3 | Foundations of Social Studies 28

UNIT 3: BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

3.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
a) Discuss the importance of concepts and generalizations in Social Studies teaching and learning;
b) Identify the characteristics of growth and development and its relationship;
c) Explain the concept of self-reliance and identify some of the ways of becoming self- reliant as
individuals;
d) Recognize the value of the concept of peace and conflict and describe some of the steps carrying out
conflict resolution in our society; and
e) Identify the different types of social problems, discuss its causes and suggest ways by which social
problems could be tackled in our society.

3.1. Introduction
In the previous unit, you have learned about some key concepts commonly associated with various
Social Science fields relevant to our discussion. In this unit, we will talking about some key concepts – its
nature and characteristics – and knowing how these concepts can create generalizations in Social Studies.
This is designed to provide you with a conceptual fluency that will allow you to effectively develop and
teach any Social Studies curriculum, and wherever possible, you will be required to accurately apply these
concepts.
As Social Studies teacher in training, this unit can help you be in a better position to understand
meanings of both concepts and generalizations, explore their relationship and ultimately, use them in your
classes in a fruitful manner. More than just trying to study facts in Social Studies, our goal is to use these
facts so we can create our own abstract knowledge (i. e. concepts, generalizations and principles).
Activities and assessment exercises are also provided to measure how much you have learned in this
unit. With that, let us begin.

3.2. Topics
Basic Concepts in Social Studies
Concepts and Generalization in Social Studies
Warm- Up

1. In a yellow paper, write down two (2) related concepts about the following:
1. Growth d) Peace
2. Development e) Conflict resolution
3. Self- reliance f) Social problem
2. Now, examine the two related concepts you have written down for every item. This time, come
up with a generalization about each item using the two related concepts.

Let’s Probe Further

1. Was the activity difficult to accomplish? Why?
2. How were you able to come up with your answers in the first item?

Knowledge Builder
The Nature and Definition of Concepts and Generalizations

The term concept has been defined in many ways, but the basic content of all definitions is
strikingly similar. Culbert (1967) defined concept as an abstraction, a general idea expressed by a word
which represents a class or group of things or actions having characteristics in common. It is a
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"relatively complete and meaningful idea in the mind of a person" associated with "the symbol for a
class of things, events, or ideas".
The concept, dog, for example, includes dogs of all colors, sizes, and breeds but excludes horses,
cats, foxes, humans, and other living beings. At a more abstract level is the concept revolution, which
includes a variety of situations in which drastic changes have taken place rapidly (the Philippine
Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, etc.), but excludes changes that have occurred gradually over a
long period of time. Practically everything in man's experience is classified symbolically in words,
signs, or gestures.A concept, then, is the abstract body of meaning which an individual associates with
a symbol for a class of things, events or ideas.
The concept is abstract because it consists of meaning not associated with any particular example of
class but with all possible members of a class. The concept is simply the mind's way of generalizing
many specific members of the class (aspins, great Danes, poodles, mongrels) into one non-existent
model, dog.
Another meaningful approach to a study of concepts is the following working definition taken from
the Syracuse University Social Studies Curriculum Center. They conclude that a concept is:
1. An individual's own way of making meaning of things he/ she has experienced.
2. A mental image which assists individuals in classifying their experiences, and which
continually changes as their experiences accumulate.
3. An abstraction or general idea in the mind of a person, which represents a class or group of
things or actions having certain qualities or characteristics in common.
4. A synthesis of a number of things an individual has experienced and conclusions he/ she
has drawn about those experiences.
5. Represented by a verbal symbol which indicates the real content of the insights and
meanings the word evokes in the mind of an individual.

