CHEMISTR

Y
NOTES
- Solencia Hamilton -
Table of Contents

MOLES ELECTOLYSIS

ACIDS, BASES AND ORGANIC

SALTS CHEMISTRY
 !
“Heights by great men
reached and kept, were not
obtained by sudden flight but
those while their companions
slept were toiling upwards in
the night”
 02
ACIDS, BASES
AND SALTS
- Solencia Hamilton -
 INTRODUCTION:
ACIDS AND BASES
Acids can be defined as a proton donor or substances that gives away all or
some of its H+ ions when reacting. For example: HCl and H3PO4.

Acids are:
● Corrosive
● Have a pH less than 7
● Turn blue litmus red
● Can conduct electricity(they are electrolytes)
● Are sour
Objective 7.4
Investigate the
reactions of non-oxidising acids
 REACTIONS OF ACIDS

1. Acids and a Reactive Metal

2HCl(aq) + 2Na(s) ---> 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
NB: Nitric Acid produces oxides or Nitrogen and not hydrogen

2. Acids and a Base

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ---> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

3. Acids and a Metal Carbonate

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) ---> 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

4. Acids and A Metal Hydrogencarbonate

2HNO + Mg(HCO3)2 ---> Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 The Basicity of Acids
Basicity can be defined as the number of H+ ions produced per molecule of acid
when dissolved in water.

1. Monobasic Acids release one H+ ion per molecule of acid dissolved in water.
HCl(aq) ---> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
These acids produce normal salts.

2. Dibasic Acids release two H+ ion per molecule of acid dissolved in water.
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO4 2- (aq)
These acids produce normal and acidic salts.

3. Tribasic Acids release three H+ ion per molecule of acid dissolved in water.
H3PO4+ → 3H+(aq) + PO4 3-(aq)
These acids produce normal and acidic salts
 BASES AND ALKALIS

Bases are proton acceptors or substances that take all or some of the H+ ions in
a acid. A base is a metal oxide or hydroxide
An alkali is a base which dissolved in water to form a solution that contains OH-
ions. Soluble bases are known as alkalis.

Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Alkalis:

1. Are soapy
2. Have a ph higher than 7
3. Turn red litmus blue.
4. They have bitter taste
5. They are corrosive
6. They are electrolytes
Objective 7.6: Investigate the reaction of bases with ammonium salts;

CHEMICAL REACTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH BASES INCLUDE:

1. Reactions with acids which produce a salt and water.

2. Bases react with ammonium salts. When heated bases react with
ammonium salts to produce salt ammonia and water.

Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → MgCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O

 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN ACIDS AND ALKALIS

INDICATOR COLOUR IN ACIDIC IN ALKALI SOLUTION

SOLUTION

Litmus Red Blue

Methyl Orange Red Yellow

Screened methyl orange Red Green

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

THE pH SCALE Objective 7.2: Relate acidity and alkalinity to the pH scale

Mercury is the Venus has a Despite being red,

closest planet to beautiful name, Mars is a cold
the Sun but it’s hot place
2017 2019

2016 2018 2020

The strength of an acid or alkali can be measured by a pH scale using a universal indicator.
Objective 7.5: List examples of acids in
living systems
1. Lactic Acid is produced due in the muscle cells as a result of strenuous activity(anaerobic
respiration). A person collapses if too much lactic builds up in muscles because it prevents
the muscles from contracting.
2. Ethanoic Acid is in vinegar, domestically used to preserve food by denaturing the enzymes
that trigger the decomposition reaction and prevents the growth of microorganisms like
bacteria and fungi.
3. Methanoic Acid is present in ant venom which causes the redness, swelling and itchiness of
the area. Applying Sodium hydrogencarbonate or calamine lotion neutralizes the acid and
ends the discomfort and symptoms.
4. Citric Acid is found in citrus fruits, It can also be used to remove rust stains on clothes. The
acid in the juice reacts with the Fe2O3 which makes the compound soluble ad easy to wash
out the Fe2+ ions
Fe2+3(s) + 6H+(aq) ---> 2Fe3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
5. Ascorbic Acid or Vitamin C is found in green vegetables, citrus fruits and west indian cherries.
Vitamin C is essential in a healthy diet and a shortage can lead to scurvy.
Objective 7.3: Discuss the strength of acids and alkalis on the basis of their
completeness of ionisation.

