Improving Pumping System Performance

Improving
Pumping System
Performance
A Sourcebook for Industry
Second Edition
Acknowledgements
This second edition of Improving Pumping System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry was developed
by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Industrial Technologies Program (ITP) and the Hydraulic Institute (HI).
ITP undertook this project as part of a series of sourcebook publications on industrial equipment. Other topics
in this series include compressed air systems, fan and blower systems, motors and drives, steam systems, and
process heating systems. For more information about ITP and HI, see Section 4, “Where to Find Help.”
The Department of Energy, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Alliance to Save Energy, and Resource
Dynamics Corporation wish to thank staff at the many organizations that so generously assisted in the collection
of data for this sourcebook. In addition, we would like to particularly recognize the following for their input and
reviews of the first and second editions of this sourcebook:
Stefan M. Abelin, ITT Flygt Corporation Al Iseppon, Pentair Water

Robert Asdal, Hydraulic Institute Steve Kratzke
William Beekman, Floway Pumps Ross C. Mackay, Ross Mackay Associates Ltd.
Heinz Block, P.E., Process Machinery Consulting William Marscher, Mechanical Solutions, Inc.
Steve Bolles, Process Energy Services J. P. Messina, P.E.
Karl Buscher, ITT Fluid Handling – Bell & Gossett Michael Pemberton, ITT IPG PumpSmart Control Solutions
Don Casada, Diagnostic Solutions, LLC Gregg Romanyshyn, Hydraulic Institute
Mick Cropper, Sulzer Pumps U.S. Inc. Arnold Sdano, Fairbanks Morse Pump Company
Barry Erickson, Flowserve Corp. Michael W. Volk, Volk Associates, Inc.
Gunnar Hovstadius, Gunnar Hovstadius Trey Walters, Applied Flow Technology
Consulting, LLC
Second Edition, May 2006
Prepared for the United States Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Industrial Technologies Program
By
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Berkeley, California
Resource Dynamics Corporation

Vienna, Virginia
Alliance to Save Energy

Washington, D.C.
In cooperation with the Hydraulic Institute

Parsippany, New Jersey
Produced by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Golden, Colorado
Cover photo credit: Diagnostic Solutions, LLC, and Blacksburg, Christiansburg, VPI Water Authority, NREL/PIX13296
Improving Pumping System Performance

Contents
Acknowledgements inside cover
Table of Contents i
List of Figures ii
Quick Start Guide 1
Section 1: Pumping System Basics 3
Overview 3
Pumping System Components 3
Pumping System Principles 6
Section 2: Performance Improvement Opportunity Roadmap 11

Overview 11
The Fact Sheets 11
Assessing Pumping System Needs 13
Common Pumping System Problems 19
Indications of Oversized Pumps 25
Piping Configurations to Improve Pumping System Efficiency 29
Basic Pump Maintenance 33
Centrifugal Pumps 37
Positive Displacement Pump Applications 41
Multiple Pump Arrangements 43
Pony Pumps 47
Impeller Trimming 49
Controlling Pumps with Adjustable Speed Drives 51
Section 3: The Economics of Improving Pumping Systems 55

Overview 55
Conduct a Systems Assessment 55
Analyze Life-Cycle Costs Before Making a Decision 62
Sell Your Projects to Management 64
Section 4: Where to Find Help 69

Overview 69
DOE Industrial Technologies Program and BestPractices 69
Hydraulic Institute 73
Directory of Contacts 75
Resources and Tools 76
Appendices 93
Appendix A: Glossary of Basic Pumping System Terms 95
Appendix B: Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) 99
Appendix C: Pumping Systems Tip Sheets 101
Appendix D: Guidelines for Comments 117

List of Figures 91
Figure 1. Typical Pumping System Components 4
Figure 2. Key to the Fact Sheets 12
Figure 3. Illustration of the Sensitivity of Flow to
Changes in Backpressure 15
Figure 4. Drooping Performance Curve 15
Figure 5. Cavitation in a Centrifugal Pump 20
Figure 6. Two Types of Sealing Methods:
Packing and Mechanical Seals 21
Figure 7. Common Pipe Configuration Problems
and How To Correct Them 30
Figure 8. Flow Straighteners 31
Figure 9. Proper Support of Suction and Discharge Piping 31
Figure 10. Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves 37
Figure 11. Family of Pump Performance Curves 38
Figure 12. Performance Curves for Different Impeller Sizes 38
Figure 13. Performance Curves for a 4x1.5-6 Pump
Used for Water Service 39
Figure 14. Multiple Pump Operation 44
Figure 15. Multiple-Speed Pump Performance Curves 45
Figure 16. Typical Tank Level Control 48
Figure 17. Effect of Impeller Trimming on Pump Performance 49
Figure 18. Effects of Reducing Speed on a Pump’s
Operating Characteristics 52
Figure 19. Power Lost through a Bypass Line 52
Figure 20. Fluid Power Lost across a Throttle Valve 52
Figure 21. Using a Pump Performance Curve
To Determine Power Draw 60
ii
Quick Start Guide
Quick Start Guide
This sourcebook is designed to provide pumping ■ Determine the most technically and
system users with a reference that outlines oppor- economically sound options, taking into
tunities for improving system performance. It is consideration all of the subsystems
not meant to be a comprehensive technical text ■ Implement the best option
on pumping systems; rather, it provides practical
guidelines and information to make users aware ■ Assess energy consumption with respect
of potential performance improvements. Guidance to performance
on how to find more information and assistance is ■ Continue to monitor and optimize the system
also included.
■ Continue to operate and maintain the system
Throughout this sourcebook, performance and for peak performance.
efficiency improvements are described in terms
To use a systems approach effectively, a pumping
of a “systems approach.” For cost-effective
system designer needs to understand system
operation and maintenance of pumping systems,
fundamentals, know where opportunities for
attention must be paid not just to individual pieces
improvements are commonly found, and have a
of equipment but to the system as a whole. A
list of key resources that can help to identify and
systems approach to optimizing a pumping system
implement successful projects. Therefore, this
analyzes both the supply and demand sides of the
sourcebook is divided into four main sections,
system and how they interact, shifting the focus
as outlined below.
from individual components to total system
performance.
 Section 1. Pumping System Basics
If you are not familiar with the basics of pumping
Often, operators are so focused on the immediate
systems, the first section provides a brief
demands of equipment that they overlook the
discussion of terms, relationships, and important
broader question: How do the system’s param-
system design considerations. It describes key
eters affect this equipment? For example,
factors involved in pump selection and system
frequently replacing pump seals and bearings
design; it also provides an overview of different
can keep a maintenance crew so busy that they
types of pumps and their general applications.
overlook the system operating conditions that are
Key terms and parameters used in selecting
causing most (or all) of the problems.
pumps, designing systems, and controlling fluid
flow are discussed. If you are already familiar
A systems approach involves the following types
with pumping systems, you might want to skip
of interrelated actions:
this section and go straight to the next one.
■ Establish current conditions and operating
parameters  Section 2. Performance Improvement
■ Determine present and estimate future process Opportunity Roadmap
production needs This section describes the key components of a
pumping system and opportunities to improve
■ Gather and analyze operating data and develop the system’s performance. Also provided is a
load duty cycles figurative system diagram identifying pumping
■ Assess alternative system designs and system components and performance improve-
improvements ment opportunities. A set of fact sheets describing

Quick Start Guide
these opportunities in greater detail follows the  Appendices

diagram; they discuss the following: This sourcebook on improving pumping systems
includes four appendices. Appendix A is a
1. Assessing Pumping System Needs
glossary of terms used throughout the pumping
2. Common Pumping System Problems system industry (and printed in bold type in parts
of this sourcebook). Appendix B describes the
3. Indications of Oversized Pumps
Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT),
4. Piping Configurations to Improve Pumping which can help you identify and prioritize energy
System Efficiency improvement projects for pumping systems.
Appendix C contains a series of pumping system
5. Basic Pump Maintenance tip sheets. Developed by DOE, these tip sheets
6. Centrifugal Pumps are brief summaries of opportunities for improv-
ing the efficiency and performance of pumping
7. Positive Displacement Pump Applications systems. Appendix D includes a form for
8. Multiple Pump Arrangements submitting suggested improvements to this
sourcebook.
9. Pony Pumps
10. Impeller Trimming
11. Controlling Pumps with Adjustable
Speed Drives
 Section 3. The Economics of Improving

Pumping Systems
Section 3 describes key considerations in
determining the life-cycle costs of pumping
systems. Understanding life-cycle costs is
essential to identifying and prioritizing improve-
ment projects and presenting these projects
in terms that will gain management support.
Therefore, this section discusses life-cycle cost
components, ways to measure these costs, and
key success factors in prioritizing and proposing
improvement projects.
 Section 4. Where To Find Help

Section 4 describes useful sources of assistance
that can help you learn more about pumping
systems and ways to improve their performance
and efficiency. Included in this section are
descriptions of resources within the U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy (DOE) Industrial Technologies
Program (ITP) and the Hydraulic Institute and a
directory of associations and other organizations
involved in the pump marketplace. This section
also provides lists of helpful resources, such as
tools, software, videos, and workshops.

Section 1: Pumping System Basics
Overview Pumps are essential to the daily operation of many

facilities. This tends to promote the practice of
Pumps are used widely in industry to provide
sizing pumps conservatively to ensure that the
cooling and lubrication services, to transfer fluids
needs of the system will be met under all
for processing, and to provide the motive force in
conditions. Intent on ensuring that the pumps are
hydraulic systems. In fact, most manufacturing
large enough to meet system needs, engineers
plants, commercial buildings, and municipalities
often overlook the cost of oversizing pumps and
rely on pumping systems for their daily operation.
err on the side of safety by adding more pump
In the manufacturing sector, pumps represent 27%
capacity. Unfortunately, this practice results in
of the electricity used by industrial systems. In the
higher-than-necessary system operating and
commercial sector, pumps are used primarily in
maintenance costs. In addition, oversized pumps
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
typically require more frequent maintenance
systems to provide water for heat transfer. Mun-
than properly sized pumps. Excess flow energy
icipalities use pumps for water and wastewater
increases the wear and tear on system components,
transfer and treatment and for land drainage. Since
resulting in valve damage, piping stress, and
they serve such diverse needs, pumps range in size
excess system operation noise.
from fractions of a horsepower to several thousand
horsepower.
Pumping System Components
In addition to an extensive range of sizes, pumps Typical pumping systems contain five basic
also come in several different types. They are components: pumps, prime movers, piping, valves,
classified by the way they add energy to a fluid: and end-use equipment (e.g., heat exchangers,
positive displacement pumps1 squeeze the fluid tanks, and hydraulic equipment). A typical
directly; centrifugal pumps (also called “roto- pumping system and its components are illustrated
dynamic pumps”) speed up the fluid and convert in Figure 1 on page 4.
this kinetic energy to pressure. Within these
classifications are many different subcategories.  Pumps
Positive displacement pumps include piston, screw, Although pumps are available in a wide range of
sliding vane, and rotary lobe types; centrifugal types, sizes, and materials, they can be broadly
pumps include axial (propeller), mixed-flow, and classified into the two categories described
radial types. Many factors go into determining earlier—positive displacement and centrifugal.
which type of pump is suitable for an application. These categories relate to the manner in which the
Often, several different types meet the same pumps add energy to the working fluid. Positive
service requirements. displacement pumps pressurize fluid with a
collapsing volume action, essentially squeezing an
Pump reliability is important—often critically so. amount of fluid equal to the displacement volume
In cooling systems, pump failure can result in of the system with each piston stroke or shaft
equipment overheating and catastrophic damage. rotation. Centrifugal pumps work by adding
In lubrication systems, inadequate pump kinetic energy to a fluid using a spinning impeller.
performance can destroy equipment. In many As the fluid slows in the diffuser section of the
petrochemical and power plants, pump downtime pump, the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted
can cause a substantial loss in productivity. into pressure.
1 Terms in bold type are defined in the glossary in Appendix A.

C E
D
B
H I
A G
K F
Key
A Pump
B Level Indicators
A
C Tank, Liquid Supply
D Pump Motor
E Motor Controller
F Throttle Valve
G Bypass Valve
H Heat Exchangers
(End-Use Equipment)
I Instrumentation Line
J Pump Discharge Piping
K Pump Suction Piping
Figure 1. Typical Pumping System Components
Although many applications can be served by A centrifugal pump’s flow/pressure relationship

both positive displacement and centrifugal pumps, is described by a performance curve that plots
centrifugal pumps are more common because they the flow rate as a function of head (pressure).
are simple and safe to operate, require minimal Understanding this relationship is essential to
maintenance, and have characteristically long properly sizing a pump and designing a system
operating lives. Centrifugal pumps typically suffer that performs efficiently. For more information,
less wear and require fewer part replacements see the fact sheet in Section 2 titled Centrifugal
than positive displacement pumps. Although the Pumps.
packing or mechanical seals must be replaced
periodically, these tasks usually require only a In contrast, positive displacement pumps have a
minor amount of downtime. Centrifugal pumps fixed displacement volume. Consequently, the
can also operate under a broad range of conditions. flow rates they generate are directly proportional
The risk of catastrophic damage due to improper to their speed. The pressures they generate are
valve positioning is low, if precautions are taken. determined by the system’s resistance to this
flow. Positive displacement pumps have operating
Centrifugal pumps have a variable flow/pressure advantages that make them more practical for
relationship. A centrifugal pump acting against a certain applications. These pumps are typically
high system pressure generates less flow than it more appropriate for situations in which the
does when acting against a low system pressure. following apply:

■ The working fluid is highly viscous which is endorsed by the Hydraulic Institute; the
program defines premium efficiency motors with
■ The system requires high-pressure,
higher efficiency levels than those established by
low-flow pump performance
EPAct. In high-run-time applications, improved
■ The pump must be self-priming motor efficiencies can significantly reduce
operating costs. However, it is often more
■ The working fluid must not experience effective to take a systems approach that uses
high shear forces proper component sizing and effective mainten-
■ The flow must be metered or precisely ance practices to avoid unnecessary energy
controlled consumption.
■ Pump efficiency is highly valued. A subcomponent of a pump motor is the motor
A disadvantage is that positive displacement controller. The motor controller is the switchgear
pumps typically require more system safeguards, that receives signals from low-power circuits,
such as relief valves. A positive displacement such as an on-off switch, and connects or dis-
pump can potentially overpressurize system piping connects the high-power circuits to the primary
and components. For example, if all the valves power supply from the motor. In dc motors, the
downstream of a pump are closed—a condition motor controller also contains a sequence of
known as deadheading—system pressure will switches that gradually builds up the motor
build until a relief valve lifts, a pipe or fitting current during start-ups.
ruptures, or the pump motor stalls. Although
relief valves are installed to protect against such In special applications, such as emergency
damage, relying on these devices adds an element lubricating oil pumps for large machinery, some
of risk. In addition, relief valves often relieve pumps are driven by an air system or directly
pressure by venting system fluid, which may be from the shaft of the machine. In the event of a
a problem for systems with harmful or dangerous power failure, these pumps can still supply oil
system fluids. For more information on this type to the bearings long enough for the machine to
of pump, see the fact sheet in Section 2 titled coast to a stop. For this same reason, many fire
Positive Displacement Pump Applications. service pumps are driven by diesel engines to
allow them to operate during a power outage.
 Prime Movers
Most pumps are driven by electric motors.  Piping
Although some pumps are driven by direct current Piping is used to contain the fluid and carry it
(dc) motors, the low cost and high reliability of from the pump to the point of use. The critical
alternating current (ac) motors make them the aspects of piping are its dimensions, material type,
most common type of pump prime mover. In and cost. Since all three aspects are interrelated,
recent years, partly as a result of DOE’s efforts, pipe sizing is an iterative process. The flow resist-
the efficiencies of many types of ac motors have ance at a specified flow rate of a pipe decreases
improved. A section of the Energy Policy Act as the pipe diameter gets larger; however, larger
(EPAct) of 1992 that set minimum efficiency pipes are heavier, take up more floor space, and
standards for most common types of industrial cost more than smaller pipe. Similarly, in systems
motors went into effect in October 1997. EPAct has that operate at high pressures (for example,
provided industrial end users with greater selection hydraulic systems), small-diameter pipes can have
and availability of energy-efficient motors. thinner walls than large-diameter pipes and are
easier to route and install.
In addition, the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) has established the NEMA Small-diameter pipes restrict flow, however, and
PremiumTM energy efficiency motors program, this can be especially problematic in systems with

surging flow characteristics. Smaller pipes also machinery, pressure is the key system need.
operate at higher liquid velocity, increasing Pumps and pumping system components must
erosion effects, wear, and friction head. Increased be sized and configured according to the needs
friction head affects the energy required for of the end-use processes.
pumping.
Pumping System Principles
 Valves
The flow in a pumping system may be controlled  Design Practices
by valves. Some valves have distinct positions, Fluid system designs are usually developed to
either shut or open, while others can be used to support the needs of other systems. For example,
throttle flow. There are many different types of in cooling system applications, the heat transfer
valves; selecting the correct valve for an appli- requirements determine how many heat exchan-
cation depends on a number of factors, such as gers are needed, how large each heat exchanger
ease of maintenance, reliability, leakage tenden- should be, and how much flow is required. Pump
cies, cost, and the frequency with which the capabilities are then calculated based on the
valve will be open and shut. system layout and equipment characteristics. In
other applications, such as municipal wastewater
Valves can be used to isolate equipment or regu- removal, pump capabilities are determined by the
late flow. Isolation valves are designed to seal off amount of water that must be moved and the
a part of a system for operating purposes or main- height and pressure to which it must be pumped.
tenance. Flow-regulating valves either restrict flow The pumps are sized and configured according to
through a system branch (throttle valve) or allow the flow rate and pressure requirements of the
flow around it (bypass valve). A throttle valve system or service.
controls flow by increasing or decreasing the flow
resistance across it. In contrast, a bypass valve After the service needs of a pumping system are
allows flow to go around a system component by identified, the pump/motor combination, layout,
increasing or decreasing the flow resistance in a and valve requirements must be engineered.
bypass line. A check valve allows fluid to move Selecting the appropriate type of pump and its
in only one direction, thus protecting equipment speed and power characteristics requires an
from being pressurized from the wrong direction understanding of its operating principles.
and helping to keep fluids flowing in the right
direction. Check valves are used at the discharge The most challenging aspect of the design process
of many pumps to prevent flow reversal when the is cost-effectively matching the pump and motor
pump is stopped. characteristics to the needs of the system. This
process is often complicated by wide variations
 End-Use Equipment (Heat Exchangers, in flow and pressure requirements. Ensuring that
Tanks, and Hydraulic Equipment) system needs are met during worst-case con-
The essential purpose of a pumping system may ditions can cause designers to specify equipment
be to provide cooling, to supply or drain a tank that is oversized for normal operation. In addition,
or reservoir, or to provide hydraulic power to specifying larger than necessary pumps increases
a machine. Therefore, the nature of the end- material, installation, and operating costs. Design-
use equipment is a key design consideration in ing a system with larger piping diameters might
determining how the piping and valves should reduce pumping energy costs, however. See the
be configured. There are many different types fact sheet titled Piping Configurations To Improve
of end-use equipment; the fluid pressurization Pumping System Efficiency in Section 2 and the tip
needs and pressure drops across this equipment sheet in Appendix C titled Reduce Pumping Costs
vary widely. For heat exchangers, flow is the Through Optimum Pipe Sizing.
critical performance characteristic; for hydraulic

 Fluid Energy reduction will read lower than one upstream of the
For practical pump applications, the energy of a reduction, although the distance may only be
fluid is commonly measured in terms of head. a few inches.
Head is usually expressed in feet or meters,
which refers to the height of a column of system  Fluid Properties
fluid that has an equivalent amount of potential In addition to being determined by the type of
energy. This term is convenient because it system being serviced, pump requirements are
incorporates density and pressure, which allows influenced greatly by fluid characteristics such as
centrifugal pumps to be evaluated over a range viscosity, density, particulate content, and vapor
of system fluids. For example, at a given flow pressure. Viscosity is a property that measures the
rate, a centrifugal pump will generate two shear resistance of a fluid. A highly viscous liquid
different discharge pressures for two different- consumes more energy during flow because its
density fluids, but the corresponding head for shear resistance creates heat. Some fluids, such
these two conditions is the same. as cold lubricating oil (at less than 60°F), are
sufficiently viscous that centrifugal pumps cannot
The total head of a fluid system consists of move them effectively. As a result, the range of
three terms or measurements: static pressure fluid viscosities over the operating temperatures of
(gauge pressure), height (or potential energy), a system is a key system design factor. A pump/
and velocity head (or kinetic energy). motor combination that is appropriately sized for
oil at a temperature of 80°F may be undersized for
Static pressure, as the name indicates, is the operation at 60°F.
pressure of the fluid in the system. It is the
quantity measured by conventional pressure The quantities and properties of particulates in a
gauges. The height of the fluid level has a system fluid also affect pump design and selection.
substantial impact on the static pressure in a Some pumps cannot tolerate much debris. And the
system, but it is itself a distinct measurement of performance of some multistage centrifugal pumps
fluid energy. For example, a pressure gauge on a degrades significantly if seals between stages
vented tank reads atmospheric pressure. If this become eroded. Other pumps are designed for use
tank is located 50 feet (ft) above the pump, with high-particulate-content fluids. Because of the
however, the pump would have to generate at way they operate, centrifugal pumps are often used
least 50 ft of static pressure (for tap water, the to move fluids with high particulate content, such
gauge would have to read 21.7 pounds per as coal slurries.
square inch [psi]) to push water into the tank.
The difference between the vapor pressure of a
Velocity head (also known as “dynamic head”) fluid and the system pressure is another funda-
is a measure of a fluid’s kinetic energy. In most mental factor in pump design and selection.
systems, the velocity head is small in com- Accelerating a fluid to high velocities—a
parison to the static head. For example, the flow characteristic of centrifugal pumps—creates a
velocity in cooling systems does not typically drop in static pressure. This drop can lower the
exceed 15 ft per second, which is roughly fluid pressure to the fluid’s vapor pressure or
equivalent to 3.5 ft of head (if the system fluid below. At this point, the fluid “boils,” changing
is water, this velocity head translates to about from a liquid to a vapor. Known as cavitation,
1.5 psi gauge [psig]). The velocity head of a this effect can severely impact a pump’s
fluid must be considered when siting pressure performance. As the fluid changes phase during
gauges, when designing a system, and when cavitation, tiny bubbles form. Since vapor takes
evaluating a reading from a pressure gauge, up considerably more volume than fluid, these
especially when the system has varying pipe bubbles decrease flow through the pump.
sizes. A pressure gauge downstream of a pipe

The damaging aspect of cavitation occurs when cooled and that tanks are drained or filled quickly.
these vapor bubbles return to liquid phase in a Sufficient pressure and flow must be guaranteed
violent collapse. During this collapse, high- to satisfy system requirements; this creates a
velocity water jets impinge onto surrounding tendency to oversize pumps and the motors that
surfaces. The force of this impingement often run them. Because systems are designed with flow
exceeds the mechanical strength of the impacted control devices to regulate temperature and protect
surface, which leads to material loss. Over time, equipment from overpressurization, oversizing
cavitation can create severe erosion problems in system pumps can burden these flow control
pumps, valves, and pipes. devices with high energy dissipation loads.
Other problems that cause similar damage are There are four primary methods for controlling
suction and discharge recirculation. Suction flow through a system or its branches: throttle
recirculation is the formation of damaging flow valves, bypass valves, pump speed control, and
patterns that result in cavitation-like damage in the multiple pump arrangements. The appropriate
suction region of an impeller. Similarly, discharge flow control method depends on the system size
recirculation is the formation of damaging flow and layout, fluid properties, the shape of the pump
patterns in the outer region of an impeller. These power curve, the system load, and the system’s
recirculation effects usually result from operating sensitivity to flow rate changes.
a pump at a flow rate that is too low. To avoid this
type of damage, many pumps are listed with a A throttle valve chokes fluid flow so that less fluid
minimum flow rating. can move through the valve, creating a pressure
drop across it. Throttle valves are usually more
 System Types efficient than bypass valves, because as they are
Like pumps, pumping system characteristics and shut, they maintain upstream pressure that can help
needs range widely, but they can be classified in push fluid through parallel branches of the system.
general as either closed-loop or open-loop
systems. A closed-loop system recirculates fluid Bypass lines allow fluid to flow around a system
around a path with common beginning and end component. A major drawback of bypass valves is
points. An open-loop system has an input and an their detrimental impact on system efficiency. The
output, as fluid is transferred from one point to power used to pump the bypassed fluid is wasted.
another. Pumps that serve closed-loop systems, In static-head-dominated systems, however, bypass
such as a cooling water system, typically do not valves could be more efficient than throttle valves
have to contend with static head loads unless there or systems with adjustable speed drives (ASDs).
are vented tanks at different elevations. In closed-
loop systems, the frictional losses of system piping Pump speed control includes both mechanical and
and equipment are the predominant pump load. electrical methods of matching the speed of the
pump to the flow/pressure demands of the system.
In contrast, open-loop systems often require ASDs, multiple-speed pumps, and multiple pump
pumps to overcome static head requirements as a configurations are usually the most efficient flow
result of elevation and tank pressurization needs. control options, especially in systems that are
A mine dewatering system is one example; it uses dominated by friction head, because the amount
pumps to move water from the bottom of a mine of fluid energy added by the pumps is determined
up to the surface. In this case, static head is often directly from the system demand. Pump speed
the dominant pump load. control is especially appropriate for systems in
which friction head predominates.
 Principles of Flow Control
Flow control is essential to system performance. Both ASDs and multiple-speed motors provide
Sufficient flow ensures that equipment is properly efficient system operation by driving pumps at

different speeds according to system needs. During selected, each pump can operate closer to its
a period of low system demand, the pump is highest efficiency point. An added flow control
operated at low speeds. The primary functional benefit of parallel pumps is that a system curve
difference between ASDs and multiple-speed remains the same whether one or several pumps
motors is the degree of speed control available. are operating; what changes is the operating point
ASDs typically modify the speed of a single-speed along this system curve.
motor through mechanical or electrical methods,
while multiple-speed motors contain a different set Multiple pumps in parallel are well suited for
of windings for each speed. ASDs are practical for systems with high static head. Another advantage
applications in which flow demands change is system redundancy; one pump can fail or be
continuously. For more information, see the fact taken off line for maintenance while the other
sheet in Section 2 titled Controlling Pumps with pumps support system operation. When identical
Adjustable Speed Drives. parallel pumps are used, the pump curves should
remain matched; therefore, operating hours should
Multiple-speed motors are practical for systems in be the same for each pump, and reconditioning
which the flow demands change between distinct, should be done at the same time for all of them.
discrete levels that feature lengthy periods of For more information on this configuration, see
operation. One of the drawbacks to multiple-speed the fact sheet in Section 2 titled Multiple Pump
motors is the added cost of equipment. Since each Arrangements.
speed has its own set of motor windings, multiple-
speed motors are more expensive than single-  System Operating Costs
speed motors. Also, multiple-speed motors are The amount of fluid power that a system consumes
slightly less efficient than single-speed ones. is a product of head and flow, according to this
equation:
Multiple pump arrangements typically consist
of pumps placed in parallel in one of two basic Fluid power = HQ (s.g.)
3,960
configurations: a large pump/small pump config-
where
uration, or a series of identical pumps placed in
H = head (ft)
parallel. In the large pump/small pump case,
Q = flow rate (gallons per minute [gpm])
the small pump, often called the “pony pump,”
s.g. = specific gravity of the fluid
operates during normal conditions. The large
3,960 is a units conversion to state fluid
pump is used during periods of high demand.
power in terms of horsepower.
Because the pony pump is sized for normal system
operation, this configuration operates more
The motor power required to generate these head
efficiently than a system would that relies on the
and flow conditions is somewhat higher, because
large pump to handle loads far below its optimum
of motor and pump inefficiencies. The efficiency
capacity. For more information on this type of
of a pump is measured by dividing the fluid
pump, see the Section 2 fact sheet titled Pony
power by the pump shaft power; for directly
Pumps.
coupled pump/motor combinations, this is the
brake horsepower (bhp) of the motor.
With a series of identical pumps placed in parallel,
the number of operating pumps can be changed
Pumps have varying efficiency levels. The
according to system demands. Because the pumps
operating point of centrifugal pumps at which
are the same size they can operate together,
their efficiency is highest is known as the best
serving the same discharge header. If the pumps
efficiency point (BEP). Efficiencies range widely,
were different sizes, the larger pumps would tend
from 35% to more than 90%, and they are a
to dominate the smaller pumps and could cause
function of many design characteristics. Operating
them to be inefficient. If the proper pumps are
a pump at or near its BEP not only minimizes

energy costs, it also decreases loads on the pump

and maintenance requirements.
Systems with significant annual operating hours

incur high operating and maintenance costs relative
to initial equipment purchase costs. Inefficiencies
in high-run-time, oversized systems can add
significantly to annual operating costs; however,
costly inefficiencies are often overlooked when
ensuring system reliability. For more information
on oversized pumps, see the fact sheet in Section 2
titled Indications of Oversized Pumps. The Pump-
ing System Assessment Tool (see Appendix B)
provides assistance in identifying and prioritizing
projects to reduce the amount of energy used by
pumping systems.
The cost of oversizing pumps extends beyond

energy bills. Excess fluid power must be dissipated
by a valve, a pressure-regulating device, or the
system piping itself, which increases system wear
and maintenance costs. Valve seat wear, which
results from throttling excess flow and from
cavitation, creates a significant maintenance
problem and can shorten the interval between
valve overhauls. Similarly, the noise and vibration
caused by excessive flow creates stress on pipe
welds and piping supports; in severe cases, this
can erode pipe walls.
Note that, when designers try to improve a

pumping system’s reliability by oversizing
equipment, usually the unanticipated result is
less system reliability. This is caused by both
the additional wear on the equipment and low-
efficiency operation.
10
Section 2: Performance Improvement Opportunity Roadmap
Overview The Fact Sheets

Cost-effective operation and maintenance of a The rest of this section contains 11 fact sheets that
pumping system require attention to the needs of address both component and system issues. Each
both individual equipment and the entire system. fact sheet describes in detail a specific opportunity
Often, operators are so focused on the immediate to improve the performance of an industrial
demands of the equipment that they forget to step pumping system. The fact sheets are as follows:
back and notice how certain system parameters are
affecting this equipment. 1. Assessing Pumping System Needs
A systems approach analyzes both supply and 2. Common Pumping System Problems
demand sides of the system and how they interact, 3. Indications of Oversized Pumps
shifting the focus from individual components to
total system performance. This approach usually 4. Piping Configurations to Improve Pumping
involves the following types of interrelated System Efficiency
actions:
5. Basic Pump Maintenance
■ Establish current conditions and operating
parameters 6. Centrifugal Pumps
■ Determine present process production needs 7. Positive Displacement Pump Applications
and estimate future ones 8. Multiple Pump Arrangements
■ Gather and analyze operating data and develop 9. Pony Pumps
load duty cycles
■ Assess alternative system designs and
improvements 11. Controlling Pumps with Adjustable Speed
Drives
■ Determine the most technically and
economically sound options, taking into
consideration all subsystems
■ Implement the best option
■ Assess energy consumption with respect to
performance
■ Continue to monitor and optimize the system
■ Continue to operate and maintain the system
for peak performance.
11
A, C,
D, E
B
C
C
Pony Pumps
Alternative Pump
Configurations
Multiple Pump
Arrangements
Key
A - Piping Configurations to Improve Pumping System Efficiency
B - Controlling Pumps with Adjustable Speed Drives
C - Basic Pump Maintenance
D - Common Pumping System Problems
E - General Pump Fact Sheets: Assessing Pumping System Needs,

Indications of Oversized Pumps, Positive Displacement Pump
Applications, Centrifugal Pumps, Impeller Trimming
Figure 2. Key to the Fact Sheets
12
Assessing Pumping System Needs

