GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to RTU, Kota)

LABORATORY MANUAL

(2019-2020)

DBMS LAB

II Year & IV Semester

Computer Science & Engineering

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 SYLLABUS

Objectives: At the end of the semester, the students should have clearly understood and
implemented the following:
1. Stating a database design & application problem.
2. Preparing ER diagram
3. Finding the data fields to be used in the database.
4. Selecting fields for keys.
5. Normalizing the database including analysis of functional dependencies.
6. Installing and configuring the database server and the front end tools.
7. Designing database and writing applications for manipulation of data for a standalone
and shared data base including concepts like concurrency control, transaction roll back,
logging, report generation etc.
8. Get acquainted with SQL.
In order to achieve the above objectives, it is expected that each students will chose one
problem. The implementation shall being with the statement of the objectives to be
achieved, preparing ER diagram, designing of database, normalization and finally
manipulation of the database including generation of reports, views etc. The problem may
first be implemented for a standalone system to be used by a single user.
All the above steps may then be followed for development of a database application to be
used by multiple users in a client server environment with access control. The application
shall NOT use web techniques.
One exercise may be assigned on creation of table, manipulation of data and report
generation using SQL.
Indicative List of exercises:
1. Student information system for your college.
2. Student grievance registration and redressal system.
3. A video library management system for a shop.
4. Inventory management system for a hardware/ sanitary item shop.
5. Inventory management system for your college.
6. Guarantee management system for the equipments in your college.

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 SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

Hardware Requirements:

1. Processor: Pentium IV
2. RAM: 256 MB
3. Hard Disk: 40 GB

Software Requirements:

1. OS: Windows 98/2000/ME/XP

2. Data Base Sever: MYSQL, ORACLE , MS Access, SQL Server 2005/2008

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 RATIONAL BEHIND DBMS LAB

Database management has evolved from a specialized computer application to a central

component of a modern computing environment and as a result knowledge about
database system has become an essential part of computer science. The course serves as a
visual guide to the material presented during our lectures. The aim of this course is to
provide an introduction to Database management system, with an emphasis on
foundational material the fundamental concepts and algorithms covered are based on
those used in existing commercial or experimental database systems. Our aim is to
present these concepts and algorithms in general setting.

Objectives
Upon successful completion of this Lab the student will be able to:

 Creating database objects

 Modifying database objects

 Manipulating the data

 Retrieving the data from the database server

 Performing database operations (create, update, modify, retrieve, etc.,) using front-

end tools.

 Design and Develop applications like banking, reservation system, etc.

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 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE SYSTEMS

Need for data management systems

Today, the success of any organization depends on its ability to acquire accurate and
timely data about its operations, to manage this data effectively, and to use this data to
analyze and guide its activities. Phrases such as the information superhighwayhave
become ubiquitous, and information processing is a rapidly growing industry.
The amount of information available to us is increasing at an exploding rate, and the
value of data as an organizational asset is widely recognized. Yet without the ability to
manage this vast amount of data, and to quickly find the information that is relevant to a
given scenario or interest, as the amount of information increases, it tends to become a
distraction and a liability, rather than an asset. This paradox drives the need for
increasingly powerful and flexible data management systems. To get the most out of their
large and complex datasets, users must have tools that simplify the tasks of managing the
data and extracting useful information in a timely fashion. Otherwise, data can become a
liability, with the cost of acquiring it and managing it far exceeding the value that is
derived from it.

Database
A database is a collection of related data, typically describing the activities of one or
more related organizations.
For example, a university database might contain information about the following:
Entitiessuch as students, faculty and courses.
Relationshipsbetween entities, such as students' enrollment in courses, and faculty
teaching courses.

Database Management System (DBMS)

A database management system (DBMS) is software that enables users to create and
maintain a database. The DBMS is hence a general-purpose software system that
facilitates the processes of defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing databases
among various users and applications.
Applications of Database Systems

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Databases are widely used. Some applications of database systems are given below:
1. Banking: For customer information, accounts, and loans, and banking
transactions.
2. Airlines: For reservations and schedule information.
3. Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades.
4. Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of
monthly statements.
5. Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly
bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information about
the communication networks.
6. Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financial
instruments such as stocks and bonds.
7. Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.
8. Manufacturing: For management of supply chain and for tracking production of
items in factories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores, and orders for items.
9. Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and
benefits, and for generation of paychecks.

