from the left-hand side (where x 6 x0) or the right-hand side
y x sx 7 x0 d only. We also analyze the graphs of certain rational functions as well as other
x
1 functions with limit behavior as x : ; q .
One-Sided Limits
x
0
To have a limit L as x approaches c, a function ƒ must be defined on both sides of c and its
values ƒ(x) must approach L as x approaches c from either side. Because of this, ordinary
–1 limits are called two-sided.
If ƒ fails to have a two-sided limit at c, it may still have a one-sided limit, that is, a
limit if the approach is only from one side. If the approach is from the right, the limit is a
right-hand limit. From the left, it is a left-hand limit.
The function ƒsxd = x> ƒ x ƒ (Figure 2.21) has limit 1 as x approaches 0 from the right,
FIGURE 2.21 Different right-hand and
and limit -1 as x approaches 0 from the left. Since these one-sided limit values are not the
left-hand limits at the origin.
same, there is no single number that ƒ(x) approaches as x approaches 0. So ƒ(x) does not
have a (two-sided) limit at 0.
Intuitively, if ƒ(x) is defined on an interval (c, b), where c 6 b, and approaches arbi-
trarily close to L as x approaches c from within that interval, then ƒ has right-hand limit L
at c. We write
lim ƒsxd = L.
x:c +
The symbol “x : c + ” means that we consider only values of x greater than c.
Similarly, if ƒ(x) is defined on an interval (a, c), where a 6 c and approaches arbi-
trarily close to M as x approaches c from within that interval, then ƒ has left-hand limit M
at c. We write
lim ƒsxd = M.
x:c -
The symbol “x : c - ” means that we consider only x values less than c.
These informal definitions are illustrated in Figure 2.22. For the function ƒsxd = x> ƒ x ƒ
in Figure 2.21 we have
lim ƒsxd = 1 and lim ƒsxd = -1.
x:0 + x:0 -
y y
f (x) M
L f (x)
x x
0 c x 0 x c
(a) lim f (x) L (b) lim f (x) M
x→c x→c
FIGURE 2.22 (a) Right-hand limit as x approaches c. (b) Left-hand limit as x

approaches c.

2.4 One-Sided Limits and Limits at Infinity 103
y EXAMPLE 1 One-Sided Limits for a Semicircle

The domain of ƒsxd = 24 - x 2 is [-2, 2]; its graph is the semicircle in Figure 2.23. We
y 兹4 x 2
have
lim 24 - x 2 = 0 and lim 24 - x 2 = 0.
x: -2 + x:2 -
The function does not have a left-hand limit at x = -2 or a right-hand limit at x = 2. It
x does not have ordinary two-sided limits at either -2 or 2.
–2 0 2
FIGURE 2.23 lim 24 - x 2 = 0 and One-sided limits have all the properties listed in Theorem 1 in Section 2.2. The right-
x: 2 - hand limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their right-hand limits, and so on. The
lim 24 - x 2 = 0 (Example 1). theorems for limits of polynomials and rational functions hold with one-sided limits, as
x: - 2 +
does the Sandwich Theorem and Theorem 5. One-sided limits are related to limits in the
following way.
THEOREM 6
A function ƒ(x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has left-hand and
right-hand limits there and these one-sided limits are equal:
lim ƒsxd = L 3 lim ƒsxd = L and lim ƒsxd = L.
x:c x:c - x:c +
y EXAMPLE 2 Limits of the Function Graphed in Figure 2.24
y f (x) At x = 0: limx:0+ ƒsxd = 1,

2
limx:0- ƒsxd and limx:0 ƒsxd do not exist. The function is not de-
fined to the left of x = 0.
1
At x = 1: limx:1- ƒsxd = 0 even though ƒs1d = 1,
x limx:1+ ƒsxd = 1,
0 1 2 3 4
limx:1 ƒsxd does not exist. The right- and left-hand limits are not
FIGURE 2.24 Graph of the function equal.
in Example 2. At x = 2: limx:2- ƒsxd = 1,
limx:2+ ƒsxd = 1,
limx:2 ƒsxd = 1 even though ƒs2d = 2.
At x = 3: limx:3- ƒsxd = limx:3+ ƒsxd = limx:3 ƒsxd = ƒs3d = 2.
At x = 4: limx:4- ƒsxd = 1 even though ƒs4d Z 1,
limx:4+ ƒsxd and limx:4 ƒsxd do not exist. The function is not de-
fined to the right of x = 4.
At every other point c in [0, 4], ƒ(x) has limit ƒ(c).
Precise Definitions of One-Sided Limits

The formal definition of the limit in Section 2.3 is readily modified for one-sided limits.

y
DEFINITIONS Right-Hand, Left-Hand Limits
We say that ƒ(x) has right-hand limit L at x0 , and write
lim ƒsxd = L (See Figure 2.25)
x:x0 +
L if for every number P 7 0 there exists a corresponding number d 7 0 such that
f(x)
for all x
f(x) lies
L in here x0 6 x 6 x0 + d Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P.
L We say that ƒ has left-hand limit L at x0 , and write
for all x x 0
lim ƒsxd = L (See Figure 2.26)
x:x0 -
in here
if for every number P 7 0 there exists a corresponding number d 7 0 such that

for all x
x
x
0 x0 x0 x0 - d 6 x 6 x0 Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P.
FIGURE 2.25 Intervals associated with

the definition of right-hand limit.
EXAMPLE 3 Applying the Definition to Find Delta
y
Prove that
lim 2x = 0.
x:0 +
Solution Let P 7 0 be given. Here x0 = 0 and L = 0, so we want to find a d 7 0 such

L that for all x
f(x)
f(x) lies 0 6 x 6 d Q ƒ 2x - 0 ƒ 6 P,
L in here
or
L 0 6 x 6 d Q 2x 6 P.
for all x x 0 Squaring both sides of this last inequality gives
in here
x 6 P2 if 0 6 x 6 d.

x 2
x If we choose d = P we have
0 x0 x0
0 6 x 6 d = P2 Q 2x 6 P,
FIGURE 2.26 Intervals associated with or
the definition of left-hand limit.
0 6 x 6 P2 Q ƒ 2x - 0 ƒ 6 P.
y According to the definition, this shows that limx:0+ 2x = 0 (Figure 2.27).
f (x) 兹x
The functions examined so far have had some kind of limit at each point of interest. In

general, that need not be the case.
f(x) EXAMPLE 4 A Function Oscillating Too Much

x Show that y = sin s1>xd has no limit as x approaches zero from either side (Figure 2.28).
L0 x 2
Solution As x approaches zero, its reciprocal, 1>x, grows without bound and the values
FIGURE 2.27 lim 1x = 0 in Example 3. of sin (1>x) cycle repeatedly from -1 to 1. There is no single number L that the function’s
x: 0 +

x
0
y sin 1x
–1
FIGURE 2.28 The function y = sin s1>xd has neither a

right-hand nor a left-hand limit as x approaches zero
(Example 4).
values stay increasingly close to as x approaches zero. This is true even if we restrict x to
positive values or to negative values. The function has neither a right-hand limit nor a left-
hand limit at x = 0.
Limits Involving (sin U)/U

A central fact about ssin ud>u is that in radian measure its limit as u : 0 is 1. We can see
this in Figure 2.29 and confirm it algebraically using the Sandwich Theorem.
y sin (radians)
1

–3 –2 – 2 3
y
NOT TO SCALE
T
FIGURE 2.29 The graph of ƒsud = ssin ud>u .
1
THEOREM 7
tan
1 sin u
lim = 1 su in radiansd (1)
sin u:0 u
cos
x
O Q A(1, 0)
Proof The plan is to show that the right-hand and left-hand limits are both 1. Then we













1 will know that the two-sided limit is 1 as well.

To show that the right-hand limit is 1, we begin with positive values of u less than p>2
FIGURE 2.30 The figure for the proof of
(Figure 2.30). Notice that
Theorem 7. TA>OA = tan u , but OA = 1 ,
so TA = tan u . Area ¢OAP 6 area sector OAP 6 area ¢OAT.

Equation (2) is where radian measure We can express these areas in terms of u as follows:
comes in: The area of sector OAP is u>2 1 1 1
only if u is measured in radians. Area ¢OAP = base * height = s1dssin ud = sin u
2 2 2
1 1 u
Area sector OAP = r 2u = s1d2u = (2)
2 2 2
1 1 1
Area ¢OAT = base * height = s1dstan ud = tan u.
2 2 2
Thus,
1 1 1
sin u 6 u 6 tan u.
2 2 2
This last inequality goes the same way if we divide all three terms by the number
(1>2) sin u, which is positive since 0 6 u 6 p>2:
u 1
1 6 6 .
sin u cos u
Taking reciprocals reverses the inequalities:
sin u
1 7 7 cos u.
u
Since limu:0+ cos u = 1 (Example 6b, Section 2.2), the Sandwich Theorem gives
sin u
lim+ = 1.
u:0 u
Recall that sin u and u are both odd functions (Section 1.4). Therefore, ƒsud =
ssin ud>u is an even function, with a graph symmetric about the y-axis (see Figure 2.29).
This symmetry implies that the left-hand limit at 0 exists and has the same value as the
right-hand limit:
sin u sin u
lim = 1 = lim+ ,
u:0 - u u:0 u
so limu:0 ssin ud>u = 1 by Theorem 6.
sin u
EXAMPLE 5 Using lim = 1
u:0 u
cos h - 1 sin 2x 2
Show that (a) lim = 0 and (b) lim = .
h:0 h x:0 5x 5
Solution
(a) Using the half-angle formula cos h = 1 - 2 sin2 sh>2d, we calculate
cos h - 1 2 sin2 sh>2d

lim = lim -
h:0 h h:0 h
sin u
= - lim sin u Let u = h>2 .
u:0 u
= -s1ds0d = 0.