There are three principal points in the life cycle of
a system that present opportunities to improve Related Tip Sheet
pumping system performance: A summary of the key issues in this fact sheet
■ During initial system design and pump is available in an ITP BestPractices Tip Sheet
selection titled Conduct an In-Plant Pumping System
Survey. Tip sheets can be found in Appendix
■ During troubleshooting to solve a system C, accessed on the Web at www.eere.energy.
problem gov/industry/bestpractices, or obtained by
■ During a system capacity change. contacting the EERE Information Center at
877-337-3463.
 Analyzing System Requirements
A key to improving system performance and
reliability is to fully understand system require-
ments (peak demand, average demand, and the matched to its system. This tool provides guide-
variability of demand) with respect to time of lines, a checklist, and data collection sheets to
day and time of year. It is much simpler to design assist system operators in identifying and priori-
and operate systems with relatively consistent tizing opportunities for reducing energy use in
requirements than to have to account for wide pumping systems.
variations in demand.
 Initial Pump Selection
Problems with oversized pumps often develop Pump selection starts with a basic knowledge of
because the system is designed for peak loads, system operating conditions: fluid properties,
while normal operating loads are much smaller. pressures, temperatures, and system layout. These
Excess flow energy is then forced into the system. conditions determine the type of pump that is
In addition to increasing operating costs, this required to meet certain service needs. There are
excess flow energy creates unnecessary wear on two basic types of pumps: positive displacement
components such as valves, piping, and piping and centrifugal. Although axial-flow pumps are
supports. frequently classified as a separate type, they have
essentially the same operating principles as
Often, system operators do not realize the impact centrifugal pumps.
of running a system at higher-than-necessary
levels of flow and pressure. Pumps and valve Positive displacement pumps pressurize a fluid by
lineups are set to meet the worst-case demand— squeezing it in a collapsing volume, such as by a
for example, a cooling system might be aligned to piston in a cylinder. Centrifugal and axial pumps
handle the largest heat load but is not readjusted impart kinetic energy to a fluid and rely on the
during periods of lower demand. conversion of this kinetic energy to potential
energy to increase fluid pressure. In general,
The operating cost and reliability of many systems positive displacement and centrifugal pumps
can be improved by recognizing the variability of serve different applications.
system demand and by matching flow and pressure
requirements more closely to system needs. Positive displacement pumps are used in low-flow,
high-head applications and with high-viscosity
Appendix B describes the Pumping System fluids. In contrast, centrifugal pumps are used
Assessment Tool (PSAT), a software tool that typically in high-flow, low-head applications in
helps determine how well an existing pump is which fluid viscosity is not prohibitively high.
13
However, there are many exceptions to these Inefficient Operation. Inefficient system operation
guidelines. For more information on the factors can be caused by a number of problems, such as
that govern the use of positive displacement and improper pump selection, poor system design,
centrifugal pumps, see Section 1 and the fact excessive wear-ring clearances, and wasteful flow
sheets in this section titled Centrifugal Pumps control practices. Indications of inefficient system
and Positive Displacement Pump Applications. operation include high energy costs, excessive
noise in the pipes and across valves, and high
Pumps are usually selected on a “best fit” basis maintenance requirements.
rather than designed specifically for a particular
application. A pump is chosen from a wide range Each centrifugal pump has a best efficiency point
of types and models, based on its ability to meet (BEP) at which its operating efficiency is highest
the anticipated demands of a system. Pumps have and its radial bearing loads are lowest (except for
two mutually dependent outputs: flow rate and pumps with concentric case designs). At its BEP,
head. The variability of these outputs and other a pump operates most cost-effectively in terms of
factors—such as efficiency, suction inlet both energy efficiency and maintenance. In reality,
conditions, operating life, and maintenance— continuously operating a pump at its BEP is
complicate the pump selection process. difficult because systems usually have changing
demands. However, selecting a pump with a BEP
Centrifugal pumps are by far the most popular that is close to the system’s normal operating
type of pump because they are typically low in range can result in significant operating cost
cost and have low maintenance requirements and savings.
long operating lives. Despite their extensive use,
selecting a centrifugal pump is complex, and this Cavitation. Centrifugal pumps are susceptible to
creates a tendency to oversize it. To try to a damaging and performance-degrading effect
accommodate uncertainties in system design, known as cavitation. Cavitation occurs when the
fouling effects, or future capacity increases, static pressure in the pump drops below the vapor
designers often select larger-than-necessary pressure of a fluid. The liquid vaporizes in the
pump/motor assemblies. Designers also tend to form of tiny bubbles; then, when the surrounding
oversize a pump to prevent being responsible pressure increases, the fluid returns to liquid as
for inadequate system performance. these tiny bubbles collapse violently. The
collapse of the bubbles sends high-velocity water
Unfortunately, oversizing a pump increases the jets into surrounding surfaces, which can damage
cost of operating and maintaining a pumping the impeller and erode the pump casing and
system and creates a different set of operating piping surfaces. When a pump experiences
problems—including excess flow noise, inefficient cavitation, the result is accelerated bearing and
pump operation, and pipe vibrations. The energy seal wear and poor system performance.
cost alone of using an oversized pump is substan-
tial. For more information on this problem, see Cavitation usually occurs at high flow rates, when
the fact sheet in this section titled Indications of a pump is operating at the far right portion of its
performance curve. However, cavitation-like
Oversized Pumps.
damage can also occur at low flow rates, when
damaging vortices develop in the pump. Cavita-
 Troubleshooting a System Problem tion is indicated by crackling and popping noises,
Some pumping system problems are sufficiently similar to the sound of marbles flowing through
expensive to justify a system assessment. a pipe. If uncorrected, cavitation can lead to
Examples of these problems include inefficient expensive repairs. For more information on
operation, cavitation, poor flow control, and cavitation, see the fact sheet in this section titled
high maintenance. Common Pumping System Problems.
14
Head/Flow Curve
response to a small decrease in backpressure is a
200 large increase in flow. This sensitivity can lead to
180 system instability, especially in systems that have
160 substantial changes in throttle or bypass valve
140 positions. For example, in the pump curve of
Head 120 Figure 3, at 160 feet (ft) of head and 250 gallons
(ft) 100
80
per minute (gpm) flow, a 10-ft increase in system
60 backpressure results in a 100-gpm drop-off in
40 pump flow.
20
50 100 150 200 250 The performance curves of some pumps droop
at low flow rates. This characteristic applies
Flow (gpm)
primarily to pumps with low specific speeds. As
Figure 3. Illustration of the Sensitivity of Flow to Changes shown in Figure 4 (which is illustrative and does
in Backpressure not represent an actual pump curve), the perfor-
mance curves of these pumps point upward at
low flow rates. Since system curves also point
Internal Recirculation. Internal recirculation is upward, the system curve and the pump curve
another performance-degrading effect that can intersect at more than one point, occasionally
damages pumps in much the same way that leading to instability. In some cases, a pump
cavitation does. Internal recirculation tends to operating in this range will “hunt,” that is,
occur at low flow rates when fluid leaving the repeatedly adjust its output as it searches for a
impeller forms damaging vortices. To avoid this stable operating point. Although most manu-
problem, manufacturers list the minimum flow facturers publish a minimum flow requirement
rates for their pumps. Operators should be aware to prevent a design engineer from specifying a
of this minimum flow requirement and avoid pump that operates in this region, pumps can
overly restricting pump output. wear out, allowing their operating points to drift
into this region. Operators should be aware that
Poor Flow Control. Poor flow control can result surging pump operation may be the combined
from several conditions, including improper result of a deteriorating pump and a drooping
pump selection and poor system design. The head curve. On the positive side, pumps with
performance curve characteristics of some pumps drooping head curves tend to be more efficient.
indicate the need for careful consideration of
the variability in operating requirements. Perfor- 200
mance curves that are relatively flat, or curves 180
that “droop” at low flow rates, mean that the 160
Pump Curve
designer should be aware of all the operating 140

demands on the pump when selecting one. 120 Region in which pump curve
Head 100 and system curve point in the
Generally, head curves arc downward from the (ft) 80
same direction. Operation in
this region should be avoided.
zero-flow condition—that is, as the backpressure 60
on the pump decreases, the flow increases. The 40
System Curve
specific slope and shape of the curve depend 20
largely on the shape of the impeller vanes and the 0
pump speed. 0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (gpm)
The slope of the pump curve demonstrates the
response of the pump’s output to changes in Figure 4. Drooping Performance Curve
backpressure. A flat pump curve shows that the
15
Excessive Maintenance. All pumping systems problematic. Mechanical seals, used in the
require some maintenance; however, systems majority of pumps sold today, are more effective
with unusually high maintenance requirements at sealing fluid, but they are more expensive and
are often the result of improper design and require additional maintenance.
operation. Problems such as cavitation, frequent
energizing and de-energizing of a pump motor, Packing squeezes against the pump shaft and
and valve seat leakage can decrease the length requires frequent adjustment to maintain the
of time between repairs. proper amount of cooling and lubrication leak-
age. Packing life depends on service conditions,
A system’s maintenance requirements can be the quality of the packing material, and on the
measured by the mean time between failure care with which it is installed and adjusted.
(MTBF) for its components. Since systems
operate in a broad range of service environments, Assessing and troubleshooting the performance
it is difficult to characterize the MTBF for each of mechanical seals is complicated by the wide
system component; however, seal and bearing range of factors that impact the function and
manufacturers often provide an estimated MTBF operating life of these seals. Since there are many
for a particular product. If the actual time to different types of mechanical seals for many
failure is much less than the manufacturer’s different applications, it is difficult to state how
recommended interval, the cause of the failure long a seal should last. Common causes of seal
should be assessed. problems include contamination of the seal faces,
overheating due to inadequate lubrication, and
Bearing Replacement. There are two principal improper installation. For more information on
types of bearings in centrifugal pumps: thrust and mechanical seal and packing problems, see the
radial. Operating conditions have a large impact fact sheet in this section titled Common Pumping
on the amount of load each type of bearing sees System Problems.
and the rate at which the bearings wear. To assess
whether bearings are holding up comparatively Wear-Ring Clearances. Wear rings are used
well, the histories of other pumps in similar in centrifugal pumps to establish clearances
environments should be evaluated. If bearings between impellers and pump casings or other
need to be replaced every few months, then the impellers. As pumps operate over time, erosion
system operating conditions or the design criteria caused by abrasive particles or fluid squeezing
for the bearings should be evaluated. through gaps can increase these clearances. The
consequence is greater leakage within the pump.
Factors that accelerate bearing wear are high That is, more fluid passes from the high-pressure
loads, poor lubrication, high operating temper- side of an impeller to its low-pressure side, which
ature, and vibration. Preventive maintenance reduces the pump’s efficiency.
techniques—such as vibration analysis,
temperature checks, and oil analysis—can The gaps in the wear ring should be set in
improve the effectiveness of scheduling bearing accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions
replacements. For more information, see the fact during the initial installation. Note that the design
sheet in this section titled Common Pumping of the wear rings will determine the way in which
System Problems. clearances are set. Some pump designs require
the impeller to be positioned axially to provide
Packing/Mechanical Seal Replacement. Packing proper clearance. The engineer can consult the
and mechanical seals are methods of sealing product instruction manual for the proper setting
around the area where the pump shaft penetrates of the wear ring clearance. The gaps need to be
into the pump casing, to stop or prevent leaks. reset properly during major pump overhauls or
Packing is less expensive; it is used when leak- if the pump’s performance declines.
age from the pump is not costly or otherwise
16
Electrical System Wear. The stress on a motor In some cases, a large pump capable of handling
and its supporting electrical equipment is mini- the highest system demand can be equipped with
mized when a motor is started under its lowest an adjustable speed drive (ASD) to ensure that it
mechanical load. For a radial centrifugal pump, operates efficiently over a wide range of system
the brake horsepower (bhp) curve is typically a conditions (depending on the system curve).
constantly increasing line on the performance ASDs are especially practical for systems that
curve, indicating that the motor current increases are dominated by frictional resistance; however,
as the flow rate goes up. they must be evaluated carefully for use in
systems that have high static head. In high-
A practical implication of a constantly rising bhp static-head systems, reducing the pump speed
line on the performance curve is that the pump’s can cause a pump to operate close to shut-off
mechanical load is smallest at zero flow, that is, head conditions; this generally leads to poor
when all valves downstream of the pump are performance or, in severe cases, damage. For
closed. Consequently, starting a centrifugal pump more information, see the fact sheet in this
while it is deadheaded and then opening the section titled Controlling Pumps with Adjustable
valves soon after the pump comes up to speed can Speed Drives.
reduce electrical stresses on the motor and the
motor controller. Alternatively, expanding pumping system
capacity can be accomplished using multiple
For an axial pump, this relationship between pump arrangements. Multiple pump arrangements
flow and power is reversed. In an axial pump, allow several pumps to be available to serve a
power decreases as flow increases. Consequently, system. System flow requirements dictate the
when soft-starting axial pumps, the operator must number of pumps energized at any particular
ensure that downstream valves are open until the time. The principal benefit of this alternative is
pump is up to speed. to keep each pump operating closer to its BEP,
rather than requiring one large pump to operate
In some pumping systems, the effect of pump over a wide range of conditions.
starts on the fluid system itself is a larger concern
than their impact on the electrical system. For Multiple pump arrangements are well suited
example, rapid acceleration of large volumes of for systems that have high static heads and low
fluid can create damaging water hammers. How- friction losses. Unlike alternatives that reduce
ever, as far as the electrical system is concerned, pump speed, the use of multiple pumps in
start-up practices and, in some cases, special soft- parallel avoids the danger of operating a pump
starting switchgears that minimize electrical near shut-off head if the pumps are properly
surges and high starting currents can extend the matched, and this can allow each pump to
operating life of the system and improve overall operate more efficiently. For more information,
system reliability. see the fact sheet in this section titled Multiple
Pump Arrangements.
 System Capacity Increases
When a system needs to be modified or upgraded, Another multiple pump application is the use
the available pumping capacity should also be of two different-sized pumps: a small one, known
assessed. Unless the existing pump is consid- as the pony pump, to handle normal loads, and
erably overdesigned, adding a branch to a system a large one to handle worst-case loads. The
or increasing the flow to an existing component advantage of using a pony pump is that the
means that a larger pump or an additional pump smaller pump can be sized for efficient operation
must be installed. Usually, the same type of pump during normal conditions, which then results in
can be installed as the existing pump. However, lower operating and maintenance costs. For more
the size of the new pump or pumps can vary information, see the fact sheet in this section
according to service needs. titled Pony Pumps.
17
18
2. Common Pumping System Problems
Common Pumping System Problems

Poor design and improper system operation can
create problems in both pumps and pumping Related Tip Sheets
systems. As rotating equipment, pumps are subject Related information is available in two ITP
to wear, erosion, cavitation, and leakage. Many BestPractices Tip Sheets titled Select an
pumping system problems can result from Energy-Efficient Centrifugal Pump and Test
improper pump selection and operation. If they for Pumping System Efficiency. Tip sheets
are not selected or operated properly, pumps can can be found in Appendix C, accessed on the
require considerable maintenance.
Web at www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
bestpractices, or obtained by contacting the
 system Problems
EERE Information Center at 877-337-3463.
Many pumping system components are not
dynamic. That is, these components allow fluid or
heat transfer but, aside from thermal expansion or Valve Problems. Valves are susceptible to wear
structural vibration, they do not move and do not and leakage, and they require a considerable
have dynamic surfaces that wear out. (Hydraulic amount of maintenance. Depending on the
systems are a notable exception, but they have service environment, they must occasionally
a unique set of operating problems.) The most be overhauled. Valves are often installed in a
common types of problems in these components pumping system using bolted flange connections.
are leakage, fouling,2 valve failure, and cracks These valves can experience the same leakage
in pipe supports. problems as mechanical joints. Valve packing
can also develop leaks. Much like the packing
Leakage. In most systems, leakage first occurs at used in pumps, valve packing controls leakage
mechanical joints. Once they have been hydro- around a valve stem. However, leakage can
statically tested (pressurized higher than system result from improper installation or degradation
operating pressure and inspected for leaks), solid of the packing.
pipe and welded joints do not typically develop
leaks unless the pipe walls erode and/or corrode. In some systems, a little leakage from around
Mechanical joints rely on fastener tension to valve stems is not a problem. In other systems,
ensure tightness. Over time, these joints can such as those with toxic fluids, such leakage
loosen or the gasket material can degrade. requires immediate attention. In many systems,
Repairing a leaking mechanical joint can be as valve packing leakage is allowed during initial
simple as tightening the joint fasteners or as operation, until the valves have been opened
difficult as disassembling the joint and replacing and shut enough times to break in the packing.
the gaskets or O-rings. Also, in high-temperature systems such as steam
systems, valve packing may leak at low temper-
Causes of mechanical joint leakage include atures and then seal at high temperatures, as the
sagging pipes, the result of inadequate support; valve heats up and expands.
thermal strain; and fluid-borne and structure-
borne vibrations. Since improper pump selection Adjustments to valve packing should be made
and operation can induce high levels of vibration cautiously. Overtightening a valve packing gland
in a system, a pump problem can quickly become can significantly increase the amount of torque
a pumping system problem, and vice versa. required to operate a valve. If packing is too tight,
the valve’s handwheel torque may be too high to
turn by hand, posing a potential safety problem.
2 Fouling can also increase the pressure drop.
19
Valve seat wear is another problem that can be

made worse by improper pump selection. Valve
seats form the seal that allows a valve to stop flow. Cutwater
Diffuser
The internal surfaces of these seats are classified
as “soft” or “hard,” depending on the type of
Rotation
material used. Soft-seated valves usually have Impeller
some sort of polymer coating on the seating
surface; hard-seated valves are usually charac-
terized by metal-to-metal contact. Soft-seated
valves tend to seal more tightly but wear more Flow
quickly than hard-seated valves.
Valve seats experience wear problems caused by

erosive fluids and high-velocity flow. Oversizing
a pump can create high pressure drops across Vapor bubbles form, then
throttle valves and high flow rates through bypass Pump Casing violently collapse, eroding
impeller surfaces.
valves. In both cases, the valve seats may wear
Figure 5. Cavitation in a Centrifugal Pump
quickly, shortening the interval between valve
overhauls.
Pipe Supports and Equipment Foundations. In pressure at a certain temperature. In centrifugal

general, unless a system is poorly designed, the pumps, the acceleration of fluid into the impeller
hangers that hold piping and the foundations that causes the fluid pressure to drop. If this pressure
support system equipment should last throughout drop is sufficient, the liquid vaporizes, forming
the life of the system. However, high vibration tiny bubbles that are unstable and prone to
levels can create fatigue loads that cause struc- violent collapse. These violent bubble collapses
tural members to yield or crack. Pumps that are can throw tiny, destructive water jets onto
substantially oversized can induce such vibrations. impeller surfaces.
 Centrifugal Pump Problems Crackling and popping noises that often sound
Some of the benefits of centrifugal pumps are that like marbles passing through the pump are
they are simple to operate, reliable, and long- indications of cavitation. Not selecting the right
lasting. In order to realize these benefits, however, pump—or operating the system at either higher-
certain problems must be prevented, such as
than-design temperatures or lower-than-design
suction pressure—can be a cause of cavitation.
cavitation, internal recirculation, seal or packing
Cavitation usually occurs at high flow rates,
wear, poor material selection, and improper shaft
when a pump is operating far to the right along
loading.
its performance curve; however, under certain
conditions, cavitation damage can occur at low
Cavitation and Internal Recirculation. Cavitation flow rates as well.
is a damaging condition that erodes pump
impellers, shortening their operating lives and Cavitation damage can also result when the pump
accelerating the wear rate of bearings and seals in suction is starved because of the formation of air
the process. As illustrated in Figure 5, cavitation pockets or fouling of pipes. The most important
is both a problem itself and an indication of poor effects of sustained cavitation are reductions in
system performance. pump performance and erosion of the pump
impeller. Cavitation degrades pump performance
Cavitation occurs when the fluid’s static pressure because the vapor in the pump restricts flow and
at a given flow rate falls below the fluid’s vapor lowers the generated head.
20
If cavitation causes enough loss of material in the To prevent cavitation, centrifugal pumps must
impellers, they can become unbalanced, creating operate with a certain amount of pressure at the
alternating bearing loads that accelerate bearing inlet. This pressure is known as the net positive
wear. Because it dramatically shortens pump life, suction head, or NPSH, which is discussed in the
cavitation is a serious threat to system reliability. fact sheet in this section titled Centrifugal Pumps.
Cavitation also increases other maintenance
requirements by inducing vibrations that stress  Seal and Packing Problems
pump foundations and connected piping. The point at which the shaft penetrates the pump
casing, known as the stuffing box, provides a leak
Cavitation-like damage can also occur as a result path that must be sealed. This area is normally
of internal recirculation. Operating the system at sealed using packing or mechanical seals (see
low flow rates can establish damaging flow Figure 6). For systems in which fluid leakage is
patterns in either the suction or discharge regions not a significant concern, packing is usually used
of an impeller. because it is much less expensive and requires less
sophisticated maintenance skills. Mechanical seals
For applications in which cavitation is to some provide superior sealing, but they are typically
extent unavoidable, high-tensile-strength more expensive and harder to repair or replace.
materials should be specified for the impeller. Most pumps sold today are provided with
Tougher materials can withstand higher energy mechanical seals.
cavitation. However, use caution when sourcing
materials to ensure that they are compatible with Packing. There are two basic types of packing
the system fluid. problems: overtightening and improper install-
Packing
Packing Gland
Packing Seal Rings

Pump Shaft
Mechanical
Seal Stationary Seal Face
Seal Housing or Gland
Pump Housing O-Rings

Dynamic Seal Face
Spring
Pump Shaft
Figure 6. Two Types of Sealing Methods: Packing and Mechanical Seals
21
ation. Packing typically requires some leakage in Seal faces are held together by a force that is
order to remain lubricated and cooled. If packing usually provided by springs or bellows. However,
rings are overtightened, friction between the compressive properties are often lost because of
packing and shaft will generate excessive heat, fatigue, fouling, and/or corrosive environments,
which can destroy the packing and possibly which degrade spring and bellows materials.
damage the shaft. To minimize fatigue loads on mechanical seals,
the seal must be precisely aligned so that spring
Since packing comes in direct contact with the movement is minimal during each shaft
pump shaft, it wears over time, increasing the revolution. In systems with highly corrosive
leakage rate. Consequently, the packing gland fluids, mechanical seals with external springs
must be periodically tightened to squeeze the are recommended.
packing against the shaft and keep leakage to an
acceptable level. Improper packing installation The face materials require alignment, with
leads to uneven compression of the packing rings tolerances on the order of microns (one-millionth
(overtightening of one, insufficient tightening of of a meter). The precise flatness and proper align-
others) or an overly loose fit between the packing ment of the seals are important because these
and shaft. This often results in excessive leakage, faces must remain in constant contact as the pump
which in turn can cause housekeeping problems shaft spins. Since pumps often rotate at 1,800 or
(such as wet floors), high ambient moisture 3,600 revolutions per minute (rpm), even slight
levels, and, if the fluid is toxic, contamination variations in the contact between two seal faces
problems. If the fluid is expensive, leakage also can quickly destroy a seal’s effectiveness.
has a direct economic cost.
Shaft Deflection. Shaft deflection is a problem
If the fluid pressure at the stuffing box is below among long-shafted centrifugal pumps. Shaft
atmospheric pressure, then improperly installing deflection is caused by the force resulting from
the packing seal can allow air to enter the system. an unequal pressure distribution around an
Pulling air into the suction region can degrade impeller. The side of the impeller that is nearest
pump performance 3% or more. Also, for systems the pump discharge connection sees a higher
that require precise fluid chemistries, especially pressure than the other side of the impeller,
those that are sensitive to oxygen content, pulling creating a radial force on the shaft. Some pumps
in air can contaminate the system. Excess air are equipped with multiple volutes to minimize
leakage can keep pumps from staying primed and this imbalance.
prevent self-priming pumps from repriming on
start-up. In general, shaft deflection is most problematic
when a pump is operated at low flow conditions.
Mechanical Seals. Mechanical seals are typically The consequences of severe shaft deflection
used in applications that call for superior sealing. include high wear rate on bearings, shaft seal
The effectiveness of mechanical seals is highly leakage, and fatigue bending of the pump shaft.
dependent on correct installation and a contin- Although pump shafts are typically designed to
uously clean operating environment. Mechanical last the life of the pump, severe shaft deflections
seals have two primary failure mechanisms: can load shafts in ways that they were not
degradation of the face material and loss of designed to handle. If they are sustained for
spring or bellows tension, which allows the faces extended periods, severe shaft deflections can
to separate more easily. Degradation of the seal result in catastrophic failure of a pump shaft.
face is usually caused by debris that wedges into Pump shaft failure is costly; at times, it requires
a seal face and causes damage. To minimize the the replacement of the entire pump. The risk of
risk of this type of damage, mechanical seals are shaft failure is particularly prevalent in pumps
often serviced by special flushing lines that have with relatively long distances and small shaft
filters to catch debris. diameters between shaft bearings. Operating
22
these pumps at or near their minimum flow

conditions for extended periods greatly
increases the chances of pump shaft failure.
 Positive Displacement Pump Problems

Positive displacement pumps can experience
many of the same problems described earlier
in regard to centrifugal pumps, and they can
experience some problems of their own. In
many positive displacement pumps, the cyclical
nature of the pumping action causes fatigue in
components such as bearings and diaphragms.
Also, since their flow rate is essentially

independent of backpressure, with positive
displacement pumps there is an inherent risk of
overpressurizing the discharge piping. If valves
in the pumping system are aligned so that all
the discharge lines downstream of a pump are
closed while the pump is operating, over-
pressure conditions can occur quickly. In such
cases, if a pressure relief mechanism is not
activated, the pump motor will either reach its
lockout torque or the pressure will build until
some part of the system fails or ruptures.
Because of these dangers, pressure relief valves
need to be installed and maintained. If these
valves fail to operate properly, catastrophic
system damage can occur. Therefore, a regular
maintenance program to check these valves
should be strictly followed.
A characteristic of many positive displacement

pumps is pulsating flow. The fluid-borne and
structure-borne vibrations resulting from these
pulsations can create load conditions that hasten
the degradation of piping, valves, and piping
supports. Consequently, pumping systems that
are not designed to handle the vibration loads
of positive displacement pumps may experience
severe operating and maintenance problems.
In addition, positive displacement pumps are

very susceptible to wear from abrasives in the
fluid being pumped.
23
24
Indications of Oversized Pumps

Conservative engineering practices often result in
the specification, purchase, and installation of Related Tip Sheets
pumps that exceed process requirements. Engineers Related information is available in two ITP
often decide to include a margin of safety in sizing BestPractices Tip Sheets titled Select an
pumps to compensate for uncertainties in the Energy-Efficient Centrifugal Pump and Test
design process. Anticipated expansions in system for Pumping System Efficiency. Tip sheets
capacity and potential fouling effects add to the can be found in Appendix C, accessed on the
tendency to source pumps that are “one size up”
Web at www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
from those that meet system requirements.
Unfortunately, oversizing pumps adds to system
EERE Information Center at 877-337-3463.
operating costs in terms of both energy and
maintenance requirements; these costs are often create fatigue loads on welds in both the pipes and
overlooked during the system specification piping supports.
process. Since many of these operating and
maintenance costs are avoidable, correcting an Highly Throttled Flow Control Valves. Throttle
oversized pump can be a cost-effective system valves affect system flow in two principal ways:
improvement.
■ Shifting system flow balance, forcing flow
Appendix B, Pumping System Assessment Tool, rates in different system branches to increase
describes a useful DOE-developed software tool or decrease
that can help engineers identify and prioritize ■ Changing the overall system backpressure—
opportunities to optimize pumping systems. Many essentially causing the pump to “see” a
of the principles discussed here can also help to different system, which shifts its operating
indicate whether a pump is operating efficiently point along its performance curve.
relative to the needs of its system.
Both these effects occur concurrently to an extent
 Common Indications of Oversizing that depends on the system’s configuration. In
There are five common indications that a pump is systems with oversized pumps, valves tend to
oversized: excessive flow noise, highly throttled remain in restrictive positions, and this forces the
flow control valves, heavy use of bypass lines, pump to operate against a high backpressure.
frequent replacements of bearings and seals, and Since this backpressure is typically higher than the
intermittent pump operation. pressure associated with the pump’s best efficiency
point (BEP), the pump operates inefficiently and is
Excessive Flow Noise. Oversized pumps tend to susceptible to higher-than-normal bearing wear.
cause excessive levels of noise. These problems
are frequently disregarded as normal system Many control valves are oversized to ensure
operating characteristics as the operators simply adequate flow. Unknowns such as pump
get used to the system’s acoustic levels. Unless the performance, pipeline fouling and scaling, and
noise levels worsen, the system is assumed to be future production rates all tend to create a bias
performing normally. However, the cumulative toward oversizing. Many control valves normally
damage that results from flow-induced pipe operate at less than 50% open. Appropriate valve
vibrations can significantly accelerate system wear. characterization is often not applied. This results
in a high degree of nonlinearity and thus
Pipe vibrations tend to loosen flanged connections inconsistent control performance.
and other mechanical joints. These vibrations also
25
Highly throttled control valves can also impact  Corrective Measures

process control loops. Control valve backlash and In systems served by oversized pumps, several
stiction, or static friction, are major contributors to corrective measures can be taken to lower system
process variability. The tendency to oversize the operating costs and extend equipment mainten
control valve also exacerbates the negative impact ance intervals. The correct measure to choose
of backlash and stiction. Proper sizing of the pump depends on the system and on the particular
and control valve provides a more uniform indicator that points to the oversized pump
response to flow changes and reduces process problem. An obvious remedy is to replace the
variability. pump/motor assembly with a downsized version;
however, this is costly and may not be feasible in
Heavy Use of Bypass Lines. In some systems, all situations.
excess flow is handled by bypass lines around
system equipment. Bypass lines prevent the Alternatives to replacing the entire pump/motor
buildup of damaging pressure differentials, and assembly include these:
they are used for temperature control in many
heat exchangers. Bypass lines may allow pump(s) ■ Replace the impeller of the existing pump with
to operate closer to the BEP and improve a smaller impeller
reliability, although the energy needed to push ■ Reduce the outside diameter of the existing
fluid through bypass lines is wasted. When a impeller
system normally operates with a large number of
open bypass valves, this indicates that the system ■ Install an adjustable speed drive (ASD) to
is performing inefficiently because of improper control the pump if flow varies over time
balancing, oversized pumps, or both. ■ Add a smaller pump to reduce the intermittent
operation of the existing pump.
Frequent Replacement of Bearings and Seals.
The penalties for excess system flow can extend Adjust the Impeller. Most pumps can be
beyond high energy costs to include frequent assembled using more than one impeller
pump maintenance. Since oversized pumps diameter. Pump manufacturers standardize
generate high backpressures, they often operate their pump models as much as possible to lower
far to the left of their BEP and tend to experience production costs; consequently, casings and
greater bearing and seal wear. The higher back- pump shafts can accommodate impellers of
pressure caused by increased flow velocity different sizes. This characteristic often allows
creates high radial-bearing and thrust-bearing a smaller impeller to be used when the existing
loads, and it exerts greater pressure on impeller is generating excessive flow or head.
mechanical seals and packing glands.
When a smaller impeller is not available or
Intermittent Pump Operation. Pumps are often the performance of the next smallest impeller
used to maintain fluid levels in tanks, either by is insufficient, impeller trimming can be an
filling or draining them, as needed. Many systems alternative. Impeller trimming reduces the
rely on a level control system to activate the impeller diameter—and thus the impeller tip
pumps automatically. The cumulative effect of speed—so that the same constant-speed pump
energizing and de-energizing a pump shortens motor can be used. Since the head generated by
the lives of the motor controller and the pump a pump is a function of its tip speed, impeller
assembly. In addition, an oversized pump trimming shifts the entire performance curve of
generates higher friction losses during operation, the pump downward and to the left. For more
because it pushes fluid through the piping at information on this performance improvement
higher velocities. opportunity, see the fact sheet in this section
titled Impeller Trimming.
26
Use Variable Frequency Drives. Pumps that

experience highly variable demand conditions
are often good candidates for ASDs. The most
popular type of ASD is the variable frequency
drive (VFD). VFDs use electronic controls to
regulate motor speed, which, in turn, adjusts the
pump’s output. The principal advantage of VFDs
is better matching between the fluid energy that
the system requires and the energy that the pump
delivers to the system. As system demand
changes, the VFD adjusts the pump speed to
meet this demand, reducing the energy lost to
throttling or bypassing excess flow. The resulting
energy and maintenance cost savings often justify
the investment in the VFD. However, VFDs are
not practical for all applications—for example,
systems that operate high static head and those
that operate for extended periods under low-flow
conditions. For more information, see the fact
sheet in this section titled Controlling Pumps
with Adjustable Speed Drives.
Use Smaller Pumps to Augment Larger Pumps.