Student acquisition of a concept can be evaluated, not merely through observing the student's
ability to define the concept, but rather by evaluating a multitude of observable behaviors. For
example, the student who has grasped the concepts of production and consumption can classify correctly
a series of pictures of people engaged in production or consumption activities. As the student develops
a grasp of important social studies concepts, he/ she is ready to use them to build generalizations.
According to Culbert (1967), generalization is an understanding of a relationship between or
among concepts. It is a linkage of concepts and usually takes the form of a hypothesis, inference, or
other generalized statements. A generalization is a higher level abstraction than a concept and by its
very nature it has a meaning that is greater than the total of its constituent parts.
Generalizations are based in inferences rather than direct observation and are derived from
reasoning. Thus, a student can develop the generalization that "COVID- 19 can be a lethal viral disease"
even without being infected by it and just by listening to the news.
A generalization can also be tested for validity. In the generalization above about COVID-19, the
student can observe that there are infected people who are asymptomatic and have recovered from it
while there are also groups of people who are highly susceptible to it and passed away because of it.
As in the case of concepts, it is not enough to just learn how to generalize. It matters most that a
student who knows HOW to generalize must also know WHAT TO DO with his/ her generalization
based on his/ her internal comprehension.
For example, he should be able to recognize situations that illustrate the generalization and explain
how it applies. At a more mature level, he will be able to use the generalization as a tool in his study.
Thus, if the learner values the generalization, "Poverty is one of the most persistent problems of the
Philippines", he will not be satisfied with a single-factor explanation such as, "Corruption among the
majority of the government officials today" but will search for the various factors that might have been
involved.
If you can notice, whereas concepts are usually represented by a single word, expression, or term,
generalizations are expressed in declarative statements. These can be statements of general principles,
including models, systems, and theories, which describe trends, tendencies and relationships that are
important to the subject/ topic under study (Lawal, 2003).
Generalizations can also be statements indicating the relationship between two or more concepts
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and can take many forms. It can appear as descriptions, interpretations, rules, hypotheses, and
predictions. The fact that any Social Studies teacher has to develop and impart knowledge, implies that
he/she needs to be an erudite when it comes to the course matter/ content. Add to this, he/she must be
ready to develop these generalizations outside the learners’s experiences and make sure that the
concepts constituting such generalizations are well understood in terms of the relationship being
expressed. It is only when this has been properly grasped that the Social Studies teacher can begin to
think of using such content to map out learning activities that will encourage the acquisition and
development of relevant positive values and attitudes among their learners (Lawal and Oyeleye, 2003).

Importance of Concepts and Generalizations

Dececco (1968) cited by Osakwe and Itedjere (1993) highlights the importance of concepts and
generalizations in learning. Concepts help us to:
1. Deal with the complexity of our environment and to reduce it to manageable proportions,
2. Fit any new occurrence, event, object, individual, or idea into our concept- filing system,
3. Classify and catalogue events, individuals, objects and ideas into appropriate classes,
4. Identify and make sense out of various objects we find around us,
5. Reduce the ordeal and necessity for continual re- learning,
6. Solve problems through correct classification of objects,
7. Make more complicated instructions and explanations possible, and
8. Represent our picture of reality, which helps us in describing our context and its contents.
Now, let us discuss some pertinent concepts in Social Studies.
 Concepts of Growth and Development
Growth and Development are two concepts that can be used with some difference although they
appear to have the same connotation (Difference Between Growth and Development, 2014).
Growth can be defined in a number of ways. One of these can be taken to mean as an increase in the
size of an object or a living being. “The lump has grown in size”, is an example of its usage. Growth
also describes the process of growing. “There was a rapid growth in the economy of the country”, for
example.
It also indicates an increase in value. For example, “there was a growth in the number of hospitals in
the city.” Growth can also mean an increase in quantity for that matter. “The farmer was amazed by the
tremendous growth of grapes in his vineyard.”
On the other hand, Development is a broad concept and can be attributed to social, economic,
political, and human development. In its broadest sense, it refers to the act or process of going from the
simple or basic to the complex or advanced (Merriam-Webster, n.d.).
Development is taken also to mean an improvement in the level of functioning. It may mean the
process of gradual transformation. For instance, “A ‘development area’ is one where new industries are
encouraged in order to provide employment for people in a bid to trigger economy” (Difference Between
Growth and Development, 2014).
For Lawal (2003), development means empowerment. It is about local people taking control of their
lives, expressing their demands and finding solutions to their problems on their own. Development
means improvement in a country’s economic and social conditions. More specifically, it refers to
improvement in ways of managing an area’s natural and human resources in order to create wealth and
improve people’s lives (Lawal, 2003). This definition is based on the more obvious distinctions between
the living standards of developed and developing countries.
It is therefore, not going to be out of place to view the concept of development as an ideologically
loaded concept, which means different things to different people at different times.