(b) Equation (1) does not apply to the original fraction. We need a 2x in the denominator,
not a 5x. We produce it by multiplying numerator and denominator by 2>5:
sin 2x s2>5d # sin 2x
lim = lim
y x:0 5x x:0 s2>5d # 5x
2 sin 2x Now, Eq. (1) applies with
= lim u 2x.
4 5 x:0 2x
3 2 2
= s1d =
2 y 1x 5 5
1
x Finite Limits as x : — ˆ
–1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 The symbol for infinity s q d does not represent a real number. We use q to describe the
behavior of a function when the values in its domain or range outgrow all finite bounds.
For example, the function ƒsxd = 1>x is defined for all x Z 0 (Figure 2.31). When x is
positive and becomes increasingly large, 1>x becomes increasingly small. When x is nega-
tive and its magnitude becomes increasingly large, 1>x again becomes small. We summa-
rize these observations by saying that ƒsxd = 1>x has limit 0 as x : ; q or that 0 is a
limit of ƒsxd = 1>x at infinity and negative infinity. Here is a precise definition.
FIGURE 2.31 The graph of y = 1>x .
DEFINITIONS Limit as x approaches ˆ or ˆ

1. We say that ƒ(x) has the limit L as x approaches infinity and write
lim ƒsxd = L
x: q
if, for every number P 7 0, there exists a corresponding number M such that
for all x
x 7 M Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P.
2. We say that ƒ(x) has the limit L as x approaches minus infinity and write
lim ƒsxd = L
x: - q
if, for every number P 7 0, there exists a corresponding number N such that
for all x
x 6 N Q ƒ ƒsxd - L ƒ 6 P.
Intuitively, limx: q ƒsxd = L if, as x moves increasingly far from the origin in the positive
direction, ƒ(x) gets arbitrarily close to L. Similarly, limx:- q ƒsxd = L if, as x moves in-
creasingly far from the origin in the negative direction, ƒ(x) gets arbitrarily close to L.
The strategy for calculating limits of functions as x : ; q is similar to the one for
finite limits in Section 2.2. There we first found the limits of the constant and identity
functions y = k and y = x. We then extended these results to other functions by applying
a theorem about limits of algebraic combinations. Here we do the same thing, except that
the starting functions are y = k and y = 1>x instead of y = k and y = x.

No matter what The basic facts to be verified by applying the formal definition are
y
positive number is,
the graph enters 1
this band at x 1
lim k = k and lim x = 0. (3)
y 1x and stays.
x: ; q x: ; q
We prove the latter and leave the former to Exercises 71 and 72.
y

N – 1
1
EXAMPLE 6 Limits at Infinity for ƒsxd = x
x
0
M 1 Show that
y –
–
1 1
(a) lim x = 0 (b) lim x = 0.
No matter what x: q x: - q
positive number is,
the graph enters Solution
this band at x – 1
and stays. (a) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find a number M such that for all x
` x - 0 ` = ` x ` 6 P.
FIGURE 2.32 The geometry behind the 1 1
x 7 M Q
argument in Example 6.
The implication will hold if M = 1>P or any larger positive number (Figure 2.32).
This proves limx: q s1>xd = 0.
(b) Let P 7 0 be given. We must find a number N such that for all x
` x - 0 ` = ` x ` 6 P.
1 1
x 6 N Q
The implication will hold if N = -1>P or any number less than -1>P (Figure 2.32).
This proves limx:- q s1>xd = 0.
Limits at infinity have properties similar to those of finite limits.
THEOREM 8 Limit Laws as x : — ˆ

If L, M, and k, are real numbers and
lim ƒsxd = L and lim gsxd = M, then
x: ; q x: ; q
1. Sum Rule: lim sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M
x: ; q
2. Difference Rule: lim sƒsxd - gsxdd = L - M
x: ; q
3. Product Rule: lim sƒsxd # gsxdd = L # M
x: ; q
4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim sk # ƒsxdd = k # L
x: ; q
ƒsxd L
5. Quotient Rule: lim = , M Z 0
x: ; q gsxd M
6. Power Rule: If r and s are integers with no common factors, s Z 0, then
lim sƒsxddr>s = L r>s
x: ; q
provided that L r>s is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that L 7 0.)

These properties are just like the properties in Theorem 1, Section 2.2, and we use
them the same way.
EXAMPLE 7 Using Theorem 8
(a) lim a5 + x b = lim 5 + lim x

1 1
Sum Rule
x: q x: q x: q
= 5 + 0 = 5 Known limits
p23 1 1
(b) lim = lim p23 # x # x
x: - q x2 x: - q
1 1
= lim p23 # lim x # lim x Product rule
x: - q x: - q x: - q
2 = p23 # 0 # 0 = 0 Known limits
y 5x 2 8x 3
y
3x 2
2
Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions
Line y 5
1 3 To determine the limit of a rational function as x : ; q , we can divide the numerator
and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator. What happens then de-
x pends on the degrees of the polynomials involved.
–5 0 5 10
–1 EXAMPLE 8 Numerator and Denominator of Same Degree

–2 5x 2 + 8x - 3 5 + s8>xd - s3>x 2 d Divide numerator and
NOT TO SCALE lim = lim denominator by x 2.
x: q 3x 2 + 2 x: q 3 + s2>x 2 d
FIGURE 2.33 The graph of the function 5 + 0 - 0 5
= = See Fig. 2.33.
in Example 8. The graph approaches the 3 + 0 3
line y = 5>3 as ƒ x ƒ increases.
EXAMPLE 9 Degree of Numerator Less Than Degree of Denominator
y 11x + 2 s11>x 2 d + s2>x 3 d Divide numerator and
lim = lim denominator by x 3.
8 x: - q 2x 3 - 1 x: - q 2 - s1>x 3 d
11x 2
y
2x 3 1 0 + 0
6 = = 0 See Fig. 2.34.
2 - 0
4 We give an example of the case when the degree of the numerator is greater than the
degree of the denominator in the next section (Example 8, Section 2.5).
2
x
Horizontal Asymptotes
–4 –2 0 2 4 6
If the distance between the graph of a function and some fixed line approaches zero as a
–2 point on the graph moves increasingly far from the origin, we say that the graph ap-
proaches the line asymptotically and that the line is an asymptote of the graph.
–4
Looking at ƒsxd = 1>x (See Figure 2.31), we observe that the x-axis is an asymptote
of the curve on the right because
–6
1
–8 lim x = 0
x: q
and on the left because

FIGURE 2.34 The graph of the
function in Example 9. The graph 1
lim x = 0.
approaches the x-axis as ƒ x ƒ increases. x: - q

We say that the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of ƒsxd = 1>x.
DEFINITION Horizontal Asymptote

A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = ƒsxd if
either
lim ƒsxd = b or lim ƒsxd = b.
x: q x: - q
The curve
5x 2 + 8x - 3
ƒsxd =
3x 2 + 2
sketched in Figure 2.33 (Example 8) has the line y = 5>3 as a horizontal asymptote on
both the right and the left because
5 5
lim ƒsxd = and lim ƒsxd = .
x: q 3 x: - q 3
EXAMPLE 10 Substituting a New Variable

Find lim sin s1>xd.
x: q
Solution We introduce the new variable t = 1>x. From Example 6, we know that t : 0 +
as x : q (see Figure 2.31). Therefore,
1
lim sin x = lim+ sin t = 0.
x: q t:0
The Sandwich Theorem Revisited

The Sandwich Theorem also holds for limits as x : ; q .
EXAMPLE 11 A Curve May Cross Its Horizontal Asymptote

Using the Sandwich Theorem, find the horizontal asymptote of the curve
y sin x
y = 2 + x .
y 2 sinx x
2 Solution We are interested in the behavior as x : ; q . Since
0 … ` x ` … `x`
sin x 1
1
x
–3 –2 – 0 2 3 and limx:; q ƒ 1>x ƒ = 0, we have limx:; q ssin xd>x = 0 by the Sandwich Theorem. Hence,
lim a2 + x b = 2 + 0 = 2,
sin x
FIGURE 2.35 A curve may cross one of
x: ; q
its asymptotes infinitely often (Example
11). and the line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote of the curve on both left and right (Figure 2.35).

This example illustrates that a curve may cross one of its horizontal asymptotes, per-
haps many times.
Oblique Asymptotes
If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one greater than the degree of the
denominator, the graph has an oblique (slanted) asymptote. We find an equation for the
asymptote by dividing numerator by denominator to express ƒ as a linear function plus a
remainder that goes to zero as x : ; q . Here’s an example.
EXAMPLE 12 Finding an Oblique Asymptote

Find the oblique asymptote for the graph of
2x 2 - 3
ƒsxd =
7x + 4
in Figure 2.36.
Solution By long division, we find

y
2x 2 - 3
4 ƒsxd =
7x + 4
= a x - b +
2x 2 3 2 8
y -115
2 7x 4
7 49 49s7x + 4d
('')''* ('')''*
linear function gsxd remainder
x
–4 –2 2 4
As x : ; q , the remainder, whose magnitude gives the vertical distance between the
–2 graphs of ƒ and g, goes to zero, making the (slanted) line
2 8
gsxd = x -
–4 7 49
an asymptote of the graph of ƒ (Figure 2.36). The line y = gsxd is an asymptote both to
the right and to the left. In the next section you will see that the function ƒ(x) grows arbi-
FIGURE 2.36 The function in Example trarily large in absolute value as x approaches -4>7, where the denominator becomes zero
12 has an oblique asymptote. (Figure 2.36).