Pumps that maintain fluid levels in tanks or
reservoirs are often sized according to worst-case
or peak service conditions. Since the require-
ments of worst-case conditions are often signifi-
cantly higher than those of normal operating
conditions, many pumps are oversized relative
to the demands of their application for most of
their operating lives. The penalties of using an
oversized pump include frequent energizing and
de-energizing of the motor, operation away from
the pump’s BEP, and high friction losses—all of
which add to energy and maintenance costs.
Adding a smaller pump to handle normal system

demand relieves the burden on the larger pump,
which can be energized as needed during high
load conditions. A smaller pump can operate
more efficiently and require less maintenance.
For more information, see the fact sheet in this
section titled Pony Pumps.
27
28
4. Piping Configurations To Improve Pumping System Efficiency
Piping Configurations To Improve Pumping System Efficiency

There are several steps involved in optimizing the
configuration of a pumping system. These include Related Tip Sheet
determining the proper pipe size, designing a pip- Related information is available in an ITP
ing system layout that minimizes pressure drops, BestPractices Tip Sheet titled Reduce Pumping
and selecting low-loss components. To determine Costs Through Optimum Pipe Sizing. Tip sheets
the proper pipe size, designers must balance the can be found in Appendix C, accessed on the
initial cost of the pipe against the cost of pushing Web at www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
fluid through it. Larger pipes create less friction
loss for a given flow rate; however, larger pipes
EERE Information Center at
also have higher material and installation costs.
Unfortunately, designers often overlook the energy 877-337-3463.
costs of using small piping and focus on the initial
cost when sizing system piping. flow path through the valve. Thus, one way
designers can improve system life-cycle costs
Similarly, system piping should be configured is to consider the cost of flow losses.
with an awareness of the energy costs associated
with poor flow profiles. Although piping system Valves are often sized incorrectly. Designers often
layouts are usually dictated by space constraints, specify a pressure drop across the valve at the
there are often opportunities to minimize design point that is larger than necessary. This
unnecessary pressure drops by avoiding sharp results in an undersized valve and energy loss.
bends, expansions, and contractions and by keep- Further, process designers sometimes specify a
ing piping as straight as possible. For example, maximum system flow that is much greater than
orienting valves and system equipment so that normal flow. This also results in an excessive
they are in line with the pipe run is one useful pressure drop across the valve at normal operating
rule of thumb. conditions.
Low-loss components provide another oppor-  Pump Concerns

tunity to minimize life-cycle costs during system Since centrifugal pumps operate most effectively
design. As with pipe sizing, it is necessary to when the inlet flow has a uniform profile, systems
balance initial costs with future energy costs. For should be designed to avoid nonuniform flow at
example, system components such as valves can the pump inlet. In centrifugal pumps, as fluid
be cost-effective when life-cycle costs are taken moves from the suction piping into the eye of the
into consideration. impeller, it gets caught by an impeller vane and
then accelerates to the tip. If the flow into the eye
In many cases, the selection of a particular type is uneven, the impeller will transfer energy to the
of valve is guided by service requirements such fluid less efficiently. In addition, uneven flow at
as sealing capability under various pressures, the the pump suction promotes excessive vibrations,
number of times a valve is opened and closed, which shorten pump life and weaken pipe welds
handwheel torque, and the consequences of valve and mechanical joints.
stem leakage. However, for applications in which
service requirements are comparatively light, the An improper flow profile, vapor collection, and
valve is selected on a first-cost basis at the vortex formation are three common pipe config-
expense of high flow loss. For example, globe uration problems that result in poor pump
valves are usually selected because of their low performance. Figure 7 depicts some common
cost and simplicity. However, these valves have a piping installation problems and shows the
relatively high flow loss coefficient caused by the corresponding proper arrangements.
29
Incorrect
Space that allows an

air pocket to form
Correct
Size or fit the pipe so that
no air pocket can form.
Incorrect

air pocket to form
Correct
Constant slope
Incorrect

air pocket to form
Correct
Use an eccentric
reducer to eliminate
the air pocket.
Figure 7. Common Pipe Configuration Problems and How To Correct Them
30
Poor Flow Profile. Piping configurations often as a baffle plate or a set of turning vanes, should
promote uneven flow. Elbows and valves that are be installed with an elbow to correct any disrup-
placed just before the pump disrupt fluid flow and tion in flow (see Figure 8). By smoothing out
degrade pump performance. This problem is the flow, a flow straightener creates a more even
particularly significant when the flow velocity is velocity profile. Care must be taken, however,
high and the suction pressure is low. Under these to ensure that the pressure drop across the
conditions, a dramatic redirection in flow— straightener does not cause cavitation.
commonly created by a small-radius elbow or a
globe valve—results in a highly turbulent flow
that diminishes pump performance.
Vapor Collection. Vapor entrapment can be

another consequence of a poor piping layout. If
the suction piping leading to the pump does not
have a constant slope, vapor can collect at the
high points. Vapor pockets limit flow through the
pipe and cause pressure pulsations that degrade
the pump’s performance. Figure 7 shows
examples of piping installations that encourage Flow straightener
(turning vanes)
vapor collection.
Vortex Formation. In tank applications, if a fluid Figure 8. Flow Straighteners

surface drops close to the suction inlet, a vortex
can form, potentially creating a loss of suction
head or allowing air into the pump. In severe Figure 8. Flow Straighteners
In addition, installers should make sure that transi-
cases, the pump will lose its prime, which can tion pieces and joints between pipes or fittings are
cause severe degradations in performance and kept as smooth as possible. Burrs or misaligned
even damage to the pump. A centrifugal pump is pipes create trip points that disrupt flow.
not designed to run without fluid; mechanical
seals, packing, and impeller wearing rings are Suction and discharge piping close to the pump
susceptible to damage if they are not lubricated. should be properly supported (see Figure 9).
Most centrifugal pumps are not self-priming; if a
Many pump/motor problems are caused by pipe
pump loses its prime, it must be filled and vented
to be restarted. The centrifugal pumps that are
self-priming tend to be less efficient than
conventional centrifugal pumps and should be Hanger Hanger
used only when necessary.

Motor
 Rules of Thumb for Improving Pipe

Configurations Suction Discharge
There are two primary rules of thumb for improv-
ing pipe configurations. First, to establish a
uniform-velocity flow profile upstream of the
pump, the operator should make sure that a
straight run of pipe leads into the pump inlet.
If space constraints require an elbow just upstream
Horizontal split casing pump
of the pump, a long radius elbow should be
selected. In some cases, a flow straightener, such Figure 9. Proper Support of Suction and Discharge Piping
31
reactions that pull the pump out of alignment. For

example, when a pump is installed, the connecting
piping is rarely aligned perfectly with the pump;
rather, some amount of mechanical correction is
needed to make the connections. If the piping is
pulled too far from its relaxed position to make the
fit, it can force the pump and motor out of
alignment, excessively straining the pump casing.
Properly supporting the piping near the pump

allows the pipe reaction to be carried by the pipe
hangers rather than by the pump itself. Also,
proper support of the piping near the pump stiffens
the system, and this can reduce system vibrations.
32
Basic Pump Maintenance

Centrifugal pumps are widely used because of their
low maintenance requirements. However, like all Related Tip Sheet
machinery, they still require periodic maintenance. A summary of key issues presented here is
Common maintenance tasks on centrifugal pumps available in an ITP BestPractices Tip Sheet
include the following: titled Maintain Pumping Systems Effectively. Tip
■ Bearing lubrication and replacement sheets can be found in Appendix C, accessed
on the Web at www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
■ Mechanical seal replacement bestpractices, or obtained by
■ Packing tightening and replacement contacting the EERE Information Center at
877-337-3463.
■ Wear ring adjustment or replacement
■ Impeller replacement
■ Pump/motor alignment
mendations and on their own experience with
■ Motor repair or replacement. pumps in similar applications. In systems that do
not have abnormally severe operating demands, a
 Common Failures typical maintenance schedule like the one shown
The most costly consequence of improper pump here could be followed.
maintenance is unscheduled downtime. Causes
of this downtime vary according to the demands Packing and Mechanical Seal Adjustments.
of the application. In corrosive or hazardous Packing and mechanical seal adjustments should
fluid systems, mechanical seal leaks often require be done weekly, taking into consideration the
shutting down the system for safety reasons. In following:
other systems, such leaks can be tolerated. And in ■ For packing, adjust the tightness of the gland
some systems, problems such as bearing seizures bolts to obtain the cooling flow leakage rate
may pose the greatest threat to continuous system allowed by the pump manufacturer (usually
operation. Since each system places particular 2 to 60 drops per minute). Do not overtighten
demands on its pump/motor equipment, main- the bolts—this will burn up the packing and
tenance requirements vary widely. require repacking of the stuffing box. As
the packing wears, add more packing rings.
 Preventive Maintenance and Schedules Eventually, the stuffing box will need all new
To minimize unscheduled downtime, basic system packing rings. When repacking the box, clean
maintenance should be performed at predetermined and lubricate the gland bolts.
intervals. Factors that must be weighed in setting
this schedule include the cost of downtime; the ■ For mechanical seals, check the performance
cost and risk of catastrophic failure; the expected of the seal and measure leakage.
mean time between repair (MTBR) for motors, Bearing Lubrication. Bearings should be lubri
bearings, and seals; and the availability of backup cated semiannually or annually. Operators should
equipment. Hours of operation or calendar intervals pay particular attention to the following:
—e.g., quarterly or semiannually—can help deter-
mine the schedule. See, for example, the basic ■ For grease-lubricated bearings, add grease as
maintenance checklist sample in this fact sheet. described in the technical manual for the
pump. Be careful not to overgrease bearings,
Operators can base decisions about the frequency because this interferes with the ball or roller
of maintenance on the manufacturer’s recom- motion and might cause overheating.
33
■ Check the quality of the grease and, if

necessary, repack the bearings. Basic Maintenance Checklist
■ For oil-lubricated bearings, check the level
■ Packing. Check for leakage around the
and quality of the oil. If necessary, add or packing and adjust it according to the
replace oil. Do not overfill the oil reservoir. instructions of the pump and packing
manufacturers. Allowable leakage is usually
Motor/Pump Alignment. Since shifting of the between 2 and 60 drops per minute. Add
pump foundation feet or piping can cause pump/ packing rings or, if necessary, replace all the
motor misalignment, check the alignment packing.
periodically. Alignment is typically measured by
■ Mechanical Seals. Check for leakage.
using a dial indicator and reading the total
indicated runout, or TIR—also known as full If leakage exceeds the manufacturer’s
indicator movement, or FIM—of a pump/motor specifications, replace the seal.
coupling. Regularly scheduled vibration readings ■ Bearings. Determine the condition of the
can reveal changes in the status of a bearing. bearing by listening for noises that indicate
excessive wear, measuring the bearing’s
For pumps requiring unusually precise align-
operating temperature, and using a
ments, laser measurement systems provide higher
predictive maintenance technique such as
accuracy than some other types. Alignment
requirements can usually be found in the vibration analysis or oil analysis. Lubricate
technical manual for the pump. bearings according to the pump manu
facturer’s instructions; replace them
 Repair Items if necessary. A vibration analysis can also
Repair items that typically have to be replaced indicate the status of bearings.
regularly include mechanical seals and bearings, ■ Motor/Pump Alignment. Determine if motor
packing, wear rings, motors, and impellers.
pump alignment is within the service limits
of the pump.
Replace Mechanical Seals and Bearings.
Although seals and bearings are normal mainten- ■ Motor Condition. Check the integrity of
ance items, they sometimes fail catastrophically. motor winding insulation. These tests usually
Worn bearings can cause an unsatisfactory measure insulation resistance at a certain
amount of noise or even seize. Occasionally, a voltage, or measure the rate at which an
bearing or a mechanical seal seizure scores its applied voltage decays across the insulation.
corresponding shaft sleeve, which necessitates
A vibration analysis can also indicate certain
removal of the pump shaft and installation of a
conditions within motor windings and lead to
new sleeve.
early detection of developing problems.
Mechanical seals are typically used in applica-
tions that require a better seal than packing can
provide. Although mechanical seals are more Replace Packing. Packing is a soft, malleable,
expensive, they experience less friction and rope-like material that, when compressed by the
exhibit superior sealing capabilities in com- packing gland, forms a seal between the pump
parison to packing. Mechanical seals rely on and the motor shaft. Since packing contacts the
a precisely fit contact between their dynamic rotating shaft directly, it relies on the system fluid
surfaces. Contaminants can quickly degrade for cooling and lubrication. As the packing
a seal. However, mechanical seals can last wears, it must be compressed by tightening the
thousands of hours if they are properly installed, gland nuts. Over time, however, the packing
kept clean, and flushed as required. loses its ability to seal and must be replaced.
34
Packing typically comes in rolls; it must be cut into For motor replacements, high-efficiency motors
sections that are then wrapped around the shaft. should be considered. High-efficiency motors are
Cutting packing rings accurately is difficult, but generally 3% to 8% more efficient than standard
it is essential to ensure proper sealing. Many ones. In high-use applications, this efficiency
mechanics facilitate this job by using a piece of advantage often provides an attractive payback
pipe or bar stock that is machined to the precise period. The Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 1992
diameter of the pump shaft. Using this mockup set minimum efficiency standards that went into
shaft allows the mechanic to cut the rings to fit effect in 1997 for most general-purpose motors
directly without having to measure the packing first from 1 to 200 hp. In addition, the National
and then cut it. Since packing is usually stretchy, Electrical Manufacturers Association’s NEMA
the measure/cut method often leads to a poor fit-up. PremiumTM energy efficiency motors program
describes premium efficiency motors as those
Replace Wear Rings. Wear rings are fastened with even higher efficiencies than the levels
to an impeller or a casing (or both) to act as the established by EPAct. Premium efficiency motors
wear surface between different impeller stages can be cost effective for pumps having high
or between an impeller and a pump casing. Wear hours of operation.
rings are sized to establish a certain gap between
the high- and low-pressure sides of an impeller. DOE’s MotorMaster+ software tool can be
If this gap becomes too large, fluid slips back into a valuable tool in selecting energy-efficient
the suction side of the pump, creating an effi- motors. The program also allows users to
ciency loss. Some wear rings have an axial gap compare motors and estimate energy costs
that could compensate for wear, and some pump and savings along with life-cycle costs. It is
designs use adjustable wear plates. A key indica- available through the EERE Information Center
tion that wear rings need to be replaced is a and can be downloaded from the Web site at
substantial decline in the pump’s performance. www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices.
Unfortunately, pumps must be disassembled in Additional information can be found in the
order to replace wear rings. Energy-Efficient Motor Selection Handbook,
which is available from the EERE Information
Replace Motors. Even properly maintained Center.
motors have a finite life. Over time, winding
insulation breaks down. When a motor’s winding Replace Impellers. Impellers often last the life of
temperatures exceed rated values for long periods the pump. However, severe cavitation or erosion
of time, its insulation tends to break down more can degrade an impeller, reducing pump perfor-
quickly. In motor applications below 50 mance and efficiency. Impeller replacement is
horsepower (hp), the most common option is similar to wear-ring replacement in that the pump
simply to replace the motor with a new one; must first be disassembled.
however, in larger applications, it is often more
economical to rewind an existing motor.  Predictive Maintenance
Although motor rewinds are typically a cost- In many applications, pump maintenance is
effective alternative, rewound motors can lose reactive. For example, bearing noises indicate the
even more efficiency during subsequent rewinds. need for lubrication or replacement, excessive
packing or seal leakage indicates the need for
For motor rewinds, operators should ensure that repair or replacement, and poor pump performance
the repair facility has a proper quality assurance may indicate excessive wear ring degradation.
program, since poor quality motor rewinds can Fortunately, recent improvements in instrumen-
compromise motor efficiency. For more infor- tation and signal analysis software have increased
mation on motor repair, see www.eere.energy.gov/ the availability of vibration testing equipment; this
industry/bestpractices or contact the EERE has helped to improve the planning of pump/motor
Information Center at 877-337-3463. maintenance. Vibration analysis equipment is
35
essentially a refined extension of the human ear. In addition, thermography, or infrared (IR)
By “listening” to the vibrations of a motor or scanning, can be used. IR scans provide early
similar piece of machinery, the instrumentation detection of a hot spot and can help avoid an
can detect the beginnings of bearing problems, unexpected shutdown. With pump motors, IR
motor winding problems, or other dynamic scans offer a means of identifying developing
imbalances. problems—for example, a hot-running bearing
or deteriorating winding insulation.
Vibration analysis equipment uses accelerometers
to measure the vibration response of machinery
during operation and records the data on an
amplitude/frequency graph. These measured
vibrations are compared with a baseline set of
data, usually taken when the machinery was
first operated. Identifying problems before they
become larger allows operators to schedule the
needed repairs and significantly reduce the risk
of catastrophic failure.
Predictive maintenance thus allows operators to

plan for equipment repairs. Two different
signatures can be compared to determine the rate
at which a problem is developing. This infor
mation can be useful in that a repair may be
postponed with greater confidence until a
convenient downtime.
Another predictive maintenance technique

involves oil monitoring and analysis. For pumps
with oil-lubricated bearings, analyzing oil quality
provides another insight into the operating
condition of the bearings and seals. An oil analysis
can indicate whether a pump has operated at high
temperatures, whether system fluid is leaking into
the oil, and whether the bearings are nearing the
end of their operating life.
An oil analysis can also increase the confidence

with which oil change-outs are planned and
eliminate unnecessary oil replacements. It can
also provide substantial cost savings, especially
if the oil is expensive—for example, a synthetic
type with sophisticated additives. At approx-
imately $1,000 per analysis, oil monitoring is not
economical for all pump applications; however,
it can provide some facilities with worthwhile
intelligence regarding the condition of their plant
equipment.
36
6. Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps (also known as rotodynamic
pumps) have variable flow rates even when Related Tip Sheet
rotating at a constant speed—unlike positive A summary of key issues presented in this
displacement pumps, which push a certain volume fact sheet is available in an ITP BestPractices
of fluid with each stroke or rotation. Centrifugal
Tip Sheet titled Select an Energy-Efficient
pumps use an impeller, which is basically a
rotating wheel, to add energy to a fluid. The high- Centrifugal Pump. Tip sheets can be found
velocity fluid coming off the impeller tip is sent in Appendix C, accessed on the Web at
into a diffuser—a chamber that feeds directly www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices,
into discharge piping. The fluid slows as it enters or obtained by contacting the EERE Information
the diffuser, and the kinetic energy of the fluid Center at 877-337-3463.
converts to higher pressure.
The performance of a centrifugal pump is typically 200
described by a graph plotting the pressure generat- 180

Performance Curve
ed by the pump (measured in terms of head) 160
over a range of flow rates. Figure 10 shows a 140

Efficiency (%)
Head 120 BEP Efficiency
performance curve for a typical centrifugal pump. (ft) 70
100 60 16
50
The amount of fluid that a centrifugal pump 80 12
40 bhp
moves depends on pump differential pressure. 60
30 8
As the pump differential pressure increases, the 40

bhp 20
4
flow rate decreases. The rate of this decrease is a 20 10
0 0
function of the pump design. Understanding this 0
relationship is essential to designing, sourcing, 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Flow (gpm)
and operating a centrifugal pump system.
Figure 10. Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves
Figure 10. Centrifugal Pump Performance Curves
Also included on a typical pump performance
curve are its efficiency and brake horsepower keep a pump operating consistently at this point
(bhp), both of which are plotted with respect to because systems usually have changing demands.
flow rate. The efficiency of a pump is the ratio However, keeping a pump operating within a
of the pump’s fluid power to the pump shaft reasonable range of its BEP lowers overall system
horsepower, which, for direct-coupled pump/ operating costs.
motor combinations, is the motor bhp.
Family of Pump Curves. Manufacturers use a
 Best Efficiency Point coverage chart to describe the performance
An important characteristic of the head/flow curve characteristics of a family of pumps. This type
is the best efficiency point (BEP). At the BEP, the of chart, shown in Figure 11 on page 38, is
pump operates most cost-effectively in terms of useful in selecting the appropriate pump size for
both energy efficiency and maintenance. BEP is a particular application. The pump designation
explained further in the fact sheet titled Multiple numbers in Figure 11 refer to the pump inlet
Pump Arrangements. size, the pump outlet size, and the impeller size,
respectively. There is significant overlap among
Operating a pump at a point well away from its these various pump sizes, which is attributable to
BEP may accelerate wear in bearings, mechanical the availability of different impeller sizes within
seals, and other parts. In practice, it is difficult to a particular pump size.
37
200 Iso-efficiency Lines

Impeller Sizes
180 200 8”
2x1-6 78%
160 3x2-8 180 76%
4x2-9 7” 74%
140 3x1.5-6 160
2x1-5
5x3-8 140 6”
Head 120
4x1.5-6
(ft) Head 120
5”
100 6x4-8 (ft)
2x1-4 3x1.5-4 100
80 6x4-7 4” Head/flow Curves
80
60
60
40
40
20 20
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (gpm) Flow (gpm)
Figure 11. Family of Pump Performance Curves Figure 12. Performance Curves for Different Impeller Sizes
Figure 12.
Figure 11. Family of Pump Performance Curves
Pump Curves for Multiple Impeller Sizes. Excessive cavitation affects pump efficiency
Once a pump has been selected as roughly and can potentially damage the pump.
meeting the needs of the system, the specific
performance curve for that pump must be As defined by the Hydraulic Institute, NPSHR
evaluated. Often, impellers of several different is determined and plotted when the pump total
sizes can be installed with it, and each impeller head (or the first-stage head of a multistage
has a separate, unique performance curve. pump) is reduced by 3% as a result of cavitation.
Figure 12 displays performance curves for each Recently, the Hydraulic Institute has adopted
size of impeller. Also illustrated are iso-efficiency the term NPSH3 to define the NPSHR qualified
lines, which indicate how efficient the various by this criterion. Further information can be
impellers are at different flow conditions. found in ANSI/HI 1.6-2000–Centrifugal Tests
(see Section 4). Most pumps can operate
Sizing the impeller and the pump motor is an satisfactorily with a minimum margin above
iterative process that uses the curves shown in the NPSH3 value when operating near the BEP.
Figure 12 to determine pump efficiency and But they will require a much higher NPSH
performance over its anticipated operating range. margin to suppress all cavitation when operated
For more information, see the fact sheet in this at flow rates away from the BEP.
section titled Impeller Trimming.
For satisfactory operation, the NPSHA margin
 Net Positive Suction Head over NPSHR must be provided by the system.
To prevent cavitation, centrifugal pumps must A common rule in system design is to ensure
operate with a certain amount of pressure at the that NPSHA is 25% higher than NPSHR for all
inlet. This pressure is defined as the net positive expected flow rates. When oversized pumps
suction head (NPSH). There are two principal operate in regions far to the right of their design
references to NPSH: (1) the available system points, the difference between NPSHA and
pressure (NPSHA) at the inlet, which is a NPSHR can become dangerously small.
function of the system and the flow rate, and
(2) the required pressure (NPSHR), which is a  Pump Speed Selection
function of the pump and the flow rate. NPSHR Pump speed is usually an important consideration
is typically included on pump performance in system design. The pump speed is perhaps best
curves. If the NPSHA is sufficiently above the determined by evaluating the effectiveness of
NPSHR, then the pump should not cavitate. similar pumps in other applications. In the absence
38
of such experience, pump speed can be estimated

200
by using a dimensionless pump performance Impeller
Size Efficiency
180
parameter known as specific speed. Specific 160
68% 70%
72% 76%
7"
speed can be used in two different references: 140
78%
6"
impeller specific speed and pump suction specific Head 120
5"
speed. The impeller specific speed (Ns) is used (ft) 100 9 hp
to evaluate a pump’s performance using different 80 2'
NPSHR
3'
4' 5' 6' 7' 8 hp
impeller sizes and pump speeds. 60 7 hp
40 2.5 hp 6 hp
4 hp 5 hp
bhp
20
Specific speed is an index that, in mechanical
0
terms, represents the impeller speed necessary 0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (gpm)
to generate 1 gallon per minute at 1 foot of head.
The equation for impeller specific speed is as Figure 13. Performance Curves for a 4x1.5-6 Pump Used for
follows: Water Service
—
Ns = n √ Q
H 3/4
where to that shown in Figure 11, for each pump
N s = specific speed manufacturer to identify pumps that meet the
n = pump rotational speed (rpm) service needs.
Q = flow rate (gpm)
H = total head per stage (ft). The next step is to evaluate the performance
curves of each pump selected. Each pump usually
For standard impellers, specific speeds range from has a range of performance curves for each
500 to 10,000. Pumps with specific speed values impeller size offered with that pump. In addition
between 2,000 and 3,000 usually have the highest to different stock impeller sizes, an impeller can
efficiency. be trimmed to further “fine tune” a pump’s
performance (see the Impeller Trimming fact
 Example of Pump Selection sheet).
The data required to size and source a pump
include system flow demands and the system’s In Figure 13, a 4x1.5-6 pump is used as an
resistance curve. To determine the system curve, example. The design point is just below the curve
the required data include the system config- for the 6-inch impeller. For this particular pump
uration, the total pipe length, the pipe size, and size, at these operating conditions, the pump
the number of elbows, tees, fittings, and valves. efficiency is 74%, and the 5-hp motor appears
A designer can use these data—along with known strong enough to meet service requirements. The
fluid properties and the head available from the pump’s BEP is just slightly to the right of the
suction source—to estimate the system’s head loss design point and the NPSHR is 6 ft. If the NPSHA
and its NPSHA at the pump suction. is more than 7.5 ft, or at least 25% higher than the
NPSHR, the 4x1.5-6 pump should be suitable.
At this point, the designer must review the
manufacturers’ data to find pumps that can meet  Pump Manufacturer’s Software
system requirements. Unfortunately, this process The complexity of pump selection has motivated
requires repeated evaluations of many different most pump manufacturers to develop electronic
pump characteristics, including the BEP, pump selection catalogs. Using specific system require-
speed, NPSHR, and pump type. Using the ments, these catalogs help designers identify
expected system operating range, a designer must pumps capable of meeting the end user’s service
evaluate the family of performance curves, similar needs.
39
Prospective customers enter known system

characteristics such as head, flow, pipe size,
NPSHA, and key fluid properties and the
software generates a list of pumps suitable
for the application.
The software contains performance data on each

of the manufacturer’s pumps for further analysis.
Pump constraints, such as required pump speed,
can also be used to further refine the list of
candidate pumps. Although system performance
concerns such as head/flow curve sensitivity
and multiple pump configurations still require
sound engineering judgment, the use of a pump
manufacturer’s software can simplify the pump
selection process.
40
7. Positive Displacement Pump Applications
Positive Displacement Pump Applications

The term positive displacement refers to the way
in which these pumps pressurize and move fluid. Related Tip Sheet
Positive displacement pumps squeeze fluid by Related information is available in an ITP
decreasing the volume that contains it. One type BestPractices Tip Sheet titled Pump Selection
of positive displacement pump is a piston pump:
Considerations. Tip sheets can be found in
every stroke pushes along a certain amount of
fluid. An example of a rotary displacement pump
Appendix C, accessed on the Web at
is a screw pump, which uses two parallel, www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
overlapping screws to push along a certain volume bestpractices, or obtained by contacting the
with each revolution. EERE Information Center at 877-337-3463.
 Applications
Although positive displacement pumps have
with entrained gases in the suction line. This
higher maintenance requirements than other
feature allows system designers to place these
types, they are inherently better suited for certain
pumps above the fluid level, which can simplify
applications. These applications include the
the system layout. Centrifugal pumps often require
following:
special system equipment to remove gases and
prime the impeller. Although some centrifugal
■ High-Pressure/Low-Flow Applications. Positive
pumps are designed to be self-priming, they are
displacement pumps are usually more effective
also expensive, less reliable, and less efficient—
in generating high pressures in low-flow appli-
and gas must still be removed.
cations. Although centrifugal pumps can be
designed to generate high pressures—usually
Certain positive displacement pumps—such as
through the use of multiple stages—these
diaphragm and peristaltic types—do not require
special pumps tend to be comparatively
seals and thus do not leak. In systems that handle
expensive.
corrosive or hazardous fluids, eliminating the
■ High-Fluid-Viscosity Applications. Positive need for seal maintenance can yield substantial
displacement pumps are more effective than cost savings.
centrifugal pumps in moving viscous fluids.
By directly pressurizing the fluids, positive  Special Considerations
displacement pumps lose less energy to the Positive displacement pumps are usually installed
high shear stresses that are inherent in viscous with pressure relief valves. In fact, in many of
fluids. these pumps, relief valves are internal to the
pump. This protection is needed because the
■ Accurately Controlled Flow Applications. Since
pumps push fluid into the discharge line
each stroke or revolution generates a certain
irrespective of backpressure. Consequently, if the
amount of flow, positive displacement pumps
system flow becomes completely obstructed
are typically used in applications requiring
downstream of the pump, fluid pressure builds
precise flow control. By controlling the number
until the motor torque reaches an overload
of pump cycles, positive displacement pumps
condition or until the piping or other equipment
are well suited for metered-flow applications.
ruptures. Although relief valves are designed
In addition, many positive displacement pumps to protect against such damage, they require
have certain unique characteristics that make them periodic testing and maintenance. A relief valve
attractive. For example, positive displacement that fails to operate properly can cause costly
pumps are usually self-priming and can operate system damage.
41
7. Positive Displacement Pump Applications
Positive displacement pumps also typically have

pulsating flow characteristics. In some systems,
these pulsations can create vibration problems,
especially if the pulse rate has a harmonic com-
ponent that coincides with the natural frequency
of any piping or structure. Flow-induced piping
vibrations create cyclic loading on piping welds
and piping supports; they can also accelerate the
loosening of mechanical joints. These vibrations
can be dampened by using accumulators to absorb
some of the vibrational energy.
Another consideration is the need for storage of

spare parts. Because of the relatively high number
of moving parts associated with many positive
displacement pumps, some facilities have to
maintain a large spare parts inventory. For
example, mating surfaces on the internal valves of
many reciprocating pumps are susceptible to wear
and require periodic replacement. Although these
parts can be obtained from a manufacturer or parts
supplier, plants often prefer to keep common
replacement parts on hand to minimize downtime.
Consequently, using pumps with a large number of
moving parts can increase a plant’s maintenance
workload and inventory holding costs.
42
8. Multiple Pump Arrangements
Multiple Pump Arrangements