Relationship between Growth and Development

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“Where growth is referred to as quantitative expansion in the scale of physical dimensions of the
economic system, development is referred to as the qualitative change of a physically non- growing
economic system in a dynamic equilibrium with the environment”, Daly (1989) said as cited by Lawal
(2003). Growth therefore, is a stage of development.
It is somewhat easier to say which countries are richer or which are poorer. However, indicators of
wealth reflecting quantity of resources available to a society, provide no information about the
allocation of these resources. For example, less information is available about income distribution
among social groups, what percentage or shares of resources are used to provide free health and
education services, as well as the effects of production and consumption on people’s environment. It is
no wonder then that there are countries that may have similar average incomes (or GNP) can differ
substantially when it comes to its citizens’ quality of life, access to social services (Education, health
care), employment opportunities, and the crime rate among others.
With that in mind, how do we determine which countries are more developed and which are yet
developing? This is possible when we try to establish the relationship between the concept of growth
and development.
Shanker (1996) cited by Lawal (2003) went further to observe that those first promoters of the
concept of development actually reduced it to economic growth, say the increase in the income per
person in economically underdeveloped countries. Later on, this became growth plus the change
leading to the improved quality of life including but not limited to the economic and social components
of human life.
This new definition presents the concept of development as one, which promotes sustainability for
a common future. Hence, development cannot be seen as a race to catch up to a more fortunate nation,
rather it is a continuing effort by developing societies of opportunities to realize their potential, both in
the national and international levels (Lawal, 2003). It is a continuation of growth, distribution, and
rising consumption; a fulfillment of basic needs or the level of individual functioning and capabilities.

 Concept of Self- Reliance

Self- reliance is a simple concept that encourages each of us to take responsibility for our own needs
– physical, emotional, spiritual, social, and economic. It involves reliance on our own capabilities,
judgment, or resources. Merriam- Webster defined this concept as a feeling of trust that someone has in
his or her own efforts and abilities; simply put, it is your reliance in your own efforts and abilities.
Put another way, self- reliance means having the ability and the courage to listen to yourself, and act
by yourself, rather than letting other people, things, or ideas decide what you should be, do, or have. A
self- reliant person therefore realizes and accepts that they are completely responsible for their live, and
that if they want something done, they must do it themselves (Lawal, 20003).
Dorothy Ainsworth (2005) supported this view when she described self- reliance as a mindset. She
said that, “If you have it, you are on your way to independence. It requires conscious effort of replacing
an “I need help” attitude to an “I can do it” attitude”. (You can read her Self- Reliance Essay on this link
http://dorothyainsworth.com/rely/self-rely.shtml).
This does not mean however, that asking and getting help from others is necessarily a bad thing.
We all need some little help every now and then. This implies that it is not possible to be totally self-
reliant. For instance, as a teacher, it is going to be practically impossible for you not to depend on others
in the quest for knowledge. You just have to consult books and reference materials written by others
(Lawal, 2003).
When we accept the responsibility for our own and our loved ones’ well- being, we are better
prepared to endure times of adversity without becoming dependent upon others and ultimately, we are
able to serve others. This is the essence of self- reliance.

Ways of Promoting Self- Reliance

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We can become self- reliant through obtaining sufficient knowledge, education and literacy; by
managing money and resources wisely, being spiritually strong, preparing for emergencies and
eventualities; and by having physical, social, and emotional well- being (Lawal, 2003).
Katherine Hurst (2019) outlined some ways we can become self- reliant in her article and these
include:
1. Accepting responsibilities,
2. Making your own decisions,
3. Learning more practical skills,
4. Looking after your body;
5. Recognizing and accepting your feelings,
6. Finding healthy ways to express your negative emotions, and
7. Not comparing yourself with others.