Advantages of DBMS
Using a DBMS to manage data has following advantages:
1. Data independence: Application programs should be as independent as possible
from details of data representation and storage. The DBMS can provide an
abstract view of the data to insulate application code from such details.
2. Efficient data access: A DBMS utilizes a variety of sophisticated techniques to
store and retrieve data efficiently. This feature is especially important if the data is
stored on external storage devices.
3. Data integrity and security: If data is always accessed through the DBMS, the
DBMS can enforce integrity constraints on the data. For example, before inserting
salary information for an employee, the DBMS can check that the department
budget is not exceeded. Also, the DBMS can enforce access controls that govern
what data is visible to different classes of users.

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 4. Data administration: When several users share the data, centralizing the
administration of data can offer significant improvements. Experienced
professionals, who understand the nature of the data being managed, and how
different groups of users use it, can be responsible for organizing the data
representation to minimize redundancy and for fine-tuning the storage of the data
to make retrieval efficient.
5. Concurrent access and crash recovery: A DBMS schedules concurrent accesses
to the data in such a manner that users can think of the data as being accessed by
only one user at a time. Further, the DBMS protects users from the effects of
system failures.
6. Reduced application development time: Clearly, the DBMS supports many
important functions that are common to many applications accessing data stored
in the DBMS. This, in conjunction with the high-level interface to the data,
facilitates quick development of applications. Such applications are also likely to
be more robust than applications developed from scratch because many important
tasks are handled by the DBMS instead of being implemented by the application.

People dealing with databases

Below are categories of people who deal with databases:
1. Database Implementers: People in this category are associated with the creation
and use of databases. These people build DBMS software. Database implementers
work for vendors such as IBM or Oracle.
2. End Users: End usersstore and use data in a DBMS. End users come from a
diverse and increasing number of fields. Many end users simply use applications
written by database application programmers, and so require little technical
knowledge about DBMS software. However, sophisticated users who make more
extensive use of a DBMS, such as writing their own queries, require a deeper
understanding of its features.
3. Database application programmers: These peopledevelop packages that
facilitate data access for end users using the host or data languages and software

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 tools that DBMS vendors provide. (Such tools include report writers,
spreadsheets, etc.)

Database administrator (DBA): The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the
database, for coordinating and monitoring its use, and for acquiring software and
hardware resources as needed. The DBA is accountable for problems such as breach of
security or poor system response time.

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 ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL

A database can be modeled as:

 A collection of entities,
 Relationships among entities.

Entity:A real-world object that can be distinctly identified may represent some real physical
object. May represent some conceptual idea E.g., SC304 is a course; Semester 1 2001/2002 is a
semester An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other objects.
Example: specific person, company, event, plant

Entity set:An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share the same properties.
Example: set of all persons, companies, trees, holidays.

An Entity should be:

• An Object that will have many instances in the Database
• An Object that will have multiple attributes
• An Object that we are trying to model
An Entity should not be:
• User of the Database
• An output of the Database (eg. Report)

Attributes:An entity is represented by a set of attributes, that is, descriptive properties

possessed by all members of an entity set.(value from corresponding entity)
Example: customer = (customer-name, social-security, customer-street, customer-city)
account = (account-number, balance)
Domain: Domain is the set of permitted values for each attribute

Attribute types:
• Simple and composite attributes.
• Single-valued and multi-valued attributes
• Null attributes
• Derived attributes

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 • Identifiers (Key) attributes

Symbols Used in ER Diagram:

Symbol Meaning

ENTITY TYPE

WEAK ENTITY TYPE

RELATIONSHIP

IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIP

ATTRIBUTE

MULTIVALUED ATTRIBUTE

COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTE

DERIVED ATTRIBUTE

KEY ATTRIBUTE

E1 R E2 TOTAL PARTICIPATION OF
E2 IN R

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 E1 R NCARDINALITY
E2 RATIO 1:N FOR E1:E2 IN R ENTITY
TYPE

Example of ER Diagram:

INTRODUCTION TO SQL

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SQL stands for Structured Query Language. Oracle provides many extensions to ANSI
SQL.SQL is standard language for interacting with a relational database.