EXERCISES 2.4
Finding Limits Graphically a. lim ƒsxd = 1

x: -1 +
b. lim- ƒsxd = 0
x:0
1. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒsxd c. lim- ƒsxd = 1 d. lim- ƒsxd = lim+ ƒsxd
x:0 x:0 x:0
graphed here are true, and which are false?
e. lim ƒsxd exists f. lim ƒsxd = 0
x:0 x:0
y
y f (x) g. lim ƒsxd = 1 h. lim ƒsxd = 1
x:0 x:1
1 i. lim ƒsxd = 0 j. lim- ƒsxd = 2
x:1 x:2
k. lim - ƒsxd does not exist . l. lim+ ƒsxd = 0
x: -1 x:2
x
–1 0 1 2

2. Which of the following statements about the function y = ƒsxd a. Find limx:2+ ƒsxd, limx:2- ƒsxd , and ƒ(2).
graphed here are true, and which are false? b. Does limx:2 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
y c. Find limx:-1- ƒsxd and limx:-1+ ƒsxd .
y f (x) d. Does limx:-1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
0, x … 0
5. Let ƒsxd = •
2
1
sin x , x 7 0.
1
x y
–1 0 1 2 3
1
a. lim + ƒsxd = 1 b. lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x: -1 x: 2
c. lim ƒsxd = 2 d. lim- ƒsxd = 2
x:2 x: 1
e. lim+ ƒsxd = 1 f. lim ƒsxd does not exist.
x:1 x: 1
x
g. lim+ ƒsxd = lim- ƒsxd 0
x:0 x: 0 
0, xⱕ0
h. lim ƒsxd exists at every c in the open interval s -1, 1d . y 1
x:c  sin x , x 0
i. lim ƒsxd exists at every c in the open interval (1, 3). 
x:c
j. lim ƒsxd = 0 k. lim+ ƒsxd does not exist. –1
x: -1 - x: 3
3 - x, x 6 2
3. Let ƒsxd = • x
+ 1, x 7 2. a. Does limx:0+ ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
2
b. Does limx:0- ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
y
c. Does limx:0 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
y3x 6. Let g sxd = 2x sins1>xd .
3
y x1
2 y
1 y 兹x
x
0 2 4
a. Find limx:2+ ƒsxd and limx:2- ƒsxd .

y 兹x sin 1x
b. Does limx:2 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
c. Find limx:4- ƒsxd and limx:4+ ƒsxd .
1
d. Does limx:4 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? 2 x
0 1 2 1
3 - x, x 6 2
4. Let ƒsxd = d 2, x = 2
x
, x 7 2.
2
–1 y –兹x
y3x
3
a. Does limx:0+ g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
y x
2 b. Does limx:0- g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?
x
–2 0 2 c. Does limx:0 g sxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not?

x 3, sin U
7. a. Graph ƒsxd = e
x Z 1
Using lim 1
0, x = 1. U:0 U
b. Find limx:1- ƒsxd and limx:1+ ƒsxd . Find the limits in Exercises 21–36.
c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? sin 22u sin kt
21. lim 22. lim t sk constantd
1 - x 2,
8. a. Graph ƒsxd = e
x Z 1 u :022u t: 0
2, x = 1. sin 3y h
23. lim 24. lim-
b. Find limx:1+ ƒsxd and limx:1- ƒsxd . y:0 4y h:0 sin 3h
c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist? If so, what is it? If not, why not? tan 2x 2t
25. lim x 26. lim
x:0 t: 0 tan t
Graph the functions in Exercises 9 and 10. Then answer these ques-
x csc 2x
tions. 27. lim 28. lim 6x 2scot xdscsc 2xd
x:0 cos 5x x:0
a. What are the domain and range of ƒ?
x + x cos x x 2 - x + sin x
b. At what points c, if any, does limx:c ƒsxd exist? 29. lim 30. lim
x:0 sin x cos x x:0 2x
c. At what points does only the left-hand limit exist?
sin s1 - cos td sin ssin hd
d. At what points does only the right-hand limit exist? 31. lim 32. lim
t: 0 1 - cos t h:0 sin h
21 - x 2, 0 … x 6 1 sin u sin 5x
9. ƒsxd = • 1,
33. lim 34. lim
1 … x 6 2 u :0 sin 2u x:0 sin 4x
2, x = 2 tan 3x sin 3y cot 5y
35. lim 36. lim
x, -1 … x 6 0, or 0 6 x … 1 x:0 sin 8x y:0 y cot 4y
10. ƒsxd = • 1, x = 0
0, x 6 -1, or x 7 1 Calculating Limits as x : — ˆ
In Exercises 37–42, find the limit of each function (a) as x : q and
(b) as x : - q . (You may wish to visualize your answer with a
Finding One-Sided Limits Algebraically graphing calculator or computer.)
Find the limits in Exercises 11–18.
2 2
x + 2 x - 1 37. ƒsxd = x - 3 38. ƒsxd = p -
11. lim - 12. lim+ x2
x: -0.5 A x + 1 x: 1 A x + 2
1 1
39. g sxd = 40. g sxd =
lim + a ba 2 b
x 2x + 5 2 + s1>xd 8 - s5>x 2 d
13.
x: -2 x + 1 x + x
-5 + s7>xd 3 - s2>xd
14. lim- a ba x ba b A 22>x 2 B
1 x + 6 3 - x 41. hsxd = 2
42. hsxd =
7 3 - s1>x d 4 +
x:1 x + 1
2h 2 + 4h + 5 - 25 Find the limits in Exercises 43–46.

15. lim+
h: 0 h sin 2x cos u
43. lim x 44. lim
x: q u: -q 3u
26 - 25h + 11h + 6
2
16. lim-
h: 0 h 2 - t + sin t r + sin r
45. lim 46. lim
t: - q t + cos t r: q 2r + 7 - 5 sin r
ƒx + 2ƒ ƒx + 2ƒ
17. a. lim +sx + 3d b. lim -sx + 3d
x: -2 x + 2 x: -2 x + 2
22x sx - 1d 22x sx - 1d Limits of Rational Functions
18. a. lim+ b. lim-
x:1 ƒx - 1ƒ x: 1 ƒx - 1ƒ In Exercises 47–56, find the limit of each rational function (a) as
x : q and (b) as x : - q .
Use the graph of the greatest integer function y = :x; (sometimes 2x + 3 2x 3 + 7
written y = int x), Figure 1.31 in Section 1.3, to help you find the lim- 47. ƒsxd = 48. ƒsxd =
5x + 7 x - x2 + x + 7
3
its in Exercises 19 and 20.
:u; :u;
x + 1 3x + 7
49. ƒsxd = 50. ƒsxd =
19. a. lim+ b. lim- x2 + 3 x2 - 2
u :3 u u: 3 u
20. a. lim+st - : t; d b. lim-st - : t; d
7x 3 1
51. hsxd = 52. g sxd =
t:4 t: 4 x - 3x 2 + 6x
3
x 3 - 4x + 1

10x 5 + x 4 + 31 Formal Definitions of One-Sided Limits

53. g sxd =
x6 73. Given P 7 0 , find an interval I = s5, 5 + dd, d 7 0 , such that
9x 4 + x if x lies in I, then 2x - 5 6 P . What limit is being verified and
54. hsxd =
2x + 5x 2 - x + 6
4 what is its value?
-2x 3 - 2x + 3 74. Given P 7 0 , find an interval I = s4 - d, 4d, d 7 0 , such that
55. hsxd = if x lies in I, then 24 - x 6 P . What limit is being verified and
3x 3 + 3x 2 - 5x
what is its value?
-x 4
56. hsxd =
x - 7x + 7x 2 + 9
4 3 Use the definitions of right-hand and left-hand limits to prove the
limit statements in Exercises 75 and 76.
Limits with Noninteger or Negative Powers 75. lim-
x
= -1 76. lim+
x - 2
= 1
The process by which we determine limits of rational functions ap- x:0 ƒxƒ x:2 ƒ x - 2 ƒ
plies equally well to ratios containing noninteger or negative powers 77. Greatest integer function Find (a) limx:400+ :x; and (b)
of x: divide numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in limx:400- :x; ; then use limit definitions to verify your findings.
the denominator and proceed from there. Find the limits in Exercises (c) Based on your conclusions in parts (a) and (b), can anything
57–62. be said about limx:400 :x; ? Give reasons for your answers.
2 2x + x -1 2 + 2x x 2 sin s1>xd, x 6 0
57. lim 58. lim 78. One-sided limits Let ƒsxd = e
x: q 3x - 7 2 - 2x
x: q 2x, x 7 0.
5
2x - 2x
3
x -1 + x -4
59. lim 5
60. lim -2 Find (a) limx:0+ ƒsxd and (b) limx:0- ƒsxd ; then use limit definitions
x: - q 2 3
x + 2x x: q x - x -3
to verify your findings. (c) Based on your conclusions in parts (a)
2x 5>3 - x 1>3 + 7 23
x - 5x + 3 and (b), can anything be said about limx:0 ƒsxd ? Give reasons for
61. lim 62. lim
x: q x 8>5 + 3x + 2x x: - q 2x + x 2>3 - 4 your answer.
Theory and Examples Grapher Explorations—“Seeing” Limits

