TOPICS:

I. UNITS
II. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
III. MEASUREMENT
IV. ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES
V. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
VI. LINEAR FITTING OF DATA
PHYSICS
Physics which comes from the Greek word, phúsis,
which means “nature” and it is concerned with
describing the interactions of energy, matter, space
and time to uncover the fundamental mechanisms that
underlie every phenomenon.
PHYSICS
Physics is an experimental science. Physicists perform
experiments to test hypotheses. Conclusions in
experiment are derived from measurements. A great
deal of effort goes into making these measurements
as accurate and reproducible as possible.
INTRODUCTION
What is the image shown?

A whirlpool in a tank of water?

A collage of paint?
Shiny beads done for art class?
INTRODUCTION
Without knowing the size of the object in units, we all
recognize, such as meters or inches, it is difficult to
know what we‘re looking at.

The image shown is the Whirlpool Galaxy with its

companion galaxy, which is about 60,000 light-years
in diameters or about 6x1017 km across.
INTRODUCTION
Physicists, like other scientists, make observations and
ask basic questions:

How big is an object?

How much mass does it have?
How far did it travel?
To answer these questions, they make measurements
with various instruments (meter stick, stop watch,
balance, etc.)
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be
measured and consists of a numerical magnitude and
a unit.

The physical quantities can be classified into two:

(1) base quantities and (2) derived quantities.
UNITS
The measurements of physical quantities are
expressed in terms of units, which are standardized
values.

The length of a race can be expressed in meters

(sprinters) and kilometers (long distance runners).

Without standardized units, it would be extremely

difficult for scientists to express and compare
measured values.
BASE QUANTITIES
Base quantities or fundamental quantities are
quantities that can be measured and their units are
the system‘s base units.
DERIVED QUANTITIES
Derived quantities or secondary quantities are
quantities that are derived from or combination of
base quantities and each unit is called derived unit.
SYSTEM OF UNITS
A system of units is collection of units in which certain
units are chosen as fundamental and all other are
derived from them.