An alternative to using one pump to serve the
requirements of a system is to use several smaller Related Tip Sheet
pumps in combination (parallel operation). Related information is available in an ITP
BestPractices Tip Sheet titled Optimize Parallel
Wide variations in system demand preclude a
Pumping Systems. Tip sheets can be found in
single pump from consistently operating close to
its best efficiency point (BEP). Operating a pump
Appendix C, accessed on the Web at www.
away from its BEP can result in higher operating eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices, or
and maintenance costs. In some systems, espe- obtained by contacting the EERE Information
cially those with high static head requirements, Center at 877-337-3463.
energizing or de-energizing multiple pumps to
meet demand changes allows each pump to
operate more efficiently, improving overall system Every centrifugal pump has a BEP—the point at
efficiency. However, this efficiency advantage which its operating efficiency is highest and its
depends on the pump curves, the system curve, radial bearing loads are lowest. A pump’s BEP is a
and the demand change that is being met. function of its inlet configuration, impeller design,
casing design, and pump speed. At the BEP, the
Some of the advantages of multiple pump arrange- hydraulic efficiency is at its maximum, and the
ments are flexibility, redundancy, and the ability to liquid enters the impeller vanes, casing diffuser
meet changing flow needs efficiently in systems (discharge nozzle), or vaned diffuser in a
with high static head components. In systems with shockless manner. Flow through the impeller and
high-friction components, alternatives such as diffuser vanes (if the pump is so equipped) is
adjustable speed motors tend to be more efficient uniform, free of separation, and well controlled.
solutions to variable demand requirements. The flow remains well controlled within a range
of capacities designated as the preferred
Multiple pumps are usually parallel combinations operating region (POR). Within this region, the
of the same pump model. Placing an additional service life of the pump will not be affected
pump on line adds flow to the system and shifts significantly by hydraulic loads, vibration, or flow
the operating point to the right along the system separation. The allowable operating region
curve (see Figure 14 on page 44). (AOR) defines the precise limits for minimum and
maximum flow in a pump.
Parallel pumps are usually identical, to provide
balanced load-sharing when all the pumps are Most centrifugal pumps are equipped with roller
operating at the same time. Using different-sized or ball bearings. Since the operating life of these
pumps could result in a condition in which the types of bearings is an inverse function of the
largest pump dominates the system, forcing other cube of the load, selecting a pump with a BEP that
pumps to operate below their minimum flow is close to the system’s normal operating range
ratings. If different-sized pumps must be config- significantly extends the interval between bearing
ured in parallel, their performance curves should replacements.
be carefully reviewed to ensure that no pump
operates below its minimum flow requirement.  Advantages of Multiple Pump Arrangements
There are many advantages to using combinations
 Best Efficiency Point of smaller pumps rather than a single large one.
Design characteristics for both performance These advantages include operating flexibility,
and service life are optimized around a capacity redundancy in case of a pump failure, lower
designated as the best efficiency point (BEP). maintenance requirements, and higher efficiency.
43
Operating Flexibility. As shown in Figure 14, through the bypass lines is wasted. Variable
using several pumps in parallel broadens the speed drives can also be an efficient solution.
range of flow that can be delivered to the system.
(Note that Figure 14 is illustrative and does not Efficiency. A potential advantage of using multiple
represent actual pump curves.) In addition, pumps is higher overall efficiency, since each
energizing and de-energizing pumps keeps the pump can operate close to its BEP (for systems
operating point of each one closer to its BEP with flat curves). Energizing or de-energizing
(for systems with flat curves). Operators should pumps as needed to meet changes in system
use caution when operating parallel pumps, demand allows each pump to operate over a
however, to ensure that the minimum flow smaller region of its performance curve—ideally,
requirement is met for each pump. around the BEP. A single pump would have to
operate over a larger range, and thus farther away
from its BEP at times.
200
180 At a given head and flow, high-speed pumps
160 tend to be more efficient than low-speed pumps.
140 Pump Curves Pumps with specific speed values greater than
Head 120 System Curve 3,000 are the exception; they tend to be less
(ft)
100
efficient at higher speeds. However, this is not
80 Three Pumps Running
typical of most pumps. Since smaller pumps
60
require smaller motors, the use of multiple high-
40
One Pump Running
Two Pumps Running
speed pumps can provide an efficiency advantage
20
0
over a single, low-speed pump. However, this
0 50 100 150 200 250
efficiency advantage should be balanced against
Flow (gpm) the tendency of high-speed machines to require
more maintenance.
Figure 14. Multiple Pump Operation
 Other Options
Other system designs that can be used to handle
Redundancy. With a multiple pump arrangement, widely varying operating conditions include pony
one pump can be repaired while others continue pumps, multiple-speed pumps, and variable
to serve the system. Thus, the failure of one unit frequency drives (VFDs). For more information
does not shut down the entire system. on pony pumps, see the fact sheet titled Pony
Pumps. Information on VFDs is found in the fact
Maintenance. Multiple pump configurations sheet in this section titled Controlling Pumps with
allow each pump to be operated close to its BEP Adjustable Speed Drives.
(for systems with flat curves), which reduces
bearing wear and permits the pumps to run more Multiple-speed pumps can be used in similar ways,
smoothly. Other benefits include less reliance on in that the fluid power generated can be matched
energy-dissipating flow control options such as to the demands of the system. Shifting a pump to
bypass lines and throttle valves. The use of a higher or lower speeds moves the entire perform-
single, large pump during low-flow demand ance curve up or down, respectively, as shown in
conditions forces the excess flow to be throttled Figure 15. (Note that Figure 15 is illustrative and
or bypassed. Throttling the flow wears the does not represent an actual pump curve.)
throttle valves and creates energy losses. Simi-
larly, bypassing the flow is highly inefficient, Although multiple-speed pumps tend to perform
since all the energy used to push the excess flow less efficiently at any given operating point than
44
200
180 System Curve
High Speed
160
Head 140
(ft) 120
100 Medium Speed
80
60 Pump Curves
Low Speed
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (gpm)
Figure 15. Multiple-Speed Pump Performance Curves
single-speed pumps do, their ability to operate over

a wide range of conditions is a key advantage.
Multiple-speed pumps are also space-savers; their
compact operating package avoids the additional
piping and valves required for parallel pumps.
45
46
9. Pony Pumps
Pony Pumps
Pumping systems have a wide range of flow needs.
In many applications, there is a large difference Related Tip Sheet
between the flow required during normal system Related information is available in an ITP
operation and that required during peak load BestPractices Tip Sheet titled Optimize Parallel
conditions. For example, some cooling system and
Pumping Systems. Tip sheets can be found in
rainwater collection applications require a relative-
ly low flow rate. Occasionally, however, a heavy
storm or a large heat load caused by a sudden eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices, or
increase in production demand creates a need for obtained by contacting the EERE Information
greater pumping capacity. Center at 877-337-3463.
If pumps are sized to handle a peak flow or worst-

case conditions, they could operate at substantially
less efficient levels for long periods during times  Costs of Intermittent Pump Operation
of high demand. Oversized pumps in applications Intermittent pump operation is caused by an
like these tend to waste energy, and they require unbalanced set of system flows. For example, a
frequent maintenance because they operate far pump’s high flow rate drains the tank or reservoir
from their best efficiency points. to the point where the low-level switch de-
energizes or turns off the pump. When the fluid
In applications such as sewage treatment plants, level in the tank rises and activates the high-level
the normal operating demands on pumps may be switch, the pump is re-energized, turning back on
relatively low. During storms, however, the to drain the tank (see Figure 16 on page 48).
amount of fluid that must be drained from holding
Repeatedly stopping and restarting a pump wears
ponds or tanks increases dramatically. So pumps
out the motor controllers and dynamic surfaces in
that maintain holding pond levels must be able to
the pump/motor assembly, and it can lead to
handle storm conditions.
unreliable pump operation. This problem is
especially severe for large pumps, because of their
To avoid the high friction losses and maintenance
high starting currents. Each repeated closing and
problems that accompany continuous operation or
opening of high-voltage contacts also creates a
frequent starts of oversized pumps, a plant can
danger of sparking that can damage the contact
install smaller ones, called “pony pumps,” to surfaces. In addition, discontinuous loading of the
handle normal operating conditions. The large transformers and switchgear often shortens their
pumps would then be used occasionally only to operating lives. Some pump/motor assemblies are
handle severe load conditions, providing specially designed to handle repeated starting and
considerable cost savings. stopping. For such applications, this more
expensive type of equipment should be specified.
 When To Consider Pony Pumps
Indicators of a need for a smaller pump to handle Many pumps do not respond well to start-ups and
normal operating conditions include the following: shutdowns. The mechanical seals used in many
■ Intermittent pump operation pumps rely on a lubricating film of system fluid.
This film requires a revolution or two to develop
■ Excessive flow noise, cavitation, and piping and, over time, repeated start-ups accelerate seal
vibrations that disappear during heavy demand wear. Similarly, bearings that are subjected to
periods. (If these conditions persist, then the cyclical loading tend to have shorter operating
primary pump may need to be downsized.) lives than those in constant-use applications.
47
9. Pony Pumps
Tank Inlet Lines

maintenance cost savings. A simple economic
analysis can demonstrate the cost of current power
consumption and maintenance intervals in com-
parison to the capital cost and projected savings
Motor
associated with operating a smaller, more efficient
High-Level Switch Controller pump.
Low-Level Switch Energy-saving alternatives to a pony pump include

Motor reducing the impeller size, replacing the existing
pump/motor assembly with a smaller one, and
Discharge
Line installing an adjustable speed drive (ASD) on the
Pump
pump motor. Depending on the requirements of
Suction Line
the application, impeller adjustments and the
smaller pump/motor assembly could compromise
the capacity of the existing pump during worst-
Figure 16. Typical Tank Level Control case situations. Although ASDs in general allow a
pump to run at lower capacity, variable frequency
 Costs of High Flow Velocity drives (VFDs) are more suitable for varying
An additional penalty for using an oversized demand rather than for continuously low demand.
pump is the added friction losses which occur
during pump operation. Higher flow rates create The VFDs themselves introduce efficiency losses.
higher flow velocities which, in turn, lead to If normal operation is far below the full load
higher friction loss. The relationship between rating of the motor for long operating periods, the
velocity and friction loss is provided by the cost of these losses can be considerable. A VFD
Darcy-Weisbach equation: can also introduce harmonics in the motor wind-
ings, which increases the winding temperature.
L V2 Over an extended period of time, this increase in
hf = f
D 2g the motor winding temperature accelerates the
where breakdown of insulation. For more information on
hf = head loss VFDs, see the fact sheet in this section titled
f = pipe friction coefficient Controlling Pumps with Adjustable Speed Drives.
V = fluid velocity
g = gravitational constant A project undertaken by the city of Milford,
D = inner diameter of the pipe Connecticut, provides a practical example of the
L = length of pipe. successful use of a pony pump. By adding a pony
pump to the city’s Welches Point Sewage Lift
The V2 term shows that pressure loss through a station, Milford realized substantial energy savings
pipe is proportional to the square of the fluid and reduced maintenance costs. This project is
velocity. Consequently, given the same size pipe, described in a case study, Saving Energy at a
a flow rate that is two times higher endures four Sewage Lift Station Through Pump System
times more friction loss. This means that it costs Modifications, available on DOE’s Industrial
much more to pump a gallon of fluid at a higher- Technologies Program BestPractices Web site
than-necessary flow rate. (www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/
motors.html) or from the EERE Information
 Recovering the Costs of Installing Center at 877-337-3463.
a Smaller Pump
Installing a smaller pump to run parallel to an
existing one can provide substantial energy and
48
Impeller Trimming
Impeller trimming refers to the process of
machining the diameter of an impeller to reduce Related Tip Sheet
the energy added to the system fluid. Impeller A summary of key issues presented in this
trimming can be a useful correction to pumps that, fact sheet is available in an ITP BestPractices
through overly conservative design practices or
Tip Sheet titled Trim or Replace Impellers on
changes in system loads, are oversized for their
application.
Oversized Pumps. Tip sheets can be found in
Trimming an impeller represents a level of correc- eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices,
tion slightly less effective than buying a smaller or obtained by contacting the EERE Information
impeller from the pump manufacturer. In many Center at 877-337-3463.
cases, an impeller at the next smaller size than the
original would be too small for the pump load.
And in some cases, smaller impellers might not be  Why Impeller Trimming Works
available for the pump size in the application, so Impeller trimming reduces tip speed, which in turn
impeller trimming is the only practical alternative directly reduces the amount of energy imparted to
short of replacing the entire pump/motor assembly. the system fluid and lowers both the flow and
pressure generated by the pump (see Figure 17;
 When To Consider Impeller Trimming note that this figure is illustrative and does not
End users should consider trimming an impeller represent an actual pump curve). The affinity laws,
when any of the following conditions occur: which describe a centrifugal pump’s performance,
provide a theoretical relationship between impeller
■ Many system bypass valves are open, size and pump output (assuming constant pump
indicating that excess flow is available speed):
to system equipment
D2
Q2 = Q
■ Excessive throttling is needed to control D1 1
flow through the system or process
[ DD ] H
2
2
■ High levels of noise or vibration indicate H2 = 1
excessive flow 1
bhp = [ ] bhp
■ A pump is operating far from its design point. D 2
3
2 1
D 1
The pump originally
200
Pump performance using serves at this point where
180 on the system curve.
the original impeller
Q = flow
160
140
H = head
120 Pump performance after bhp = brake horsepower of the pump motor
Head impeller trimming
(ft) 100 (bhp1 refers to the original pump,
80 After trimming, bhp2 to the pump after impeller
the pump serves
60 System Curve
at this point. trimming)
40
Desired Flow D = diameter.
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
In practice, these relationships are not strictly
Flow (gpm) accurate because of nonlinearities in flow;
Figure 17. Effect of Impeller Trimming on Pump however, the fundamental effect of impeller
Performance trimming on flow, head, and bhp holds. For
49
example, a 2% reduction in the impeller diameter It is available on DOE’s Industrial Technologies

creates about a 2% reduction in flow, a 4% Program BestPractices Web site (www.eere.energy.
reduction in head, and an 8% reduction in power. gov/industry/bestpractices/motors.html) or through
This relationship should be used as an approxi- the EERE Information Center at 877-337-3463.
mation for small changes. The final result of
trimming depends on the system curve and pump  Limitations
performance changes Trimming an impeller changes its operating
efficiency, and the nonlinearities of the affinity
 Benefits of Impeller Trimming laws with respect to impeller machining
A principal benefit of reducing the size of the complicate predictions of a pump’s performance.
impeller is the resulting decrease in operating and Consequently, impeller diameters are rarely
maintenance costs. Less fluid energy is wasted in reduced below 70% of their original size.
the bypass lines and across throttle valves, or
dissipated as noise and vibrations through the In some pumps, impeller trimming increases the
system. Energy savings are roughly proportional pump’s required net positive suction head
to the cube of the diameter reduction. This is (NPSHR). To prevent cavitation, a centrifugal
shown in the fluid power equation discussed in pump must operate with a certain amount of
Section 1 (page 9): pressure at its inlet, the NPSHR. To reduce the
risk of cavitation, the effect of impeller trimming
Fluid power = HQ (s.g.) on NPSHR should be evaluated using the manu-
3,960 facturer’s data over the full range of operating
conditions. For more on NPSH, see the fact sheet
The motor power required to generate this fluid in this section titled Centrifugal Pumps.
power is higher because of motor and pump
inefficiencies.
In addition to energy savings, impeller trimming

also reduces wear on system piping, valves, and
piping supports. Flow-induced piping vibrations
tend to fatigue pipe welds and mechanical joints.
Over time, welds crack and joints loosen, causing
leaks and downtime for repairs.
Excessive fluid energy is also not desirable from a

design perspective. Pipe supports are usually
spaced and sized to withstand static loads from the
weight of the pipe and the fluid, pressure loads
from the internal system pressure, and—in
thermally dynamic applications—expansion
caused by changes in temperature. The vibrations
created by excessive fluid energy provide a load
that the system is not designed to handle and lead
to leaks, downtime, and additional maintenance.
For a practical example of how impeller trimming

lowers maintenance requirements, see the case
study titled Optimized Pump Systems Save
Coal Preparation Plant Money and Energy.
50
11. Controlling Pumps with Adjustable Speed Drives
Controlling Pumps with Adjustable Speed Drives

Centrifugal pumps are often operated over a wide
range of conditions. For example, many cooling Related Publications
systems experience variable loads caused by Related information is available in a Europump-
changes in ambient conditions, occupancy, and
Hydraulic Institute publication, Variable Speed
production demands. To accommodate demand
changes, flow can be controlled by any of these Pumping: A Guide to Successful Applications,
four methods: bypass lines, throttle valves, as well as in two ITP BestPractices Tip Sheets,
multiple pump arrangements (as discussed in the Adjustable Speed Pumping Applications and
previous fact sheet), or pump speed adjustments. Control Strategies for Centrifugal Pumps with
Variable Flow Rates. To obtain the pumping
 Bypass Lines guide, see the Hydraulic Institute’s Web site,
Bypass lines provide accurate flow control while www.pumps.org, or call 973-267-9700.
avoiding the danger of “deadheading” a pump. Tip sheets can be found in Appendix C,
Deadheading is the condition in which a pump’s accessed on the Web at www.eere.energy.
flow is completely choked off by closed down- gov/industry/bestpractices, or obtained by
stream valves. Unfortunately, bypassing flow is contacting the EERE Information Center at
usually the least energy-efficient flow control 877-337-3463.
option.
 Throttle Valves
Throttle valves provide flow control in two ways: subtle speed-changing capabilities within discrete
by increasing the upstream backpressure, which speeds.
reduces pump flow, and by directly dissipating fluid
energy. By increasing the backpressure on a pump, In contrast, ASDs allow pump speed adjustments
throttle valves make a pumping system less effi- to be made over a continuous range, avoiding the
cient. In low-static-head systems, variable speed need to jump from speed to speed. ASDs control
operation allows the pump to run near its best pump speeds using several different types of
efficiency point (BEP) for a given head or flow. mechanical and electrical systems. Mechanical
ASDs include hydraulic clutches, fluid couplings,
 Pump Speed Adjustments and adjustable belts and pulleys. Electrical ASDs
Pump speed adjustments are the most efficient include eddy current clutches, wound-rotor motor
means of controlling pump flow. Reducing the controllers, and variable frequency drives (VFDs).
pump speed means less energy is imparted to the VFDs adjust the electrical frequency of the power
fluid and less energy needs to be throttled or by- supplied to a motor to change the motor’s ro-
passed. There are two primary ways of reducing tational speed. VFDs are by far the most popular
the pump speed: using multiple-speed pump type of ASD.
motors and using adjustable speed drives (ASDs).
Although both directly control the pump’s output, Pump speed adjustments are not appropriate for
multiple-speed motors and ASDs serve entirely all systems, however. In applications with high
separate applications. static head, slowing a pump could induce
vibrations and create performance problems that
Multiple-speed motors contain a different set of are similar to those found when a pump operates
windings for each motor speed; consequently, they against its shutoff head. For systems in which the
are more expensive and less efficient than single- static head represents a large portion of the total
speed motors. Multiple-speed motors also lack head, however, operators should use caution in
51
Reduced Speed
often reveals opportunities for reducing operating
180
Direction of the Shift as costs. For example, in many systems, increasing
160
Performance
Speed Decreases
flow through bypass lines does not have a
Curve
140
BEP Efficiency (%)
noticeable impact on the backpressure on a pump.
Head 120 Efficiency
(ft)
70
Consequently, in these applications, pump
100 60
efficiency does not necessarily decline during
50
80
bhp 40
12
periods of low flow demand. However, analyzing
60 30 8 the entire system allows operators to identify the
40 20
4
bhp energy lost in pushing fluid through bypass lines
20 10
0 0
and across throttle valves. Figure 19 depicts
0 energy losses attributable to bypass valve
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 operation; Figure 20 depicts energy losses
Flow (gpm) attributable to throttling. (Note that Figures 19
and 20 are illustrative and do not represent actual
Figure 18. Effects of Reducing Speed on a Pump’s pump curves.)
Operating Characteristics
200
deciding whether to use ASDs. Operators should Original System
180 Curve
review the performance of ASDs in similar 160 System Curve with
applications and consult ASD manufacturers to 140
Open Bypass Line
avoid the damage that can result when a pump Head

(ft) 120 Fluid Energy Lost to Bypass
operates too slowly against high-static-head 100
conditions. 80
60 Actual Flow
 Pump Operating Efficiency Improvements 40
Required Flow
For many systems, VFDs can help to improve 20
pump operating efficiency despite changes in 0
operating conditions. The effect of slowing pump 0 50 100 150 200 250
speed on pump operation is illustrated by the three Flow (gpm)
curves in Figure 18. When a VFD slows a pump,
its head/flow and brake horsepower (bhp) curves Figure 19. Power Lost through a Bypass Line
drop down and to the left, and its efficiency curve
shifts to the left. This efficiency response provides
an essential cost advantage; keeping the operating 200
efficiency as high as possible across variations in 180 Pump Curve
the system’s flow demand can reduce the energy 160
and maintenance costs of the pump significantly. Head

140
Fluid Energy Lost to Throttling
VFDs can also be used with positive displacement (ft) 120
pumps. 100
System Curve
80 after Throttling Required Flow
 System Operating Efficiency Improvements 60
VFDs can provide operating cost reductions by 40 Original System

Curve
20
increasing a pump’s operating efficiency.
0
However, the majority of savings derive from the
0 50 100 150 200 250
reduction in frictional or bypass flow losses.
Flow (gpm)
Using a system perspective to identify areas in
Figure 20. Fluid Power Lost across a Throttle Valve
which fluid energy is dissipated in nonuseful work
52
One major benefit of VFDs is that they can reduce lessen system wear. For more information on
energy losses by lowering the overall system flow indications of excessive system flow and ways
or head. By slowing down the pump and reducing to correct it, see the fact sheet in this section
the amount of fluid energy imparted to the system titled Indications of Oversized Pumps.
when it is not needed, VFDs offer substantial
savings with respect to the cost per gallon of  Limitations of VFDs
liquid pumped. Another system-related benefit is Although using VFDs can help to reduce
that VFDs provide a soft-start capability. During operating and maintenance costs, they are not
start-up, most motors experience in-rush currents appropriate for all applications. As a pump’s
that are 5 to 6 times higher than normal operating speed decreases, it generates less pressure. In
currents. This high current fades when the motor high-static-head applications, the use of VFDs
achieves normal speed. can slow a pump down so that it operates at or
near shut-off head conditions. The pump thus
VFDs allow the motor to be started with a lower experiences the same harsh conditions that the
start-up current—usually only about 1.5 times the manufacturer attempts to guard against when
normal operating current. This reduces wear on setting a minimum flow rate, which usually
the motor and its controller. corresponds to the pump’s rated speed. The
consequences include greater shaft deflection,
 Maintenance Requirements high vibration levels, and high bearing loads.
As added system equipment, VFDs require
maintenance and repairs. However, in many Power quality can also be a concern. VFDs
applications, VFDs lower the maintenance operate by rectifying the alternating current (ac)
requirements for the pump, system piping, and line power into a direct current (dc) signal, then
components. The principal factors behind these inverting and regulating this signal into ac power
maintenance savings are the reduced load on the that is sent to the motor. Often, the inverter
pump and the lower static and dynamic fluid creates harmonics in the power supplied to the
forces imparted to the system. motor. These harmonics can cause motor
windings to operate at higher temperatures, which
By reducing a pump’s operating speed, a VFD accelerates wear in insulation. To account for the
often shifts the BEP to the left of the BEP added winding heat, motors are typically derated
corresponding to the pump’s normal operating 5% to 10% when used with VFDs. A classi-
speed. In these cases, since the bearing loads on a fication of motors known as “inverter-duty”
pump are lowest when the pump is operating at its has been developed to better match VFDs with
BEP, this shift of the BEP during periods of low motors.
flow allows the pump to operate with lower
bearing loads and less shaft deflection. Most pump In some electrical systems, the harmonics creat-
bearings are roller- or ball-type; their design ed by the inverter can be picked up by other
operating life is a function of the cube of the load. electrical lines that have common connections
Consequently, using a VFD can extend the interval with the VFD. Systems that are sensitive to minor
between bearing maintenance tasks. disturbances in power supply should be served
separately from the VFD power supply.
In addition, VFDs reduce stress on pipes and
piping supports. When the system flow far In some applications, VFDs contribute to reduced
exceeds equipment demands, excess fluid energy bearing life. The interaction between the three
is dissipated in the form of noise and vibration. phases of the power supply from a VFD inverter
Vibrations help to loosen mechanical joints and sometimes induces a small voltage across the
cause cracks in the welds in pipes and pipe motor bearings. As a result, these bearings can
hangers. By reducing the fluid energy, VFDs experience pitting and accelerated wear. VFD
53
manufacturers are familiar with this problem,

and several methods can be used to correct it.
These methods include insulating certain bearings,
grounding the shaft, and conditioning the power
supply.
Finally, anticipated energy savings are not realized

in some applications because some of the losses
associated with VFD installation were not taken
into consideration. The VFDs themselves are
approximately 95% to 97% efficient, and motor
efficiency generally begins to decrease at less
than 75% of full load. In addition, the quality of
electric power supplied to the motor can affect
both its efficiency and its power rating.
Although VFDs are an attractive option in many

applications, all these considerations should be
incorporated into a feasibility study before VFDs
are installed.
54
Section 3. The Economics of Improving Pumping Systems
Section 3: The Economics of Improving Pumping Systems
Overview Conduct a Systems Assessment

Pumping systems can be critically important to A systems assessment reviews the operation of a
a plant’s operations. In many industrial applica- pumping system, often using certain tools to help
tions, such as power and petrochemical plants, identify improvement opportunities. Taking a
pumps directly support production processes and systems approach can be a very effective way to
run as often as—or even longer than—any other perform the assessment. Consequently, DOE seeks
equipment at the facility. The amount of energy to build industry’s awareness of this approach in
consumed by many long-running pumping many key industrial systems, including pumping.
systems often results in a substantial addition to The Hydraulic Institute’s Pump Systems MatterTM
a plant’s annual operating costs. In fact, about initiative also promotes a systems approach to
27% of all the energy consumed by motor-driven pumping system assessments.
equipment in manufacturing facilities is used to
operate pumps.3 Therefore, pumping systems  A Systems Approach
are a natural target in efforts to reduce energy A systems approach can be effective in assessing
consumption in motor-driven systems. system performance, solving operating problems,
and finding improvement opportunities. In a
In some cases, pumping system energy is used systems approach, engineers and operators analyze
quite efficiently; in others, it is not. Facility both the supply and demand sides of the system
operators are often very familiar with the and how they interact, essentially shifting the focus
controllability, reliability, and availability of from the performance of individual components
pumping system equipment, but they might not to that of the system as a whole. In attempting
be as aware of system efficiency issues—and to correct problems or look for ways to improve
there are good reasons to increase their aware- performance, evaluating only the components
ness. For example, there is a strong correlation rather than the whole system can cause analysts
between the reliability of pumps and their to overlook potential cost savings.
efficiency; that is, pumps that operate close to
their best efficiency point tend to perform more For example, although a pump might be operating
reliably and with greater availability. efficiently, it could be generating more flow than
the system requires. Consequently, it is important
There are numerous opportunities to improve to assess system efficiency based on how well
the reliability, performance, and efficiency of the end uses are served by the pumps. Reflecting
pumping systems in many industrial facilities. a systems approach, process system design and
This section discusses three basic steps that can manufacturing best practices will first optimize
help in identifying and implementing pumping the performance of the entire system and then
system improvement projects: select the components and control strategies that
■ Conduct a systems assessment best match the new process load.
■ Analyze life-cycle costs before making  Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT)
a decision DOE studies show that almost two-thirds of the
■ Sell your projects to management. potential energy savings for motor systems
3
United States Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment, DOE/GO-102000-959, U.S. Department of Energy,
1998; see www.eere.energy.gov/bestpractices/.
55
involve system optimization. Therefore, DOE’s (flow rate, head, and fluid specific weight) are
Industrial Technologies Program has developed known, pump efficiency can also be determined.
prescreening guidance documents and assisted in
developing a computer-based Pumping System Performance Characteristics of Motors. DOE’s
Assessment Tool (PSAT). It is intended to help Industrial Technologies Program distributes
end users, consultants, and equipment distributors MotorMaster+ software4 free of charge. Part
recognize, both qualitatively and quantitatively, of the underlying supporting structure for
opportunities to improve pumping system MotorMaster+ is an extensive database of motors.
efficiency. PSAT software can be used to estimate The database, constructed using data supplied by
the efficiency of a system based on specific input; motor manufacturers, includes a fairly compre-
accurate field measurements are required. hensive list of parameters such as motor rated
power, efficiency, power factor, speed, full-load
For example, the usefulness of the input for current, enclosure style, NEMA design type, rated
pressure depends on taking an exact reading along voltage, and price.
a section of pipe; it also depends on whether the
pressure is measured upstream or downstream After it was filtered to ensure a homogeneous,
of a throttling valve. Users must therefore representative motor population, this database was
understand their system or process demands used to develop the algorithms used in PSAT. The
to make reasonable use of PSAT. The software database was first limited to include only 460-V,
relies on all of the following: NEMA Design B motors, the design type used on
most pumps. Next, the database was sorted and
■ Fundamental electrical, mechanical,
classed according to rated power and number of
and fluid power relationships
poles, and filtered to exclude inconsistent entries.
■ Typical performance characteristics from The motors were then classified as either standard
industry standards and databases or energy efficient, based on the efficiency
standards of NEMA MG 1-2003.5
■ Field measurements of fluid and electrical
parameters. After the developers categorized the motor
PSAT estimates the efficiency of an existing motor population by size, speed, and efficiency class,
and pump using field measurements and nameplate they established average performance
information. It also estimates achievable efficiencies characteristics (current, power factor, and
if the motor and pump were optimally selected efficiency versus load). Using these average
to meet specified flow and head requirements. values, they created curve fits of the performance
The software then compares the two results and characteristics.
determines potential power savings. Finally, PSAT
estimates potential cost and energy savings, based Motor performance can, of course, vary within
on user-specified utility rates and operating times. a given power, speed, and efficiency class.
But relative to other uncertainties surrounding
Fundamental Power Relationships. Motor input pumping system field measurements, variability
power can be measured in the field on low-voltage in the motor data is relatively small. There are,
(e.g., 480-V) busses. With directly coupled equip- however, many interdependencies in motor
ment, the motor shaft power and the pump shaft performance characteristics. For example,
power are equal, practically speaking. Pump efficiency and current are functions of motor
efficiency is then the ratio of fluid power to shaft size, number of poles (speed), load, and voltage,
power. So, if the parameters that define fluid power among others.
4 For more on the MotorMaster+ software program, see www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/.