A table is primary database object of SQL, which is used to store the data in the form of
rows and columns. SQL developed by IBM is used as standard language to access data
from database. In order to communicate with database SQL has been divided into four
sub languages and each sub language consists of different commands, they are:

1. Data Definition Language (DDL): DDL commands are used to define the database
structure or schema.
Different DDL commands are:
CREATE - to create objects in the database
ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed
RENAME - rename an object

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML): DMLcommands are used for managing data
within schema objects.
Different DML commands are:
SELECT - retrieve data from the a database
INSERT - insert data into a table
UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain

3. Data Control Language (DCL): DCL commands are used to control the access to
the database objects.
Different DCL commands are:
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command

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4. Transaction Control Language (TCL): TCL commands are used to manage the
changes made by DML statements. It allows statements to be grouped together into
logical transactions.
Different TCL commands are:
COMMIT - save work done
SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back
ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT

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 DDL COMMANDS

1. Creating Database Objects (Create Command)

a) Creating table (without constraints)
Syntax:
Create table<table name> (<col1><data type>(<size>),<col2><data
type>(<size>));
Ex:
Create table emp(empnonumber(4), ename char(10), address char(30), city
char(10));
b) Creating view
Syntax:
Create view<view name>As (SELECT query);
Ex:
Create view empviewas(select empno, city from emp);

2. Modifying the structure of tables (Alter Command)

a) Add new columns
Syntax:
Alter table<table name>add(<new col><data type(size),<new col>data
type(size));
Ex:
Alter table empadd(sal number(7,2));
b) Modifying existing columns
Syntax:
Alter table<table name>modify(<col><new data type(size));
Ex:
Alter table empmodify(ename varchar2(20));
c) Renaming existing columns
Syntax:
Alter table<table name> rename column <col> to <newcol>;

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 Ex:
Alter table emp rename column ename to empname;
d) Removing existing columns
Syntax:
Alter table<table name> drop column <col>;
Ex:
Alter table empdrop column sal;

3. Renaming the tables

Syntax:
Rename<old table> to <new table>;
Ex:
renameemp to emp1;

4. Truncating the tables

Syntax:
Truncate table<table name>;
Ex:
truncate table emp1;

5. Destroying tables
Syntax:
Drop table<table name>;
Ex:
Drop table emp1;

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 WORKING WITH CONSTRAINTS

Constraints are rules for a database that limit the acceptable data values for a table. They
are the optional schema objects that depend on a table. The existence of a table without
any constraint is possible, but the existence of a constraint without any table is not
possible. Constraints enforce the business rules in a database. Constraints can be created
along with the table in the CREATE TABLE statement. Addition and deletion of
constraints can be done in the ALTER TABLE statement.

The following types of constraints are available in Oracle Database:

NOT NULL
It enforces that a column, declared as not null, cannot have any NULL values. For
example, if an employee's hire date is not known, then that employee may not be
considered as a valid employee. If a protected column does not possess any value, then
the INSERT and UPDATE statements on those columns will fail.

UNIQUE
It ensures that columns protected by this constraint cannot have duplicate values.

PRIMARY KEY
It is responsible for uniquely identifying a row in a table. A table can have only one
PRIMARY KEY constraint. A PRIMARY KEY constraint completely includes both the
NOT NULL and UNIQUE constraints. It is enforced with an index on all columns.

FOREIGN KEY
It is also known as referential integrity constraint. It enforces that values referenced in
one table are defined in another table. It establishes a parent-child or reference-dependent
relationship between the two tables.

CHECK
It enforces that columns must meet a specific condition that is evaluated to a Boolean

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value. If the value evaluates to false, then the database will raise an exception, and not
allow the INSERT and UPDATE statements to operate on columns.