63. Once you know limx:a ƒsxd and limx:a ƒsxd at an interior point
+ - at Infinity
of the domain of ƒ, do you then know limx:a ƒsxd ? Give reasons Sometimes a change of variable can change an unfamiliar expression
for your answer. into one whose limit we know how to find. For example,
64. If you know that limx:c ƒsxd exists, can you find its value by cal-
1
culating limx:c+ ƒsxd ? Give reasons for your answer. lim sin x = lim+ sin u Substitute u = 1>x
x: q u :0
65. Suppose that ƒ is an odd function of x. Does knowing that
= 0.
limx:0+ ƒsxd = 3 tell you anything about limx:0- ƒsxd ? Give rea-
sons for your answer. This suggests a creative way to “see” limits at infinity. Describe the
66. Suppose that ƒ is an even function of x. Does knowing that procedure and use it to picture and determine limits in Exercises
limx:2- ƒsxd = 7 tell you anything about either limx:-2- ƒsxd or 79–84.
limx:-2+ ƒsxd ? Give reasons for your answer. 1
79. lim x sin x
67. Suppose that ƒ(x) and g (x) are polynomials in x and that x: ; q
limx: q sƒsxd>g sxdd = 2 . Can you conclude anything about cos s1>xd
limx:- q sƒsxd>g sxdd ? Give reasons for your answer. 80. lim
x: - q 1 + s1>xd
68. Suppose that ƒ(x) and g (x) are polynomials in x. Can the graph of
3x + 4
ƒ(x)>g (x) have an asymptote if g (x) is never zero? Give reasons 81. lim
x: ; q 2x - 5
for your answer.
1>x
82. lim a x b
69. How many horizontal asymptotes can the graph of a given ra- 1
tional function have? Give reasons for your answer. x: q
70. Find lim A 2x 2 + x - 2x 2 - x B . 83. lim a3 + x b acos x b

2 1
x: q x: ; q
84. lim a - cos x b a1 + sin x b

Use the formal definitions of limits as x : ; q to establish the limits 3 1 1
in Exercises 71 and 72. x: q x2
71. If ƒ has the constant value ƒsxd = k , then lim ƒsxd = k .
x: q
72. If ƒ has the constant value ƒsxd = k , then lim ƒsxd = k .
x: - q

2.5 Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes 115
2.5 Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes
In this section we extend the concept of limit to infinite limits, which are not limits as be-
fore, but rather an entirely new use of the term limit. Infinite limits provide useful symbols
and language for describing the behavior of functions whose values become arbitrarily
large, positive or negative. We continue our analysis of graphs of rational functions from
the last section, using vertical asymptotes and dominant terms for numerically large values
of x.
y Infinite Limits
You can get as high
as you want by Let us look again at the function ƒsxd = 1>x. As x : 0 + , the values of ƒ grow without
taking x close enough bound, eventually reaching and surpassing every positive real number. That is, given any
to 0. No matter how
positive real number B, however large, the values of ƒ become larger still (Figure 2.37).
high B is, the graph
B goes higher. Thus, ƒ has no limit as x : 0 + . It is nevertheless convenient to describe the behavior of ƒ
by saying that ƒ(x) approaches q as x : 0 + . We write
y 1x
1
x
lim ƒsxd = lim+ x = q .
x:0 + x:0
x0 x
No matter how
low –B is, the In writing this, we are not saying that the limit exists. Nor are we saying that there is a real
graph goes lower. number q , for there is no such number. Rather, we are saying that limx:0+ s1>xd does not
You can get as low as –B exist because 1>x becomes arbitrarily large and positive as x : 0 + .
you want by taking
x close enough to 0.
As x : 0 - , the values of ƒsxd = 1>x become arbitrarily large and negative. Given
any negative real number -B, the values of ƒ eventually lie below -B. (See Figure 2.37.)
FIGURE 2.37 One-sided infinite limits: We write
1 1
lim = q and lim = -q 1
x: 0 + x x: 0 - x lim ƒsxd = lim- x = - q .
x:0 - x:0
Again, we are not saying that the limit exists and equals the number - q . There is no real
y number - q . We are describing the behavior of a function whose limit as x : 0 - does not
exist because its values become arbitrarily large and negative.
y 1
x1
EXAMPLE 1 One-Sided Infinite Limits
1 1 1
Find lim+ and lim .
x:1 x - 1 x:1 - x - 1
x
–1 0 1 2 3
Geometric Solution The graph of y = 1>sx - 1d is the graph of y = 1>x shifted 1 unit
to the right (Figure 2.38). Therefore, y = 1>sx - 1d behaves near 1 exactly the way
y = 1>x behaves near 0:
1 1
lim = q and lim = -q.
FIGURE 2.38 Near x = 1 , the function x:1 + x - 1 x:1 - x - 1
y = 1>sx - 1d behaves the way the
function y = 1>x behaves near x = 0 . Its Analytic Solution Think about the number x - 1 and its reciprocal. As x : 1+ , we have
graph is the graph of y = 1>x shifted 1 sx - 1d : 0 and 1>sx - 1d : q . As x : 1- , we have sx - 1d : 0 - and
+
unit to the right (Example 1). 1>sx - 1d : - q .

y EXAMPLE 2 Two-Sided Infinite Limits

Discuss the behavior of
No matter how
B high B is, the graph
1
goes higher. (a) ƒsxd = near x = 0,
x2
f(x) 12 1
x (b) gsxd = near x = -3.
sx + 3d2
x Solution
x 0 x
(a) (a) As x approaches zero from either side, the values of 1>x 2 are positive and become ar-
bitrarily large (Figure 2.39a):
1
g(x) 1 lim ƒsxd = lim = q.
(x 3)2 y x:0 x:0 x2
5 (b) The graph of gsxd = 1>sx + 3d2 is the graph of ƒsxd = 1>x 2 shifted 3 units to the left
(Figure 2.39b). Therefore, g behaves near -3 exactly the way ƒ behaves near 0.
4
1
3 lim gsxd = lim = q.
x: -3 x: -3 sx + 3d2
2 The function y = 1>x shows no consistent behavior as x : 0. We have 1>x : q if
1 x : 0 + , but 1>x : - q if x : 0 - . All we can say about limx:0 s1>xd is that it does not
exist. The function y = 1>x 2 is different. Its values approach infinity as x approaches zero
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 from either side, so we can say that limx:0 s1>x 2 d = q .
(b)
EXAMPLE 3 Rational Functions Can Behave in Various Ways Near Zeros
FIGURE 2.39 The graphs of the of Their Denominators
functions in Example 2. (a) ƒ(x)
approaches infinity as x : 0 . (b) g (x) sx - 2d2 sx - 2d2 x - 2
(a) lim = lim = lim = 0
approaches infinity as x : -3 . x:2 x2 - 4 x:2 sx - 2dsx + 2d x:2 x + 2
x - 2 x - 2 1 1
(b) lim = lim = lim =
x:2 x2 - 4 x:2 sx - 2dsx + 2d x:2 x + 2 4
x - 3 x - 3 The values are negative
(c) lim 2
= lim+ = -q for x 7 2, x near 2.
x:2 + x - 4 x:2 sx - 2dsx + 2d
x - 3 x - 3 The values are positive
(d) lim- 2
= lim- = q for x 6 2, x near 2.
x:2 x - 4 x:2 sx - 2dsx + 2d
x - 3 x - 3
(e) lim = lim does not exist. See parts (c) and (d).
x2 - 4
x:2 x:2 sx - 2dsx + 2d
2 - x -sx - 2d -1
(f) lim = lim = lim = -q
x:2 sx - 2d3 x:2 sx - 2d3 x:2 sx - 2d2
In parts (a) and (b) the effect of the zero in the denominator at x = 2 is canceled be-
cause the numerator is zero there also. Thus a finite limit exists. This is not true in part (f),
where cancellation still leaves a zero in the denominator.
Precise Definitions of Infinite Limits

Instead of requiring ƒ(x) to lie arbitrarily close to a finite number L for all x sufficiently
close to x0 , the definitions of infinite limits require ƒ(x) to lie arbitrarily far from the ori-

y gin. Except for this change, the language is identical with what we have seen before.
y f (x)
Figures 2.40 and 2.41 accompany these definitions.
DEFINITIONS Infinity, Negative Infinity as Limits
B 1. We say that ƒ(x) approaches infinity as x approaches x0 , and write

lim ƒsxd = q ,
x:x0
if for every positive real number B there exists a corresponding d 7 0 such
x that for all x
0 x0
x0 x0
0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒsxd 7 B.
2. We say that ƒ(x) approaches negative infinity as x approaches x0 , and write

FIGURE 2.40 ƒ(x) approaches infinity as lim ƒsxd = - q ,
x:x0
x : x0 .
if for every negative real number -B there exists a corresponding d 7 0 such
that for all x
y
0 6 ƒ x - x0 ƒ 6 d Q ƒsxd 6 -B.
x0 x0
x0
x
0
The precise definitions of one-sided infinite limits at x0 are similar and are stated in the
exercises.
–B EXAMPLE 4 Using the Definition of Infinite Limits

1
Prove that lim = q.
x:0 x2
y f (x)
Solution Given B 7 0, we want to find d 7 0 such that

1
0 6 ƒx - 0ƒ 6 d implies 7 B.
FIGURE 2.41 ƒ(x) approaches negative x2
infinity as x : x0 . Now,
1 1
7 B if and only if x 2 6
x2 B
or, equivalently,
1
ƒxƒ 6 .
2B
Thus, choosing d = 1> 2B (or any smaller positive number), we see that
1 1
ƒxƒ 6 d implies 7 2 Ú B.
x2 d
Therefore, by definition,
1
lim = q.
x:0 x2

y Vertical Asymptotes
Vertical asymptote
Notice that the distance between a point on the graph of y = 1>x and the y-axis ap-
proaches zero as the point moves vertically along the graph and away from the origin
(Figure 2.42). This behavior occurs because
y 1x 1 1
Horizontal 1 lim x = q and lim x = - q .
asymptote x:0 + x:0 -
x
0 1 Horizontal We say that the line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = 1>x.
asymptote, Observe that the denominator is zero at x = 0 and the function is undefined there.
y0
Vertical asymptote,
x0 DEFINITION Vertical Asymptote
A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = ƒsxd if either
FIGURE 2.42 The coordinate axes are lim ƒsxd = ; q or lim ƒsxd = ; q .
x:a + x:a -
asymptotes of both branches of the
hyperbola y = 1>x .
EXAMPLE 5 Looking for Asymptotes
y
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve
Vertical
asymptote, 6 x + 3
x –2 y = .
5 x3 x + 2
y
4 x2
1
1 Solution We are interested in the behavior as x : ; q and as x : -2, where the de-
Horizontal 3 x2 nominator is zero.
asymptote, 2
y1 The asymptotes are quickly revealed if we recast the rational function as a polynomial
1 with a remainder, by dividing sx + 2d into sx + 3d.
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 1
–1
x + 2 x + 3
–2
x + 2
–3
1
–4
This result enables us to rewrite y:
FIGURE 2.43 The lines y = 1 and

