COURSE DESCRIPTION

4- Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

5- Inductance and capacitance
3- Techniques for solving DC
electric circuits

DC CIRCUITS
AC CIRCUITS

6- The Passive Circuit

2- Circuit Elements:
Elements in the
Electrical Ohm’s law
Frequency Domain
and Kirchhoff’s laws
Engineering (1)

7- Kirchhoff`s Laws in
the Frequency Domain 1- Circuit Variables:
current, voltage, and power
in an electric circuit
8- Techniques in AC circuits 9- Sinusoidal Steady-State
Power Calculations
Circuit Variables
Outline

• Charge and Current.

• Voltage and Circuit Elements.

• Polarity of Voltage, Power and Energy.

• Passive Sign Convention.

PART 1 | Charge and Current
The International System of Units (SI)

Quantity Basic unit Symbol

Length meter m

Mass kilogram Kg

Time second s

Electric current ampere A

Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K

Luminous intensity candela cd

 The International System of Units (SI) prefix
The Table below shows the SI prefixes and their symbols. For example, the following are expressions of the same distance in meters (m):

600,000,000 mm=600,000 m=600 km

Charge and Current

• When a conducting wire is connected to a battery, the charges are compelled to move.
• Positive charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the opposite
direction.
• This motion of charges creates electric current, as Figure 1.1 illustrates.
• Thus, electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).

Fig 1.1 Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a conductor

Charge and current

• Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is:

𝒅𝒒
𝒊= (1.1)
𝒅𝒕
where
i = the current in amperes (A),
q = the charge in coulombs,
t = the time in seconds.

• The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (1.1).

𝒕
q= 𝒕𝒐
𝒊𝒅𝒕 (1.2)
Type of current

 Direct Current (DC) is a current that remains  An alternating current (AC) or sinusoidal current i is
constant with time. By convention the symbol a current that varies sinusoidally with time.
I is used to represent such a constant current.  Such current is used in your household, to run the
 Example: Battery provide direct current. air conditioner, refrigerator, washing machine, and
other electric appliances.
 AC voltage is produced by an electric generator.

Fig 1.3 alternating current

Fig 1.2 Direct Current: One way flow
E X A M P L E 1.1

• The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin 4πt mC.

Calculate the current at t = 0.5 s?

i
+ 1
v
- 2
E X A M P L E 1.1

Solution:
i
+ 1
v
- 2

𝑑𝑞 𝑑 5𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋𝑡
𝑖= = 𝑚𝐶/𝑠 = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋𝑡 + 20𝜋𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

At t = 0.5: i = 5 sin 2π + 10π cos 2π = 0 + 10π = 31.42 mA

E X A M P L E 1.2

 Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s? If the

current passing the terminal is:

𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝐴

i
+ 1
v
- 2
E X A M P L E 1.2

Solution: i
+ 1
v
- 2

𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝐴

2 2
q= 𝑡=1
𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 1
3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2
𝑡2 1
q= 𝑡3 − = 8−2 − 1− = 5.5𝐶
2 1 2
PART 2 | Voltage and Circuit Elements
VOLTAGE

The voltage 𝒗𝒂𝒃 between two points a and b (or potential difference) is the energy
(or work) required to move a unit charge from a to b through an element,
measured in volts (V).
i
+ a
𝒅𝒘
Mathematically: 𝒗𝒂𝒃 = v
𝒅𝒒 - b

• 𝒗 = potential difference in volts, V.

• 𝒘 = work done or energy transferred in joules, J.
• 𝒒 = the charge in coulombs, C.
Circuit Elements

• A circuit element most often has two terminals.

• The relationship between the voltage v across the terminals and the current i
through the device defines the circuit element model.

Fig 1.4
Circuit Elements

We classify circuit elements as active and passive:

 Active elements can generate or produces electrical energy. Common examples of active elements are
power supplies, batteries.

Fig 1.5 Independent sources

 Passive elements cannot generate energy. Common examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors
and inductors. We will see later than capacitors and inductors can store energy but cannot generate energy.

Fig 1.6 Fig 1.7

Voltage and Current Sources

• An electrical source is a device that is capable of converting nonelectric energy to

electric energy and vice versa.
• An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or
current that is completely independent of other circuit variables.