5 NEMA MG 1-2003, Section II, Part 12, Table 12-11, “Full-Load Efficiencies of Energy Efficient Motors.”
56
MotorMaster+ allows motor efficiency to be PSAT software uses curve fits of the graphical
estimated based on the motor’s size, speed, and data included in the HI standard to estimate
either motor input power or current measurements. achievable efficiency. However, it automatically
If power is measured, PSAT determines the shaft completes the three-step series of actions
power and efficiency that is consistent with the described earlier.
specified motor size and speed. If current is
measured, power is estimated from current versus Based on the input data, PSAT first estimates the
load profiles in PSAT. A full set of motor charac- existing shaft power from the motor data measure-
teristics (shaft power, current, power factor, and ments. It then calculates fluid power from the
electrical power) can be established, regardless specified flow rate, head, and specific gravity. At
of whether current or power is measured. this point, the motor input power, the shaft power,
and the fluid power are known, as are the existing
Although the motor characteristics used in PSAT motor and pump efficiencies. Given the fraction of
were derived exclusively from 460-V motors, the time the pump is operated and the electricity cost
user can select from other nominal voltages, such rate, PSAT also calculates annual energy use and
as 230, 2300, 4160, and 6900 V. The current data energy costs.
is linearly adjusted for nominal voltage. The user
also selects from one of three motor efficiency Field Measurements of Fluid and Electrical
classes: energy-efficient, standard efficiency, and Parameters. Individual motor input power is not
average. If the user selects average, PSAT simply usually monitored by permanently installed instru-
calculates motor performance characteristics based ments. Individual motor current is sometimes
on the average of the standard efficiency and the monitored and displayed at the motor control
energy-efficient motor values. Most motors center or remotely, but usually only for larger
used on pump systems are NEMA Design B. motors. Motor input power and/or current can be
measured on low-voltage (e.g., 480-V) busses
Performance Characteristics of Pumps. Many with portable test equipment.
different pump designs can be applied to the broad
spectrum of pumping applications. For certain Generally speaking, the fluid viscosity and specific
applications, such as sewage or stock pumping, gravity are either essentially constant or they can
service reliability considerations prevent the use be readily determined. This determination is made
of more efficient designs that are used in clean either by direct measurement or from their relation-
water pumping. For example, the narrow channels ship to some other easily measured parameter,
used in some high-efficiency impellers might clog such as temperature.
if used to pump sewage.
Most pump applications include suction and
The Hydraulic Institute (HI) has published a discharge connections for pressure measurement—
standard6 that provides guidance on achievable the most important parameters in pump head
efficiencies. The standard addresses the effects calculation. Static head can be readily determined
of general pump style, capacity, specific speed, from system drawings, linear measurements, and/
and variability in achievable efficiency from or pressure/level gauges.
miscellaneous other factors such as surface rough-
ness and internal clearances. The HI standard Permanently installed instrumentation is used
walks the user through a series of steps, starting to measure the flow rate in some applications,
with reading a graph to determine efficiency at an but it is less commonly available than pressure.
optimum specific speed for the selected pump When permanent flow rate instruments are not
style and flow rate. available, temporary test devices can be employed.
6 Hydraulic Institute, ANSI/HI 1.3-2000. For this and other HI standards, see www.pumps.org.
57
Alternatively, flow rate can be estimated using the  Calculating Electricity Costs
measured differential pressure and pump perform- Electricity costs can be determined by several
ance curves. This method of estimating the flow methods, including any of the following:
rate is not the preferred approach, but in some
cases it is the only one available. In many cases,
■ The use of motor nameplate data
other sources of data can help corroborate or ■ Direct measurement of motor current
refine flow rate estimates. When using pump
performance curves, be sure to measure actual ■ The use of performance curve data.
speed. If it is significantly different from the speed
at which the curve was developed, adjust the With any of these methods, the usefulness of the
curve using pump affinity laws. data is limited by the extent to which it represents
average system operating conditions. In systems
 Pumping System Energy Costs with widely varying operating conditions, taking
To properly evaluate pumping system projects, data just once will probably not provide a true
system operating costs must be quantified; these indication of pumping system energy consumption.
costs generally include several fixed and variable
components. Of these costs, energy is often the Nameplate Data. A quick way to determine
largest component. Tools such as PSAT can energy costs is to use the pump motor nameplate
provide guidance in estimating energy costs and data. In many applications, the pump/motor
the potential to reduce them. However, other assembly is oversized, which means the motor
methods can be used to help the user estimate the operates below its full-load nameplate data.
amount of energy used and the associated cost of Estimating the load factor allows the pump’s
this energy. The following sections describe some annual operating costs to be calculated.
of these alternative methods.
Simple Calculation
 Load Factor
A pump’s economics is largely determined by the Annual electricity costs =
amount of time that a pump operates and the (motor full-load brake horsepower [bhp]) x
percentage of full capacity at which it operates. (0.746 kW/hp) / (motor efficiency) x (annual hours
Regardless of how pumping system energy use is of operation) x (unit electricity cost) x (load factor)
measured at any point in time, this “snapshot”
data must be translated to a representative Use the following data to illustrate this calculation:
indication of energy use over time. Then, the · Motor full-load brake horsepower = 100 bhp
pumping system’s average load factor can be · Annual hours of operation = 8,760 hours
estimated. The term load factor refers to the (3-shift, continuous operation)
average percentage of full-load power at which · Unit electricity cost = $0.05/kWh
the pump operates over a period of time. · Load factor = 65%
Load factor = ∑ (Actual load x number of operating hours at this load) · Motor efficiency = 95%
(Rated full load x number of operating hours in the period) Annual electricity costs =
(100 hp) x (0.746 kW/hp) x (1/0.95) x (8,760 hours)
Unless operators maintain comprehensive records x ($0.05/kWh) x 0.65
or are highly familiar with pump operating data, Annual electricity costs = $22,356
however, it might be difficult to determine the
load factor accurately; instead, it might be
necessary to rely on a reasonable estimate. If Other data needed include annual hours of
the pump is at full load whenever it is operating, operation (hours/year) and the unit cost of
the load factor is just the percentage of time the electricity ($/kWh). The unit cost of electricity is
pump operates within the time period. an average value that includes both consumption
58
and demand costs. Annual electricity costs can be

calculated by inserting this information into the Direct Measurement
equation in the simple calculation shown in the Assumptions:
box on page 58. 3-phase motor
0.85 power factor (nameplate)
This simple calculation assumes that the electric $0.05/kWh unit electricity cost
motor driving the pump is 95% efficient (the 0.95 Annual hours of operation = 8,760 hours
in the 1/0.95 factor), which is a reasonable (3-shift, continuous operation)
estimate for a pump motor larger than 50 hp.
Newer motors may have even higher efficiencies Case I. Using a wattmeter
because of provisions of the Energy Policy Act Annual electricity costs =
that have been in effect since 1997. If the pump (wattmeter reading, using a 3-phase setting) x
uses an older motor that has been rewound several (annual hours of operation) x (electricity cost in $/kWh)
times or has a smaller motor, then a motor
efficiency of 80% to 90% (or the motor nameplate For example: Wattmeter reading = 77.88 kW
efficiency rating) should be used. The motors used Annual electricity costs =
on most centrifugal pumps have a 1.15 continuous (77.88 kW) x (8,760 hours) x ($0.05/kWh)
service factor. This means that a motor with a = $34,111
nominal nameplate rating of 100 bhp could, in
fact, be operated continuously up to 115 bhp, Case II. Using a voltmeter and an ammeter
although motor efficiency drops slightly above separately
the rated load. Using nameplate data to calculate Annual electricity costs =
energy costs for motors that operate above the [(load amps) x (volts) x (1.732) x
rated load will understate the actual costs. (power factor)/1,000)] x (annual hours of
operation) x (electricity cost in $/kWh)
Direct Measurement Method. A more accurate
way to determine electricity consumption requires For example: Average load amp measurement across
taking electrical measurements. Depending on all phases = 115 A
the availability of instrumentation and measure- Measured voltage = 460 V
ment access, the direct measurement method Annual electricity costs =
requires reading power (kW) with a wattmeter or
[(115 A) x (460 V) x (1.732) x (0.85)/1,000)]
reading amps and volts and calculating kW using
x (8,760 hours) x ($0.05/kWh) = $34,111
the nameplate power factor.
Wattmeters require two simultaneous inputs

(voltage and current), and many motor install- 65% of the motor’s rated capacity, then
ations do not offer convenient access to both. calculations using direct measurement of volts
To calculate electricity consumption, multiply and amps will not provide useful results.
the measured kW value by the hours of operation
and electricity costs, as shown in the calculation Current is measured by using a clamp-on type
for Case I in the box on this page titled “Direct ammeter. The current is measured on each of the
Measurement.” This calculation is for a motor three power cables running to the motor (most
with a constant load—i.e., one that does not vary industrial motors are three-phase). At some sites,
over time. the motor controller is a convenient point at
which to take these readings; at other sites, the
If a wattmeter is not available, or if using a connection box on the motor itself is more
wattmeter is not practical, then amps and volts accessible. Line voltage is usually measured at
can be measured separately. If there is a the motor controller and should be measured at
possibility that the motor load is less than the same time as the current reading; in some
59
facilities, line voltage drops with increases in 200

power usage. A calculation example is shown in 180 Performance Curve
Case II in the box titled “Direct Measurement.” 160
This calculation is also for a motor with a 140 Use this line if the total pump
constant load. Head
120
head is known. BEP
70
Efficiency (%)
(ft)
Efficiency 60
100
Direct measurement of motor current is not 80
50
15
always practical, however. Hot measurements of 60
40
30 10
motor current pose safety risks for workers, and 40 bhp
20 bhp
5
these measurements might not be feasible in an 20 Use this line if the
flow rate is known.
10
industrial environment where power connections 0

0 0
are exposed to moisture or contaminants. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Flow (gpm)
Using Pump Curves. Another method of deter-
mining a pump’s power consumption is to record Figure 21. Using a Pump Performance Curve to Determine
the pressure readings associated with the pump’s Power Draw
operation and use its performance curve to
determine the corresponding brake horsepower. larly true for pumps that have relatively flat
Pump performance curves use total head to performance curves, in which a small difference
indicate the pump output; consequently, this in head makes a big difference in flow and bhp.
method requires pressure instrumentation on the
suction and discharge sides of a pump and If the system gauge does not have the required
correction for the velocity head. precision, a test gauge should be installed. In
many systems, the pipe fittings used for pressure
Once the pressure on the discharge and suction gauges have secondary connection ports to
sides of a pump are known, the engineer can accommodate calibration equipment. These ports
calculate the total head developed by the pump. are well suited for a separate test gauge, which
This corresponds to a horsepower reading, as is more accurate than the system gauge.
shown in Figure 21.
Using pump curves to estimate a pump’s power
To calculate annual energy costs, see the box on consumption can be inaccurate and should be
page 61 titled “Using a Pump Performance Curve a last resort, understanding that actual power
to Determine Annual Electricity Costs.” This consumption may be as much as 20% greater
approach might be limited, however, because in or 10% less than estimated. Increases in the
many applications there is no gauge on the suction clearance in wear rings or other internal
side of the pump. Unless a reasonable assumption restriction devices and wear of the impeller and
of suction pressure is available (for example, the casing can lead to inaccuracies.
height of a fluid level in a vented tank that feeds
directly into the pump suction), the total head Unless the pump was tested in the factory,
developed by the pump cannot be known. standard performance curves represent typical
performance. As a result of normal manufacturing
Another potential limitation is the accuracy of variations, actual power measurements may be
pressure gauges used in many industrial appli- 5% higher or lower.
cations. These pressure gauges are usually
not calibrated regularly, so they might not be To use the pump curve, the engineer must convert
sufficiently accurate. In some cases, these gauges the total pressure developed by the pump to a
also lack the precision required to determine head value. This conversion requires two key
power consumption accurately. This is particu- factors: the density of the system fluid and
60
an estimate of the velocity, or dynamic, head. Alternatively, a pump discharge line that already
Fluid density is typically determined by measuring has a flowmeter provides an ideal opportunity to
the temperature of the fluid and using a table of determine the flow rate; the flow rate, in turn, can
properties for that fluid to find the corresponding be used to determine the pump’s operating point
density. along its performance curve. Also, portable
flowmeters that clamp onto the pipe can be used
The velocity head is more difficult to determine, to measure flow rate. In general, portable flow-
because it requires knowing the pump flow rate; meters work relatively well on systems that have
in turn, knowing the flow rate requires knowing homogeneous fluids and long straight runs of
the pump head. However, since velocity head is pipe. However, the accuracy of these instruments
typically much smaller than the static head, by deteriorates if the fluid contains particulates or
making a reasonable assumption of the fluid vapor, or if the flow profile is not uniform.
velocity, the engineer can determine the approx-
imate velocity head. For example, in some cooling  Energy and Demand Charges—
systems, to minimize flow noise, a maximum flow Understanding Your Electricity Bill
velocity of 10 feet (ft) per second is used as a The calculations shown earlier use simplified
design guideline. This flow speed corresponds to electricity rate approximations stated in terms
a velocity head of 1.55 ft. The value of the error of dollars per kilowatt-hour ($/kWh). However,
associated with this number is probably minor electric utilities use more complicated rate struc-
in comparison to other errors associated with tures to bill industrial customers. These typically
estimated annual energy consumption. include both energy ($/kWh) and demand charges
($/kW), and they have different rates depending
on the level of consumption and the time of year.
Using a Pump Performance Curve To Demand charges are based on the peak demand for
a given month or season and can have significant
Determine Annual Electricity Costs
impacts on some customers’ electricity costs. When
the economic impacts of efficiency measures are
Annual electricity costs = (pump bhp)/(motor
calculated, the marginal cost of the electricity needs
efficiency) x (hours in a year) x (unit electricity cost)
to be considered, taking into account energy and
x (% of time operating) demand charges, seasonal rates, and different rates
Assumptions: for different levels of consumption.
· Either total pump head or pump flow
rate is known (must be fairly constant  Maintenance Considerations
throughout the year) An important aspect of any system improvement
· Motor efficiency = 95% is ensuring that its benefits continue well beyond
· Percentage of time running = 65% the payback period. To help prevent the system
(operating 65% of the year at the load from performing poorly again, proper operating
measured) and maintenance practices need to be followed.
· Unit electricity cost = $0.05/kWh
A continuous improvement approach can help to
For example: ensure that cost and performance benefits remain
· Total head = 155 feet in effect over the long term. An important part of
· Pump bhp (reading from the bhp line) = 11 hp this approach is increasing operators’ awareness of
Annual electricity costs = (11 bhp) x operating costs and the performance implications
(0.746 kW/hp) x (1/0.95) x (8,760 hrs) x (0.05$/kWh) of improper operation or maintenance.
x 0.65
Annual electricity costs = $2,459 Preventive maintenance (PM) is intended to
improve system reliability, reduce the risk of
61
unplanned downtime, and avoid expensive Plant and corporate managers are often bound by a
failures. In general, PM is less costly than repair. concern for a company’s profits when considering
A well-designed PM schedule minimizes the need the investment of capital funds. Decision makers
for repairs by detecting and resolving a problem are usually attuned to activities that translate
before it develops into something more serious. directly to the bottom line, such as projects that
increase productivity. Fortunately, many (if not
most) energy efficiency projects provide other
Analyze Life-Cycle Costs benefits in addition to energy cost savings, such
Before Making a Decision as the following:
In much the same way that a PM schedule ■ Increased productivity
minimizes expensive repairs, a well-designed ■ Lower maintenance costs
system can avoid higher-than-necessary operating
costs. Using a life-cycle cost perspective during ■ Reduced costs of environmental compliance
initial system design, or while planning system ■ Lower production costs
upgrades and modifications, can reduce operating
costs and improve system reliability. The ■ Reduced waste disposal costs
components of life-cycle costs include the cost
■ Better product quality
of initial equipment, energy consumption,
maintenance, and decommissioning; these are ■ Improved capacity utilization
discussed in more detail later in this section.
■ Better reliability
The life-cycle costs of pumps are difficult to ■ Improved worker safety.
summarize because, even among pumps of the
same size, initial costs vary widely. Other costs— Any potential efficiency improvement project
such as maintenance and disposal or decom- stands a better chance of being funded if it takes
missioning—can be difficult to quantify. Several into account all these costs and benefits over the
industry stakeholders have participated in efforts project’s anticipated lifespan. Understanding all
to encourage greater consideration of life-cycle the components that make up the total cost of
costs in pumping system specification and owning and operating a pumping system helps
operation. For example, the Hydraulic Institute, decision makers more easily recognize oppor-
a U.S. pump manufacturers trade association, has tunities to significantly reduce energy, operating,
developed a life-cycle costing guidebook7 to and maintenance costs.
increase industry experts’ awareness of the
subject. Life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis is a management
tool that can help companies realize these oppor-
A highly efficient pumping system is not merely tunities. The analysis takes into consideration the
a system with an energy-efficient motor. Overall cost of purchasing, installing, operating,
system efficiency is the key to maximum cost maintaining, and disposing of all the system’s
savings. Often, users are concerned only with components. Determining the LCC of a system
initial costs, and they accept the lowest bid for a involves using a methodology to identify and
component while ignoring system efficiency. To quantify all of the components of the LCC
achieve optimum pumping system economics, equation. As stated in the Hydraulic Institute’s
users should select equipment based on life-cycle LCC guidebook, the equation is as follows:
economics and operate and maintain the
equipment for peak performance. LCC = Cic + Cin + Ce + Co + Cm + Cs + Cenv + Cd
7
Pump Life Cycle Costs: A Guide to LCC Analysis for Pumping Systems, Europump and Hydraulic Institute, 2001, www.pumps.org.
62
where C = a cost element, and being evaluated. So it is necessary to calculate a

ic = initial cost or purchase price (e.g., present or discounted value of the LCC to assess
of the pump, system, pipe, auxiliary the different solutions accurately. As a result, other
equipment) financial factors need to be taken into consider-
in = installation and commissioning ation in developing the LCC. These include the
e = energy costs following:
o = operating costs (the labor costs for ■ Discount rate
normal system supervision)
m = maintenance costs (e.g., parts, ■ Interest rate
worker-hours) ■ Expected equipment life (calculation period)
s = downtime (loss of production)
env = environmental costs ■ Expected price increases for each LCC factor
d = decommissioning. over the estimated lifetime of the equipment.
These elements should also include the costs When used as a tool for comparing alternative
associated with loans, depreciation, and taxes. solutions, the LCC process will indicate the most
cost-effective one within the limits of available
The cost of the energy consumed by pumps is data. When applying the evaluation process, or
always a significant factor in pump life-cycle selecting pumps and other equipment, the best
costs. But many end users are already stretched information concerning the output and operation
of the plant must be obtained. Using bad or
thin in carrying out day-to-day facility operations.
imprecise information results in a bad or imprecise
They lack the time and resources needed to
assessment. The LCC process does not guarantee
perform a methodical engineering study of the
a particular result, but it does allow plant
pumps (sometimes hundreds of them) in their personnel to make a reasonable comparison
facilities that will show their energy costs as well between several alternatives.
as opportunities for savings.
LCC analysis is concerned with assessments in
For most facilities, lifetime energy costs or which the details of the system design are being
maintenance costs (or both) dominate life-cycle reviewed. To make a fair comparison, the plant
costs. It is thus important to determine as designer or manager should consider the unit of
accurately as possible the current cost of energy measure used. For example, if two items being
and the expected annual escalation in energy evaluated do not reflect the same volume of
prices over the system’s estimated life, along with output, it might be appropriate to express them in
expected labor and material costs for maintenance. terms of cost per unit of output (e.g., $/ton). The
Other elements, such as the lifetime costs of analysis should take into account all significant
downtime, decommissioning, and environmental differences between the solutions being evaluated.
protection (including disposal costs), can often be Finally, the plant designer or manager should
estimated using historical data for the facility. consider maintenance or servicing costs, for
Depending on the process, downtime costs can be example, when they will be subcontracted or when
more important than the energy or maintenance spare parts will be provided with the initial supply
elements of the equation. Careful consideration of equipment. Everything should be considered on
should thus be given to productivity losses caused a comparable basis. In other words, if the plant
by downtime. designer or manager decides to subcontract
maintenance or inventory spare parts strictly for
Pumping systems often have a lifespan of 15 to the sake of convenience, this criterion must be
20 years. Thus, some costs will be incurred at the used for all the systems assessed. However, if
outset and others will be incurred at different maintenance of a particular component can be
times during the lifetimes of the different solutions carried out only by a subcontracted specialist, or
63
certain spare parts must be inventoried to prevent Dividing the annual earnings attributable to the
downtime, then it is acceptable to include the cost sale of goods produced by these assets by the
of these measures by themselves. value of the assets themselves yields the rate of
return on assets. This is a key measure for which
For additional information on life-cycle cost anal- corporate decision makers are held accountable.
ysis for pumping systems, refer to the Hydraulic
Institute’s Pump Life Cycle Costs: A Guide to LCC Finance officers seek investments that are most apt
Analysis for Pumping Systems. This guide also to demonstrate a favorable return on assets. When
provides substantial technical guidance on design- faced with multiple investment opportunities,
ing new pumping systems as well as assessing these officers will favor options that lead to the
improvements to existing systems. It includes largest and fastest returns.
examples of manual calculations of LCC and a
software tool to assist in LCC calculation. The This corporate attitude can impose (sometimes
guide and accompanying LCC calculation tool are unwanted) priorities on the facility manager:
available through the Hydraulic Institute’s Web assure reliability in production, avoid surprises by
site (www.pumps.org). sticking with familiar technologies and practices,
and contribute to immediate cost control by, for
Sell Your Projects to Management example, cutting a few corners in maintenance
and upkeep. These priorities might lead industrial
Often, industrial facility managers must convince decision makers to conclude that pumping system
upper management that an investment in pumping efficiency is a luxury that they cannot afford.
system efficiency is worth making. Communi-
cating this message can be more difficult than the Fortunately, the story does not end here. The
actual engineering behind the concept, however. A following discussion describes the ways that
corporate audience usually responds more readily industrial pumping system efficiency can save
to dollars-and-cents impacts than to a discussion money and contribute to corporate goals while
of best efficiency points. By adopting a financial effectively reducing energy consumption. Facility
approach, the facility manager can relate pumping managers can use these facts to form a persuasive
system performance and efficiency to corporate case for corporate support of pumping system
goals. Finance personnel can help facility managers improvements.
create the kind of proposal that can “win over” the
corporate officers who make the final decision on Many organizations consider only the initial
capital investments in pumping system upgrades. purchase and installation costs of a system.
However, plant designers and managers will
Before providing some recommendations to justify benefit from evaluating the LCC of different
pumping system improvement projects, it is useful solutions before installing major new equipment
to gain some insight into corporate priorities. or carrying out a major overhaul, to identify the
most financially attractive alternative. As national
 Understanding Corporate Priorities and global markets continue to become more
Corporate officers are accountable to a chief competitive, organizations continually seek cost
executive, a board of directors, and an owner (or savings to improve the profitability of their
shareholders, if the firm is publicly held). These operations. Plant operations can be a significant
officers must create and grow the equity value of source of savings, especially because energy-
the firm. The corporation’s industrial facilities do efficient equipment can minimize energy
so by generating revenue that exceeds the cost of consumption and plant downtime.
owning and operating the facility. Plant equip-
ment—including pumping system components— For new pumping system procurements, note
are assets that must generate an economic return. that new piping system design technology uses
64
numerical optimization techniques, which provide A simple (and widely used) measure of project
a practical way to treat the pipe system as a economics is the payback period. This is the
variable at the design stage. A well-designed period of time required for a project to “break
system will last longer than other types, and this even” in terms of costs—the time needed for the
should be taken into account in an LCC analysis. net benefits of an investment to accrue to the point
where they equal the cost of the initial outlay. For
The LCC analysis is also a valuable tool to use a project that returns benefits in consistent, annual
when comparing alternative retrofit designs for increments, the simple payback equals the initial
existing pumping systems. Opportunities for investment divided by the annual benefit.
upgrading existing systems can be found in the
inefficiencies that develop over time—such as The simple payback does not take into account the
changing system requirements, routine wear and time value of money; in other words, it makes no
tear, and poorly optimized controls. Furthermore, distinction between a dollar earned today and a
the installed base of pumping systems exceeds the dollar of future (and thus uncertain) earnings. Still,
number of new pumps built each year by a factor the measure is easy to use and understand, and
of about 20. many companies use simple payback in making a
quick “go/no-go” decision on a project. Here are
 Measuring the Dollar Impact of Pumping five important factors to remember when calcu
System Efficiency lating a simple payback:
Pumping system efficiency and performance ■ It is an approximation, not an exact economic
improvement projects can move to the top of the
analysis
list of corporate priorities if proposals respond to
corporate needs. Corporate challenges are many ■ All benefits are measured without considering
and varied, and this in turn opens up more their timing
opportunities to “sell” pumping system efficiency ■ All economic consequences beyond the payback
as a solution. Many pumping system opportunities
are ignored
for improvement are discussed in this sourcebook.
Once selections are made, the task becomes one of ■ Payback calculations will not always identify
communicating the proposals in corporate the best solution (because of the two factors
(dollars-and-cents) language. listed before this one) among several project
options
The first step is to identify and evaluate the total
■ Paybacks do not take into consideration the
dollar impact of a pumping system efficiency
time value of money or tax consequences.
measure. One proven way to do this is through
an LCC analysis, as discussed earlier. The result—
More sophisticated analyses take into account
a net gain or loss on balance—can be compared
factors such as discount rates, tax impacts, and the
with other investment options or with the
cost of capital. One approach involves calculating
anticipated outcome of doing nothing.
the net present value of a project, which is defined
in this equation:
 Presenting the Finances of Pumping
System Improvements Net present value = present worth of benefits –
As with any corporate investment, there are many present worth of costs.
ways to measure the financial impact of a
pumping system investment. Some methods are Another commonly used calculation for determin-
more complex than others, and presenters might ing the economic feasibility of a project is internal
want to use several of them side by side. That rate of return. This is defined as the discount rate
choice will depend on the sophistication of the that equates future net benefits (cash) to an initial
presenter and the audience. investment outlay. This discount rate can be
65
compared to the interest rate at which a cor- proposal will generate. Multiplying that earnings
poration borrows capital. increment by the P/E ratio yields the total new
shareholder value attributable to the pumping
Many companies set a threshold (or “hurdle”) system efficiency improvement.
rate for projects, which is the minimum required
internal rate of return needed for a project to be Improved reliability and capacity utilization.
considered viable. Future benefits are discounted Another benefit of a pumping system improve-
at the threshold rate, and the net present worth ment project is the more productive use of
of the project must be positive in order for the pumping system assets. The efforts required to
project to be a “go.” achieve and maintain energy efficiency will
largely contribute to operating efficiency. By
improving pumping system performance, the
 Relating Pumping System Efficiency
facility manager can improve the reliability of
to Corporate Priorities
plant operations. The flip side, from the corporate
Saving money in itself should be a strong incen-
perspective, is a greater rate of return on assets
tive for implementing a pumping system project.
employed in the plant.
Still, that may not be enough for some corporate
decision makers. The facility manager’s case can
 Call to Action
be strengthened by relating a positive life-cycle
A proposal for a pumping system improvement
cost outcome to specific corporate needs. Some
project can be made attractive to corporate
suggestions for interpreting the benefits of energy
decision makers if the facility manager does
cost savings include the following (finance staff
the following:
can suggest which of these approaches are best,
given the current corporate climate): ■ Identifies opportunities for improving pumping
system efficiency
A new source of permanent capital. Reduced
energy expenditures—the direct benefit of pump-
■ Determines the life-cycle cost of attaining
ing system efficiency—can be thought of as a new each option
source of capital to the corporation. The invest- ■ Identifies the option(s) with the greatest net
ment that makes this efficiency possible will yield benefits
annual savings each year over the economic life of
the improved pumping system. Regardless of how ■ Collaborates with financial staff to identify
the investment is financed—borrowing, retained current corporate priorities (for example, added
earnings, or third-party financing—the annual shareholder value and improved capacity
savings will be a continuing source of funds. utilization)
■ Generates a proposal that demonstrates how the
Added shareholder value. Publicly held corpor- pumping system project’s benefits will directly
ations usually embrace opportunities to enhance respond to current corporate needs.
shareholder value. Pumping system efficiency can
be an effective way to capture new value. Share- Developing successful energy projects begins with
holder value is the product of two variables: laying the groundwork to support the project.
annual earnings and the price-to-earnings (P/E) Ideally, it starts with a facility reward program that
ratio. The P/E ratio describes the corporation’s has a system for pursuing cost savings projects and
stock value as the current stock price divided by compensates employees for their efforts. However,
the most recent annual earnings per share. To take most of the time the groundwork is done by a
advantage of this measure, a pumping system motivated individual who takes pride in the job
efficiency proposal should first identify annual and is inspired by what other facilities have done.
savings (or rather, addition to earnings) that the To overcome the obstacles often encountered and
66
enhance the chances for success, the following

“pre-presentation tasks” are recommended. 4. Obtain outside support to validate your
recommendation. In many cases, facility
1. Get support from a key member of managers who have identified attractive cost
management before pursuing energy projects. savings opportunities find that they need third-
The most successful facility energy evaluations party input to validate a project for management
and projects begin with a commitment from or to fill in missing details. Sources include
management to invest resources in pursuing consultants, other end users, and technical
financial gains through energy efficiency improve- resources that are often available through electric
ments. Without management’s commitment, great utility programs and equipment suppliers. The
energy-saving projects can sit on the shelf for section on resources and tools in this sourcebook
years. It might seem obvious that some projects can be helpful in guiding the end user to these
should be pursued immediately, but without sources of assistance.
support or recognition from management, the
extra work and added responsibility may not be Often, a local utility can help determine what
worth it to some individuals. potential financial incentives might be available to
improve the cost-effectiveness of a project. DOE
Support from management should also include BestPractices software—such as MotorMaster+
defining an acceptable cost/benefit ratio and and the PSAT—can also support savings
identifying project funding sources. Ultimately, calculations.
financial parameters for evaluating larger projects
using LCC analyses should also be included. 5. Present your project. Projects can be presented
as stand-alone efforts or as part of a comprehen-
2. Obtain input from key department personnel sive energy project with multiple recommendations
before proposing a project to management. developed from a facility energy study. Ultimately,
Discussing projects with key maintenance or each project should be presented on a one- or two-
operations staff provides insight into issues that page project profile that is sometimes called an
can be resolved early. Solutions usually involve energy conservation measure, or ECM.
accommodating concerns or including features
that will help solve existing problems. Case Projects can also be identified as operational
studies can be used to show staff how similar measures when minimal investment is required, or
projects were successfully implemented and to energy supply measures when cogeneration or rate
help them reach the level of comfort needed to schedule changes are pursued. The project profile
accept new technology or even to enthusiastically typically includes a brief description of the
support the project. project, implementation steps, and a project cost
and savings summary. It is also important to
3. Begin with simple projects to increase your include more in-depth calculations, equipment
chances of success. Confidence in the success of cut sheets, and cost spreadsheets, or to make
cost-saving projects can be built by implementing them available.
small, “low-tech” projects that show measurable
savings. One of management’s greatest fears is These steps are a sample of what can be done to
approving an expensive energy-savings project successfully obtain approval for a project. To fully
that does not deliver the projected savings. This develop a project, additional data collection,
is especially important when considering new financial analysis, development of a performance
technologies. Facility managers who start with contract request for proposals, and savings
small, energy-saving projects with measurable monitoring and verification may also be needed.
results often find that future cost-saving projects
are approved quickly.
67
In summary, increasing the awareness of all

facility personnel about the benefits of improved
pumping system efficiency and performance is
an important step in increasing the competitive-
ness of energy-intensive industries.
68
Section 4. Where To Find Help
Section 4: Where To Find Help
Overview DOE Industrial Technologies