 Concepts of Peace and Conflict Resolution

St. Augustine defined term peace as tranquility of order (Lawal, 2003). Furthermore, St. Augustine
described order in this sense as the distribution, which allots things equal or unequal, each to its own
place.
Another definition of peace was put forward by Onah as cited by Lawal (2003), which states that
peace is the totality of well- being, fullness of life here and thereafter. Peace is equally a precondition
for progress because where there is moral, social, and cosmic disorder, one cannot expect true progress.
Peace should not therefore, be conceived in relation to conflict and war but in relation to order,
harmony, and equilibrium (Lawal, 2003).
We often tend to think of peace as being an international issue, far from our daily life, but we do not
realize that global peace can only be achieved if each country is settled in and at peace. The peace and
happiness of each country can only be achieved if every citizen is also at peace. This follows therefore
that a country can be peaceful and progressive if her people live tolerantly (Lawal, 2003). The need of
the hour then is to develop the young generations with peace consciousness and the importance of
conflict resolution.
What about the concept of Conflict? Johan Galtung, one of the founders in the field of peace and
conflict studies, proposed interrelated models of conflict, violence, and peace (Peace and Conflict, n. d.).
Conflict is viewed as a dynamic process in which structure, attitudes, and behavior are constantly
changing and influencing one another. Direct violence is ended by changing conflict behavior,
structural violence is ended by removing structural contradictions and injustices, and cultural violence
is ended by changing attitudes. These relate in turn to broader strategies of peacekeeping, peace
building, and peacemaking. Galtung defined negative peace as the absence of direct violence and positive
peace as the absence of all three forms of violence (direct, structural, and cultural) (Peace and Conflict, n.
d.).
Conflict essentially means a confrontation between individuals, or groups over scarce resources. It
may range from the use of physical force to litigation or intimidation through threat of physical harm
or war. The aim of conflict is to win at all costs. Conflict can also be seen as incompatible behavior
between parties whose interests are or appear to be clashing. This implies that conflict emanates from
social relationships thus it is unreasonable to think that we could have a world without conflict (Lawal,
2003).
It is important to remember that conflict is an inherent part of the human condition but that violent
conflict can be prevented. There are a number of definitions and types of violence from the
interpersonal to the global level (e.g., family violence, youth and gang violence, violence in the
workplace, hate crimes, and war) (Peace and Conflict, n. d.).
Understanding the nature of violence may include discussion of social oppression, discrimination,
and marginalization. Managing and resolving or transforming conflict can prevent the occurrence of
violence (Peace and Conflict, n. d.).
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Some theorists have distinguished between conflict and disputes. First, a dispute is about
negotiable interests that can be settled by compromise, while conflict is about human needs and
involves addressing underlying causes for effective resolution. For a situation to be seen as a conflict,
four (4) conditions must exist (Lawal, 2003):
1. There must be two or more parties with distinct interests,
2. There must be a struggle by each party to control the existing object or space of the struggle,
3. The objective of each party is to neutralize, to injure, or to eliminate the other party, and
4. It is important to recognize that conflict is a form of interaction and a way of achieving some
kind of unity even if it involves annihilation of the conflicting parties.

Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution can simply be defined as the process of analyzing a problem and strategizing a
solution to sort out the differences between two parties in discord. It can also be referred to as the
method used to solve problems between two parties, individuals, communities or nations. The process
of resolution brings an agreement between the parties involved in the conflict (Lawal, 2003).
The youth are a very important factor in peace and conflict resolution as they stand the chance of
being used as elements of violence and conflict- making. We have seen such cases in countries where
terrorism is the order of the day. Also, the elites and power- monger politicians make the youth in their
communities cause problems so that they can achieve their own selfish interests in the government. The
youth are vulnerable to these proposals especially if they were deprived of their right to quality
education (Lawal, 2003).
There are two (2) approaches to conflict resolution discussed in this unit. First is the melioristic
approach, which believes that the world tends to improve and that humanity can aid its betterment
(Merriam- Webster, n. d.). This is based on the assumption that organization conflict is amendable to
resolution through rational processes such as problem solving and persuasion. In this view, a well-
ordered system with an enlightened set of managers or board plus dedicated and reasonable staff can
resolve their differences in a free and open discussion for the mutual benefit of all. Supporters of the
melioristic approach to conflict resolution believe that sanctions and strike by workers/ staff are
unjustified, except possibly in extreme cases where administrators and board members are
pathologically unreasonable and intractable (Lawal, 2003).
The second is the adversary approach. This approach to conflict resolution assumes that conflict
exists, and will continue to exist in the organization where groups have different self- interests. It
argues that it is only sensible to institutionalize the means for reconciling differences. Supporters of the
adversary view/ approach believe that conflict is both necessary and desirable for the maintenance of a
viable organization (Lawal, 2003).
Let us cite an example. The Philippines has experienced armed internal conflicts for the past four
decades including violence related to two main causes: a communist-inspired insurgency and a
separatist struggle in the southern Bangsamoro region (www.peaceinsight.org). Many peace talks have
been done between the government and the Communist party of the Philippines until a peace deal was
signed on March 2014 although not all armed group has signed on this one.
Let us cite another example but this time, let us make it as closer and relatable as possible for us. At
the barangay level, conflicts are settled between two opposing parties by an authorized barangay
official or authorized groups with the aim of reaching a compromise between the concerned parties.
Failure to reach a settlement or at least a compromise means that the issue/ conflict/ dispute can and
should be taken to a higher level of settlement proceedings.