Creating table with constraints

1. Not null constraint
a) Creating Table with not null constraint
Syntax:
Create table<table name> (<col1><data type>(<size>) not null,<col2><data
type>(<size>));
Ex:
Create table empl (empnonumber(4), ename char(10) not null,city char(10) not
null);

2. Unique constraint
a) Creating Table with unique constraint at column level
Syntax:
Create table<table name> (<col1><data type>(<size>) unique,<col2><data
type>(<size>));
Ex:
Create table empl (empnonumber(4), ename char(10) unique,city char(10));

b) Creating Table with unique constraint at table level

Syntax:
Create table<table name> (<col1><data type>(<size>),<col2><data
type>(<size>), unique(<col1>,<col2>);
Ex:
Create table empl (empnonumber(4), ename char(10), city char(10),
unique(ename,city));

3. Primary Key Constraints

a) Creating Table with primary key constraint at column level

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 Syntax:
Create table<table name>(<col1><data type>(<size>) primary key);
Ex:
Create table empl (empnonumber(4) primary key, ename char(10), city char(10));

b) Creating Table with primary key constraint at table level

Syntax:
Create table<table name> (<col1><data type>(<size>),<col2><data
type>(<size>), primary key(<col1>,<col2>);
Ex:
Create table prod (mfridchar(4), prodid char(4), pname char(10), price number,
primary key(mfrid,prodid));

4. Foreign Key Constraints

a) Creating Table with foreign key constraint at column level
Syntax:
Create table<table name>(<col1><data type>(<size>) references
<tablename>[<col>]);
Ex:
Create table mgr (mgrno number, deptno number references dept(deptno));

b) Creating Table with foreign key constraint at table level

Syntax:
Create table<table name> (<col1><data type>(<size>),<col2><data
type>(<size>), foreign key(<col>[,<col>])references <table
name>[(<col>,<col>)]);
Ex:
Create table orders (odrid number, mfridchar(4), prodid char(4), amount number,
foreign key(mfrid,prodid) references prod(mfrid,prodid));

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5. Check Constraints
a) Creating Table with check constraint at column level
Syntax:
Create table<table name>(<col1><data type>(<size>) check(<logical
expression>);
Ex:
Create table mgr (mgrno number, deptno number, age number check(age between
1 and 100));

b) Creating Table with check constraint at table level

Syntax:
Create table<table name> (<col1><data type>(<size>),<col2><data
type>(<size>), check(<logical expression>));
Ex:
Create table orders (odrid number, mfridchar(4), prodid char(4), amount number,
check(ordered>0 and amount>2000));

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 DML COMMANDS

1. Inserting Data into Table (Insert Command)

a) When order of columns in the table is not known

Syntax:
insert into <table name> (<col1>,<col2>) values(<exp>,<exp>);
Ex:
insert into emp(empno,city,address,ename) values(1,’Jaipur’,’GIT
Sitapura’,’Vijay’);

b) When order of columns in the table is known

Syntax:
insert into <table name> values(<exp for col1>,<exp for col2>);
Ex:
insert into empvalues(1,’Vijay’,’GIT Sitapura’,’Ajmer’);

c) Inserting data through user input in Oracle

Syntax:
insert into <table name> values (‘&<col1>’,’&<col2>’);
Ex:
insert into emp values(‘&empno’,’&ename’,’&address’,’&city’);

2. Deleting Data from Table

a)Remove all rows

Syntax:
Delete from <table name>;
Ex:
Delete from emp;

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 b)Removalof specified rows
Syntax:
Delete from <table name> where <condition>;
Ex:
Delete from emp where ename=’Ajay’ and city=’Jaipur’;

3. Updating the contents of a Table.

a)Updating all rows

Syntax:
Update <table name> set <col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>;
Ex:
Update emp set ename=’Akash’,city=’Udaipur’;

b)Updatingselected records
Syntax:
Update<tablename>set<col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>where <condition>;
Ex:
Update emp set ename=’Ram’ where city=’Udaipur’;

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 SELECT COMMAND

1. Viewing all data from table

a)Using all column names
Syntax:
Select <col> to <col n> from tablename;
Ex:
Select empno,ename,address,city from emp;

b)Using select *
Syntax:
Select * from tablename;
Ex:
Select * from emp;

2. Filtering table data: While viewing data from a table, it is rare that all the data from
table will be required each time. Hence, SQL must give us a method of filtering out data
that is not required data.

a)View Selected Columns

Syntax:
Select <col1>,<col2> from <tablename>;
Ex:
Select empno,ename from emp;

b) List only the different (distinct) values in a table.