This section lists resources that can help end users Program and BestPractices
improve the performance of pumping systems Industrial manufacturing consumes 36% of all
cost-effectively. Various programs involved in the the energy used in the United States. Therefore,
pump marketplace are described, including these: the DOE Industrial Technologies Program was
■ The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) established to assist industry in achieving signifi-
Industrial Technologies Program (ITP) and cant energy and process efficiency improvements.
its BestPractices activities; this national effort ITP develops and delivers advanced energy
is aimed at improving the performance of efficiency, renewable energy, and pollution-
industrial energy use, particularly in steam, prevention technologies and practices for many
compressed air, pumping, and process heating industrial applications. The program works with
systems the nation’s most energy- and resource-intensive
industries to develop a vision of their future and
■ The Hydraulic Institute (HI), a trade association roadmaps on how to achieve these visions over
for manufacturers of pumps and suppliers to the a 20-year timeframe.
pump industry; Pump Systems MatterTM, HI’s
educational and market transformation initiative, This collaborative process aligns industry goals
addresses energy optimization and the total cost with federal resources to accelerate research and
of pump ownership development (R&D) of advanced technologies that
■ Associations and other organizations involved industry has identified as priorities. The advance-
in the pumping system marketplace. ment of efficient technologies is complemented
by ITP energy management best practices for
This section also provides information on books immediate savings results. ITP BestPractices helps
and reports, other publications, government industries identify and realize their best energy
and commercial statistics and market forecasts, efficiency and pollution-prevention options from
software, training courses, and other sources of a system and life-cycle cost perspective.
information. This information is intended to help
end users make informed equipment purchase and In particular, ITP BestPractices offers several
system design decisions regarding pumping resources for pumping system energy manage-
systems. ment. These resources complement technology
development programs that address motor, fan,
The information in this section is current as of the compressed air, process heat, combined heat and
publication date of this sourcebook. Please check power, and steam systems, in addition to the
the ITP BestPractices Web site (www.eere.energy. activities of the Industrial Assessment Centers and
gov/industry/bestpractices) for updates and for the financing assistance efforts. Collectively, these
latest versions of DOE publications, software, and efforts assist industry in adopting near- and long-
other materials referenced here. (Note that DOE term energy-efficient practices and technologies.
cannot guarantee the currency of information Through activities such as plant-wide energy
produced by other organizations.) assessments, implementation of emerging
technologies, and energy management of industrial
69
systems, ITP BestPractices delivers energy solutions cost savings. ITP offers software tools and training
for industry that result in significant energy and in a variety of system areas to help industry
cost savings, waste reduction, pollution prevention, become more energy- and process-efficient while
and enhanced environmental performance. reducing waste and improving environmental
performance.
 Plant Assessments
Depending on the industry, energy costs can be  Allied Partnerships
10% or more of a plant’s total operating costs. Allied Partners are manufacturers, associations,
Energy assessments identify opportunities for industrial service and equipment providers,
implementing new technologies and system utilities, and other organizations that work
improvements. Many recommendations from voluntarily with ITP. Allied Partners seek to
energy assessments have payback periods of less increase energy efficiency and productivity for
than 18 months and can result in significant energy industries that participate in endorsing and
savings. promoting ITP programs, products, and services.
Plant-wide assessments help manufacturers develop Allied Partnerships help ITP achieve the program’s
comprehensive plant strategies to increase efficiency, industrial energy efficiency goals by extending
reduce emissions, and boost productivity. Annual delivery channels through the partners’ existing
competitive solicitations offer matching funds. In networks. In turn, the partners benefit by achieving
addition, small- to medium-sized manufacturers can their own corporate, institutional, or plant goals
qualify for free assessments from the university-based and objectives and by expanding services to
Industrial Assessment Centers. customers and suppliers. Allied Partners also gain
access to such technical resources as software,
 Emerging Technologies technical publications, and training, and they can
Emerging technologies are those that result from gain recognition as leaders in implementing
R&D and are ready for full-scale demonstration in energy-efficient technologies and practices. For
actual applications. ITP recognizes that companies more on Allied Partnerships, contact the EERE
may be reluctant to invest capital in new technol- Information Center at 877-337-3463.
ogies, even though they can provide significant
energy savings and process improvements.  Technical Resources
However, through technology implementation ITP offers a variety of resources to help industry
solicitations, ITP helps to mitigate the risk increase energy and process efficiency, improve
associated with using new technologies that are productivity, and enhance competitiveness.
supported by industry partnerships. Shared
implementation and third-party validation and EERE Information Center. The EERE Infor-
verification of performance data allow energy, mation Center fields questions on EERE products
economic, and environmental benefits to be and services, including those focused on industrial
assessed so that new technologies can be accepted energy efficiency. Staff can also answer questions
more rapidly. about such industrial systems as compressed air,
motors, process heating, and steam. The EERE
 Energy Management Information Center can be the first stop in finding
ITP encourages manufacturers to adopt a compre- out what’s available from EERE and ITP. Contact
hensive approach to energy use that includes the EERE Information Center at 877-337-3463 or
assessing industrial systems and evaluating see www.eere.energy.gov/informationcenter.
potential improvement opportunities. Efficiency
gains in compressed air, motor, process heating, ITP and ITP BestPractices Web Sites. The ITP
pumping, and steam systems can be significant, and ITP BestPractices Web pages offer a large
and they usually result in immediate energy and array of information, products, and resources
70
to assist manufacturers who are interested in selection and management software tool; it
increasing the efficiency of their industrial includes a catalog of more than 20,000 ac
operations. You can learn about upcoming events, motors. The software also features motor
solicitations, and much more by visiting the inventory management tools, maintenance log
ITP site at www.eere.energy.gov/industry. The tracking, efficiency analysis, savings evaluation,
BestPractices site provides case studies of energy accounting, and environmental reporting
companies that have successfully implemented capabilities.
energy-efficient technologies and practices,
■ MotorMaster+ International includes many of
software tools, tip sheets, training events, and
the capabilities and features of MotorMaster+
solicitations for plant assessments. You can view
but allows users to evaluate repair/replacement
these and other resources at www.eere.energy.gov/
options on a broader range of motors. The user
industry/bestpractices.
can conduct analyses in different currencies,
calculate efficiency benefits for various utility
Industrial Energy Savers Web Site. Manufac-
rate schedules with demand charges, edit and
turers will find a number of resources on this site
modify motor rewind efficiency loss defaults,
to implement industrial energy efficiency projects
and determine “best available” motors. This
and see immediate savings. See www.eere.energy.
tool can be operated in English, Spanish, and
gov/consumerinfo/industry.
French.
 Training ■ The Pumping System Assessment Tool
Training sessions in industrial system improve- (PSAT) helps industrial users assess the
ments using DOE software tools are offered efficiency of pumping system operations. PSAT
periodically through Allied Partners. A particularly uses achievable pump performance data from
useful training session involves the Pumping Hydraulic Institute standards as well as motor
System Assessment Tool (PSAT). See the performance data from the MotorMaster+
discussion on the PSAT tool in Appendix B. More database to calculate potential savings in
information on PSAT training and other training energy and associated costs.
offerings can be found on the BestPractices Web
■ The Steam System Scoping Tool is designed
site, www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices.
to help steam system energy managers and
operations personnel for large industrial plants.
 Software Tools
This spreadsheet program will profile and grade
ITP and its partners have developed several
steam system operations and management.
software tools to help plant managers make good
It will help you evaluate your steam system
decisions about implementing efficient practices in
operations against identified best practices.
their manufacturing facilities.
■ The Steam System Assessment Tool (SSAT)
■ AirMaster+ is a software tool developed by
uses a graphical model of a generic steam
EERE BestPractices and jointly sponsored by
system for up to three steam pressure headers
the Compressed Air ChallengeTM. AIRMaster+
(high, medium, and low). You can enter data
helps end users assess the potential for
for your own plant conditions, including fuel
efficiency and productivity improvements in
type and cost, electricity, water costs, initial
compressed air systems without bias to any
boiler efficiency, header pressures, and turbine
particular technology, organization, or product.
efficiencies.
The software allows users to run a number of
“what-if” scenarios to determine which energy ■ 3E-Plus Insulation Appraisal Software.
efficiency measures have the greatest savings Because insulation is used in many process
potential for their facility. heating systems and almost all steam systems,
restoration, replacement, and/or installation of
■ MotorMaster+ is an energy-efficient motor
missing insulation are common improvement
71
opportunities. A lack of awareness regarding  Newsletters

energy losses and associated costs often means ■ The Industrial Technologies Program E-Bulletin
assigning a low priority to restoring or properly is a monthly online newsletter that spotlights
installing insulation on system surfaces. As a technologies, significant project developments,
result, a software program known as 3E-Plus and program activities; new ITP products;
was developed by the North American Insula- training and events; Web updates; and new
tion Manufacturers Association (NAIMA) to solicitations. The E-Bulletin provides readers
inform system operations and management with links to source information on ITP and IAC
personnel of the benefits of insulation and to Web sites. To subscribe, go to www.eere.energy.
assist them in assessing insulation needs. gov/industry/resources/ebulletin/.
 Qualified Specialists ■ Energy Matters is a quarterly online publication
Qualified Specialists have extensive backgrounds written by the Industrial Technologies Program.
in optimizing systems that are being assessed. It contains news, articles, technical tips, and
Individuals become qualified by taking DOE- case studies of interest to industrial end users.
sponsored training on the software and passing a Energy Matters articles cover energy efficiency
rigorous exam. For more information on how to opportunities, technical issues, new products and
contact a Qualified Specialist or become one, see services, and events related to process heating
www.eere.energy.doe.gov/industry/bestpractices. systems and other industrial utilities, such as
Pump-Specific Resources
Software: The Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) Tip Sheets: To increase industry’s awareness about
software helps industrial users assess the efficiency of the wealth of opportunities that exist to improve many
pumping system operations. PSAT uses achievable pump different kinds of industrial systems, the Industrial
performance data from Hydraulic Institute standards as well Technologies Program develops Pumping Tip Sheets
as motor performance data from the MotorMaster+ database through its BestPractices activity.
to calculate potential energy and associated cost savings. Tip sheets currently available:
For more information on PSAT, see Appendix B. 1. Conduct an In-Plant Pumping System Survey
2. Pump Selection Considerations
Training: Pumping System Assessment. This one-day 3. Select an Energy-Efficient Centrifugal Pump
training session provides an in-depth discussion of energy 4. Test for Pumping System Efficiency
efficiency factors for pumping systems, emphasizing the 5. Maintain Pumping Systems Effectively
system as a whole rather than just components. Indicators 6. Match Pumps to System Requirements
and symptoms of potential energy reduction opportunities are 9. Reduce Pumping Costs Through Optimum Pipe Sizing
discussed. Application and use of the PSAT software is also
covered. This training was developed to introduce users to Tip sheets in development:
the software (a CD with the PSAT software is provided) and to 7. Trim or Replace Impellers on Oversized Pumps
provide guidance on field measurement considerations. For 8. Optimize Parallel Pumping Systems
more on the PSAT, see Appendix B. 10. Reduce Energy Losses Across Control Valves
11. Adjustable Speed Pumping Applications
Qualified Pump System Specialist Training. This two- 12. Control Strategies for Centrifugal Pumps with
day training session covers the energy efficiency factors Variable Flow Rates
addressed in the one-day Pumping System Assessment Tip sheets contain concise descriptions of common
training session and provides case studies and additional opportunities for improving industrial energy and process
instruction on the use of the PSAT software. It concludes with efficiency. To access the tip sheets, including the newest
a written exam, and those successfully completing the exam ones, see www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices.
are recognized as Qualified Pump System Specialists.
72
motor, steam, and compressed air systems. HI maintains the secretariat for the International
To subscribe online, go to www.eere.energy.gov/ Standards Organization (ISO)/TC-115 U.S. Tech-
industry/bestpractices/energy_matters.html, and nical Advisory Group and votes on behalf of U.S.
click on “subscribe today.” pump manufacturers on ISO pump standards. HI is
also the secretariat to ISO/TC-115 Subcommittee
■ Steaming Ahead is a bimonthly e-mail news- 3(SC3) and thus plays an influential role in the
letter published by the Alliance to Save Energy, development of international pump standards.
which coordinates BestPractices Steam out-
reach and promotion. The newsletter describes  Education
the activities and information products of the HI programs include many educational opportu
BestPractices Steam effort, and it promotes best- nities for members. Suppliers to the pump industry,
in-class practices and technology applications eligible to join as associate members, make
in steam system design and management. technical presentations on pump systems and the
Additional information on Steaming Ahead use of a variety of products, including seals,
can be found at www.steamingahead.org. couplings, drivers, housing, controls and
instrumentation, and pump-specific software.
Hydraulic Institute Systems integrators are also eligible to join HI.
The Hydraulic Institute (HI) is the largest
In cooperation with DOE, HI developed a video-
association of pump producers and suppliers in based education program titled “Energy Reduction
North America. The Institute’s vision is to be a in Pumps and Pumping Systems.” HI’s e-learning
global authority on pumps and pumping systems. portal, www.pumplearning.org, includes the
Its mission is to be a value-adding resource to Institute’s first online course: “Centrifugal Pumps:
member companies and pump users worldwide by Fundamentals, Design and Applications.” HI
■ Developing and delivering comprehensive welcomes ideas and outlines for future courses and
industry standards seeks relationships with other organizations
interested in offering or funding future course
■ Expanding knowledge by providing education development under a sponsorship arrangement.
and tools for the effective application, testing,
installation, operation, and maintenance of
 Statistics
pumps and pumping systems HI conducts a comprehensive statistics program
■ Serving as a forum for the exchange of industry exclusively for U.S. pump manufacturers who are
information. members. Up to nine different surveys are
published that track monthly bookings, quarterly
 Standards shipments by product and market, quarterly rebuild
HI develops and publishes pump standards and is and overhaul, semiannual market reports of export
certified by the American National Standards bookings by geographic region and market, and
Institute (ANSI). Currently, 25 different standards annual shipments by discharge size (exclusively
are in print, covering centrifugal, vertical, rotary, for HI members). HI has developed a “load
factoring” program for estimating, on a monthly
reciprocating, and air-operated pumps. Additional
and quarterly basis, pump bookings and shipments
ones in development include new standards for
for the entire U.S. industry. Two human resources
viscosity correction, slurry pumps, and controlled
surveys and one operating ratio survey are
volume metering pumps. ANSI/HI pump test
conducted annually. Working closely with the
standards are also referenced in other pump
Bureau of the Census in the U.S. Department of
standards, such as ANSI B-73, API 610, and ISO
Commerce, HI has been instrumental in refining
13709. More than 80% of pump tests performed in the Pumps and Compressors Current Industrial
the United States are conducted in accordance with Report (MA333P) to better serve the needs of
HI pump test standards. the industry.
73
 Mutual Cooperation  Publications and Standards

HI and Europump, a federation of 15 national The Institute offers for sale an extensive collection
European pump associations, have a mutual of pump standards, guidebooks, the HI Engineer-
cooperation agreement for exchanging delegates ing Data Book, and other publications of interest
at annual meetings, cooperating on technical to users, contractors, and pump manufacturers
documents and standards, and working toward the worldwide; these represent nearly 2,000 pages of
harmonization of pump industry data worldwide. pump knowledge. Standards are available in hard
Several publications, including life-cycle costing copy, CD-ROM, downloadable PDF, or Web-based
and variable speed pumping guidebooks, have subscription formats. To order, visit the HI Web
been produced under this agreement. HI member- site, www.pumps.org, which includes a free Master
ship is also represented on technical matters in Index to standards and a downloadable brochure.
other U.S. trade associations, including the Orders may also be faxed to the publications
National Electrical Manufacturers Association department at 973-267-9055 or requested via
(NEMA), the American Society of Mechanical e-mail at publications@pumps.org.
Engineers, the National Fire Protection Associa-
tion, the American Petroleum Institute, the HI regularly updates published ANSI/HI pump
American Water Works Association, the American standards for centrifugal, vertical, rotary, and
Society for Testing and Materials, the American reciprocating pumps. The HI Engineering Data
Boiler Manufacturers Association, the Fluid Book is essential for those dealing with pumps and
Sealing Association, and the Submersible fluid-handling characteristics.
Wastewater Pump Association.
Educational products include Energy Reduction in
HI became a DOE Allied Partner on May 1, 2000, Pumps and Pumping Systems, an eight-hour-long
and had been a Charter Partner of the Motor video education program produced with DOE that
Challenge program with DOE for many years. includes three student workbooks, answer books,
In 2002, HI endorsed the NEMA Premium motor and an instructor’s manual for use by individuals
efficiency program. HI also works with DOE to or in a classroom setting. Launched in 2003,
provide Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) “Centrifugal Pumps: Fundamentals, Design and
training. Applications” is available at www.pumplearning.
org. Other courses are planned as resources
 Pump Systems Matter become available.
HI initiatives that benefit pump users include the
educational outreach described above and a new HI and Europump developed two comprehensive
national pump systems education initiative, Pump users’ guides, titled Pump Life Cycle Costs: A
Systems Matter™ (PSM), to advance the concepts Guide to LCC Analysis of Pumps and Pumping
of life-cycle cost, energy savings, and optimized Systems, and Variable Speed Pumping: A Guide to
pump system performance. HI works with DOE Successful Applications. These guidebooks,
and many other organizations to develop available at www.pumps.org, are valuable aids in
educational tools and training, certification the selection and procurement of pumps for
programs, and outreach. PSM seeks to provide different applications. They are available through
North American pump users with a more HI; for downloadable executive summaries, visit
competitive business advantage through strategic, www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices or
broad-based energy management and pump system www.pumps.org.
performance optimization. Details on PSM can be
found at www.pumpsystemsmatter.org.
74
 Web Sites is designed to help pump users quickly determine

The HI Web site, www.pumps.org, is a valuable whether a pumping system is operating effectively.
resource for both pump users and manufacturers. (See the Pumping System Assessment Tool fact
This Web site includes information on HI, its sheet for more information.) Also, ITP works
activities, and its publications, as well as a variety in cooperation with the Hydraulic Institute on
of resources on pumping system design and pumping efficiency. For more information, see
selection, energy savings, and other topics. The HI the Hydraulic Institute summary in this section.
Supplier Finder feature allows users to quickly
locate pump manufacturers and leading suppliers EERE Information Center
in several different ways. Pump definitions and P.O. Box 43171
terminology, pump family trees, and numerous Olympia, WA 98504-3171
other resources are available on this popular site. Phone: 877-337-3463
www.eere.energy.gov/informationcenter/
HI’s e-learning site, www.pumplearning.org, is a
valuable resource for those who design, specify, or The DOE EERE (Energy Efficiency and
apply centrifugal and vertical pumps. And its first Renewable Energy) Information Center provides
online course, “Centrifugal Pumps: Fundamentals, technical information on several industrial utility
Design and Application,” is available on the Web systems, including pumps, compressed air, motors,
and on a CD-ROM. HI is seeking sponsors for combined heat and power, process heating, and
steam. The EERE Information Center is staffed by
other, similar online learning courses, as the Institute
engineers and technical experts who are trained
continues to build a curriculum of e-learning
to provide information about DOE resources and
programs for members and other pump users.
tools that are available to industry. To reach the
EERE Information Center, call 877-337-3463 or
Directory of Contacts e-mail eereic@ee.doe.gov.
This section provides a list of associations and
other organizations involved in the pump system Information is also available on the ITP
marketplace. The following organizations can BestPractices Web site, at www.eere.energy.gov/
provide more information on improving the industry/bestpractices. This site contains current
performance of pumps and pumping systems. information on planned workshops and training
opportunities in areas such as pumping systems
United States Department of Energy optimization.
1000 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, D.C. 20585 Hydraulic Institute (HI)
www.energy.gov 9 Sylvan Way
Parsippany, NJ 07054-3802
DOE produces many reports and studies on energy- Phone: 973-267-9700
related technologies, including those for industry. Fax: 973-267-9055
DOE is involved in several activities that are www.pumps.org and www.pumplearning.org
related to industrial pumping systems, including
the development and publishing of this sourcebook. HI is a nonprofit industry association for
manufacturers of pumps and pump systems that
DOE Industrial Technologies Program promotes the effective, efficient, and economic
1000 Independence Avenue, SW use of pump products worldwide. HI develops
Washington, D.C. 20585 standards that define and control the performance,
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/ testing, life, and quality of pumps and pump
products for manufacturers, purchasers, and pump
ITP sponsors workshops on pump systems optimi- users. These voluntary standards help purchasers
zation. A software tool is currently available that select the pump best suited to a particular need.
75
All HI standards are developed in accordance with Resources and Tools

ANSI guidelines. HI is also a source of other pump-
This section provides information on books
related publications and educational products.
and reports, other publications, government
and commercial statistics and market forecasts,
A DOE BestPractices Allied Partner, HI has worked
software, training courses, and other sources of
with the DOE Industrial Technologies Program over
information that can help users make informed
the past decade on a variety of cooperative efforts
purchasing and system design decisions. A
related to pumping systems efficiency and training.
wide range of information is available on pump
EERE contributed to the development of the HI/
applications. This section focuses on resources
Europump life-cycle costing and variable speed
and tools in the following formats:
pumping guidebooks, and HI has co-sponsored
sessions of the DOE-developed PSAT Specialist • Books, Manuals, and Reports
Qualification workshops. HI’s Web site includes an • Magazines and Periodicals
energy savings section that features downloadable • Government and Commercial Statistics
DOE tools, resources, software, and case studies. and Market Forecasts
Other HI-DOE projects include a video-based
• Software
education program on “Energy Reduction in Pumps
& Pumping Systems,” co-authored trade journal • Training Courses
articles on energy-efficient pumping systems, and • Online Technical Information
training workshops offered to the municipal water
and wastewater industry. Note: The descriptions accompanying the
following sources have generally been taken
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) directly from the publisher/author/developer.
11 West 42nd Street Inclusion of these sources does not imply
New York, NY 10036 endorsement by the U.S. Department of Energy.
Phone: 212-642-4900
Fax: 212-398-0023 Books, Manuals, and Reports
ANSI is a private, nonprofit membership Butterworth-Heinemann (Gulf Publishing)
organization whose goal is administration and 200 Wheeler Road, 6th floor
coordination of standards for a broad range of Burlington MA 01803
goods and services for the United States. ANSI Phone: 781-221-2212
maintains a number of codes developed by the www.bh.com
Hydraulic Institute and other organizations for
centrifugal pumps, positive displacement pumps, Centrifugal Pumps: Design and Application,
and fire-protection pumps. 2nd Edition
Authors: Val S. Lobanoff and Robert R. Ross
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Description: This book includes the following
345 E. 47th Street chapters: Specific Speed & Modeling Laws;
New York, NY 10017‑2392 Impeller Design; General Pump Design;
Phone: 800-843-2473 Volute Design; Design of Multi-Stage Casing;
Fax: 202-429-9417 Double-Suction Pumps & Side-Suction Design;
NPSH; Vertical Pumps; Pipeline, Waterflood
ASME is a professional society with interests & CO2 Pumps; High Speed Pumps; Double-
in the design and operation of machines and Case Pumps; Slurry Pumps; Hydraulic Power
components. ASME reports on technology Recovery Turbines; Chemical Pumps – Metallic
developments that can impact material selection & Nonmetallic; Shaft Design & Axial Thrust;
and pump design. Mechanical Seals; Vibration & Noise in Pumps;
76
Alignment; Rolling Element Bearings & design, piping layout, instrumentation, heating
Lubrication; and Mechanical Seal Reliability. and ventilating, and noise control.
Published: May 1992 Published: February 2001
ISBN: 087201200X ISBN: 0750694831
Hermetic Pumps: The Latest Innovations and Concepts ETI

Industrial Applications of Sealless Pumps 39 Olympia Avenue
Editor: Robert Neumaier Woburn, MA 01801-2073
Description: This book reviews past achievements Phone: 781-935-9050
and provides the impetus for further development www.conceptseti.com
of sealless pumps. Analyses of the present state of
technology of hermetic centrifugal pumps and Centrifugal Pump Design and Performance
rotary displacement pumps are provided, along Author: David Japikse
with detailed descriptions of the design, perfor- Description: This book begins with a survey of
mance, and application of such machines. various pump designs and describes parameters to
Published: July 1997 order and categorize the diverse field. It describes
ISBN: 0884158012 in detail the physics of various types of flows,
how to model them, and how to maintain stable
Practical Machinery Management for operation. The process of pump design is de-
Process Plants, Vol. 1-4 scribed, from blade layout and analysis to testing
Authors: H.P. Bloch and F.K. Geitner and design optimization.
Description: A four-volume series of books for Published: September 2000
machinery management at process plants. ISBN: 0471361003
Volume 1: Improving Machinery Reliability
(3rd Edition) Hydrodynamics of Pumps
Volume 2: Machinery Failure Analysis and Author: Christopher Brennen
Troubleshooting (3rd Edition) Description: This work from Oxford Science
Volume 3: Machinery Component Maintenance covers the theory of pumps and fluid flow. Among
and Repair (2nd Edition) the topics are cavitation damage, parameters and
Volume 4: Major Process Equipment Maintenance inception; bubble dynamics, damage, and noise;
and Repair (2nd Edition) pump vibration; unsteady flow; and radial and
Each book provides a thorough analysis of its rotodynamic forces.
respective title subject with field-proven Published: July 1995
techniques and includes graphs and illustrations. ISBN: 0933283075
Pumps are covered in-depth in every volume.
Published: September 1998 (Vol. 1); September
CRC Press
1997 (Vol. 2), October 1990 (Vol. 3); April 1985
2000 NW Corporate Boulevard
(Vol. 4)
Boca Raton, FL 33431
ISBN: 0884156613 (Vol. 1), 0884156621 (Vol. 2),
0872017818 (Vol. 3), 0872014541 (Vol. 4) Phone: 561-994-0555
www.crcpress.com
Pumping Station Design, 2nd Edition
Author: Robert L. Sanks Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps: Fundamentals
Description: This book covers all phases of the with Applications
design of pumping facilities for water, wastewater, Author: Lev Nelik
and treatment plant sludges. Topics include Description: This book relates the fundamental
hydraulic fundamentals, electricity and theory of principles of the operation of kinetic and positive
pumps, selection of pumps and drivers, system displacement pumps to specific applications and
77
user needs. The book includes information on The Practical Pumping Handbook
the historical background, recent trends and Author: Ross Mackay
developments, and actual field trouble-shooting Description: This practical handbook covers the
cases in which the causes for each problem are basics of all types of pumping systems. Mechanics,
traced back to pump fundamentals. hydraulics, and cavitation are discussed, as well as
Published: March 1999 pump selection, installation and troubleshooting.
ISBN: 0849307015 Materials, friction losses, and fluid properties are
also covered.
Elsevier Science Published: June 2004
P.O. Box 945 ISBN: 1856174107
New York, NY 10159
Phone: 800-545-2522 Pump Users Handbook, 4th Edition
www.elsevier.com Author: R. Rayner
Description: This book assists users in ordering
Centrifugal Pumps and Allied Machinery, 4th Edition pump equipment and recognizing fundamental
Author: Harold Anderson operating problems. The principles of pumping,
Description: This book is designed for engineers hydraulics, and fluids are discussed, as are the
and designers concerned with centrifugal pumps various criteria necessary for pump and ancillary
and turbines and includes statistical information equipment selection.
derived from 20,000 pumps and 700 turbines with Published: December 1995
capacities ranging from 5 gpm to 5,000,000 gpm. ISBN: 1856172163
The statistical analyses suggest practical methods
of increasing pump performance and provide Pumping Manual, 9 th Edition
valuable data for new design aspects. Author: Christopher Dickenson
Published: December 1994 Description: This resource provides information
ISBN: 1856172317 and data on the selection, installation, operation,
and maintenance of industrial pumps for most
Know and Understand Centrifugal Pumps applications. The contents follow a sequence of
Authors: Larry Bachus and Angel Custodio pump evolution, performance and characteristics,
Description: This book is intended for operational pump types, practice and operation, and much
technicians and process engineers who must more.
extract the most from their process pumps and Published: January 1995
keep them running with minimal problems and ISBN: 1856172155
downtime. It includes basic information which
will aid in understanding the rules and laws that Submersible Pumps and Their Applications
govern pumps. It will lead to a more intuitive Author: Harold Anderson
knowledge of pumps and their problems and will Description: In this comprehensive manual, the
assist anyone who must make decisions with characteristics and applications of submersible
limited information. It is geared to maintenance pumps are described in detail. The reader is
mechanics and engineers, pump operators, process provided with necessary information for the
engineers, purchasing agents, equipment specifiers, selection, operation, and maintenance of all
and storeroom and maintenance management submersible pumps.
professionals. Published: December 1986
Published: August 2003 ISBN: 0854610987
ISBN: 1856174093
78
Sulzer Centrifugal Pump Handbook, 2 nd Edition system fundamentals, performance optimization

Author: Sulzer Pumps, Sulzer Pump Division opportunities, feasibility study methodology,
Description: This handbook discusses the recent electrical metering, field performance testing,
progress made in pump construction, looking at adjustable speed drives in performance
experiences gained by CCM-Sulzer and other optimization, and more.
pump construction industry members. Areas such
as cavitation, erosion, selection of materials, rotor Flowserve Corporation
vibration behavior, forces acting on pumps, 222 W. Las Colinas Boulevard
operating performance in various types of Suite 1500
circuitry, drives, and acceptance testing are Irving, TX 75039
covered in detail. The handbook is directed to Phone: 972-443-6500
planners and operating companies alike. www.flowserve.com
Published: January 1992; Republished 1998
ISBN: 1856173461 Cameron Hydraulic Data, 19 th Edition
Editor: C.C. Heald
Troubleshooting Centrifugal Pumps Description: This comprehensive text includes
and Their Systems hydraulic principles and the properties of liquids,
Author: Ron Palgrave, Group Engineering selected formulas and equivalents, friction data,
Director, David Brown Guinard Pumps, Textron, steam and electrical data tables, and a full-color
Sheffield, UK selection guide of products. This edition also
Description: Pumps are fine until they malfunction provides detailed information on reciprocating
or break down. When that happens, the first pumps, pulsation analysis, and system piping.
priority is to get the pump functioning again and to Published: December 2002
keep downtime to a minimum. Many problems can
be diagnosed and rectified using a combination of Hydraulic Institute
knowledge and experience, the latter coming over 9 Sylvan Way
time. This book, written by a very experienced Parsippany, NJ 07054
engineer, guides the reader through diagnostic Phone: 973-267-9700
pathways leading to logical explanations for the www.pumps.org
malfunctions and their correction.
Published: November 2002 Engineering Data Book
ISBN: 1856173917 Author: Hydraulic Institute
Description: This reference book for fluid flow in
Energy Center of Wisconsin pipelines is designed to help with problems in
595 Science Drive transferring and pumping fluids. It includes
Madison ,WI 53705 methods for measuring viscosity and calculating
Phone: 608-238‑4601 various friction losses and includes the character-
Fax: 608-238‑8733 istics of different piping materials and vapor
www.ecw.org pressure charts for many compounds.
Published: 1998 Published: 1990
ISBN: 1880952017
Performance Optimization Training Manual –
Fans, Pumps and Blowers Pump Life Cycle Costs: A Guide to LCC Analysis
Description: This 300-page comprehensive for Pumping Systems
manual offered by the Energy Center of Authors: Europump and the Hydraulic Institute
Wisconsin covers optimization techniques that Description: This guidebook presents engineering,
are applicable to fan, pump and blower systems. design, specification, and analytical methodologies
The book reviews turbomachinery fundamentals, for optimizing pump system designs and maxi-
79
mizing pumping system lifetime cost savings. Description: This handbook is designed for meter-
The design, operation, maintenance, energy, ing pump designers and engineers working in all
piping, controls, flows, and fluid dynamics of industries. It presents the basic principles of the
pump systems can be optimized to minimize total positive displacement pump; develops in-depth
life-cycle costs. analysis of the design of reciprocating metering
Published: 2001 pumps and their piping systems; and demonstrates
ISBN: 1880952580 the practical implementation of these concepts
through examples of actual pump applications.
Pump Standards Easily accessible information includes fundamentals
Author: Hydraulic Institute of metering pump operation, principles of pump
Description: This set of standards is designed to and piping system design, guidelines for selection
facilitate communication and understanding of pump construction materials, procedures for the
between manufacturers, purchasers, and users. installation, operation, and maintenance of meter-
These standards also assist the purchaser in ing pumps, and general formulas, tables, charts, and
selecting the proper product for a particular pumping system layouts.
application. Available in hard copy, CD-ROM, Published: June 1984
or online at www.pumps.org. ISBN: 0831111577
Published: 2002
Kluwer Academic Publishers
Variable Speed Pumping: A Guide 233 Spring St Fl 7
to Successful Applications New York, NY 10013-1522
Authors: Europump and the Hydraulic Institute Phone: 212-620-8000
Description: This educationally oriented guide www.wkap.nl
helps users focus on cost savings and performance
optimization of pumping systems with variable Centrifugal Pump User’s Guidebook:
speed drive technology. Compiled and written by Problems and Solutions
motor and drive experts in industry and academia, Author: Shmariahu Yedidiah
the guide is applicable to both new and retrofit Description: Written for designers, manufacturers,
installations. System and performance curves, and researchers, this reference text provides
control principles, selection process, financial complete up-to-date information on how to attain
justification, tables, illustrations, color photographs, and maintain optimum performance from centri-
case studies, and flow charts are included to help fugal pumps. It offers a hands-on approach to
clarify the appropriate specification methodology. diagnosing and solving problems that will help all
Published: 2004 pump users, from the novice to the experienced. It
ISBN: 1856174492 includes the cause and effect of recirculation as
well as its function, specific aspects of cavitation,
problems encountered during tests, and more.
Industrial Press Published: 1996
200 Madison Avenue ISBN: 041299111X
New York, NY 10016
Phone: 212-889-6330 Centrifugal Pumps, Second Edition
www.industrialpress.com Authors: Igor J. Karassik and J. Terry McGuire
Description: This reference book includes practical
Metering Pump Handbook information on all aspects of centrifugal pumps.
Authors: Robert E. McCabe, Philip G. Lanckton, With classifications of various forms of centrifugal
and William V. Dwyer, Pulafeed Division/ pumps and the essential features of pump construc-
CLEVEPAK Corporation tion, application, installation, operation, and
maintenance, the second edition provides owners,
80
designers, operators, and maintenance personnel

Marcel Dekker
with basic information on how to determine pump
270 Madison Avenue
ratings that best meet application requirements;
New York, NY 10016
operate pumps efficiently; maintain pumps to
Phone: 212-696-9000
reduce the number of needed overhauls; and ensure
www.dekker.com
that pumps remain in peak condition. This book is
out of print, so availability is limited.
Centrifugal Pump Clinic, 2nd Edition
Author: Igor Karassik
Krieger Publishing
Description: This volume (#68) of the Mechanical
P.O. Box 9542
Engineering Series serves as a working guide for
Melbourne, FL 32902
plant and design engineers involved with
Phone: 407-724-9542
centrifugal pumps. Sections include application,
www.krieger-publishing.com
pump construction, installation, operation,
maintenance, and field troubles.
Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps: Theory,
Published: 1989
Design, and Application, 2nd Edition ISBN: 0824710169
Author: Alexey J. Stepanoff
Description: This pump industry standard includes Pump Characteristics and Applications
the ranges of head per stage, total pressure, temper- Author: Michael W. Volk
ature, speed, and size. Theoretical aspects, design Description: This reference text provides a
procedures, and applications are covered for both practical introduction to pumps and the tools
pump types. necessary to select, size, operate, and maintain
Published: May 1992 them properly. The book highlights the interrelat-
ISBN: 0894647237 edness of pump engineering from system and
piping design to installation and start-up. Included
Pump Operation & Maintenance is an IBM-compatible disk that illustrates how
Author: Tyler G. Hicks software can facilitate the sizing and analysis of
Description: This practical guide is designed for piping systems.
plant operating and management personnel. It Published: January 1996
demonstrates how to operate and maintain pumps ISBN: 0824795806
used in industrial, municipal, central station, marine,
and institutional settings. Specific step-by-step
instructions for installing, starting up, operating, McGraw-Hill
maintaining, and overhauling are provided for P.O. Box 182604
every major class and type of pump. Columbus, OH 43272
Published: June 1982 Phone: 877-833-5524
ISBN: 0898744091 www.mcgraw-hill.com
The Reciprocating Pump: Theory, Design, Centrifugal Pump Sourcebook

and Use, 2 nd Edition Authors: John W. Dufour and William E. Nelson
Author: John E. Miller Description: This guide to centrifugal pump
Description: This book provides detailed informa- operation and maintenance also offers advice
tion on reciprocating pumps from the perspective of on installation and troubleshooting. It features
both the designer and the user. Included are details guidance on pump technology, curves, hydraulic
of special pump applications, theory, design, and loads and bearings, mechanical seals, vertical
much more. pumps, alignment, and suction performance.
Published: January 1995 Published: September 1992
ISBN: 089464599 ISBN: 0070180334
81
Pump Handbook, Third Edition Taylor & Francis Group plc