In most of the system, the mass, length and time are

considered fundamental quantities and their units are
called fundamental units.
SYSTEM OF UNITS
A. SI (Systeme Internationale) Units
- also known as metric system
- French phrase: Système International d'Unités
- uses 7 base quantities
SYSTEM OF UNITS
B. English Units
- also known as imperial system
- used in nations once ruled by British Empire
- also referred as FPS (foot-pound-second) system
SYSTEM OF UNITS
C. CGS System of Units
- refers to centi-gram-second
- variant of metric system
- replaced by MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system
SYSTEM OF UNITS
D. British Gravitational System of Units
- also known as British Engineering System of Units
SYSTEM OF UNITS
Quantity SI English CGS British
meter foot centimeter foot
Length
(m) (ft) (cm) (ft)
kilogram pound mass gram slug
Mass
(kg) (lbm) (g) (sl)
second second second second
Time
(s) (s) (s) (s)
 7 BASE QUANTITIES: SI UNITS
Symbol for
Physical Quantity Unit Name Unit Symbol Dimension
Length meter m L
Mass kilogram kg M
Time second s T
Temperature kelvin K θ
Electrical Current ampere A I
Luminous Intensity candela cd J
Amount of Substance mole mol N
LENGTH
The SI unit for length is the meter (m). Meter is
defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in
1/299,792,458 of a second, knowing that the speed
of light is exactly 299,792,458 m/s.
MASS
The SI unit for mass is the
kilogram (kg). Kilogram is
defined to be the mass of a
platinum-iridium cylinder kept
with old meter standard at the
International Bureau of Weights
and Measures near Paris.
TIME
The SI unit for time is the
second (s). Second is
defined as the time
required for
9,192,631,770 of cesium
atoms vibrations to occur.
 DERIVED QUANTITIES: SI UNITS
Unit Unit SI Unit
Quantity Equivalent
Name Symbol Equivalent
Frequency hertz Hz 𝑠 −1 1Τ𝑠
Force, Weight Newton N 𝑘𝑔 ∗ m ∗ 𝑠 −2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚Τ𝑠 2
Pressure, Stress Pascal Pa 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚−1 ∗ 𝑠 −2 𝑁 Τ𝑚 2
𝑁∗m
Energy, Work, Heat Joule J 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚2 ∗ 𝑠 −2 𝐶∗V
𝑊∗s
𝐽Τ𝑠
Power, Radiant Flux Watt W 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚2 ∗ 𝑠 −3
V∗A
 DERIVED QUANTITIES: SI UNITS
Unit Unit SI Unit
Quantity Equivalent
Name Symbol Equivalent
Electric Charge coulomb C s∗A 𝐹∗V
Voltage, Electric Potential
𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚2 ∗ 𝑠 −3 ∗ 𝐴−1 𝑊 Τ𝐴
Difference, Electromotive volt V
𝐽Τ𝐶
Force
−1 −2 4 2 𝐶 Τ𝑉
Electrical Capacitance farad F 𝑘𝑔 ∗𝑚 ∗𝑠 ∗𝐴
𝑠ΤΩ
Electrical Resistance, 1Τ𝑆
ohms Ω 𝑘𝑔 ∗ 𝑚2 ∗ 𝑠 −3 ∗ 𝐴−2
Impedance, Reactance 𝑉Τ𝐴
1ΤΩ
Electrical Conductance siemens S 𝑘𝑔−1 ∗ 𝑚−2 ∗ 𝑠 3 ∗ 𝐴2
𝐴Τ𝑉
UNIT PREFIXES
A prefix is a letter or a group of letters added at
the beginning of the base word to change its
meaning. In measurement, a unit prefix or metric
prefix can be used to make a new unit larger or
smaller than the base unit.
Prefix Symbol Meaning Prefix Symbol Meaning
yocto- y 10-24 Yotta- Y 1024
zepto- z -21
10-24 Zetta- Z 1021
atto- a -18
10-24 Exa- E 1018
femto- f 10-15 Peta- P 1015
pico- p 10-12 Tera T 1012
nano- n 10-9 Giga- G 109
micro- µ 10-6 Mega- M 106
milli- m 10-3 kilo- k 103
centi- c 10-2 hecto- h 102
deci- d 10-1 deca- da 101
UNIT CONVERSION
It is often necessary to convert from one unit to
another. A conversion factor is a ratio that expresses
how many of one unit are equal to another unit.
CONVERSION FACTORS
A. Length
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 angstrom (Å) = 10-10 m
CONVERSION FACTORS
B. Mass
1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg
(1 kg has a weight of 2.205 lb where the
acceleration due to gravity is 32.174 ft/s2 )
CONVERSION FACTORS
C. Time
1 yr = 365.24 days
1 day = 24 hrs
1 hr = 60 min
1 min = 60 sec
CONVERSION FACTORS
D. Force
1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 N = 105 dynes
CONVERSION FACTORS
E. Work and Energy
1 J = 107 ergs
1 kcal = 4186 J
1 BTU = 1055 J
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
CONVERSION FACTORS
F. Power
1 hp = 745.7 W
1 hp = 550 ft · lb/s
CONVERSION FACTORS
G. Pressure
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 lb/in2 = 6.895 x103 Pa
1 atm = 1.013 x105 Pa
= 760 torr = 760 mmHg
= 14.7 lb/in2
1 bar = 100 kPa
CONVERSION FACTORS
H. Volume
1 liter = 10-3 m3 = 1000 cm3 = 0.03531 ft3

1 ft3= 0.02832 m3 = 7.481 U.S. gallons

1 U.S. gallon = 3.785 x 10-3 m3 = 0.1337 ft3

CONVERSION FACTORS
I. Angle
1 radian = 57.30 degrees
1 degree = 0.01745 radian
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Many problems in physics require the conversion of one
unit of measurement to another. This technique of
converting between units is called dimensional analysis.
The starting point for dimensional analysis is unit
equality. A unit equality or conversion factor is an
equation that shows the equivalent amounts of different
units.
 EXAMPLES:
• How many inches are there in 12 m?
472.4409 in
• Maynilad uses cubic meter (m3) as the unit of a volume of water used in each
household. Determine how many cubic meters are there in a 15-L tank of
water.