Syntax:
Select distinct <col> from <tablename>;
Ex:
Select distinct ename from emp;

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c)Selectingrecords that fulfill a specified criterion (where clause)
Syntax:
Select */<col1>,<col2> from <tablename> where <condition>;
Ex:
Select * from emp where empnoin(2,4,6,7);

d)Selecting records in a sorted order (order by clause)

Syntax:
Select */<col1>,<col2> from <tablename>order by <col>asc/desc;
Ex:
Select empno,ename from emp order by enamedesc;

e)Selecting data across multiple records and group the results by one or more
columns(group by clause)
Syntax:
Select <col1>,<col2>,<aggregate function on column> from <tablename> group
by<col>;
Ex:
Select deptno,max(salary) from emp group by deptno ;

f)Selecting data across multiple records and group the results by one or more
columns according to some conditions (having clause)
Syntax:
Select <col1>,<col2>,<aggregate function on column> from <tablename> group
by <col> having <condition>;
Ex:
Select deptno,max(salary) from emp group by deptno having max(sal)>20000 ;

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 DCL COMMANDS

Oracle provides extensive feature in order to safeguard information stored in its tables
from unauthorized viewing and damage.The rights that allow the user of some or all
oracle resources on the server are called privileges.

1.Grant privileges using the GRANT statement

The grant statement provides various types of access to database objects such as
tables,views and sequences and so on.
Syntax:
GRANT <object privileges>
ON <objectname>
TO<username>
[WITH GRANT OPTION];
Ex:
GRANT SELECT,INSERT
ON HR.employees
TO git;

2.Revoke permissions using the REVOKE statement

The REVOKE statement is used to deny the Grant given on an object.
Syntax:
REVOKE<object privilege>
ON<objectname>
FROM<user name>;
Ex:
RVOKE SELECT,INSERT
ON HR.employees
FROM git;

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 TCL COMMANDS

A transaction is a set of SQL statements which Oracle treats as a Single Unit. i.e. all the
statements should execute successfully or none of the statements should execute.
To control transactions Oracle does not made permanent any DML statements unless you
commit it. If you don’t commit the transaction and power goes off or system crashes then
the transaction is roll backed.

Transaction control statements manage changes made by DML statements.

1. COMMIT
To make the changes done in transactions permanent issue the COMMIT statement.
Syntax:
COMMIT [WORK] [COMMENT ‘your comment’];
WORK is optional.
COMMENT is also optional, specify this if you want to identify this transaction
in data dictionary DBA_2PC_PENDING.
Ex:
insert into emp (empno,ename,sal) values (101,’Abid’,2300);
commit;

2. ROLLBACK
To rollback the changes done in a transaction give rollback statement. Rollback restore
the state of the database to the last commit point.
Syntax:
Rollabck/ Rollback to savepoint<savepointname>;
Ex:
delete from emp;
rollback; /* undo the changes */

3. SAVEPOINT
Specify a point in a transaction to which later you can roll back.

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Syntax:
Savepoint<savepointname>;
Ex:
insert into emp (empno,ename,sal) values (109,’Sami’,3000);
savepoint a;
insert into dept values (10,’Sales’,’Hyd’);
savepoint b;
insert into salgrade values (‘III’,9000,12000);
Now if you give
rollback to a;
Then row from salgrade table and dept will be roll backed. Now you can commit
the row inserted into emp table or rollback the transaction.
If you give
rollback to b;
Then row inserted into salgrade table will be roll backed. Now you can commit
the row inserted into dept table and emp table or rollback to savepoint a or
completely roll backed the transaction.
If you give
rollback;
Then the whole transaction is roll backed.
If you give
commit;
Then the whole transaction is committed and all savepoints are removed.

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 EXERCISE WITH SQL QUERIES

Exercise1: Consider the insurance database, where the primary keys are underlined.
Construct the following SQL queries for this relational database.
person (driver-id, name, address)
car (license, model, year)
accident (report-number, date, location)
owns (driver-id, license)
participated (driver-id, car, report-number, damage-amount)
(a) Find the total number of people who owned cars that were involved in accidents in
1989.
(b) Find the number of accidents in which the cars belonging to “Ajay Singh” were
involved.
(c) Add a new accident to the database; assume any values for required attributes.
(d) Delete the Mazda belonging to “Ajay Singh”.
(e) Update the damage amount for the car with license number “AABB2000” in the
accident with report number “AR2197” to Rs. 3000.
(f) Add one more column named mobile_no to the person table.
(g) Rename the column named mobile_no in the person table to contact_no.
(h) Remove the column named contact_no from the person table.