1
y = 1 + .
x + 2
x = -2 are asymptotes of the curve
y = sx + 3d>sx + 2d (Example 5). We now see that the curve in question is the graph of y = 1>x shifted 1 unit up and 2 units
left (Figure 2.43). The asymptotes, instead of being the coordinate axes, are now the lines
y = 1 and x = -2.
EXAMPLE 6 Asymptotes Need Not Be Two-Sided
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of
8
ƒsxd = - .
x2 - 4
Solution We are interested in the behavior as x : ; q and as x : ;2, where the de-
nominator is zero. Notice that ƒ is an even function of x, so its graph is symmetric with re-
spect to the y-axis.
(a) The behavior as x : ; q . Since limx: q ƒsxd = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal
asymptote of the graph to the right. By symmetry it is an asymptote to the left as well

y (Figure 2.44). Notice that the curve approaches the x-axis from only the negative side
(or from below).
8 y – 28
7 x 4 (b) The behavior as x : ;2. Since
6
5 Vertical lim ƒsxd = - q and lim ƒsxd = q ,
x:2 + x:2 -
Vertical 4 asymptote, x 2
asymptote, 3 Horizontal
the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote both from the right and from the left. By sym-
x –2 2 asymptote, y 0 metry, the same holds for the line x = -2.
1
x There are no other asymptotes because ƒ has a finite limit at every other point.
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
EXAMPLE 7 Curves with Infinitely Many Asymptotes
The curves
1 sin x
y = sec x = cos x and y = tan x = cos x
FIGURE 2.44 Graph of both have vertical asymptotes at odd-integer multiples of p>2, where cos x = 0 (Figure 2.45).
y = -8>sx 2 - 4d . Notice that the curve
approaches the x-axis from only one side.
y y
Asymptotes do not have to be two-sided y sec x y tan x
(Example 6).
1 1
x x
– 3 – – – 3 – – –1
0 3 0 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
FIGURE 2.45 The graphs of sec x and tan x have infinitely many vertical
asymptotes (Example 7).
The graphs of
1 cos x
y = csc x = and y = cot x =
sin x sin x
have vertical asymptotes at integer multiples of p, where sin x = 0 (Figure 2.46).
y y csc x y y cot x
1 1
x x
– – 0 3 2 – – 0 3 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
FIGURE 2.46 The graphs of csc x and cot x (Example 7).

EXAMPLE 8 A Rational Function with Degree of Numerator Greater than

Degree of Denominator
Find the asymptotes of the graph of
x2 - 3
ƒsxd = .
y x2 3x1 1 2x - 4
2x 4 2 2x 4
y Solution We are interested in the behavior as x : ; q and also as x : 2, where the de-
The vertical distance nominator is zero. We divide s2x - 4d into sx 2 - 3d:
6 between curve and
line goes to zero as x → x
5 + 1
2
4
x2 Oblique 2x - 4 x 2 - 3
3 asymptote
x 2 - 2x
2 y x 1
2 2x - 3
1
2x - 4
x 1
–1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
This tells us that
–2 Vertical
asymptote,
–3 x2 - 3 x 1
x2 ƒsxd = = + 1 + .
2x - 4 2 2x - 4
123 14243
linear remainder
FIGURE 2.47 The graph of
ƒsxd = sx 2 - 3d>s2x - 4d has a vertical Since limx:2+ ƒsxd = q and limx:2- ƒsxd = - q , the line x = 2 is a two-sided vertical
asymptote and an oblique asymptote asymptote. As x : ; q , the remainder approaches 0 and ƒsxd : sx>2d + 1. The line
(Example 8). y = sx>2d + 1 is an oblique asymptote both to the right and to the left (Figure 2.47).
Notice in Example 8, that if the degree of the numerator in a rational function is greater
than the degree of the denominator, then the limit is + q or - q , depending on the signs
assumed by the numerator and denominator as ƒ x ƒ becomes large.
Dominant Terms
Of all the observations we can make quickly about the function
x2 - 3
ƒsxd =
2x - 4
in Example 8, probably the most useful is that
x 1
ƒsxd = + 1 + .
2 2x - 4
This tells us immediately that
x
ƒsxd L + 1 For x numerically large
2
1
ƒsxd L For x near 2
2x - 4
If we want to know how ƒ behaves, this is the way to find out. It behaves like
y = sx>2d + 1 when x is numerically large and the contribution of 1>s2x - 4d to the total

value of ƒ is insignificant. It behaves like 1>s2x - 4d when x is so close to 2 that

1>s2x - 4d makes the dominant contribution.
We say that sx>2d + 1 dominates when x is numerically large, and we say that
1>s2x - 4d dominates when x is near 2. Dominant terms like these are the key to predict-
ing a function’s behavior. Here’s another example.
EXAMPLE 9 Two Graphs Appearing Identical on a Large Scale

Let ƒsxd = 3x 4 - 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 5x + 6 and gsxd = 3x 4 . Show that although ƒ and g are
quite different for numerically small values of x, they are virtually identical for ƒ x ƒ very
large.
Solution The graphs of ƒ and g behave quite differently near the origin (Figure 2.48a),
but appear as virtually identical on a larger scale (Figure 2.48b).
y y
20 500,000
15
300,000
10
f (x)
5 100,000
g(x)
x x
–2 –1 0 1 2 –20 –10 0 10 20
–5 –100,000
(a) (b)
FIGURE 2.48 The graphs of ƒ and g, (a) are distinct for ƒ x ƒ small, and (b) nearly
identical for ƒ x ƒ large (Example 9).
We can test that the term 3x 4 in ƒ, represented graphically by g, dominates the polyno-
mial ƒ for numerically large values of x by examining the ratio of the two functions as
x : ; q . We find that
ƒsxd 3x 4 - 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 5x + 6
lim = lim
x: ; q gsxd x: ; q 3x 4
lim a1 - + 4b
2 1 5 2
= + 2 -
x: ; q 3x x 3x 3
x
= 1,
so that ƒ and g are nearly identical for ƒ x ƒ large.

EXERCISES 2.5
Infinite Limits x 2 - 3x + 2
21. lim as
Find the limits in Exercises 1–12. x 3 - 2x 2
1 5 a. x : 0 + b. x : 2+
1. lim+ 2. lim- c. x : 2- d. x : 2
x: 0 3x x: 0 2x
3 1 e. What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x : 0 ?
3. lim- 4. lim+
x: 2 x - 2 x: 3 x - 3 x 2 - 3x + 2
22. lim as
2x 3x x 3 - 4x
5. lim 6. lim
x: -8 + x + 8 x: -5 - 2x + 10 a. x : 2+ b. x : -2+
4 -1 c. x : 0 - d. x : 1+
7. lim 8. lim
x: 7 sx - 7d2 x: 0 x 2sx + 1d e. What, if anything, can be said about the limit as x : 0 ?
2 2 Find the limits in Exercises 23–26.
9. a. lim+ b. lim-
x:0 3x 1>3 x: 0 3x 1>3
23. lim a2 - b as
3
10. a. lim+
2
b. lim-
2 t 1>3
x:0 x 1>5 x: 0 x 1>5 a. t : 0 + b. t : 0 -
24. lim a
4 1 1
11. lim 2>5
12. lim + 7b as
x: 0 x x: 0 x 2>3 t 3>5
a. t : 0 + b. t : 0 -
Find the limits in Exercises 13–16.
25. lim a b as
1 2
+
13. lim tan x 14. lim sec x x 2>3 sx - 1d2>3
x: sp>2d -
x: s-p>2d +
a. x : 0 + b. x : 0 -
15. lim- s1 + csc ud 16. lim s2 - cot ud
u :0 u: 0 c. x : 1+ d. x : 1-
26. lim a b as
1 1
-
Additional Calculations x 1>3 sx - 1d4>3
Find the limits in Exercises 17–22. a. x : 0 + b. x : 0 -
1 c. x : 1+ d. x : 1-
17. lim as
x2 - 4
a. x : 2+ b. x : 2-
Graphing Rational Functions
Graph the rational functions in Exercises 27–38. Include the graphs
c. x : -2+ d. x : -2-
and equations of the asymptotes and dominant terms.
x
18. lim as 1 1
x2 - 1 27. y =
x - 1
28. y =
x + 1
a. x : 1+ b. x : 1-
1 -3
c. x : -1+ d. x : -1- 29. y = 30. y =
2x + 4 x - 3
19. lim a - x b as
x2 1 x + 3 2x
2 31. y = 32. y =
x + 2 x + 1
a. x : 0 + b. x : 0 - x2 x2 + 1
33. y = 34. y =
c. x : 22 3
d. x : -1 x - 1 x - 1
x2 - 1 x2 - 4 x2 - 1
20. lim as 35. y = 36. y =
2x + 4 x - 1 2x + 4
a. x : -2+ b. x : -2- x2 - 1 x3 + 1
37. y = x 38. y =
c. x : 1 +
d. x : 0 -
x2