0.015 m3
• The speed of a car as measured by a speedometer is 85 kilometers per hour
(km/h). Convert this unit to centimeters per second (cm/s)
2361.1111 cm/s
 EXERCISES:
• The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela, with
a total drop of 979.0 m. Express this drop in feet.
• Express the speed limit of 65 miles/hour in terms of meters/second.
• (volume) 28.5 L = ________ µm3
• (speed) 80km/h = _________ ft/s
• (mass) 24 Gg = ___________ lb
• A jeepney tried to overtake a car. The jeepney moves at
40 km/hour: Xonvert this to the British system feet per second.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
All measurements are inaccurate:

➢ Precision of the measuring devices

➢ Human error
➢ Faulty techniques

The number of reliably known digits in a number is

called significant figures.
RULES
1. Non-zero digits are always significant.

123
54
1298.12
RULES
2. Any zeros between two significant figures are
significant.

10023
5004
120908.0012
RULES
3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal
portion ONLY are significant

0.5000
123.00
0.00000000012
RULES
4. If you add or subtract, the answer is rounded to
the same number of decimal places as the
measurement with the least number of decimal
places.

1.2 + 4.41
77 + 10.46
22.101 - 0.9307
RULES
5. If you multiply or divide two numbers, the
answer is rounded off to the number of significant
figures in the least precise term used in the
calculation (i.e. the number with the fewest sig figs).

38.65 x 105.93
125 ÷ 9.000
19.3 x 26.12
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In physics, it is very common to work with very large
or very small numbers.
For example, the mass of the sun is approximately 1
990 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg,
and the mass of a proton is approximately
0.0000000000000000000000000016726231 kg.
To express numbers like these simpler, they are
usually written in scientific notation.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
A number written in scientific notation has two parts –
a number from 1 to 9, and a power of 10 in
exponential form.
For example, the number 0.000123 can be written in
scientific notation as 1.23 x 10-4
Notice that the first part contains only the significant
digits of the original number, and the second part is
in the form of 10n, where n is the exponent.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Simply follow the LEI-RID mnemonic.
Moving the decimal point to the left increases the
exponent (LE for left, I for increase).
On the other hand, moving the decimal to the right
decreases the exponent (RI for right, D for decrease).
ACCURACY – PRECISION
Accuracy defines how close a measurement is to the
accepted reference value for that measurement. It is
a degree to which a measured value agrees with an
accepted reference value for that measurement.

Precision refers to how close the agreement is

between repeated independent measurements. It is a
degree to which repeated measurements agree with
each other.
EXAMPLE
Let‘s say that we want to measure the length of a
standard printer paper. The packaging in which we
purchased the paper states that it is 11.0 inches
long. We then measure the length of the paper three
times and obtain the following measurements:
(a) 11.1 inches
(b) 11.2 inches
(c) 10.9 inches
CONCLUSION
The measurements are quite accurate.
They are very close to the reference value of 11.0
inches.

The measurements are also precise.

The range between the lowest and highest measured
values do not vary too much (0.3 inch)
EXAMPLE
Let‘s say that we want to measure the length of a
standard printer paper. The packaging in which we
purchased the paper states that it is 11.0 inches
long. We then measure the length of the paper three
times and obtain the following measurements:
(a) 12.1 inches
(b) 13.2 inches
(c) 11.9 inches
CONCLUSION
The measurements are not accurate.
They are not close to the reference value of 11.0
inches.

The measurements are also not precise.

The range between the lowest and highest measured
values vary too much (1.3 inch)
Accurate AND precise

NOT accurate but precise

Accurate but NOT precise

NEITHER accurate NOR precise

UNCERTAINTY – DISCREPANCY
Uncertainty is a quantitative measure of how much
your measured values deviate from each other.

Discrepancy is the difference between the measured

value and a given standard or expected value.
UNCERTAINTY – DISCREPANCY
Precision is related to uncertainty while accuracy is
related to discrepancy.

If the measurements are not very precise, then the

uncertainty of the values is HIGH.
If the measurements are not very accurate, then the
discrepancy of the values is HIGH.
TAKING MEASUREMENTS
We never know the true exact value when we take
measurements.

We attempt to find its best estimate.