Authors: Igor J. Karassik, Joseph P. Messina, 11 New Fetter Lane
Paul Cooper, and Charles C. Heald London, EC4P 4EE, UK
Description: This fully revised, expanded edition www.tandf.co.uk
provides fast, accurate answers to all kinds of
pump-related questions. It includes information on Cavitation and the Centrifugal Pump:
current data on pump design procedures, selection A Guide for Pump Users
and purchase of pumps, applications, pump Author: Edward Grist
drivers, testing procedures, troubleshooting and Description: This book explains the problem of
maintenance, and numerous topics not treated in cavitation in centrifugal pumps and how it can be
any other work on pumps. Each section is written measured, treated, and most important, avoided.
by an expert in the field. The information provided is based on Grist’s
Published: September 2000 extensive experience in the design, manufacture,
ISBN: 0070340323 and operation of centrifugal pumps.
Published: June 1998
Water Pumps and Pumping Systems ISBN: 1560325917
Author: James Rishel, P.E.
Description: This book provides guidance for
achieving the highest pump performance with the Magazines and Periodicals
lowest energy and maintenance costs for any type
Elsevier Science
of water pumping system.
P.O. Box 945
Published: July 2002
New York, NY 10159
ISBN: 0071374914
Phone: 800-545-2522
www.elsevier.com
Prentice Hall Pump Industry Analyst

Route 9W This monthly newsletter is written for suppliers
Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 of pumps and associated equipment, distributors,
Phone: 800-922-0579 ancillary equipment manufacturers, trade asso-
www.prenhall.com ciations, government bodies, financial institutions,
consultants, independent market researchers, and
Pump Application Desk Book, 3rd Edition major end users of plant equipment. It is designed
Author: Paul N. Garay, P.E. to help the reader plan sound business strategies
Description: This guide helps end users solve for the future based on accurate, impartial data.
problems associated with all types of pump It provides summaries of market and industry
applications. It examines in detail pumping viscous statistics, analyses of market information on pump
fluids, specifying variable speed pumping controls, end user industries, and points out key indicators
using pump curves, slurries and their associated of emerging trends and their impacts on the
problems, pump seals, and pump categories and marketplace.
uses. Illustrated with numerous tables and figures
to guide users in selecting the optimum pump World Pumps
and avoiding common problems. This international technical magazine is devoted to
Published: August 1996 the selection, installation, and maintenance of
ISBN: 0136077714 pumps and pumping machinery, components, and
ancillary equipment. It provides purchasers and
users of pumps, seals, valves, and motors with an
82
authoritative source of practical and technical Government and Commercial

information. Included are feature articles from
pump users and manufacturers, news of product Statistics and Market Forecasts
developments and applications, case studies,
business news, financial reports, exhibition
Business Trend Analysts, Inc.
coverage, annual directories, and a monthly 2171 Jericho Turnpike
product finder service. The World Pumps Web Commack, NY 11725-2900
site, www.worldpumps.com, provides many Phone: 516-462-5454
articles and links to the latest relevant literature www.businesstrendanalysts.com
and software.
The U.S. Pump and Compressor Industry
This market research report assesses the market
Pumps and Systems for pumps and compressors by gathering data and
P.O. Box 530067 conducting analyses. The report presents data on
Birmingham, AL 35253 U.S. manufacturers’ sales and analysis of end-use
Phone: 205-212-9402 demand by industry for pumps and compressors.
www.pump-zone.com This report also includes pump and compressor
industry statistics, U.S. foreign trade figures,
Pumps and Systems corporate profiles, and a directory of pump and
This monthly magazine discusses issues for the compressor manufacturers.
industrial pump user. New products and
technologies, problem-solving methods, and
design practices are described within the context
United States Bureau of the Census
of industrial pump applications. This magazine Washington, DC 20233
also compiles an annual Users Guide that lists Phone: 202-512-1800
pump manufacturers by pump type, and a Pumps www.census.gov
Handbook CD-ROM that can be ordered from
Pumps and Systems’ PumpZone Web site, www. Pumps and Compressors Current Industrial Reports
pump-zone.com. This annual report provides data on the quantity
and value of manufacturers’ shipments, number
of producers by product type, exports, and imports.
Witter Publishing Corporation These statistics reflect market trends in the pump
84 Park Avenue and compressor industry.
Flemington, NJ 08822
Phone: 908-788-0343
Fax: 908-788-3782 United States Department of Energy
www.witterpublishing.com Industrial Technologies Program
Flow Control Washington, D.C. 20585
This monthly magazine addresses fluid handling www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices
and control issues. New products, design issues,
and technology developments are discussed, National Market Transformation Strategies
and solutions are provided for system design for Industrial Electric Motor Systems,
and operational and maintenance challenges in Volume I: Main Report
all process and OEM application. This report develops strategic actions for a
coordinated and national effort to (1) increase
the market penetration of energy-efficient motors
83
and motor-driven systems and (2) encourage formula with Bernoulli’s theorem for liquids and
movement from a “component-focused” to a the differential form of Bernoulli’s theorem with
“systems-oriented” market. Sections of the report numerical integration techniques for gases.
include the following discussions of Process
Pump Systems: “Equipment and Market Animated Software Company
Overview,” “Energy Savings Potential–
625 East Bunker Court
Equipment,” “Efficiency Data, Standards, and
Potential Leverage Points,” “Specifying Practices
Vernon Hills, IL 60061
and Behavior,” “System-Level Energy Savings Phone: 800-323-4340
Potential,” and “Strategy Options.” www.animatedsoftware.com
United States Industrial Motor Systems Market All About Pumps

Opportunities Assessment This interactive Flash program, intended to teach
This study, published in December 1998, is based all of the essentials about pumps, includes sections
on surveys of motor systems in a probability- titled “Where Pumps are Used,” “How Pumps
based sampling of 265 industrial facilities in the Work,” “Types of Pumps,” “Measuring Pump
United States. It profiles the stock of motor-driven Performance,” “The Right Pump for the Job,”
equipment in U.S. industrial facilities and “Historical Background & Some Famous Pumps,”
characterizes the opportunities to improve the and “The Most Amazing Pump of All.” Also
energy efficiency of industrial motor systems. included is a glossary of individual pumps.
Designed for manufacturers, distributors,
engineers, and others in the supply channels for Applied Flow Technology
motor systems, it also provides a profile of current 400 W. Highway 24, Suite 201
motor system purchase and maintenance practices. Woodland Park, CO 80863
It provides a detailed, highly differentiated Phone: 800-589-4943
portrait of end-use markets. The study presents www.aft.com
information factory managers can use to identify
motor system energy savings opportunities in AFT Arrow
their facilities and to benchmark their current AFT Arrow provides comprehensive, compressible
motor system purchase and management pipe flow analysis and system modeling
procedures against best practices concepts. capabilities. Addressing open- and closed-loop
systems, Arrow includes a built-in library of fluids
Software and fittings, variable model configurations, fan/
compressor and control valve modeling, and more.
ABZ, Incorporated With the optional Chempak add-in, a thermo-
4451 Brookfield Corporate Drive, Suite 101 physical database of approximately 600 gases is
Chantilly, VA 20151 available, allowing thermal analysis capabilities
Phone: 800-747-7401 including piping heat transfer, heat exchanger
www.abzinc.com modeling, and varying fluid properties.
Design Flow Solutions AFT Fathom

Complete hydraulic analysis of complex piping AFT Fathom provides comprehensive, incom-
systems, including up to 9,000 branches and pressible pipe flow analysis and system modeling
1,000 tees. Network branches can consist of any capabilities. Addressing open- and closed-loop
combination of pipes, fittings, and valves, with systems, Fathom includes a built-in library of
virtually no limit on the number or type of com- fluids and fittings, variable model configurations,
ponents. The program uses the Darcy-Weisbach pump and control valve modeling and more. With
84
the optional Chempak add-in, a thermo-physical PUMPAL

database of over 600 fluids is available, allowing PUMPAL uses a design wizard to create a pump
thermal analysis capabilities such as piping heat system model. The program analyzes the input and
transfer, heat exchanger modeling, and varying creates integrated performance maps for a quick
fluid properties. review of performance and comparison of multiple
designs, or analysis vs. test data. The report gener-
AFT Impulse ator easily formats tables and plots into a report,
Waterhammer analysis tools of the past have been with a flexible template approach. The program can
difficult to use and have required extensive be integrated with geometries created in CCAD.
specialized knowledge. As a result, this critical
aspect of piping system design and operation has
Crane Valves
often been overlooked. AFT Impulse™ offers the
2129 3rd Avenue SE
ease of use of a drag-and-drop interface and built-
Cullman, AL 35055
in waterhammer modeling expertise. AFT Impulse
Phone: 800-323-3679
helps you design and operate systems with greater
www.cranevalve.com
reliability and safety by avoiding the effects of
waterhammer and other undesirable system
Crane’s Flow of Fluids 7.0 Premium Software
transients.
Piping system design software optimized for high-
AFT Mercury speed computers, this program offers enhanced
AFT Mercury, powered by IntelliFlow, is the first flexibility and customization with piping designs
software product to offer the piping systems and system modeling. It includes pump and valve
engineer intelligent, automated sizing of system sizing wizards, and a new Fluid Zone feature,
piping, ducting, and components to achieve this which allows the user to quickly modify fluid
goal. With comprehensive system modeling properties across multiple pipelines. The results
capabilities, a flexible graphical interface and an of software runs are displayed professionally with
advanced optimization engine, AFT Mercury with tabular reports and can be easily imported into
IntelliFlow is a new technology that can produce spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel.
significant cost savings on piping systems.
Electric Power Research Institute
Power Electronics Applications Center
Concepts ETI 942 Corridor Park Boulevard
217 Billings Farm Road Knoxville, TN 37932
White River Junction, VT 05001-9486 Phone: 865-218-8000
Phone: 802-296-2321 www.epri-peac.com
www.conceptseti.com
ASDMaster
CCAD This software package consists of six modules
CCAD allows users to design their pump systems designed to educate and assist users in the
down to the smallest detail. The program creates proper application of adjustable speed drives.
geometries for various inlets, impellers, inducers, ASDMaster contains instruction tools that discuss
diffusers, crossovers, nozzles, and volutes. the technology, process effects, and power quality
Included is a quasi-3D flow analysis for testing the issues associated with ASDs. It analyzes energy
designs. CCAD is compatible with other Concepts consumption and performance differences between
ETI programs, such as PUMPAL, allowing designs ASDs and constant-speed alternatives. ASDMaster
to be transferred with seamless integration. also contains a database module that refers the user
to manufacturers of ASDs that can meet the needs
of the application.
85
HYDROFLO
Engineered Software Inc.
This software is a hydraulic system design tool
4531 Intelco Loop SE
that substantially reduces the time involved in
Lacey, WA 98584-5941
designing systems that convey a fluid from point
Phone: 360-412-0702
to point. Up to nine parallels (10 pumps) can be
www.eng-software.com modeled with a drag-and-drop system. In a matter
of minutes an engineer can lay out, analyze,
FLO-SERIES and present a number of design alternatives for
FLO-SERIES software consists of these four gravity, pump station, and forced-flow systems.
programs: (1) PIPE-FLO: piping system design HYDROFLO can launch PumpBase and transfer
and hydraulic system analysis containing a graphic operating point, project information, and liquid
flowsheet user interface; (2) PUMP-FLO: centri- property data with a single click. Detailed reports,
fugal pump selection and evaluation capable of diagrams and graphs of system data are available
containing over 50 manufacturer’s catalog curves; for output to screen, printer, or file.
(3) ORI-FLO: flow meters and orifice sizing; and
(4) CON-FLO: control valves. These programs are PumpBase
available individually or as a package. They share This program is an advanced pump specification
and exchange data for complete system analysis software package for Windows. Fluid-handling
but are not interdependent. specialists and hydraulic system designers can
specify up to 40 different selection criteria and
view graphs of the most efficient pump curves that
SYSTEK Technologies, Inc. meet their needs. The software includes a database
Phone: 928-453-9587 of thousands of curves from dozens of manu-
Fax: 630-214-6951 facturers as well as an extensive database of liquid
www.systek.us properties. It creates a detailed report that can be
submitted to pump manufacturers or sales
PUMPCALC Centrifugal Pump Analysis representatives for further application verification
Using affinity laws, PUMPCALC analyzes the and price quotes. Custom selection software for
performance of a centrifugal pump at different specific product lines is available.
impeller sizes, speeds, and stages from the pump
manufacturer’s data. The speed or diameter
required to meet a specific design condition can Unicade, Inc.
be calculated. Performance of pumps in series and P.O. Box 70405
in parallel can be predicted. For high-viscosity Bellevue, WA 98015, USA
liquids, the water performance curve is corrected Phone/Fax: 425-702-0700
for viscosity using the Hydraulic Institute Method. www.unicade.com
PUMPCALC, a Web-based program, performs the
viscosity correction calculations quickly and C-MAX Pump Software
accurately using built-in charts. The resulting The software performs energy and performance
performance curves can be plotted on the screen as calculations for various pump/compressor systems.
well as on the connected printer. Economic analyses are also performed and energy
savings for different scenarios can be calculated.
The program allows the user to set up a pump/
Tahoe Design Software compressor system, including choices for different
P.O. Box 187 pipe fittings, valves, and geometries. Energy and
Nevada City, CA 95959 performance calculations are then performed. The
Phone: 530-470-8413 software readily converts the results to any system
www.tahoesoft.com/index.html of units.
86
measured/required flow rate and head. The soft-

United States Department of Energy
ware reports potential energy and cost savings that
could be achieved by applying an optimized pump
1000 Independence Avenue, SW and motor combination. (For more information,
Washington, D.C. 20585 see Appendix C.) It is available for downloading
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices from the DOE ITP Web site at www.eere.energy.
gov/industry/bestpractices.
MotorMaster+
This software package assists users in calculating
motor operating costs and tracking the installation
Training Courses
and service characteristics of a plant’s motor Concepts ETI
inventory. MotorMaster+ also contains a database 217 Billings Farm Road
of motors from which the user can select an White River Junction, VT 05001-9486
appropriate model. The software allows special Phone: 802-296-2321
service requirements to be considered, such as www.conceptseti.com
high starting torque, severe duty, two-speed drives,
inverter duty, and medium voltage (2300 and 4000 Centrifugal Pump Design and Performance
V) power supplies. MotorMaster+ allows users to This five-day course, offered by Concepts ETI,
track motor loads, maintenance histories, and Inc., will inform students about centrifugal pump
energy consumption. It is available for download- design principles and practice, including
ing from the DOE ITP BestPractices Web site, performance limits such as cavitation. It will help
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices. students understand and assess design tools and
understand the process of pump design
MotorMaster+ International optimization. Engineers will come to understand
This software includes many of the capabilities the best state-of-the-art design practices and learn
and features of MotorMaster+, but it also allows about performance, cavitation, dynamic forces,
users to evaluate repair/replacement options on a and noise. For more information, visit
broader range of motors. The user can conduct www.conceptseti.com/education/cor_pump.htm.
analyses in different currencies, calculate
efficiency benefits for utility rate schedules with
demand charges, edit and modify motor rewind Engineered Software Inc.
efficiency loss defaults, and determine the “best
4531 Intelco Loop SE
available” motors. MotorMaster+ International can
Lacey, WA 98584-5941
be modified to operate in English, Spanish, and
Phone: 360-412-0702
French.
www.eng-software.com
Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT)
FLO-SERIES Training Courses
The Pumping System Assessment Tool is designed
Engineered Software Inc. offers training courses
to help pump users quickly distinguish systems
on its FLO-SERIES software (see above).
that are operating effectively from those that can
be improved in efficiency. This software is based
on motor performance characteristics, obtained
Hydraulic Institute
chiefly from DOE’s MotorMaster+ database, and
9 Sylvan Way
on achievable pump efficiencies from the
Parsippany, NJ 07054
Hydraulic Institute standard ANSI/HI 1.3,
Phone: 973-267-9700
Centrifugal Pump Design and Application. Users
www.pumps.org
provide the nameplate data (e.g., motor size and
rated speed), motor current or power, and
87
Centrifugal Pumps: Fundamentals, identification of impellers, discharge pressure

Design and Applications versus flow, power requirements versus flow,
The Hydraulic Institute offers this two-part, six- effect of specific gravity on power requirements,
module, online training course, available at www. multistage operation, methods of priming
pumplearning.org as well as on a CD-ROM. The centrifugal pumps, operating characteristics of
course provides a wealth of information designed self-priming centrifugal pumps, types of oil
by industry experts and developed exclusively for lubrication, grease-lubrication bearings, bearing
pump users, manufacturers, engineers, contractors, housing temperatures, and cavitation and gassing
specifiers, and others who work with pumps and of centrifugal pumps.
pumping systems. HI also offers “Energy Reduc-
tion in Pumps and Pumping Systems,” an hour-
long video education program produced with DOE Mechanical Solutions, Inc.
that includes three student workbooks, answer 1719 Route 10 East, Suite 205
books, and an instructor’s manual. Parsippany, NJ 07054-4507
Phone: 973-326-9920
www.mechsol.com
ITC Learning Corporation
13515 Dulles Technology Drive Modal Testing
Herndon, VA 22071-3416 MSI offers an on-site training course on modal
Phone: 703-638-3757 testing of pumps, compressors, turbines, motors,
Fax: 703-713-0065 and impellers. Real world test data are coupled
with a finite element analysis to provide calibrated
Hydraulic System Video Courses analytical models. Trainees learn how to use this
ITC offers many videos on hydraulic pump software to perform “what-if” analyses and
systems, including courses on controls and actu determine the best corrective actions.
ators. Introductory and troubleshooting courses are
also available from ITC or TWI Press, Inc. Rotodynamic Analysis
MSI will provide on-site, detailed rotodynamic
Pump and Compressor Maintenance Video Courses analysis and training for turbomachinery power
ITC offers video courses on pump/compressor trains, including centrifugal pumps, reciprocating
maintenance, namely for centrifugal pumps and air pumps, compressors, and motor turbine pumps.
compressors. They are available from ITC or TWI Rotor critical speed, undamped and forced
Press, Inc. responses, and stability are all checked, and users
of the equipment are trained in how to check it
themselves. Methods of troubleshooting are also
Job Training Systems, Inc. discussed.
P.O. Box 868
Unionville, PA 19375 Vibration and Noise Testing
Phone: 610-444-0868 MSI offers an on-site training course on vibration
www.jobtraining.com and noise testing of pumps, compressors, turbines,
and motors. MSI will provide the latest hardware
Centrifugal Pumps and software for diagnosing vibration problems,
explaining how they work and how to treat the
The topics covered in this course include operating
problems.
characteristics and identification of parts of centri-
fugal pumps, flow-through pumps, mechanical and
packing seals, seal flush, parts of an impeller,
88
system design and analysis, energy savings,

National Technology Transfer, Inc.
troubleshooting, computer software, and
P.O. Box 4558
applications.
Englewood, CO 80155
Phone: 800-922-2820
Fax: 800-838-8441 United States Department of Energy
www.nttinc.com Industrial Technologies Program
National Technology Transfer, Inc., Courses
Washington, D.C. 20585
National Technology Transfer offers a wide variety
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices
of courses related to pumps and pump applications.
From a two-day seminar on centrifugal pumps
Pumping System Assessment
covering theory, selection, design, maintenance,
This one-day training session provides an in-depth
and troubleshooting to a three-day Pneumatic
discussion of energy efficiency factors for pump-
Training course, National Technology Transfer
ing systems, emphasizing the system as a whole
offers courses nationwide for engineers, consul-
rather than the components. Indicators and
tants, plant and maintenance personnel, and others.
symptoms of potential energy reduction oppor-
tunities are discussed. Application and use of
the Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT)
Ross Mackay Associates Ltd.
software is also covered (see Appendix B for
240 Portage Rd., Ste. 670
a description). The training was developed to
Lewiston, NY 14092
introduce users to the software (a CD with the
Phone: 800-465-6260 PSAT software is provided) and to provide
www.rossmackay.com guidance on field measurement considerations.
There are three general elements:
Mackay Pump School
The Mackay Pump School is a two-day course 1. An overview of pump, motor, adjustable
covering the integrated areas of system hydraulics, speed drive, and fluid system performance
pump mechanics, and seal operation. The course is characteristics
designed to help operations and maintenance 2. Practical issues involved in field
personnel reduce production losses and downtime. measurements of fluid and electrical data
Course topics include pump and system curves, 3. Use of the PSAT software, including
NPSH, cavitation, air entrainment, seal problems, application to real-world situations (case
shaft deflection, bearing considerations, and piping studies).
configurations. A video series from the Mackay
Pump School is also available. Qualified Pump System Specialist Training
This session covers in two and one-half days
the energy efficiency factors addressed in the
one-day Pumping System Assessment training
Volk & Associates described above, as well as case studies and
3062 Arizona Street additional instruction on the use of PSAT
Oakland, CA 94602 software. It concludes with a rigorous written
Phone: 800-733-8655 exam. Those successfully completing the exam
are recognized as Qualified Pump System
Pump Training – From an Industry Expert Specialists.
This course offered by Michael Volk covers
hydraulic principles, pump selection and sizing,
89
Online Information Pump World

P.O. Box 746
Elsevier Science Forrest Hill, MD 21050
P.O. Box 945 www.pumpworld.com
New York, NY 10159
Phone: 800-545-2522 Pump World: www.pumpworld.com
www.elsevier.com Through the use of educational tutorials for
centrifugal and positive displacement pumps,
World Pumps: www.worldpumps.com Pump World is dedicated to the advancement
The Web site for World Pumps magazine contains of the pump industry on the Web. The tutorials
a great deal of useful information. The business include information on pump terminology and
and product news is kept up-to-date, and new operation, performance curves, pump selection,
books, reports, and software for pumps are in the troubleshooting, and preventive maintenance.
Literature Showcase. An online bookstore and Also included are pump application and system
buyer’s guide is included. World Pumps magazine head/pressure forms that end users, pump
articles and other features are also included. distributors, and manufacturers can use.
Hydraulic Institute Pumps & Systems

9 Sylvan Way P.O. Box 530067
Parsippany, NJ 07054 Birmingham, AL 35253
Phone: 973-267-9700 Phone: 205-212-9402
www.pumps.org www.pump-zone.com
The Hydraulic Institute: www.pumps.org Pump-Zone: www.pump-zone.com

The Hydraulic Institute’s Web site provides a vast This Web site is maintained by Pump & Systems
array of pump resources, including a supplier magazine. The site includes “Product Spotlights,”
finder database. The site also includes press pump application data, feature articles, a software
releases, news updates, and a discussion forum for store, links to pump company Web sites, and all
pump users, as well as an e-store where various the current pump news.
pump products can be purchased.
Thomas Publishing Company

Process Industrial Training Technologies, Inc. Five Penn Plaza
Phone: 513-574-1666 New York, NY 10001
Fax: 513-574-1358 Phone: 800-222-1900
www.iglou.com/pitt www.thomasregister.com
Process Pumps & Filtration On-Line: Thomas Register of American Manufacturers:

www.iglou.com/pitt www.thomasregister.com
This Internet magazine contains articles, product This searchable online directory lists manufac-
listings and descriptions, and news about the pump turers in a variety of industries. Participating
industry. companies can include product catalogs, online
ordering information, and links to Web sites.
It is also available in print.
90
United States Department of Energy

Washington, D.C. 20585
Phone: 202-586-7547
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices
Many ITP BestPractices resources that are specific

to motor systems—e.g., publications, software
tools, and training information—are available
on the Web at www.eere.energy.gov/industry/
bestpractices. For more information, you can
also contact the EERE Information Center
for information by calling 877-337-3463 or
by sending an e-mail to eereic@ee.doe.gov.
Pumping System Equipment

Manufacturers
Manufacturers are often a useful source of
technical information, not only for product
data but also for maintenance practices, trouble-
shooting, and training. In addition, many
manufacturers provide software that can assist
purchasers in selecting the proper model for a
given set of service requirements. To locate
specific pumping system manufacturers, refer to
the Thomas Register of American Manufacturers
(www.thomasregister.com), the member listings
of trade association magazines, and the “Supplier
Finder” on the Hydraulic Institute’s Web site
(www.pumps.org).
91
92
Appendices
Appendices
The following appendices are included in the

Sourcebook:
 Appendix A: Glossary of Basic Pumping

System Terms
This appendix contains a glossary of terms
used in pumping systems.
 Appendix B: Pumping System Assessment Tool

(PSAT)
This appendix contains a description of the
PSAT and how it can be obtained online.
 Appendix C: Pumping Systems Tip Sheets

This appendix contains a series of pumping
system tip sheets. Developed by DOE, these
tip sheets discuss common opportunities
in industrial facilities to improve pump
performance and reduce energy use.
 Appendix D: Guidelines for Comments

This appendix contains a form readers can use
to comment on ways to correct and improve
this sourcebook.
93
Appendices
94
Appendix A: Glossary of Basic Pumping System Terms
absolute pressure – Total force per unit area in a centrifugal pump – A pump that relies on a
system (includes vapor pressure and atmospheric rotating, vaned disk attached to a driven shaft.
pressure). The disk increases fluid velocity, which
translates to increased pressure.
adjustable speed drives (ASDs) – Devices that
allow control of a pump’s rotational speed. check valve – A valve that allows fluid to flow
ASDs include mechanical devices such as in one direction only; it is generally used to
hydraulic clutches and electronic devices such maintain header pressure and protect equipment
as eddy current clutches and variable frequency from reverse flow.
drives.
deadhead – A condition in which all the discharge
affinity laws – A set of relationships that tie from a pump is closed off.
together pump performance characteristics such
as pressure, flow, and pump speed. dynamic head – The component of the total head
that is attributable to fluid motion (also known
allowable operating region – The precise limits as velocity head).
for minimum and maximum flow in a pump.
gauge pressure – A measure of the force per unit
axial pump – Sometimes called a propeller pump, area using atmospheric pressure as the zero
this type of pump has a single-inlet impeller; the reference.
flow enters axially and discharges nearly axially.
head – A measure of pressure (expressed in feet)
backpressure – The pressure on the discharge indicating the height of a column of system
side of the pump. fluid that has an equivalent amount of potential
energy.
bearing – A device that supports a rotating shaft,
allowing it to spin while keeping it from header – A run of pipe that either supplies fluid
translating in the radial direction. A thrust to (supply header) or returns fluid from (return
bearing keeps a shaft from translating in the header) a number of system branches.
axial direction.
heat exchanger – A device that transfers heat
best efficiency point (BEP) – Commonly used to from one fluid to another.
describe the point at which a centrifugal pump
is operating at its highest efficiency, transferring horsepower (hp) – A measure of the work or
energy from the prime mover to the system energy flux per unit time; the rate at which
fluid with the least amount of losses. energy is consumed or generated.
brake horsepower (bhp) – The amount of power impeller – A centrifugal pump component that
(measured in units of horsepower) delivered to rotates on the pump shaft and increases the
the shaft of a motor-driven piece of equipment. pressure on a fluid by adding kinetic energy.
cavitation – A phenomenon commonly found in kinetic energy – The component of energy that
centrifugal pumps in which the system pressure is due to fluid motion.
is less than the vapor pressure of the fluid, load factor – A ratio of the average capacity to
causing the formation and violent collapse of the rated full capacity (in terms of power),
tiny vapor bubbles. determined by the following relationship:
95
Load factor = ∑ (Actual load x number of operating hours at this load) positive displacement pump – A pump that pres-
(Rated full load x number of operating hours in the period) surizes a fluid using a collapsing volume action.
Examples include piston pumps, rotary screw
mechanical seal – A mechanical device for sealing pumps, and diaphragm pumps.
the pump/shaft interface (as opposed to packing).
pressure – Force per unit area; commonly used as
minimum flow requirement – A manufacturer- an indicator of fluid energy in a pumping system
specified limit that represents the lowest flow (expressed in pounds per square inch).
rate at which the pump can operate without
risking damage from suction or discharge prime mover – A machine, usually an electric
recirculation. motor, that provides the motive force driving a
pump.
motor – An electric machine that uses either
alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc) radial pump – In this type of pump, the liquid
electricity to spin a shaft. Typically, this shaft is enters the impeller at the hub and flows radially
coupled to a pump. Occasionally, however, to the periphery.
mechanisms such as a slider/crank convert this recirculation – A flow condition which occurs
rotation to axial movement to power piston during periods of low flow, usually below the
pumps. minimum flow requirement of a pump. This
motor controller – An electric switchbox that condition causes cavitation-like damage, usually
energizes and de-energizes an electric motor. to the pressure side of an impeller vane.
packing – A form of a pump seal that prevents or relief valve – A valve that prevents excessive pres-
minimizes leakage from the pump stuffing box. sure buildup. Often used on the discharge side
Packing is usually a flexible, self-lubricated of a positive displacement pump and in applica-
material that fits around the pump shaft, allowing tions where thermal expansion of a system fluid
it to spin while minimizing the escape of system can damage system equipment.
fluid between the shaft and the pump housing. specific gravity – The ratio of the density of a
preferred operating region – The region on a fluid to the density of water at standard
pump curve where flow remains well controlled conditions.
within a range of capacities. Within this region specific speed – An index used to measure the
hydraulic loads, vibration, or flow separation performance of an impeller; it represents the
will not significantly affect the service life of the speed required for an impeller to pump one
pump. gallon per minute against one foot of head and
performance curve – A curve that plots the is defined by the equation:
relationship between flow and head for a —
centrifugal pump. The vertical axis contains the Ns = n √ Q
values of head while the horizontal axis contains H 3/4
flow rates. Since flow rate varies with head in a static head – The head component attributable to
centrifugal pump, performance curves are used the static pressure of the fluid.
to select pumps that meet the needs of a system.
stiction – Static friction (frictional resistance to
pony pump – A pump that is usually associated initial motion).
with a larger pump in a multiple-pump config-
uration. The pony pump typically handles stuffing box – The part of a pump where the shaft
normal system requirements, while the larger penetrates the pump casing.
pump is used during high demand periods.
96
suction specific speed – An index used to describe

the inlet conditions of a pump; it is defined by
the equation:
—
S = n √ Q 3/4
NPSHR
total head – A measure of the total energy
imparted to the fluid by a centrifugal pump.
This value includes static pressure increase
and velocity head.
valve – A device used to control fluid flow in a
piping system. There are many types of valves
with different flow control characteristics,
sealing effectiveness, and reliability.
valve seat – The component of a valve that
provides the sealing surface. Some valves have
just one seat; others have a primary seat, which
prevents leakage across the valve, and a back
seat, which prevents leakage from the valve to
the environment.
vapor pressure – The force per unit area that the
fluid exerts in an effort to change the phase from
a liquid to a vapor. This pressure is a function of
a fluid’s chemical and physical properties, and
its temperature.
variable frequency drive (VFD) – A type of
adjustable speed drive that controls the speed
of ac motors by regulating the frequency of the
electric power. VFDs are the most common type
of adjustable speed drives and can significantly
reduce energy use by matching the speed of
driven equipment to required output.
velocity head – The component of the total head
that is attributable to fluid motion (also known
as dynamic head).
viscosity – The resistance of a fluid to flow when
subjected to shear stress.
97
98
Appendix B: Pumping System Assessment Tool
The Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) is a (flow and head) required by the application. It
software program developed by the Department of estimates a system’s achievable efficiency based
Energy’s (DOE) Industrial Technologies Program on pump efficiencies (from Hydraulic Institute
(ITP) to assist engineers and facility operators in standards) and performance characteristics of
performing assessments of pumping system energy pumps and motors (based on the MotorMaster+
usage. PSAT is also well suited for performing database).
plant energy usage surveys by consultants or plant
engineers. End users in the field will find PSAT PSAT can be used to perform the following
easy to use because it was carefully designed to key functions:
require only the minimum essential operation data
(or requirements) to perform an analysis. ■ Establish system efficiency
■ Quantify potential energy savings
For many industrial facilities, the energy
consumed in pumping fluids comprises a large ■ Examine the economic and energy impacts
fraction of the total energy consumption of the of different operating scenarios
facility. However, operators are often not aware ■ Provide data for trending system performance
of how effectively energy is being consumed in
pumping systems. The PSAT tool provides a ■ Clarify impacts of operational changes on
relatively simple and fast means of determining demand charges
system efficiency and potential alternatives. In
■ Identify degraded or poorly performing pumps.
addition, the PSAT prescreening filter can identify
areas that are likely to offer the greatest savings.
Additional information on PSAT is provided in
Section 3.
PSAT identifies energy savings opportunities
in pumping systems and quantifies those oppor-
Qualification Program
tunities in both dollars and electrical energy
The U.S. Department of Energy offers a quali-
savings. Although PSAT does not tell how to
fication training program for pumping system
improve systems, it does prioritize attractive
specialists in the use of its PSAT software.
opportunities and supports broader or narrower
Attendees who successfully complete a PSAT
searches for improving efficiency.
qualification workshop will be recognized as
Qualified Pump System Specialists and will
PSAT requires three fundamental field measured
receive a certificate from DOE with this
parameters: flow rate, head, and motor power (or
designation.
current). Using this data, along with some general
design and nameplate information, such as pump How to Obtain PSAT
style (selected from a list), motor size (hp), rated The PSAT and its User Manual can be down-
speed, and fluid density, generally achievable loaded from the ITP BestPractices Web site,
pump and motor efficiencies and optimal power www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices.
requirements are estimated. The user can also obtain a version by contacting
the EERE Information Center at 877-337-3463.
PSAT assesses current pump system operating
efficiency by comparing field measurements of the
power delivered to the motor with the fluid work
99
100
Appendix C: Pumping Systems Tip Sheets
A series of tip sheets has been developed to highlight the performance benefits and energy savings
that are available in pumping systems. Tip sheet topics include the following:
Conduct an In-Plant Pumping System Survey
Pump Selection Considerations
Select an Energy-Efficient Centrifugal Pump
Test for Pumping System Efficiency
Maintain Pumping Systems Effectively
Match Pumps to System Requirements
Trim or Replace Impellers on Oversized Pumps
Optimize Parallel Pumping Systems
Reduce Pumping Costs Through Optimum Pipe Sizing
Reduce Energy Losses Across Control Valves
Adjustable Speed Pumping Applications
Control Strategies for Centrifugal Pumps with Variable Flow Rates
Several of these tip sheets are included here. The rest are in development and will be available
soon from the EERE Information Center and on the ITP BestPracticies Web site, www.eere.energy.
gov/industry/bestpractices.
101
102
Appendix C: Pumping Systems Tip Sheet Number 1
Conduct an In-Plant Pumping System Survey Background