A strong acid is one that is fully ionised when dissolved in water. I.e it loses all its
H+ ions. Par exemple: HCl, HNO3 and H2SO4.

A strong alkali is fully ionised in water. I.e it loses all its OH- ions. Par exemple:
KOH and NaOH.

A weak acid is one that is only partially ionised in water. I.e not all H+ ions are
give away in solution. These participate in reversible hydration reactions. Par
exemple: ethanoic acid.

A weak is one that is only partially ionised in water. I.e not all OH- ions are give
away in solution. These participate in reversible hydration reactions. Par exemple:
AMmonia(NH3)
CSEC OBJECTIVE 7.1
Define:
1. Acid Anhydride: A compound that reacts with water to form an acid.
Par exemple: CO2, SO2, SO3 and NO2.

2. Amphoteric Oxides: Oxides of some metals which reacts with both acids and
strong alkalis to form salt and water. Par exemple: Al2O3, ZnO and PbO.

3. Neutral Oxides: Oxides of some non-metals that do not react with alkalis or
acids. Par exemple: CO, NO and N2O

4. Basic Oxides: Oxides of metals which react with acids to form salt and
water. Par exemple: MgO, CuO, K2O and Na2O.

5. Acidic Oxides are oxides of some non-metals which react with alkalis to form
salt and water. Par Exemple: CO2, SO2, SO3
 SALTS

A salt is a compound formed when some or all the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by
metal or ammonium salts.

Salts can be classified as normal salts or acid salts.

1. Normal salts are salts formed when all the H+ ions are replaced by metal or ammonium
ions,
All acids can form normal salts.

2. An acidic salt is formed when the H+ ions in an acid are only partially replaced by
metal or ammonium ions.
Only dibasic or tribasic salts can form acid salts.
 WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION

Water of a fixed proportion of water molecules held within the crystal lattice. Salts
containing water of crystallization are said to be hydrated like CuSO4 .5H2O.

A salt is said to be anhydrous when the water is removed via heating. It loses its
crystalline structure.

In some compounds, losing the water of crystallization can result in a change of

shape, colour.
When preparing any salt the following must be take
into consideration:

1. The SOLUBILITY of the salt

2. The SOLUBILITY of the reactants
3. The HYDRATION of the salt being prepared.
SOLUBILITY RULES
Nitrates EXCEPTIONS
PMS
Acetates ● Pb (lead)
● Mercury(Hg)
● Silver(Ag)
Group 1

Sulfates Castro Bear

Ca2+,Sr2+ and Ba2+
Ammonium

Group 7
Salt Prepartion Methods
Acid + Insoluble
Base/Insoluble
Titration
Carbonate/Reactive Metal
To produce K, Na Soluble salts
or NH4 salts. except K, Na or
NH4 salts.

Ionic
Direct
Precipitatio
Combination
To produce n
Insoluble Salts
Anhydrous salts
 For Po

TITRATION
tass
Sodium ium
Ammo or
nium S
alts.
 Two solutions needed:
a. An alkali or carbonate solution to supply the cations.
b. An acid to supply the anions.

1. Place the acid in a burette and find the volume needed to neutralize a fixed
volume of alkali or carbonate solution, measured in a pipette by performing a
titration using a suitable indicator.
2. Add the volume of acid found above to the fixed volume of alkali or
carbonate solution without adding the indicator to make a normal salt.
3. Evaporate all or some of the water
4. Leave to crystallise.
Direct
Combinatio Anhyd
rous Salts

n
Conditions:
a. A suitable metal to supply the cations
b. Chlorine gas to supply the Cl- ions