Inventing Graphs from Values and Limits Modify the definition to cover the following cases.
In Exercises 39–42, sketch the graph of a function y = ƒsxd that satisfies a. lim ƒsxd = q
x:x0 -
the given conditions. No formulas are required—just label the coordinate
axes and sketch an appropriate graph. (The answers are not unique, so b. lim ƒsxd = - q
x:x0 +
your graphs may not be exactly like those in the answer section.) c. lim - ƒsxd = - q
x:x0
39. ƒs0d = 0, ƒs1d = 2, ƒs -1d = -2, lim ƒsxd = -1, and
x: - q Use the formal definitions from Exercise 51 to prove the limit state-
lim ƒsxd = 1 ments in Exercises 52–56.
x: q
40. ƒs0d = 0, lim ƒsxd = 0, lim+ ƒsxd = 2, and 1
x: ; q x: 0 52. lim+ x = q
x:0
lim ƒsxd = -2
x:0 -
1
41. ƒs0d = 0, lim ƒsxd = 0, lim- ƒsxd = lim + ƒsxd = q , 53. lim- x = - q
x: ; q x: 1 x: -1 x:0
lim ƒsxd = - q , and lim - ƒsxd = - q
x:1 + x: -1 1
54. lim- = -q
42. ƒs2d = 1, ƒs -1d = 0, lim ƒsxd = 0, lim+ ƒsxd = q , x:2 x - 2
x: q x: 0
lim- ƒsxd = - q , and lim ƒsxd = 1 1
x: 0 x: - q 55. lim+ = q
x:2 x - 2
Inventing Functions 1
56. lim- = q
In Exercises 43–46, find a function that satisfies the given conditions x:1 1 - x2
and sketch its graph. (The answers here are not unique. Any function
that satisfies the conditions is acceptable. Feel free to use formulas de- Graphing Terms
fined in pieces if that will help.)
Each of the functions in Exercises 57–60 is given as the sum or differ-
43. lim ƒsxd = 0, lim- ƒsxd = q , and lim+ ƒsxd = q ence of two terms. First graph the terms (with the same set of axes).
x: ; q x: 2 x: 2
44. lim g sxd = 0, lim- g sxd = - q , and lim+ g sxd = q Then, using these graphs as guides, sketch in the graph of the function.
x: ; q x: 3 x: 3
1 p p
45. lim hsxd = -1, lim hsxd = 1, lim- hsxd = -1, and 57. y = sec x + x , - 6 x 6
x: - q x: q x: 0 2 2
lim hsxd = 1 1 p p
x: 0 + 58. y = sec x - , - 6 x 6
46. lim k sxd = 1, lim- k sxd = q , and lim+ k sxd = - q x2 2 2
x: ; q x: 1 x: 1
1 p p
59. y = tan x + , - 6 x 6
The Formal Definition of Infinite Limit x2 2 2
Use formal definitions to prove the limit statements in Exercises 47–50. 1 p p
60. y = x - tan x, - 6 x 6
-1 1 2 2
47. lim 2 = - q 48. lim = q
x:0 x x: 0 ƒ x ƒ
-2 1 Grapher Explorations—Comparing Graphs

49. lim = -q 50. lim = q
x:3 sx - 3d2 x: -5 sx + 5d2 with Formulas
Graph the curves in Exercises 61–64. Explain the relation between the
Formal Definitions of Infinite One-Sided Limits curve’s formula and what you see.
51. Here is the definition of infinite right-hand limit.
x
61. y =
24 - x 2
We say that ƒ(x) approaches infinity as x approaches x0 -1
from the right, and write 62. y =
24 - x 2
lim ƒsxd = q , 1
x: x0 + 63. y = x 2>3 + 1>3
x
if, for every positive real number B, there exists a corre-
64. y = sin a b
p
sponding number d 7 0 such that for all x
x2 + 1
x0 6 x 6 x0 + d Q ƒsxd 7 B.

2.6 Continuity
y When we plot function values generated in a laboratory or collected in the field, we often
80 P
connect the plotted points with an unbroken curve to show what the function’s values are
Q4 likely to have been at the times we did not measure (Figure 2.49). In doing so, we are as-
Distance fallen (m)
60 Q3 suming that we are working with a continuous function, so its outputs vary continuously
Q2
with the inputs and do not jump from one value to another without taking on the values
40
in between. The limit of a continuous function as x approaches c can be found simply by
Q1 calculating the value of the function at c. (We found this to be true for polynomials in
20
Section 2.2.)
t Any function y = ƒsxd whose graph can be sketched over its domain in one continu-
0 5 10
ous motion without lifting the pencil is an example of a continuous function. In this sec-
Elapsed time (sec)
tion we investigate more precisely what it means for a function to be continuous. We also
FIGURE 2.49 Connecting plotted points study the properties of continuous functions, and see that many of the function types pre-
by an unbroken curve from experimental sented in Section 1.4 are continuous.
data Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , Á for a falling object.
Continuity at a Point
To understand continuity, we need to consider a function like the one in Figure 2.50 whose
limits we investigated in Example 2, Section 2.4.
EXAMPLE 1 Investigating Continuity

y
Find the points at which the function ƒ in Figure 2.50 is continuous and the points at which
ƒ is discontinuous.
2 y f (x)
Solution The function ƒ is continuous at every point in its domain [0, 4] except at
1 x = 1, x = 2, and x = 4. At these points, there are breaks in the graph. Note the relation-
ship between the limit of ƒ and the value of ƒ at each point of the function’s domain.
x
0 1 2 3 4
Points at which ƒ is continuous:
FIGURE 2.50 The function is continuous
At x = 0, lim ƒsxd = ƒs0d.
on [0, 4] except at x = 1, x = 2 , and x:0 +
x = 4 (Example 1). At x = 3, lim ƒsxd = ƒs3d.
x:3
At 0 6 c 6 4, c Z 1, 2, lim ƒsxd = ƒscd.
x:c
Points at which ƒ is discontinuous:
At x = 1, lim ƒsxd does not exist.

Continuity Two-sided x:1
from the right continuity Continuity
from the left
At x = 2, lim ƒsxd = 1, but 1 Z ƒs2d.
x:2
At x = 4, lim ƒsxd = 1, but 1 Z ƒs4d.
y f (x) x:4 -
At c 6 0, c 7 4, these points are not in the domain of ƒ.
x
a c b
To define continuity at a point in a function’s domain, we need to define continuity at
FIGURE 2.51 Continuity at points a, b, an interior point (which involves a two-sided limit) and continuity at an endpoint (which
and c. involves a one-sided limit) (Figure 2.51).

2.6 Continuity 125
DEFINITION Continuous at a Point

Interior point: A function y = ƒsxd is continuous at an interior point c of its
domain if
lim ƒsxd = ƒscd.
x:c
Endpoint: A function y = ƒsxd is continuous at a left endpoint a or is

continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain if
lim ƒsxd = ƒsad or lim ƒsxd = ƒsbd, respectively.
x:a + x:b -
If a function ƒ is not continuous at a point c, we say that ƒ is discontinuous at c and c

is a point of discontinuity of ƒ. Note that c need not be in the domain of ƒ.
A function ƒ is right-continuous (continuous from the right) at a point x = c in its
y
domain if limx:c+ ƒsxd = ƒscd. It is left-continuous (continuous from the left) at c if
y 兹4 x 2 limx:c- ƒsxd = ƒscd. Thus, a function is continuous at a left endpoint a of its domain if it
2
is right-continuous at a and continuous at a right endpoint b of its domain if it is left-
continuous at b. A function is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if and only if
x it is both right-continuous and left-continuous at c (Figure 2.51).
–2 0 2
FIGURE 2.52 A function EXAMPLE 2 A Function Continuous Throughout Its Domain

that is continuous at every
The function ƒsxd = 24 - x 2 is continuous at every point of its domain, [-2, 2] (Figure
domain point (Example 2).
2.52), including x = -2, where ƒ is right-continuous, and x = 2, where ƒ is left-continuous.
y U(x)
EXAMPLE 3 The Unit Step Function Has a Jump Discontinuity
1
The unit step function U(x), graphed in Figure 2.53, is right-continuous at x = 0, but is
neither left-continuous nor continuous there. It has a jump discontinuity at x = 0.
x
0
We summarize continuity at a point in the form of a test.
FIGURE 2.53 A function
that is right-continuous,
but not left-continuous, at
the origin. It has a jump
Continuity Test
discontinuity there
A function ƒ(x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following three
(Example 3).
conditions.
1. ƒ(c) exists (c lies in the domain of ƒ)
2. limx:c ƒsxd exists (ƒ has a limit as x : c)
3. limx:c ƒsxd = ƒscd (the limit equals the function value)
For one-sided continuity and continuity at an endpoint, the limits in parts 2 and 3 of
the test should be replaced by the appropriate one-sided limits.

y EXAMPLE 4 The Greatest Integer Function

The function y = :x; or y = int x, introduced in Chapter 1, is graphed in Figure 2.54. It
4
y int x is discontinuous at every integer because the limit does not exist at any integer n:
or
3
y x lim int x = n - 1 and lim int x = n
x:n - x:n +
2
so the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal as x : n. Since int n = n, the greatest
1 integer function is right-continuous at every integer n (but not left-continuous).
The greatest integer function is continuous at every real number other than the inte-
x gers. For example,
–1 1 2 3 4
lim int x = 1 = int 1.5.
x:1.5
–2 In general, if n - 1 6 c 6 n, n an integer, then
lim int x = n - 1 = int c.
FIGURE 2.54 The greatest integer x:c
function is continuous at every Figure 2.55 is a catalog of discontinuity types. The function in Figure 2.55a is contin-
noninteger point. It is right-continuous, uous at x = 0. The function in Figure 2.55b would be continuous if it had ƒs0d = 1. The
but not left-continuous, at every integer function in Figure 2.55c would be continuous if ƒ(0) were 1 instead of 2. The discontinu-
point (Example 4). ities in Figure 2.55b and c are removable. Each function has a limit as x : 0, and we can
remove the discontinuity by setting ƒ(0) equal to this limit.
The discontinuities in Figure 2.55d through f are more serious: limx:0 ƒsxd does not
exist, and there is no way to improve the situation by changing ƒ at 0. The step function in
Figure 2.55d has a jump discontinuity: The one-sided limits exist but have different val-
ues. The function ƒsxd = 1>x 2 in Figure 2.55e has an infinite discontinuity. The function
in Figure 2.55f has an oscillating discontinuity: It oscillates too much to have a limit as
x : 0.
y y y y
2
y f (x) y f (x) y f (x)
y f(x)
1 1 1 1
x x x x
0 0 0 0
(a) (b) (c) (d)

y y
y sin 2
y f (x) 12 1 x
x
x
1 0
x
0
–1
(e) (f)
FIGURE 2.55 The function in (a) is continuous at x = 0 ; the functions in (b) through (f )
are not.