 Concept of Social Problem

A social problem is a condition, which some people in the community view as being undesirable. It
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is an undesirable condition in the relationship among people. It is a problem in human relationships,

which seriously threaten the society itself. Horton and Gerald (1978) as cited by Lawal (2003) described
social problem as a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered as
undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective social actions. Can you
think of some social problems existing in your own locality today?
The identification of a social problem depends on the belief system and values of people living in a
particular society. Thus, social problems are always defined in subjective manner and that it is not
static. The subjectivity in conceptualization arises because of what constitutes as a social problem in a
community may not be considered as a social problem in another depending the values of its
inhabitants. In order to recognize a problem as being social in nature, there must be a social standard,
and second, there must be a significant discrepancy between the social standard and the social reality,
that is what is actually happening (Lawal, 2003).
Everyone would agree about some social problems like heinous crimes, drugs, violence, and
environmental degradation. Such social problems can be found at the local, national, and international
levels. However, the perspective of what can be a social problem also depends on certain groups of
people. Teenagers who play loud music in a public park obviously do not view it as a social problem,
but some people may consider it as undesirable social condition. Some non- smokers view smoking as
undesirable social condition that must be banned or restricted in public settings (Lawal, 2003).

Different Types of Social Problems

The Philippine society is plagued with multidimensional and multifarious social problems.
However, it must be noted that not all social conditions become elevated to social problems. For
example, here are some “objective conditions”, which exists today, and that not all of them can be
considered as social problems.
 Poverty  Cultural violence
 Prostitution  Religious intolerance
 Broken families  Gross misconduct
 Abortion  Disease and hunger
 Teenage pregnancy  Widespread illiteracy
 Bribery and corruption  Discrimination and racism
 Crimes (armed robbery, murder,  Human trafficking and white
gambling, drug pushing, etc.) slavery
 Juvenile delinquency  Child labor
 Child abuse  Violence against women and
 Student unrest children

All these have contributed in one way or another to the low level of growth and development of
our country. Each of them represents an existing condition, which threatens the well- being of people in
our country and in some cases, the whole world. Another thing is that they are all objective conditions
that really exist but not all of them draw relatively high public concerns.
For any situation to become a social problem, it must meet some conditions. Some of these
conditions have influenced the categorization of the above listed problems as social (Lawal, 2003).
These are the conditions:
a) The objective condition must be perceived to be a social problem publicly. There must be
some public outcry. People must become actively involved in discussing the problem. Public
attention becomes directed towards that social condition.
b) The condition must involve a gap between social ideals and social reality. That is, the
condition must run counter to the values of the larger society. For example, alcohol abuse
was perceived to be a very serious social problem, responsible for family breakdown,
abandonment of children, accidents and death, and violence in society.
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c) A significant proportion of the population must be involved in defining the problem. A

large proportion of the population must be concerned about it and that it must have national
attention. If only a segment of the population gets involved, you only have an interest group
pushing for the general public to do something about the condition – not a social problem.
d) The condition must be capable of calling for a solution through collective action by the
people. If no solution is perceived possible, people will just accept it as reality.
Other factors, which will determine the degree to which something comes to be a perceived social
problem, include:
a) If people affected by a condition are influential or powerful, the condition is more likely to
be considered as social problem that if those affected are not. When a condition begins to
affect the middle class, particularly those able to influence the government policy, or the
content of the mass media, the chances of it becoming considered as a social problem,
increases substantially.
b) A rapid increase in the number of people affected by a social condition is also important –
perhaps even as important as the number of people affected. For instance, people became
accustomed to the prevailing levels of crime, pollution, and urban congestion but a sharp
increase in the occurrence of these can lead to elevated public concern. The recovery of one
salvage victim in an abandoned lot is a ground for concern, but not the definition of a social
problem. However, five cases in one month can get the public’s attention and outcry.
c) The mass media also play an important role in the selection and definition of social
problems. It gives attention to certain conditions. The liberal press will highlight certain
issues while the conservative press will select others. A good example is the violation of
health protocols committed by key government officials during the first outbreak of the
COVID-19 pandemic. In one instance, a senator violated quarantine protocols to accompany
his pregnant wife to a hospital. This led to a public outcry, which led to public apology (to
the Makati Medical Center) of the said government official. Some press highlight the
violation committed by the official while there were some press who also highlighted
“compassion” as to the reason why he violated containment protocols (CNN Philippines,
2020).
d) Ideology also determines how a social problem is defined. In the context of the Philippines,
this is more evident among what is seemed to be labels and political tagging – the polarity
between “DDS” and “Dilawan” (Contreras, 2020). These two groups agree that there is a
drug problem in the Philippines but they cannot agree on how the current administration
addressed this social problem.