Measurements can be categorized into two:

1. Single measurement (1 trial)
2. Multiple measurements (multiple trials)
 UNCERTAINTY
When taking measurement with uncertainty, measurement
is expressed as:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 ± 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

The best estimate is usually denoted by X and its

uncertainty is often denoted by ∆X or 𝛿X.
Generally, the measurement is recorded as:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋 ± ∆𝑋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
UNCERTAINTY
Representation: 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋 ± ∆𝑋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

Uncertainty (-) Uncertainty (+)

Best Estimate
Measurement
SINGLE MEASUREMENT
The best estimate is the reading value being measured.

The absolute uncertainty is the instrumental uncertainty.

Analog instrument: half of the smallest increment
of the device used

Digital instrument: smallest scale division of the

device used
 SINGLE MEASUREMENT
Thus, the measurement for single trial is expressed as:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 ± 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 ± ∆𝑋𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑋𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = Reading Value (measured)

∆𝑋𝑆 = Instrumental Uncertainty (single trial)
MULTIPLE MEASUREMENTS
The best estimate is the mean or the average value of all
measurements obtained. Average value is the ratio of the
sum of all measurements to the total number of
measurements.

The absolute uncertainty is half of the range which is the

difference between the maximum (highest) and the
minimum (lowest) reading values .
 MULTIPLE MEASUREMENTS
The average value is expressed as:

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑁

σ 𝑋𝑖
𝑋𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑁
MULTIPLE MEASUREMENTS
The absolute uncertainty is expressed as:

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑎𝑏𝑠. 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
2

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑎𝑏𝑠. 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
2

𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑋𝑀 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
2
 MULTIPLE MEASUREMENTS
Thus, the measurement for multiple trials is expressed as:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ± 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ± ∆𝑋𝑀 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑋𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = Average Value (mean)

∆𝑋𝑀 = Range÷2
FRACTIONAL UNCERTAINTY
Fractional uncertainty is also known as relative uncertainty.
It is the ratio of absolute uncertainty to best estimate value.
It can be expressed as:

∆𝑋
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑋
PERCENTAGE UNCERTAINTY
Percentage uncertainty is another method of expressing
uncertainty.
It is the percentage value of fractional uncertainty.
It can be expressed as:

∆𝑋
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 (%) = 𝑥100 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑋
RULES FOR UNCERTAINTY
1. Experimental uncertainties should be rounded to one
significant figure (at most is two).

2. Experimental measurement (best estimate) should be

rounded to the same decimal place as the uncertainty.
EXAMPLE:
The length of a block is measured as 5 cm using analog
instrument (with 0.1cm increment).
Find the following:
(a) best estimate
(b) absolute uncertainty
(c) reported measurement
(d) max and min measurements
(e) fractional and percentage uncertainty
EXAMPLE:
The length of a block is measured as 5.012 cm using
digital instrument.
Find the following:
(a) best estimate
(b) absolute uncertainty
(c) reported measurement
(d) max and min measurements
(e) fractional and percentage uncertainty
EXAMPLE:
Five students measured the temperature of laboratory
using thermometer with 1°C increment. The results were
27, 26, 27, 28 and 27 in degree Celsius.
Find the following:
(a) best estimate
(b) absolute uncertainty
(c) reported measurement
(d) max and min measurements
(e) fractional and percentage uncertainty
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION
For addition:
Best estimate should be added.
Absolute uncertainty should also be added.

For subtraction:
Best estimate should be subtracted.
Absolute uncertainty should be added.
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION
For addition: 𝑍 = (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝐴 = 𝑎 ± ∆𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 and 𝐵 = 𝑏 ± ∆𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑍 = 𝑧 ± ∆𝑧 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

∆𝑧 = ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION
For subtraction: 𝑍 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝐴 = 𝑎 ± ∆𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 and 𝐵 = 𝑏 ± ∆𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑍 = 𝑧 ± ∆𝑧 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑧 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

∆𝑧 = ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
MULTIPLICATION OR DIVISION
For multiplication:
Best estimate should be multiplied.
Absolute uncertainty is the product of best estimated
and the sum of fractional uncertainties.