2.6 Continuity 127
y Continuous Functions
A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous at every point of the
y 1x interval. For example, the semicircle function graphed in Figure 2.52 is continuous on the
interval [-2, 2], which is its domain. A continuous function is one that is continuous at
every point of its domain. A continuous function need not be continuous on every interval.
x For example, y = 1>x is not continuous on [-1, 1] (Figure 2.56), but it is continuous over
0 its domain s - q , 0d ´ s0, q d.
EXAMPLE 5 Identifying Continuous Functions

(a) The function y = 1>x (Figure 2.56) is a continuous function because it is continuous
at every point of its domain. It has a point of discontinuity at x = 0, however, because
FIGURE 2.56 The function y = 1>x is it is not defined there.
continuous at every value of x except
(b) The identity function ƒsxd = x and constant functions are continuous everywhere by
x = 0 . It has a point of discontinuity at
Example 3, Section 2.3.
x = 0 (Example 5).
Algebraic combinations of continuous functions are continuous wherever they are
defined.
THEOREM 9 Properties of Continuous Functions

If the functions ƒ and g are continuous at x = c, then the following combinations
are continuous at x = c.
1. Sums: ƒ + g
2. Differences: ƒ - g
3. Products: ƒ#g
4. Constant multiples: k # ƒ, for any number k
5. Quotients: ƒ>g provided gscd Z 0
6. Powers: f r>s , provided it is defined on an open interval
containing c, where r and s are integers
Most of the results in Theorem 9 are easily proved from the limit rules in Theorem 1,
Section 2.2. For instance, to prove the sum property we have
lim sƒ + gdsxd = lim sƒsxd + gsxdd
x:c x:c
= lim ƒsxd + lim gsxd, Sum Rule, Theorem 1
x:c x:c
= ƒscd + gscd Continuity of ƒ, g at c
= sƒ + gdscd.
This shows that ƒ + g is continuous.
EXAMPLE 6 Polynomial and Rational Functions Are Continuous

(a) Every polynomial Psxd = an x n + an - 1x n - 1 + Á + a0 is continuous because
lim Psxd = Pscd by Theorem 2, Section 2.2.
x:c

(b) If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the rational function Psxd>Qsxd is continuous
wherever it is defined sQscd Z 0d by the Quotient Rule in Theorem 9.
EXAMPLE 7 Continuity of the Absolute Value Function

The function ƒsxd = ƒ x ƒ is continuous at every value of x. If x 7 0, we have ƒsxd = x, a
polynomial. If x 6 0, we have ƒsxd = -x, another polynomial. Finally, at the origin,
limx:0 ƒ x ƒ = 0 = ƒ 0 ƒ .
The functions y = sin x and y = cos x are continuous at x = 0 by Example 6 of

Section 2.2. Both functions are, in fact, continuous everywhere (see Exercise 62). It fol-
lows from Theorem 9 that all six trigonometric functions are then continuous wherever
they are defined. For example, y = tan x is continuous on Á ´ s -p>2, p>2d ´
sp>2, 3p>2d ´ Á .
Composites
All composites of continuous functions are continuous. The idea is that if ƒ(x) is continu-
ous at x = c and g(x) is continuous at x = ƒscd, then g f is continuous at x = c (Figure
2.57). In this case, the limit as x : c is g(ƒ(c)).
g f
˚
Continuous at c
f g
Continuous Continuous
at c at f (c)
c f (c) g( f(c))
FIGURE 2.57 Composites of continuous functions are continuous.
THEOREM 10 Composite of Continuous Functions

If ƒ is continuous at c and g is continuous at ƒ(c), then the composite g f is
continuous at c.
Intuitively, Theorem 10 is reasonable because if x is close to c, then ƒ(x) is close to

ƒ(c), and since g is continuous at ƒ(c), it follows that g(ƒ(x)) is close to g(ƒ(c)).
The continuity of composites holds for any finite number of functions. The only re-
quirement is that each function be continuous where it is applied. For an outline of the
proof of Theorem 10, see Exercise 6 in Appendix 2.
EXAMPLE 8 Applying Theorems 9 and 10

Show that the following functions are continuous everywhere on their respective domains.
x 2>3
(a) y = 2x 2 - 2x - 5 (b) y =
1 + x4
(c) y = ` ` (d) y = ` `
x - 2 x sin x
x2 - 2 x2 + 2

2.6 Continuity 129
y Solution
(a) The square root function is continuous on [0, q d because it is a rational power of the
0.4 continuous identity function ƒsxd = x (Part 6, Theorem 9). The given function is then
the composite of the polynomial ƒsxd = x 2 - 2x - 5 with the square root function
0.3
gstd = 2t.
0.2 (b) The numerator is a rational power of the identity function; the denominator is an
everywhere-positive polynomial. Therefore, the quotient is continuous.
0.1
(c) The quotient sx - 2d>sx 2 - 2d is continuous for all x Z ; 22, and the function is
x the composition of this quotient with the continuous absolute value function (Exam-
–2 – 0 2
ple 7).
FIGURE 2.58 The graph suggests that (d) Because the sine function is everywhere-continuous (Exercise 62), the numerator
y = ƒ sx sin xd>sx 2 + 2d ƒ is continuous term x sin x is the product of continuous functions, and the denominator term x 2 + 2
(Example 8d). is an everywhere-positive polynomial. The given function is the composite of a quo-
tient of continuous functions with the continuous absolute value function (Figure
2.58).
Continuous Extension to a Point

The function y = ssin xd>x is continuous at every point except x = 0. In this it is like the
function y = 1>x. But y = ssin xd>x is different from y = 1>x in that it has a finite limit
as x : 0 (Theorem 7). It is therefore possible to extend the function’s domain to include the
point x = 0 in such a way that the extended function is continuous at x = 0. We define
sin x
Fsxd = L
x , x Z 0
1, x = 0.
The function F(x) is continuous at x = 0 because
sin x
lim x = Fs0d
x:0
(Figure 2.59).
y y
(0, 1) (0, 1)
f (x) F(x)
– , 2  , 2 – , 2  , 2
 2   2   2   2 
x x
– 0 – 0
2 2 2 2
(a) (b)
FIGURE 2.59 The graph (a) of ƒsxd = ssin xd>x for -p>2 … x … p>2 does not include
the point (0, 1) because the function is not defined at x = 0 . (b) We can remove the
discontinuity from the graph by defining the new function F(x) with Fs0d = 1 and
Fsxd = ƒsxd everywhere else. Note that Fs0d = lim ƒsxd .
x:0

More generally, a function (such as a rational function) may have a limit even at a
point where it is not defined. If ƒ(c) is not defined, but limx:c ƒsxd = L exists, we can de-
fine a new function F(x) by the rule
Fsxd = e
ƒsxd, if x is in the domain of f
L, if x = c.
The function F is continuous at x = c. It is called the continuous extension of ƒ to
x = c. For rational functions ƒ, continuous extensions are usually found by canceling
common factors.
EXAMPLE 9 A Continuous Extension

Show that
x2 + x - 6
ƒsxd =
x2 - 4
y
has a continuous extension to x = 2, and find that extension.
x2 x 6
2 y
x2 4
Solution Although ƒ(2) is not defined, if x Z 2 we have
1
x2 + x - 6 sx - 2dsx + 3d x + 3
x ƒsxd = = = .
–1 0 1 2 3 4 x2 - 4 sx - 2dsx + 2d x + 2
(a)
y The new function
y
x 3
2
x + 3
x2 Fsxd =
5 x + 2
4 1
is equal to ƒ(x) for x Z 2, but is continuous at x = 2, having there the value of 5>4. Thus
x F is the continuous extension of ƒ to x = 2, and
–1 0 1 2 3 4
(b) x2 + x - 6 5
lim = lim ƒsxd = .
x:2 x2 - 4 x:2 4
FIGURE 2.60 (a) The graph of
ƒ(x) and (b) the graph of its The graph of ƒ is shown in Figure 2.60. The continuous extension F has the same graph
continuous extension F(x) except with no hole at (2, 5>4). Effectively, F is the function ƒ with its point of discontinu-
(Example 9). ity at x = 2 removed.
Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions

Functions that are continuous on intervals have properties that make them particularly use-
ful in mathematics and its applications. One of these is the Intermediate Value Property. A
function is said to have the Intermediate Value Property if whenever it takes on two val-
ues, it also takes on all the values in between.
THEOREM 11 The Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions

A function y = ƒsxd that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] takes on every
value between ƒ(a) and ƒ(b). In other words, if y0 is any value between ƒ(a) and
ƒ(b), then y0 = ƒscd for some c in [a, b].

