CH 3
CH 3
CH 3
Lagrangian Mechanics II
Chapter contents:
●
Generalized Forces
●
Lagrange’s Equations
●
Non-uniqueness of Lagrangian
●
Reference Frames
●
Velocity-Dependent Potentials
1
Generalized Forces
We have eliminated the constraint force F i , but the D’Alembert principle
⃗ (c)
is not yet a useful equation of motion because δ ⃗r i are not all independent.
For a holonomic system of Np particles and Nc constraint equations,
we have f j (⃗r 1 , ... , ⃗r N , t) ( j=1, 2,... , N c )
p
∑ ⃗ i − ⃗p˙ i )⋅δ ⃗r i =0
(F
(a)
2
i=1
⃗r i =⃗r i (q 1, q 2,. .. , q N , t ) => virtual displacement
N
∂ ⃗r i There is no time variation term δt
δ ⃗r i = ∑ δ qα because the virtual displacement
α=1 ∂ q α is defined at a fixed time
= ∑Q α δ qα
α=1
where we have defined the generalized force
Np
ri
(a) ∂ ⃗
Q α= ∑ Fi ⋅
⃗
∂ qα
i=1
Since qα needs not have the dimension of length, hence Qα needs not
3
have the dimension of force.
Example: Pendulum of fixed length
∂ ⃗r
=> =l cos θ x^ +l sin θ ^y
∂θ
= ∑
i=1
r¨ i )⋅
(mi ⃗
(∑
β=1
∂⃗ri
∂ qβ ) ∑ (∑
δ qβ =
β=1 i=1
¨
mi ⃗
r i⋅
∂⃗
)
ri
∂ qβ
δ qβ
5
Since the generalized coordinates {qα} are independent, each individual
term vanishes:
d ∂T ∂T
( )
dt ∂ q̇ α
−
∂ qα
=Q α (α=1, 2, ... , N )
Np Np
∂⃗ri 1
where Qα=∑ ⃗ (a)
F i ⋅
∂ qα
; ∑
T≡
i
2
m i v 2i
i=1
This set of N ODE will give the motion for any holonomic system. The
number of unknowns {qα} equals the number of degrees of freedom,
unlike Newton’s vector mechanics, in which the constraint forces are
also unknowns and more equations are needed.
6
Lagrange’s Equations
Let us now consider the important case where the applied forces F ⃗ (a)
i
are conservative so that there exists a potential energy function V:
F i =−∇ i V (⃗
⃗ (a) r 1 , ... , ⃗r N p)
Gradient of V with respect to the
coordinates of the i-th particle
In Cartesian coordinates: ∂V ^ ∂V ^ ∂V ^
∇i V ≡ i+ j+ k
∂ xi ∂ y i ∂ zi
7
For holonomic system, the coordinates of the particles can be expressed
in terms of {qα} (and possibly also explicitly on time t):
⃗r i =⃗r i (q 1, q2,. .. , q N , t) (i=1, 2,... , N p )
Np Np
ri
∂⃗ ∂V ^ ∂V ^ ∂V ^ ∂ xi ^ ∂ y i ^ ∂ zi ^
=> ∑
i=1
∇ i V⋅
∂ qα
= ∑(
i=1
∂ xi
i+
∂ yi
j+
∂ zi )(
k⋅
∂ qα
i+
∂ qα
j+
∂ qα
k )
Np
∂ V ∂ x i ∂ V ∂ yi ∂ V ∂ zi
= ∑( + +
∂ xi ∂ qα ∂ y i ∂ qα ∂ zi ∂ q α )
i=1
∂V
=
∂ qα
8
Recall that we have the following general equations of motion:
d ∂T ∂T
( )
dt ∂ q̇ α
−
∂ qα
=Q α (α=1, 2, ... , N )
Assume that the potential energy function does not depend explicitly
on generalized velocities:
∂V We will deal with the case
=0 for all α when V depends explicitly
∂ q̇α on velocities later
9
We have assumed that V does
Definition: Lagrangian not depend explicitly on q̇ α
( )
dt ∂ ẋ
−
∂x
=0 , ( )
dt ∂ ẏ
−
∂y
=0
(Why?)
Polar coordinates: 1 2 2 2
L= m( ṙ +r φ̇ )
2
d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L
( )
dt ∂ ṙ
−
∂r
=0 ,
dt( )
∂ φ̇
−
∂ φ
=0
=> ∂F ∂F
dF= dq+ dt
∂q ∂t
dF ∂ F ∂F
Ḟ≡ = q̇+
dt ∂ q ∂t
2 2 2 2
d ∂ L' ∂ L' ∂ F ∂ F ∂ F ∂ F
=>
( )
dt ∂ q̇
−
∂q
=
(
∂q
2
q̇+
∂t ∂q )(
−
∂q
2
q̇+
∂q∂t )
=0
16
Reference Frames
Since Newton’s laws are used in the derivation of the Lagrange’s
equations, the Lagrangian L = T − V must be evaluated in an inertial
frame. However, the coordinates we choose to express T and V are
arbitrary, and can be even in a non-inertial frame. Let us illustrate the
point by considering a ball being thrown upward inside an accelerating
elevator.
Putting this result into the second equation (i.e., Faraday’s law):
⃗ =− ∂ ( ∇ × A
∇ ×E ⃗) A
∂⃗
∂t
=> ∇× E+
⃗
(
∂t
=0 ) An arbitrary scalar
function
=> A
∂⃗
E+
⃗ =−∇ Φ
∂t
22