Solutions-:
(a) Find the total number of people who owned cars that were involved in accidents in
1989.
Note: this is not the same as the total number of accidents in 1989. We must count people
with several accidents only once.
selectcount (distinct name)
fromaccident, participated, person
whereaccident.report-number = participated.report-number
andparticipated.driver-id = person.driver-id
anddate between date ’1989-00-00’ and date ’1989-12-31’;

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(b) Find the number of accidents in which the cars belonging to “Ajay Singh” were
involved.
selectcount (distinct *)
fromaccident
where exists (select * from participated, person
whereparticipated.driver-id = person.driver-id
and person.name = ‘Ajay Singh’
andaccident.report-number = participated.report-number);

(c)Add a new accidentto the database; assume any values for required attributes.
insert into accident
values (4007, ’2001-09-01’, ’Berkeley’);

(d) Delete the Mazda belonging to “Ajay Singh”.

deletefrom car
where model = ’Mazda’ and license in
(select license
from person p, owns o
where p.name =’ Ajay Singh’ and p.driver-id = o.driver-id);

(e) Update the damage amount for the car with license number “AABB2000” in the
accident with report number “AR2197” to Rs. 3000.
update participated
set damage-amount = 3000
where report-number = “AR2197” and driver-id in
(select driver-id
from owns
where license = “AABB2000”);

(f) Add one more column named mobile_no to the person table.
alter table personadd(mobile_no number);

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(g) Rename the column named mobile_no in the person table to contact_no.
alter table person
rename column mobile_no to contact_no;

(h) Remove the column named contact_no from the person table.
alter table person drop column contact_no;

Exercise2: Consider the employee database, where the primary keys are underlined. Give
an expression in SQL for each of the following queries.
employee (employee-name, street, city)
works (employee-name, company-name, salary)
company (company-name, city)
manages (employee-name, manager-name)
(a) Find the names of all employees who work for First Bank Corporation.
(b) Find the names and cities of residence of all employees who work for first bank
Corporation.
(c) Find the names, street addresses, and cities of residence of all employees who work
for First Bank Corporation and earn more than Rs. 10,000.
(d) Find all employees in the database who live in the same cities as the companies for
which they work.
(e) Find all employees in the database who live in the same cities and on the same streets
as do their managers.
(f) Find all employees in the database who do not work for First Bank Corporation.
(g) Find all employees in the database who earn more than each employee of Small Bank
Corporation.
(h) Assume that the companies may be located in several cities. Find all companies
located in every city in which Small Bank Corporation is located.
(i) Find all employees who earn more than the average salary of all employees of their
company.
(j) Find the company that has the most employees.
(k) Find the company that has the smallest payroll.

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(l) Find those companies whose employees earn a higher salary, on average, than the
average salary at First Bank Corporation.

Solutions-:
(a) Find the names of all employees who work for First Bank Corporation.
select employee-name
from works
where company-name = ’First Bank Corporation’;

(b) Find the names and cities of residence of all employees who work for First Bank
Corporation.
selecte.employee-name, city
from employee e, works w
wherew.company-name = ’First Bank Corporation’ and
w.employee-name = e.employee-name;

(c) Find the names, street address, and cities of residence of all employees who work for
First Bank Corporation and earn more than Rs. 10,000.
select *
from employee
where employee-name in
(select employee-name
from works
where company-name = ’First Bank Corporation’ and salary >
10000);

(d) Find all employees in the database who live in the same cities as the comapanies for
which they work.
selecte.employee-name
from employee e, works w, company c
wheree.employee-name = w.employee-name and e.city = c.city and

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 w.company -name = c.company–name;

(e) Find all employees in the database who live in the same cities and on the same streets
as do their managers.
selectP.employee-name
from employee P, employee R, manages M
whereP.employee-name = M.employee-name and
M.manager-name = R.employee-name and
P.street = R.street and P.city = R.city;