For division:
Best estimate should be divided.
Absolute uncertainty is the product of best estimated
and the sum of fractional uncertainties.
MULTIPLICATION OR DIVISION
For multiplication: 𝑍 = (𝐴 ∗ 𝐵) 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝐴 = 𝑎 ± ∆𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 and 𝐵 = 𝑏 ± ∆𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑍 = 𝑧 ± ∆𝑧 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑧 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
∆𝑧 = 𝑧 + 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑎 𝑏
MULTIPLICATION OR DIVISION
For division: 𝑍 = (𝐴 ÷ 𝐵) 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝐴 = 𝑎 ± ∆𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 and 𝐵 = 𝑏 ± ∆𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑍 = 𝑧 ± ∆𝑧 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑧 = 𝑎 ÷ 𝑏 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
∆𝑧 = 𝑧 + 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑎 𝑏
EXAMPLE:
The height of student A is (3.2±0.2) m and student B is
(2.3±0.1) m. Find the sum of their heights.
EXAMPLE:
A cylinder has a radius of (1.60±0.01) cm and a height
of (11.50±0.1) cm. Find the volume.
ERROR
Error means the difference between the true value and
the result of the measurement.

There are two types of error in measured data:

(a) Random Error
(b) Systematic Error
RANDOM ERROR
Random error refers to random fluctuations in the
measured data due to:
(a) effects of something changing in the
surroundings between measurements
(b) observer being less than perfect

Random errors can be reduced by averaging.

A precise instrument has small random error.
SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Systematic error refers to the instrument being out of
adjustment due to:
(a) an instrument with a zero offset error
(b) an instrument being worn off
(c) an instrument that is improperly calibrated

Systematic errors can not be reduced by averaging.

An accurate instrument has small systematic error.
VARIANCE
Variance measures how far or close the measurements are
from the mean.

It can be defined as the average of the square of the

difference between measurement and the mean.
VARIANCE
There are two types of variance:
1. Sample Variance
2. Population Variance

Sample variance is calculated from sample data while

population variance is calculated from the total set of
data.
VARIANCE
Variance can be calculated in five steps.
1. Mean of data
2. Deviations from the mean
3. Square of the deviations
4. Sum of squared deviations
5. Ratio of sum of squared deviations to data
size
 VARIANCE
Variance is generally expressed as:

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

(𝑋1 −𝑋𝑎𝑣𝑔 )2 + (𝑋2 −𝑋𝑎𝑣𝑔 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑋𝑛 −𝑋𝑎𝑣𝑔 )2

𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
𝑁

σ(𝑋𝑖 −𝑋𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 )2
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
𝑁
SAMPLE VARIANCE
Sample variance is denoted by 𝑠 2 and is expressed as:

σ(𝑋𝑖 − ത
𝑋)2
2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑛−1

𝑋𝑖 = Terms in Data Set

𝑋ത = Sample Mean
𝑛 = Sample Size
POPULATION VARIANCE
Population variance is denoted by 𝜎 2 and is expressed as:

σ 2
2
(𝑋𝑖 −𝜇)
𝜎 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑁

𝑋𝑖 = Terms in Data Set

𝜇 = Population Mean
𝑁 = Population Size
STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard deviation (SD) measures the variance of a
dataset relative to its mean.

The standard deviation close to zero (0) indicates that the

data points are close to the mean.

It is defined as square root of variance.

STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard deviation is generally expressed as:

𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑠= 𝑠 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝜎= 𝜎 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN
Standard error of the mean (SEM) measures the accuracy
of the mean.

It is defined as ratio of the standard deviation to the

square root of data size.
STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN
Standard error of the mean is generally expressed as:
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝐸𝑀 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

𝑠
𝑠𝑚 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑛

𝜎
𝜎𝑚 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑁
MEASUREMENT
Thus, the measurement is expressed as:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑆𝐸𝑀 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑋ത ± 𝑠𝑚 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜇 ± 𝜎𝑚 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
EXAMPLE:
Five of your classmates measured the diagonal length of
the blackboard. Classmate A measured it as 2.54 m;
classmate B as 2.46 m; classmate C as 2.65 m; classmate
D as 2.55 m; and classmate E as 2.39 m. Find the
following:
(a) variance
(b) SD
(c) SEM
(d) reported measurement
EXAMPLE:
A manufacturer of electronic components is interested in determining the lifetime
of five specific batteries. The following are the hours in life of the five batteries.

Battery A 123 hours

Battery B 116 hours
Battery C 122 hours
Battery D 110 hours
Battery E 175 hours

Find the variance and standard deviation of the batteries. Also, express the
average measurement in a form that includes uncertainty.