2.6 Continuity 131
y
y f (x)
f (b)
y0
f (a)
x
0 a c b
Geometrically, the Intermediate Value Theorem says that any horizontal line y = y0
crossing the y-axis between the numbers ƒ(a) and ƒ(b) will cross the curve y = ƒsxd at
least once over the interval [a, b].
The proof of the Intermediate Value Theorem depends on the completeness property
of the real number system and can be found in more advanced texts.
y The continuity of ƒ on the interval is essential to Theorem 11. If ƒ is discontinuous at
even one point of the interval, the theorem’s conclusion may fail, as it does for the function
3 graphed in Figure 2.61.
2 A Consequence for Graphing: Connectivity Theorem 11 is the reason the graph of a

function continuous on an interval cannot have any breaks over the interval. It will be
1 connected, a single, unbroken curve, like the graph of sin x. It will not have jumps like the
graph of the greatest integer function (Figure 2.54) or separate branches like the graph of
x 1>x (Figure 2.56).
0 1 2 3 4
A Consequence for Root Finding We call a solution of the equation ƒsxd = 0 a root of
FIGURE 2.61 The function the equation or zero of the function ƒ. The Intermediate Value Theorem tells us that if ƒ is
ƒsxd = e
2x - 2, 1 … x 6 2 continuous, then any interval on which ƒ changes sign contains a zero of the function.
3, 2 … x … 4 In practical terms, when we see the graph of a continuous function cross the horizon-
does not take on all values between tal axis on a computer screen, we know it is not stepping across. There really is a point
ƒs1d = 0 and ƒs4d = 3 ; it misses all the where the function’s value is zero. This consequence leads to a procedure for estimating
values between 2 and 3. the zeros of any continuous function we can graph:
1. Graph the function over a large interval to see roughly where the zeros are.
2. Zoom in on each zero to estimate its x-coordinate value.
You can practice this procedure on your graphing calculator or computer in some of
the exercises. Figure 2.62 shows a typical sequence of steps in a graphical solution of the
equation x 3 - x - 1 = 0.

5 1
1 1.6
–1 2
–2 –1
(a) (b)
0.02 0.003
1.320 1.330 1.3240 1.3248
–0.02 –0.003
(c) (d)
FIGURE 2.62 Zooming in on a zero of the function ƒsxd = x 3 - x - 1 . The zero is near
x = 1.3247 .

EXERCISES 2.6
Continuity from Graphs Exercises 5–10 are about the function

In Exercises 1–4, say whether the function graphed is continuous on x 2 - 1, -1 … x 6 0
[-1, 3] . If not, where does it fail to be continuous and why? 2x, 0 6 x 6 1
1. 2. ƒsxd = e 1, x = 1
y y -2x + 4, 1 6 x 6 2
y f (x) 0, 2 6 x 6 3
y g(x)
2 2 graphed in the accompanying figure.
1 1 y
x x y f (x)
–1 0 1 2 3 –1 0 1 2 3 (1, 2)
2
3. 4. y 2x y –2x 4
y y 1 (1, 1)
y h(x) x
y k(x) –1 0 1 2 3
2 2
y x2 1 –1
1 1
x x The graph for Exercises 5–10.

–1 0 1 2 3 –1 0 1 2 3

2.6 Continuity 133
33. lim cos a b

5. a. Does ƒs -1d exist? p
b. Does limx: -1+ ƒsxd exist? t: 0 219 - 3 sec 2t
c. Does limx:-1+ ƒsxd = ƒs -1d ? 34. lim 2csc2 x + 513 tan x
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = -1 ? x:p>6
6. a. Does ƒ(1) exist? Continuous Extensions

b. Does limx:1 ƒsxd exist? 35. Define g (3) in a way that extends g sxd = sx 2 - 9d>sx - 3d to
c. Does limx:1 ƒsxd = ƒs1d ? be continuous at x = 3 .
d. Is ƒ continuous at x = 1 ? 36. Define h(2) in a way that extends hstd = st 2 + 3t - 10d>st - 2d
7. a. Is ƒ defined at x = 2 ? (Look at the definition of ƒ.) to be continuous at t = 2 .
b. Is ƒ continuous at x = 2 ? 37. Define ƒ(1) in a way that extends ƒssd = ss 3 - 1d>ss 2 - 1d to
8. At what values of x is ƒ continuous? be continuous at s = 1 .
9. What value should be assigned to ƒ(2) to make the extended func- 38. Define g(4) in a way that extends g sxd = sx 2 - 16d>
tion continuous at x = 2 ? sx 2 - 3x - 4d to be continuous at x = 4 .
10. To what new value should ƒ(1) be changed to remove the discon- 39. For what value of a is
tinuity? x 2 - 1,
ƒsxd = e
x 6 3
Applying the Continuity Test 2ax, x Ú 3
At which points do the functions in Exercises 11 and 12 fail to be con- continuous at every x?
tinuous? At which points, if any, are the discontinuities removable? 40. For what value of b is
Not removable? Give reasons for your answers.
g sxd = e
x, x 6 -2
11. Exercise 1, Section 2.4 12. Exercise 2, Section 2.4
bx 2, x Ú -2
At what points are the functions in Exercises 13–28 continuous?
continuous at every x?
1 1
13. y = - 3x 14. y = + 4 T In Exercises 41–44, graph the function ƒ to see whether it appears to
x - 2 sx + 2d2
have a continuous extension to the origin. If it does, use Trace and
x + 1 x + 3 Zoom to find a good candidate for the extended function’s value at
15. y = 16. y =
x 2 - 4x + 3 x 2 - 3x - 10 x = 0 . If the function does not appear to have a continuous exten-
1 x2 sion, can it be extended to be continuous at the origin from the right or
17. y = ƒ x - 1 ƒ + sin x 18. y = -
ƒxƒ + 1 2 from the left? If so, what do you think the extended function’s value(s)
should be?
cos x x + 2
19. y = x 20. y = cos x
10 x - 1 10 ƒ x ƒ - 1
41. ƒsxd = x 42. ƒsxd = x
px
21. y = csc 2x 22. y = tan
2 sin x
43. ƒsxd = 44. ƒsxd = s1 + 2xd1>x
x tan x 2x 4 + 1 ƒxƒ
23. y = 2 24. y =
x + 1 1 + sin2 x
4
25. y = 22x + 3 26. y = 23x - 1 Theory and Examples
27. y = s2x - 1d1>3 28. y = s2 - xd1>5 45. A continuous function y = ƒsxd is known to be negative at x = 0
and positive at x = 1 . Why does the equation ƒsxd = 0 have at
Composite Functions least one solution between x = 0 and x = 1 ? Illustrate with a
Find the limits in Exercises 29–34. Are the functions continuous at the sketch.
point being approached? 46. Explain why the equation cos x = x has at least one solution.
29. lim sin sx - sin xd 47. Roots of a cubic Show that the equation x 3 - 15x + 1 = 0 has
x:p
three solutions in the interval [-4, 4] .
30. lim sin a
p
cos stan tdb 48. A function value Show that the function Fsxd = sx - ad2 #
t:0 2
sx - bd2 + x takes on the value sa + bd>2 for some value of x.
31. lim sec sy sec2 y - tan2 y - 1d
y:1 49. Solving an equation If ƒsxd = x 3 - 8x + 10 , show that there
32. lim tan a are values c for which ƒ(c) equals (a) p ; (b) - 23 ; (c)
p
cos ssin x 1>3 db
x:0 4 5,000,000.

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4100 AWL/Thomas_ch02p073-146 8/19/04 11:00 AM Page 84

84 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

The Limit Laws

THEOREM 1 Limit Laws

1. Sum Rule: lim sƒsxd + gsxdd = L + M

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 85

4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim sk # ƒsxdd = k # L

EXAMPLE 1 Using the Limit Laws

(a) lim sx 3 + 4x 2 - 3d = lim x 3 + lim 4x 2 - lim 3 Sum and Difference Rules

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

86 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

THEOREM 2 Limits of Polynomials Can Be Found by Substitution

THEOREM 3 Limits of Rational Functions Can Be Found by Substitution

EXAMPLE 2 Limit of a Rational Function

Identifying Common Factors Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

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2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 87

Solution This is the limit we considered in Example 10 of the preceding section. We

The Sandwich Theorem

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88 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

THEOREM 4 The Sandwich Theorem

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2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 89

lim ƒsxd … lim gsxd.

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2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 89

Limit Calculations Find the limits in Exercises 19–36.

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90 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

2 - 2x 2 - 5 4 - x 42. Suppose that limx:-2 psxd = 4, limx:-2 r sxd = 0 , and

A lim A ƒsxd + 7 B B 2>3

A lim p(x) B A lim A 4 - r(x) B B

x: 1 x: 1 x:1 Give reasons for your answer.

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2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 91

Theory and Examples a. lim ƒsxd b. lim

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2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit 91

2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit

EXAMPLE 1 A Linear Function

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92 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

y In the previous example we determined how close x must be to a particular value x0 to

FIGURE 2.14 The relation of d and P in

Examples: Testing the Definition

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2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit 93

y f (x) y f (x) y f (x) y f (x)

New challenge: Response:

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94 Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

y EXAMPLE 2 Testing the Definition

EXAMPLE 3 Limits of the Identity and Constant Functions

Finding Deltas Algebraically for Given Epsilons

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2.3 The Precise Definition of a Limit 95

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