(f) Find all employees in the database who do not work for First Bank Corporation.
select employee-name
from works
where company-name <>’First Bank Corporation’;

(g) Find all employees in the database who earn more than every employee of Small
Bank Corporation.
select employee-name
from works
where salary > all
(select salary
from works
where company-name = ’Small Bank Corporation’);

(h) Assume that the companies may be located in several cities. Find all companies
located in every city in which Small Bank Corporation is located.
selectT.company-name
from company T
where (select R.city
from company R
whereR.company-name = T.company-name)

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 contains
(selectS.city
from company S
where S.company-name = ’Small Bank Corporation’);

(i) Find all employees who earn more than the average salary of all employees of their
company.
select employee-name
from works T
where salary > (select avg (salary)
from works S
whereT.company-name = S.company-name);

(j) Find the company that has the most employees.

select company-name
from works
group by company-name
having count (distinct employee-name) >= all
(select count (distinct employee-name)
from works
group by company-name);

(k) Find the company that has the smallest payroll.

select company-name
from works
group by company-name
having sum (salary) <= all (select sum (salary)
from works
group by company-name);
(l) Find those companies whose employees earn a higher salary, on average, than the
average salary at First Bank Corporation.

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 select company-name
from works
group by company-name
havingavg (salary) > (select avg (salary)
from works
where company-name = ’First Bank Corporation’);

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 REFERENCES

1. H.f.Korth and Silberschatz: Database Systems Concepts, McGraw Hill

2. Ramakrishnan and Gehrke: Database Management System, McGraw Hill
3. C.J. Date: Data Base Design, Addison Wesley
4. www.sourcepower.blogspot.com
5. www.filestube.com

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Viva Questions:
1. What is database?
A database is a collection of information that is organized. So that it can easily be
accessed, managed, and updated.

2. What is DBMS?
DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a collection of programs that
enables user to create and maintain a database.

3. What is a Database system?

The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.

4. What are the advantages of DBMS?

I. Redundancy is controlled.
II. Providing multiple user interfaces.
III. Providing backup and recovery
IV. Unauthorized access is restricted.
V. Enforcing integrity constraints.

5. What is normalization?
It is a process of analysing the given relation schemas based on their Functional
Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
(1).Minimizing redundancy, (2). Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.

6. What is Data Model?

A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and
constraints.

7. What is E-R model?

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of
relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of
attributes.

8. What is Object Oriented model?

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance
variables with in the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the
object. These bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of
values and the same methods are grouped together into classes.

9. What is an Entity?
An entity is a thing or object of importance about which data must be captured.

10. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

A data base schema is specifies by a set of definitions expressed by a special language
called DDL.

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11. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?
This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organised by appropriate
data model. Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are
needed and how to get those data. Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a
user to specify what data are needed without specifying how to get those data

12. What is DML Compiler?

It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the query
evaluation engine can understand.

13. What is Query evaluation engine?

It executes low-level instruction generated by compiler.

14. What is Functional Dependency?

Functional Dependency is the starting point of normalization. Functional Dependency
exists when a relation between two attributes allows you to uniquely determine the
corresponding attribute’s value.

15. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?

The first normal form or 1NF is the first and the simplest type of normalization that can
be implemented in a database. The main aims of 1NF are to:
1. Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.
2. Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a
unique column (the primary key).

16. What is Fully Functional dependency?

A functional dependency X Y is full functional dependency if removal of any attribute A
from X means that the dependency does not hold any more.

17. What is 2NF?

A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully
functionally dependent on primary key.

18. What is 3NF?

A relation is in third normal form if it is in Second Normal Form and there are no
functional (transitive) dependencies between two (or more) non-primary key attributes.

19. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?

A table is in Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) if and only if it is in 3NF and every
determinant is a candidate key.

20. What is 4NF?

Fourth normal form requires that a table be BCNF and contain no multi-valued
dependencies.

21. What is 5NF?

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A table is in fifth normal form (5NF) or Project-Join Normal Form (PJNF) if it is in 4NF
and it cannot have a lossless decomposition into any number of smaller tables.