In the United States, more than
2.4 million pumps, which con-
Even one pump can consume substantial energy. A continuously operated centrifugal
sume more than 142 billion kWh
pump driven by a fully loaded 100-horsepower motor requires 726,000 kWh per year.
annually, are used in industrial
This costs more than $36,000, assuming average electricity costs of 5¢ per kWh. Even
manufacturing processes. At an
a 10% reduction in operating costs saves $3,600 per year. Table 1 summarizes the
electricity cost of 5¢ per kWh,
electrical costs of operating this pump.
energy used for fluids transport
costs more than $7.1 billion per
year.
Table 1. Pumping Energy Costs for Pump Driven by 100-hp Motor (assuming a 90% motor efficiency)
Operating Energy Costs for Various Electricity Costs
Time 2¢ per kWh 4¢ per kWh 6¢ per kWh 8¢ per kWh 10¢ per kWh
1 hour $1.60 $3.30 $4.90 $6.60 $8.20
24 hours $39 $79 $119 $159 $198
1 month $1,208 $2,416 $3,625 $4,833 $6,042
1 year $14,500 $29,000 $43,600 $58,000 $72,600
 Surveying Your Pumping Systems

Pumps larger than a minimum size and with significant operating hours should be
surveyed to determine a baseline for your current pumping energy consumption and
costs, identify inefficient pumps, determine efficiency measures, and estimate the
potential for energy savings. The U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Pump System
Energy Opportunity Screening worksheet will help you identify systems that merit a
survey.
The survey team should gather pump and drive motor nameplate information and
document operating schedules to develop load profiles, then obtain head/capacity
curves (if available) from the pump manufacturers to document the pumping system
design and operating points. The team should also note the system flow rate and
pressure requirements, pump style, operating speed, number of stages, and specific
gravity of the fluid being pumped. If possible, the team should also measure and note
the flow rate and the suction and discharge pressures and note conditions that are
associated with inefficient pump operation, including indicators such as:
■ Pumps with high maintenance requirements
■ Oversized pumps that operate in a throttled condition
■ Cavitating or badly worn pumps
■ Misapplied pumps
■ Pumping systems with large flow rate or pressure variations
■ Pumping systems with bypass flow
■ Throttled control valves to provide fixed or variable flow rates
■ Noisy pumps or valves
■ Clogged pipelines or pumps
■ Wear on pump impellers and casings that increase clearances between fixed and
moving parts
DOE/GO-102005-2155 • October 2005 • Pumping Systems Tip Sheet #1
103
■ Excessive wear on wear rings and bearings

■ Improper packing adjustment that causes binding on the pump shaft
■ Multiple pump systems where excess capacity is bypassed or excess pressure is provided
■ Changes from initial design conditions. Distribution system cross-connections, parallel main lines,
or changes in pipe diameter or material may change the original system curve.
■ Low-flow-rate, high-pressure end use applications. An entire pumping system may be operated at high pressure to meet
the requirements of a single end use. A booster or dedicated pump may allow system operating pressure to be reduced.
 Pumping System Efficiency Measures

Measures to improve pumping plant efficiency include:
■ Shut down unnecessary pumps. Re-optimize pumping systems when a plant’s water use requirements change.
Use pressure switches to control the number of pumps in service when flow rate requirements vary.
■ Restore internal clearances.
■ Replace standard efficiency pump drive motors with NEMA Premium™ motors.
■ Replace or modify oversized pumps:
– Install new properly sized pumps.
– Trim or change the pump impellers to match the output with system requirements when the pumping
head exceeds system requirements. Consult with the vendor to determine the minimum impeller
diameter for a pump casing.
■ Meet variable flow rate requirements with an adjustable speed drive or multiple pump arrangement
instead of throttling or bypassing excess flow.
 Suggested Actions 
• Prescreen the pumps in your facility.
• Survey the systems identified as priorities.
104
Pump Selection Considerations Background

Pumping applications include
constant or variable flow rate
 Understanding Your Pumping System Requirements requirements, serving single or
Pumps transfer liquids from one point to another by converting mechanical energy networked loads, and consisting
from a rotating impeller into pressure energy (head). The pressure applied to the liquid of open loops (nonreturn or liquid
forces the fluid to flow at the required rate and to overcome friction (or head) losses in delivery) or closed loops (return
piping, valves, fittings, and process equipment. The pumping system designer must systems).
consider fluid properties, determine end use requirements, and understand environ-
mental conditions.
 Fluid Properties
The properties of the fluids being pumped can significantly affect the choice of pump.
Key considerations include:
■ Acidity/alkalinity (pH) and chemical composition. Corrosive and acidic fluids
can degrade pumps, and should be considered when selecting pump materials.
■ Operating temperature. Pump materials and expansion, mechanical seal
components, and packing materials need to be considered with pumped fluids that are
Reference
hotter than 200°F.
Centrifugal/Vertical NPSH Margin
■ Solids concentrations/particle sizes. When pumping abrasive liquids such as (ANSI/HI 9.6.1-1998), www.pumps.
industrial slurries, selecting a pump that will not clog or fail prematurely depends org, Hydraulic Institute, 1998.
on particle size, hardness, and the volumetric percentage of solids.
■ Specific gravity. The fluid specific gravity is the ratio of the fluid density to that
of water under specified conditions. Specific gravity affects the energy required to
lift and move the fluid, and must be considered when determining pump power
requirements.
■ Vapor pressure. A fluid’s vapor pressure is the force per unit area that a fluid exerts
in an effort to change phase from a liquid to a vapor, and depends on the fluid’s
chemical and physical properties. Proper consideration of the fluid’s vapor pressure
will help to minimize the risk of cavitation.
■ Viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to motion. Since
kinematic viscosity normally varies directly with temperature, the pumping system
designer must know the viscosity of the fluid at the lowest anticipated pumping
temperature. High viscosity fluids result in reduced centrifugal pump performance
and increased power requirements. It is particularly important to consider pump
suction-side line losses when pumping viscous fluids.
 End Use Requirements—System Flow Rate and Head

The design pump capacity, or desired pump discharge in gallons per minute (gpm) is
needed to accurately size the piping system, determine friction head losses, construct
a system curve, and select a pump and drive motor. Process requirements may be met
by providing a constant flow rate (with on/off control and storage used to satisfy
variable flow rate requirements), or by using a throttling valve or variable speed drive
to supply continuously variable flow rates.
105
The total system head has three components: static head, elevation (potential energy), and velocity (or dynamic) head.
Static head is the pressure of the fluid in the system, and is the quantity measured by conventional pressure gauges.
The height of the fluid level can have a substantial impact on system head. The dynamic head is the pressure required by
the system to overcome head losses caused by flow rate resistance in pipes, valves, fittings, and mechanical equipment.
Dynamic head losses are approximately proportional to the square of the fluid flow velocity, or flow rate. If the flow rate
doubles, dynamic losses increase fourfold.
For many pumping systems, total system head requirements vary. For example, in wet well or reservoir applications,
suction and static lift requirements may vary as the water surface elevations fluctuate. For return systems such as HVAC
circulating water pumps, the values for the static and elevation heads equal zero. You also need to be aware of a pump’s
net positive suction head requirements. Centrifugal pumps require a certain amount of fluid pressure at the inlet to avoid
cavitation. A rule of thumb is to ensure that the suction head available exceeds that required by the pump by at least
25% over the range of expected flow rates.
 Environmental Considerations
Important environmental considerations include ambient temperature and humidity, elevation above sea level, and whether
the pump is to be installed indoors or outdoors.
 Software Tools
Most pump manufacturers have developed software or Web-based tools to assist in the pump selection process. Pump
purchasers enter their fluid properties and system requirements to obtain a listing of suitable pumps. Software tools that
allow you to evaluate and compare operating costs are available from private vendors.
• Accurately identify process flow rate and pressure requirements.
• Measure actual head and flow rate.
• Develop a system curve.
• Select a pump with high efficiency over the expected range of operating conditions.
• Specify electric motors that meet the NEMA Premium™ full-load efficiency standards.
• Use life cycle costing techniques to justify acquiring high efficiency pumps and designing efficient systems.
106
Select an Energy-Efficient Centrifugal Pump Background

The design of an efficient
pumping system depends on
Centrifugal pumps handle high flow rates, provide smooth, nonpulsating delivery, and
relationships between fluid flow
regulate the flow rate over a wide range without damaging the pump. Centrifugal
rate, piping layout, control
pumps have few moving parts, and the wear caused by normal operation is minimal.
methodology, and pump
They are also compact and easily disassembled for maintenance.
selection. Before selecting a
centrifugal pump, we must
 Centrifugal Pump Performance understand its application.
Centrifugal pumps are generally divided into three classes: radial flow, mixed flow,
and axial flow. Since they are designed around their impellers, differences in impeller
design allow manufacturers to produce pumps that can perform efficiently under
conditions that vary from low flow rate with high head to high flow rate with low
head. The amount of fluid a centrifugal pump moves depends on the differential
pressure or head it supplies. The flow rate increases as the head decreases.
Manufacturers generally provide a chart that indicates the zone or range of heads
and flow rates that a particular pump model can provide.
Before you select a pump model, examine its performance curve, which is indicated by
Reference
its head-flow rate or operating curve. The curve shows the pump’s capacity (in gallons
Centrifugal Applications (ANSI/HI
per minute [gpm]) plotted against total developed head (in feet). It also shows efficiency 1.3-2000), Hydraulic Institute, 2000.
(percentage), required power input (in brake-horsepower [bhp]), and suction head
requirements (net positive suction head requirement in feet) over a range of flow rates.
Pump curves also indicate pump size and type, operating speed (in revolutions per
minute), and impeller size (in inches). It also shows the pump’s best efficiency point
(BEP). The pump operates most cost effectively when the operating point is close
to the BEP.
Pumps can generally Figure 1. End Suction Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve
be ordered with a
variety of impeller
sizes. Each impeller
has a separate
performance curve
(see Figure 1). To
minimize pumping
system energy
consumption, select a
pump so the system
curve intersects the
pump curve within
20% of its BEP, and
select a midrange
impeller that can be
trimmed or replaced
to meet higher or
lower flow rate requirements. Select a pump with high efficiency contours over your
range of expected operating points. A few points of efficiency improvement can save
significant energy over the life of the pump.
107
 Example
A process requires 15,000 gpm at a total operating head of 150 feet. Assume the centrifugal pump will be powered by a
700-hp motor, operate for 8,000 hours annually, and transport fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0. One candidate pump
has an efficiency (η1) of 81% at the operating point; a second is expected to operate at 78% efficiency (η2). What are the
energy savings given selection of the first pump?
Reduced Power Requirements (bhp) = {(Head x Flow x SG) / 3,960} x (100/η1 – 100/η2)
where
Head = head at operating point in feet
Flow = pump discharge at operating point
SG = fluid specific gravity
bhp Reduction = {(150 feet x 15,000 gpm x 1.0) / 3,960} x (1/0.81 – 1/0.78) = 27 bhp
Assuming an efficiency of 96% for the pump drive motor, the annual energy savings are:
Energy Savings = 27 bhp x 0.746 kW/bhp x 8,000 hours/year / 0.96 = 167,850 kWh/year
These savings are valued at $8,393 per year at an energy price of 5¢ per kWh. Assuming a 15-year pump life, total
energy savings are $125,888. With an assumed cost differential between the two pumps of $5,000, the simple payback
for purchasing the first pump will be approximately 7 months.
• Develop an accurate system curve (see tip sheet “Pump Selection Considerations”).
• Select a correctly sized pump and drive motor.
• Select the pump with the highest efficiency over the range of expected system operating points.
• Develop an index. A useful index for comparing pumps in the same application involves calculating the gallons of fluid pumped
per kilowatt-hour of electrical energy used (gal/kWh). This index illustrates the fluid transported per unit of energy expended.
Calculating the inverse—kWh/gal—is equally useful, and provides the basis for an energy cost comparison.
108
Test for Pumping System Efficiency Background

A pump’s efficiency can degrade
as much as 10% to 25% before it
Pump efficiencies of 50% to 60% or lower are quite common. Because pump
is replaced, according to a study
inefficiencies are not readily apparent, however, opportunities to save energy by
of industrial facilities commis-
repairing or replacing components and optimizing systems are often overlooked.
sioned by the U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE).
 Define Pumping System Efficiency
System efficiency incorporates the efficiencies of the pump, motor, and other system
components, as shown in the area of the illustration outlined by the dashed line.
Pumping system efficiency (ηsys) is defined as follows:

Qreq x Hreq x SG
ηsys = ———————
5308 x Pe
where
Qreq = required fluid flow rate, in
gallons per minute
Hreq = required pump head, in feet References
SG = specific gravity Centrifugal Tests (ANSI/HI 1.6-2000),
Pe = electrical power input. Hydraulic Institute, 2000.
Conduct an In-Plant Pumping System
Only the required head and flow rates are considered in calculating system efficiency. Survey, DOE Pumping Systems Tip
Unnecessary head losses are deducted from the pump head, and unnecessary bypass or Sheet, 2005.
recirculation flow is deducted from the pump flow rate. Match Pumps to System Requirements,
DOE Pumping Systems Tip Sheet,
2005.
 Conduct Efficiency Tests
Trim or Replace Impellers on
Efficiency tests help facilities staff identify inefficient systems, determine energy Oversized Pumps, DOE Pumping
efficiency improvement measures, and estimate potential energy savings. These tests Systems Tip Sheet, 2005.
are usually conducted on larger pumps and on those that operate for long periods of
time. For details, see Hydraulic Institute standards ANSI/HI 1.6-2000, Centrifugal
Pump Tests, and ANSI/HI 2.6-2000, Vertical Pump Tests.
Flow rates can be obtained with reliable instruments installed in the system or prefer-
ably with stand-alone tools such as a sonic (Doppler-type) or “transit time” flow meter
or a Pitot tube and manometer. Turbulence can be avoided by measuring the flow rate on
a pipe section without fittings at a point where there is still a straight run of pipe ahead.
 Improve System Efficiency

Internal leaks caused by excessive impeller clearances or by worn or misadjusted parts
can reduce the efficiency of pumps. Corrective actions include restoring internal
clearances and replacing or refurbishing worn or damaged throat bushings, wear rings,
impellers, or pump bowls. Changes in process requirements and control strategies,
deteriorating piping, and valve losses all affect pumping system efficiency.
109
Potential energy savings can be determined by using the difference between actual system operating efficiency (ηa) and the
design (or optimal) operating efficiency (ηo), or by consulting published pump curves, as available, for design efficiency
ratings.
Software tools like DOE’s Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) also provide estimates of optimal efficiency. When
the required head and flow rate, as well as actual electrical data, are input into the software, PSAT will account for artifi-
cial head and flow losses. The equation for calculating potential energy savings is as follows:
Savings = kWin x t x ( 1 – ηa/ηo )

where
savings = energy savings, in kilowatt-hours (kWh) per year
kWin = input electrical energy, in kilowatts (kW)
t = annual operating hours
ηa = actual system efficiency, calculated from field measurements
ηo = optimal system efficiency.
 Example
Efficiency testing and analysis indicate that a 300-horsepower centrifugal pump has an operating efficiency of 55%.
However, the manufacturer’s pump curve indicates that it should operate at 78% efficiency. The pump draws 235 kW and
operates 6,000 hours per year. Assuming that the pump can be restored to its original or design performance conditions,
estimated energy savings are as follows:
Savings = 235 kW x 6,000 hours/year x [ 1 – (0.55/0.78) ] = 415,769 kWh/year.
At an energy cost of 5¢ per kWh, the estimated savings would be $20,786 per year.
Survey the priority pumps in your plant and conduct efficiency tests on them.
• Identify misapplied, oversized, or throttled pumps, or those that have bypass lines.
• Identify pumps with operating points below the manufacturer’s pump curve (if available); estimate energy savings of restoring
the system to its original efficiency.
• Identify pumps with flow rates of 30% or more from the BEP flow rates, or with system imbalances greater than 20%.
• Determine the cost effectiveness of each improvement.
110
Maintain Pumping Systems Effectively Background

Wear ring and rotor erosions are
some of the costly problems that
Effective pump maintenance allows industrial plants to keep pumps operating well, to
can reduce the wire-to-water
detect problems in time to schedule repairs, and to avoid early pump failures. Regular
efficiency of pumps by 10% or
maintenance also reveals deteriorations in efficiency and capacity, which can occur
more.
long before a pump fails.
The amount of attention given to maintenance depends on how important a system is

to a plant’s operations. Downtime can be expensive when it affects critical processes.
Most maintenance activities can be classified as either preventive or predictive.
Preventive maintenance addresses routine system needs such as lubrication, periodic
adjustments, and removal of contaminants. Predictive maintenance focuses on tests
and inspections that detect deteriorating conditions.
 Preventive Actions
Preventive maintenance activities include coupling alignment, lubrication, and seal
maintenance and replacement. Mechanical seals must be inspected periodically to
ensure that either there is no leakage or that leakage is within specifications. Mechan-
References
ical seals that leak excessively usually must be replaced. A certain amount of leakage
Extend Your Motor’s Operating Life,
is required, however, to lubricate and cool the packing seals. But the packing gland
DOE Motor Systems Tip Sheet, 2005.
needs to be adjusted if the leakage exceeds the manufacturer’s specifications. The
Test for Pumping System Efficiency,
packing gland must be replaced if it has to be tightened excessively to control leakage. DOE Pumping Systems Tip Sheet,
Overtightening causes unnecessary wear on the shaft or its wear sleeve and increases 2005.
electric power use. Routine maintenance of pump motors, such as proper lubrication
and cleaning, is also vital.
 Predictive Actions
Predictive maintenance helps minimize unplanned equipment outages. Sometimes called
“condition assessment” or “condition monitoring,” it has become easier with modern
testing methods and equipment. The following methods apply to pumping systems:
Vibration analysis. Trending vibration amplitude and frequency can detect an

impending bearing failure. It can also reveal voltage and mechanical imbalances that
could be caused by impeller erosion or coupling problems. Changes in vibration over
time are more meaningful than a single “snapshot” of the vibration spectrum.
Motor current signature analysis. Sometimes called “dynamic analysis,” this reveals
deteriorating insulation, rotor bar damage, electrical system unbalance, and harmonics.
It can also pick up system problems such as malfunctioning control valves that cause
flow rate disturbances. Tracking the signature over time is more valuable than a single
snapshot.
Lubrication oil analysis. This applies only to large, oil-lubricated pumps, and is an
expensive procedure. Oil analysis can detect bearing problems caused by metal
particles or chemical changes that result from overheating, and seal problems caused
by pumped fluid in the oil. It also provides guidance on proper oil-change intervals.
111
Periodic efficiency testing. Testing the wire-to-water efficiency and keeping records to spot trends is useful. Finally, see
the checklist of maintenance items below, which can be tailored for many kinds of systems, applications, and facilities.
 Basic Maintenance Checklist

■ Packing. Check for leakage and adjust according to the instructions of the pump and packing manufacturers. Allowable
leakage is usually 2 to 60 drops per minute. Add packing rings or, if necessary, replace all the packing.
■ Mechanical Seals. Check for leakage. If leakage exceeds the manufacturer’s specifications, replace the seal.
■ Bearings. Determine the condition of the bearing by listening for noises that indicate excessive wear, measuring the
bearing’s operating temperature, and using a predictive maintenance technique such as vibration analysis or oil analysis.
Lubricate bearings according to the pump manufacturer’s instructions; replace them if necessary.
■ Motor/Pump Alignment. Determine if motor/pump alignment is within the service limits of the pump.
■ Motor Condition. Check the integrity of motor winding insulation. These tests usually measure insulation resistance
at a certain voltage or the rate at which an applied voltage decays across the insulation. A vibration analysis can also
indicate certain conditions within motor windings and lead to early detection of developing problems.
Establish a pumping system maintenance program that includes the following:
• Preventive actions
• Predictive actions
• Periodic efficiency testing.
112
Match Pumps to System Requirements Background

When pumps run inefficiently, it
is often because actual system
An industrial facility can reduce the energy costs associated with its pumping systems,
requirements are not the same as
and save both energy and money, in many ways. They include reducing the pumping
those specified in the original
system flow rate, lowering the operating pressure, operating the system for a shorter
system design. This can make the
period of time each day, and, perhaps most important, improving the system’s overall
whole system more costly to
efficiency.
operate.
Often, a pumping system runs inefficiently because its requirements differ from the
original design conditions. The original design might have been too conservative, or
oversized pumps might have been installed to accommodate future increases in plant
capacity. The result is an imbalance that causes the system to be inefficient and thus
more expensive to operate.
 Correct Imbalanced Pumping Systems

If the imbalance between the system’s requirements and the actual (measured)
discharge head and flow rate exceeds 20%, conduct a detailed review of your plant’s
pumping system. Calculate the imbalance as follows:
References
Variable Speed Pumping: A Guide to
Imbalance (%) = [(Qmeas x Hmeas)/(Qreq x Hreq) – 1] x 100%
Successful Applications, Hydraulic
where Institute and Europump (www.pumps.
org), 2004.
Qmeas = measured flow rate, in gallons per minute (gpm)
Conduct an In-Plant Pumping System
Hmeas = measured discharge head, in feet
Survey, DOE Pumping Systems Tip
Qreq = required flow rate, in gpm Sheet, 2005.
Hreq = required discharge head, in feet. Trim or Replace Impellers on
Oversized Pumps, DOE Pumping
A pump may be incorrectly sized for current needs if it operates under throttled Systems Tip Sheet, 2005.
conditions, has a high bypass flow rate, or has a flow rate that varies more than Optimize Parallel Pumping Systems,
30% from its best efficiency point (BEP) flow rate. Such pumps can be prioritized DOE Pumping Systems Tip Sheet,
for further analysis, according to the degree of imbalance or mismatch between actual 2005.
and required conditions. Adjustable Speed Pumping
Applications, DOE Pumping Systems
Energy-efficient solutions include using multiple pumps, adding smaller auxiliary Tip Sheet, 2005.
(pony) pumps, trimming impellers, or adding a variable-speed drive. In some cases,
it may be practical to replace an electric motor with a slower, synchronous-speed
motor—e.g., using a motor that runs at 1,200 revolutions per minute (rpm) rather than
one that runs at 1,800 rpm.
Conduct quick reviews like this periodically. Especially for multipump systems, this can
be a convenient way to identify opportunities to optimize a system at little or no cost.
 Example
This example shows the energy savings that can be obtained by not using an oversized
pump. Assume that a process requires 1,500 tons of refrigeration during the three
summer months, but only 425 tons for the remaining nine months. The process uses
two chilled water pumps operating at 3,500 gpm and requiring 200 brake horsepower
(bhp) each. Both are used in summer, but two-thirds of the flow rate is bypassed
during the remaining months.
113
One 3,500-gpm pump is therefore replaced with a new 1,250-gpm pump designed to have the same discharge head
as the original unit. Although the new pump requires only 50 bhp, it meets the plant’s chilled water requirements
most of the year (in all but the summer months). The older pump now operates only in the summer. Assuming
continuous operation with an efficiency (ηm) of 93% for both motors, we can calculate the energy savings from
operating the smaller pump as follows:
Savings = (200 hp – 50 hp)/ηm x 0.746 kW/hp x (9 months/12 months) x 8,760 hours/year

= 790,520 kWh/year.
At an average energy cost of 5¢ per kWh, annual savings would be about $39,525.
• Survey your facility’s pumps.
• Identify flow rates that vary 30% or more from the BEP and systems imbalances greater than 20%.
• Identify misapplied, oversized, or throttled pumps and those with bypass lines.
• Assess opportunities to improve system efficiency.
• Consult with suppliers on the cost of trimming or replacing impellers and replacing pumps.
• Determine the cost-effectiveness of each improvement.
114
Reduce Pumping Costs through Optimum Background

Every industrial facility has a
Pipe Sizing piping network that carries water
or other fluids. According to the
The power consumed to overcome the static head in a pumping system varies linearly U.S. Department of Energy
with flow, and very little can be done to reduce the static component of the system (DOE), 16% of a typical facility’s
requirement. However, there are several energy- and money-saving opportunities to electricity costs are for its pump-
reduce the power required to overcome the friction component. ing systems.
The frictional power required depends on flow rate, pipe size (diameter), overall pipe
length, pipe characteristics (surface roughness, material, etc.), and properties of the
fluid being pumped. Figure 1 shows the annual water pumping cost (frictional power
only) for 1,000 feet of pipe length for different pipe sizes and flow rates.
Figure 1. Annual water pumping cost for 1,000 feet of pipe of different sizes
References
Xenergy Inc., United States Industrial
Motor Systems Market Opportunities
Assessment, prepared for DOE,
December 1998.
Piping Handbook, Mohinder K.
Nayyar, McGraw-Hill Publications,
New York, 1998.
Engineering Data Book, Hydraulic
Institute, Second Edition, New Jersey,
1990.
Based on 1,000 ft for clean iron and steel pipes (schedule 40) for pumping 70°F water. Electricity rate—5¢ per kWh and
8,760 operating hours annually. Combined pump and motor efficiency—70%.
 Example
A pumping facility has 10,000 feet of piping to carry 600 gallons per minute (gpm) of
water continuously to storage tanks. Determine the annual pumping costs associated
with different pipe sizes.
From Figure 1, for 600 gpm:

6-inch pipe: ($1,690/1,000 feet) x 10,000 feet = $16,900
8-inch pipe: ($425/1,000 feet) x 10,000 feet = $ 4,250
10-inch pipe: ($140/1,000 feet) x 10,000 feet = $ 1,400
After the energy costs are calculated, the installation and maintenance costs should be
calculated for each pipe size. Although the up-front cost of a larger pipe may be
higher, it may still provide the most cost-effective solution because it will greatly
reduce the initial pump and operating costs.
115
 General Equation for Estimating Frictional Portion of Pumping Costs
1
____ (Flow in gpm)3 (Pipe length in feet)
_____________________________ (# of hours) ($/kWh)
__________________________________________
Cost ($) = (Friction factor)
1706 (Pipe inner diameter in inches)5 (Combined pump and motor efficiency as a percent)
where the friction factor, based on the pipe roughness, pipe diameter, and the Reynolds number, can be obtained
from engineering handbooks. For most applications, the value of this friction factor will be 0.015 to 0.0225.
• Compute annual and life-cycle cost for systems before making an engineering design decision.
• In systems dominated by friction head, evaluate pumping costs for at least two pipe sizes and try to accommodate pipe size with
the lowest life-cycle cost.
• Look for ways to reduce friction factor. If your application permits, epoxy-coated steel or plastic pipes can reduce friction factor
by more than 40%, proportionately reducing your pumping costs.
116
Appendix D: Guidelines for Comments
Appendix D: Guidelines for Comments
Comments that can correct and improve this sourcebook are appreciated. Please copy this page and
provide suggestions to the address listed below.
Improving Pumping System Performance, A Sourcebook for Industry: Comment Form
Page number(s):
Comments:
From:
Mail to:
U.S. Department of Energy
Industrial Technologies Program, EE-2F
1000 Independence Ave, SW
Washington, DC 20585
117
About the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
A Strong Energy Portfolio

for a Strong America
Energy efficiency and clean, renewable
energy will mean a stronger economy, a
cleaner environment, and greater energy
independence for America. Working
with a wide array of state, community,
industry, and university partners, the U.S.
Department of Energy’s Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy invests in
a diverse portfolio of energy technologies.
U.S. Department of Energy

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Washington, DC
www.eere.energy.gov/industry
For more information or to order

additional copies contact
EERE Information Center
1-877-EERE-INF (1-877-337-3463)
eereic@ee.doe.gov
DOE/GO-102006-2079
May 2006
Printed with renewable-source ink on paper containing at
least 50% wastepaper, including 10% postconsumer waste

Improving Pumping System Performance

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Improving Pumping System Performance

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Improving Pumping System Performance

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are the main components of a pumping system discussed in the document?

What are the main components of a pumping system discussed in the document?

What principles related to pumping systems are explained in the document?

What principles related to pumping systems are explained in the document?

Improving

Stefan M. Abelin, ITT Flygt Corporation Al Iseppon, Pentair Water

Second Edition, May 2006

Prepared for the United States Department of Energy

Resource Dynamics Corporation

Alliance to Save Energy

In cooperation with the Hydraulic Institute

Produced by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Improving Pumping System Performance

Section 2: Performance Improvement Opportunity Roadmap 11

Section 3: The Economics of Improving Pumping Systems 55

Section 4: Where to Find Help 69

Quick Start Guide

these opportunities in greater detail follows the  Appendices

 Section 3. The Economics of Improving

 Section 4. Where To Find Help

Section 1: Pumping System Basics

Overview Pumps are essential to the daily operation of many

Figure 1. Typical Pumping System Components

Although many applications can be served by A centrifugal pump’s flow/pressure relationship

energy costs, it also decreases loads on the pump

Systems with significant annual operating hours

The cost of oversizing pumps extends beyond

Note that, when designers try to improve a

Section 2: Performance Improvement Opportunity Roadmap

Overview The Fact Sheets

B - Controlling Pumps with Adjustable Speed Drives

C - Basic Pump Maintenance

D - Common Pumping System Problems

E - General Pump Fact Sheets: Assessing Pumping System Needs,

Figure 2. Key to the Fact Sheets

Assessing Pumping System Needs

designer should be aware of all the operating 140

Common Pumping System Problems

Valve seat wear is another problem that can be

Valve seats experience wear problems caused by

Pipe Supports and Equipment Foundations. In pressure at a certain temperature. In centrifugal

Packing Seal Rings

Pump Housing O-Rings

Figure 6. Two Types of Sealing Methods: Packing and Mechanical Seals

these pumps at or near their minimum flow

 Positive Displacement Pump Problems

Also, since their flow rate is essentially

A characteristic of many positive displacement

In addition, positive displacement pumps are

Indications of Oversized Pumps

Highly throttled control valves can also impact  Corrective Measures

Use Variable Frequency Drives. Pumps that

Use Smaller Pumps to Augment Larger Pumps.

Adding a smaller pump to handle normal system

Piping Configurations To Improve Pumping System Efficiency

Low-loss components provide another oppor-  Pump Concerns

Space that allows an

Space that allows an

Space that allows an