Fig 1.8 The circuit symbols for

(a) an ideal independent voltage source and (b) an ideal independent current source.
Ideal independent voltage source

• An ideal independent voltage source is characterized as having a constant voltage

across its terminals, regardless of the load connected to the terminals.

Fig 1.9 voltage source

Fig 1.10
Ideal independent current source

 An ideal independent current source is characterized as providing a constant

value of current, regardless of the load.

Fig 1.11 current source Fig 1.12

PART 3 | Polarity of Voltage, Power and Energy
 Polarity of voltage 𝒗𝒂𝒃

• Figure 1.16 shows the voltage across an element (represented by a

rectangular block) connected to points a and b.
• The plus (+) and minus (−) signs are used to define reference direction
or voltage polarity.
• The 𝒗𝒂𝒃 can be interpreted in two ways:
• the potential at point a with respect to point b is 𝒗𝒂𝒃 ,
• point a is at a potential of 𝒗𝒂𝒃 volts higher than point b. Fig 1.16 Polarity of voltage 𝒗𝒂𝒃

• It follows logically that in general: 𝒗𝒂𝒃 = −𝒗𝒃a

Polarity of voltage 𝒗𝒂𝒃

𝒗𝒂𝒃 = −𝒗𝒃𝒂

Fig 1.17 Two equivalent representations of the same voltage 𝒗𝒂𝒃 :

(a) point a is 9V above point b,
(b) point b is -9V above point a.

• 𝒗𝒂𝒃 =9V is the voltage drop from terminal a to terminal b. Or voltage rise from terminal b to terminal a.

• 𝒗𝒂𝒃 =-9V is the voltage rise from terminal a to terminal b. Or Voltage drop from terminal b to terminal a.

𝒗𝒂𝒃 > 0 means the potential of a is higher than potential of b.

𝒗𝒂𝒃 < 0 means the potential of a is lower than potential of b.
Power and Energy

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
• Mathematical expression: 𝑝= = = 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡

• Where:
• p = the power in watts, w = the energy in joules, t = the time in seconds, 𝑣= the voltage
in volts, 𝑖= the current in amperes.

• The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason, the
algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

𝑝=0

• This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the circuit must balance the total
power absorbed.
Power and Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

𝑡 𝑡
The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to time t is: w= 𝑡𝑜
𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜
𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡

• A charge of 4.0 coulombs was moved through a potential difference of 24 volts.

• How much energy was transferred?

W =V.Q
=24.4
= 96 J
Fig 1.18
PART 4 | Passive sign convention
Passive sign convention (1)

• Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the sign of
power.
• The voltage polarity and current direction must conform with those shown in Fig. 1.19
in order for the power to have a positive sign.
• This is known as the passive sign convention.

Fig 1.19
 Passive sign convention (2)

• By the passive sign convention, current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage.
• In this case, p = +vi or vi > 0 implies that the element is absorbing power.
• However, if p = −vi or vi < 0, as in Fig. 1.20 (b), the element is releasing or supplying power.

Fig 1.20 reference polarities for power using the passive sign convention: Fig 1.21 polarity references and the expression for power.
(a) absorbing power, (b) supplying power.
Passive sign convention (3)

Calculate the power absorbed by each element in the given circuit?

a) p= +iv= +(5)*(10)= +50W → p>0 → actually absorbed

b) p= -iv= -(-4)*(3)= +12W → p>0 → actually absorbed
c) p= -iv= -(-12)*(-10)= -120W → p<0 → actually delivered
d) p= +iv= +(60)*(-6)= -360W → p<0 → actually delivered
1- Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element

• For p1, the 5-A current is out of the positive terminal (or into the negative terminal).
p1 = 20(−5) = −100 W Supplied power
• For p2 and p3, the current flows into the positive terminal of the element in each case.
p2 = 12(5) = 60 W Absorbed power
p3 = 8(6) = 48 W Absorbed power
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element

• For p4, the current flows out of the positive terminal,

p4 = 8(−1) = −8 W Supplied power
• We should observe that the 20-V and 8-V independent voltage are
supplying power to the rest of the network, while the two passive
elements are absorbing power.
p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 = −100 + 60 + 48 − 8 = 0
• The total power supplied equals the total power absorbed.