22. What is a query?

A query with respect to DBMS relates to user commands that are used to interact with a
data base.

23. What is meant by query optimization?

The phase that identifies an efficient execution plan for evaluating a query that has the
least estimated cost is referred to as query optimization.

24. What is an attribute?

It is a particular property, which describes the entity.

25. What is RDBMS?

Relational Data Base Management Systems (RDBMS) are database management systems
that maintain data records and indices in tables.

26. What’s difference between DBMS and RDBMS?

DBMS provides a systematic and organized way of storing, managing and retrieving
from collection of logically related information. RDBMS also provides what DBMS
provides but above that it provides relationship integrity.

27. What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is an ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) standard computer language for accessing and manipulating database
systems. SQL statements are used to retrieve and update data in a database.

28. What is Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure is a named group of SQL statements that have been previously
created and stored in the server database.

29. What is a view?

A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is derived from
the database files but is not explicitly stored.

30. What is Trigger?

A trigger is a SQL procedure that initiates an action when an event (INSERT, DELETE
or UPDATE) occurs.

31. What is Index?

An index is a physical structure containing pointers to the data.

32. What is extension and intension?

Extension -It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is time
dependent.

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Intension -It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the constraints
laid on it.

33. What do you mean by atomicity and aggregation?

Atomicity-Atomicity states that database modifications must follow an “all or nothing”
rule. Each transaction is said to be “atomic.” If one part of the transaction fails, the
entire transaction fails.
Aggregation - A feature of the entity relationship model that allows a relationship set to
participate in another relationship set. This is indicated on an ER diagram by drawing a
dashed box around the aggregation.

34. What is RDBMS KERNEL?

Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the software, and
the data dictionary, which consists of the system- level data structures used by the kernel
to manage the database.

35. Name the sub-systems of a RDBMS?

I/O, Security, Language Processing, Process Control, Storage Management, Logging and
Recovery, Distribution Control, Transaction Control, Memory Management, Lock
Management.

36. How do you communicate with an RDBMS?

You communicate with an RDBMS using Structured Query Language (SQL)

37. Disadvantage in File Processing System?

· Data redundancy & inconsistency.
· Difficult in accessing data.
· Data isolation.
· Data integrity.
· Concurrent access is not possible.
· Security Problems.

38. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?

It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.

39. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?

This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may Specify the mapping
between two schemas.

40. Describe concurrency control?

Concurrency control is the process managing simultaneous operations against a database
so that database integrity is no compromised. There are two approaches to concurrency
control.
The pessimistic approach involves locking and the optimistic approach involves
versioning.

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41. Describe the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous distributed
database?
A homogenous database is one that uses the same DBMS at each node. A heterogeneous
database is one that may have a different DBMS at each node.

42. What is a distributed database?

A distributed database is a single logical database that is spread across more than one
node or locations that are all connected via some communication link.

43. Explain the difference between two and three-tier architectures?

Three-tier architecture includes a client and two server layers.
The application code is stored on the application server and the database is stored on
the database server. A two-tier architecture includes a client and one server layer. The
database is stored on the database server.

44. Briefly describe the three types of SQL commands?

Data definition language commands are used to create, alter, and drop tables. Data
manipulation commands are used to insert, modify, update, and query data in the
database. Data control language commands help the DBA to control the database.

45. List some of the properties of a relation?

Relations in a database have a unique name and no multivalued attributes exist. Each row
is unique and each attribute within a relation has a unique name. The sequence of both
columns and rows is irrelevant.

46. Explain the differences between an intranet and an extranet?

An Internet database is accessible by everyone who has access to a Web site. An intranet
database limits access to only people within a given organization.

47. What is SQL Deadlock?

Deadlock is a unique situation in a multi user system that causes two or more users to
wait indefinitely for a locked resource.

48. What is a Catalog?

A catalog is a table that contains the information such as structure of each file, the type
and storage format of each data item and various constraints on the data .The information
stored in the catalog is called Metadata.

49. What is data ware housing & OLAP?

Data warehousing and OLAP (online analytical processing) systems are the techniques
used in many companies to extract and analyze useful information from very large
databases for decision making .

50. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?

Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.

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Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in
database and what relationship among those data.
View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.

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