Causes of Social Problems

Can you enumerate some, if not all, causes of social problems? The answers are diverse and
numerous as the problems. The conclusion from many scholars who have attempted to address the
question has been that society creates the problem. There are many social problems, which vary from
one society to another and the possible cause of such problems are also many and varied (Lawal, 2003).
Here are some of the broad causes of social problems (Lawal, 2003).
a) Ignorance. Closely related to this issue of apathy. People are known to be involved in
creating some social problems just because they either care less or do not even know that
their actions are major contributors to these problems.
b) Greed and selfishness. Greed is wanting and taking more than one morally deserves. Greed
can take the form of seeking undeserved subsidies or privileges, or protection from
competition. Greed also motivates dictators, politicians, and government officials to seek
and maintain their power. The perpetuation of acts associated with these behavior can
create social problems.
c) Poor physical planning. In situations where infrastructures have been poorly planned and
made available to a group or groups of people, there is that tendency for such
infrastructures to be an avenue for social vices like robbers dens, gambling spots, violent
protests, and others.
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d) Lack of good education. Education is a powerful tool for liberation. In communities where
levels of education is low or the quality of education being delivered is poor, there is that
possibility for its recipients to become half- baked, the effect of which could be disastrous.
They are not likely to be trained to develop positive values that can promote less stressful
social interactions.
e) Uneven development. This is a major source of social problems. Let us look at the armed
conflict existing in some areas of the Philippines today. These people are fighting for what
they think and feel are serious neglect from the Philippine government for a relatively long
time. They have demonstrated their dissatisfaction through aggressive actions, which have
created serious social problems for the nation and even in the international level.
f) Poverty. Poverty itself is a prevalent social problem. This does not however mean that it is a
crime to be poor. Murder is a crime but it is not a crime if you are the victim much less,
desire to be one. A poor man, then can be looked upon as a victim for which others, as well
as himself, are responsible. However, poverty also is one of causes why social problems
arise. One uses the excuse of being poor as to why crimes such as armed robbery leading to
homicide are committed.
g) Other causes of social problems include abuse of power, moral laxity, and so on.

Assessment
Direction: In a yellow sheet of paper, answer and discuss the following questions.
1) Of what importance are the concepts and generalizations to Social Studies teaching and
learning in the classroom?
2) Compare and contrast growth and development. Using your answers in this item, establish the
relationship of these concepts. Cite instances of how relationship between these two concepts
can be applicable to the Philippines as a developing country.
3) Come up with your own ways through which self- reliance can be promoted. Make a list with
a minimum of five (5). Justify.
4) Identify one prevalent social conflict in your locality (barangay, municipality level). Using the
two approaches to conflict resolution discussed in this unit, come up with your own steps or
suggestions for resolving that conflict.
5) Identify one prevalent social problem in your locality (barangay, municipality level) and
justify why you think it is a social problem. Identify what is/ are the possible causes of its
occurrence/ prevalence. Then, come up with some practical solutions applicable in the lowest
possible level for that social problem.

Criteria:
Content 10 points
Factual Information 10 points
Cleanliness 2 points

3.3. References
Admin, A. (2014, September 23). Difference between Growth and Development.
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-growth-and-development/.

Ainsworth, D. Dorothy Ainsworth on Self- Reliance. http://dorothyainsworth.com/rely/self-rely.shtml.

Contreras, A. (2020, January 31). Labels and political tagging.

https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/02/01/opinion/columnists/topanalysis/labels-and-
political-tagging/678791/.
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Culbert, J. (1967, November 30). Social Studies Concepts and Generalizations: A Framework for Curriculum
Development. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED051008.

Government of Manitoba (n.d.). Peace and Conflict. https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/.

Hurst, K. (2019, September 30). Seven Tips for Increasing Self-Reliance.

https://www.thelawofattraction.com/7-tips-increasing-self-reliance/.

Lawal, M. B. (2003). Foundation of Social Studies. A Monograph.

Lawal, M. B. & Oyeleye, A. S. (2003). Foundations and Principles of Social Studies Education. Lagos: A
Triads Associate.

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Development. In Merriam-Webster.com thesaurus. Retrieved October 28,

2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/development

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Self-reliance. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved October 29,

2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-reliance

Ogundare, S. F. (2000). Foundations of Social Studies: A Handbook of Concepts and Principles of Social
Studies. Adesan Graphic Press.

Philippines: Conflict and peace. (2015, June). https://www.peaceinsight.org/conflicts/philippines/.

3.4. Acknowledgment
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.