1. Heat the metal in a stream of chlorine gas in a fume cupboard.

Acid + Insoluble
Base/Insoluble For Po
tass
Sodium ium
Carbonate/Reactive Ammo
nium S
or
alts.
Metal
Conditions:
1. A suitable metal to supply anions.
2. A suitable acid to supply the anions

a. Add the metal and warm if necessary. Keep adding until

effervescence(bubbling) stops and the metal is present in
excess.
b. Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution, it should
remain blue.
c. Filter to remove the excess metal, collect the filtrate.
d. Evaporate the water, or evaporate some water and leave to
crystallize.
Conditions:
1. A suitable insoluble base to supply anions.
2. A suitable acid to supply the anions

a. Add the insoluble base, warm if necessary. Keep adding until

effervescence(bubbling) stops and the insoluble base is present
in excess.
b. Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution, it should
remain blue.
c. Filter to remove the excess base, collect the filtrate.
d. Evaporate the water, or evaporate some water and leave to
crystallize.
Conditions:
1. A suitable insoluble carbonate to supply anions.
2. A suitable acid to supply the anions

a. Add the metal insoluble carbonate. Keep adding until

effervescence(bubbling) stops and the insoluble carbonate is
present in excess.
b. Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution, it should
remain blue.
c. Filter to remove the excess carbonate, collect the filtrate.
d. Evaporate the water, or evaporate some water and leave to
crystallize.
Ionic
Precipitatio Insolu
ble Sa
lt s

n
1. Dissolve each salt in distilled water to
make two solutions
2. Mi the solutions to form a precipitate
3. Filter to separate the precipitate.
4. Wash the precipitate(residue) with
distilled water.
5. Dry the residue.
7.8 List the uses and dangers of salts
 NEUTRALIZING REACTIONS

A neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt

and water.

The neutralizing point or end point occurs when the OH- ions of the alkali have
fully reacted with the H+ ions of the acid and neither are present in excess. With
the reaction of a strong alkali and strong acid, the end point is pH 7.

Neutralization reactions are exothermic.

Objective: 7.10 Investigate neutralisation reactions using indicators and
temperature change
Determining the Neutralization Point:
1. Using an indicator
A titration reaction.

2. Using temperature change(a thermometric titration)

A fixed volume of alkali is placed into an insulated and its temperature is
recorded. The acid is added in small quantities e.g 2cm3, from a burette and a
temperature is recorded after each addition until several successive drops in
temperature have been recorded. A graph is drawn showing temperature against
volume. Two straight lines of best fit are drawn and the point of intersection of the
lines is the neutralisation point.
Using Neutralisation Reactions in Everyday Life
QUESTIONS?
 ELECTRO-
CHEMISTRY
:101
ELECTROCHEMIST
RY
Electrochemistry is the study of the relationship between chemical
reactions and electrical energy.
9.1 Conduct investigations leading to the classification of substances as
conductors or non-conductors.

Conductors are substances which allow electricity to pass through while non-
conductora are substances which do not allow electricity to pass through.

Attaching substances to an electric circuit would help determine the classification

of a substance.
9.2 Distinguish between metallic and electrolytic conduction.

Metallic Conduction Electrolytic Conduction

Metallic conduction occurs in metals due to Electrolytic Conduction occurs in molten or

the delocalised electrons. aqueous ionic solutions due to the free
ions.

Occurs in metals. Occurs in ions.

Metals remain unchanged. Compound is decomposed. It is chemically

changed.
9.3 Classify electrolytes as strong or weak based on their conductivity.

Substances which are fully ionised in water are known as strong electrolytes.
Their solutions contain a high concentration of ions. Molten/aqueous ionic
compounds are known as strong electrolytes as well as strong acids and strong
alkalis.
Par exemple: H2SO4 and HCl

Substances which are only partially ionised in water are known as weak
electrolytes. Their solutions contain a low concentration of ions.
Par exemple; ethanoic acid, carbonic acid and aqueous ammonia.
9.4 Define electrolysis, cathode, anode, cation, anion.

1. Electrolysis is the chemical decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage

of an electric current through it.
2. Electrodes are poles of metal or graphite rods through which current enters
or leaves the electrolyte.
3. Cathodes are the negatively charged electrode, when electrons enter the
electrolyte and where reduction takes place.
4. Anodes are the positively charged electrodes.
5. Anions are negatively charged ions(e.g Cl-) which migrate towards the
anode during electrolysis.
6. Cations are positively charged ions(eg Na+) which migrate towards the
cathode.
7. The electrolyte is a molten or ionic compound or a solution containing
mobile ions.
8. Non-electrolytes are substances which remains as molecules when in the
liquid state or dissolved in water.
 PREFERENTIAL DISCHARGE

Preferential Discharge occurs when two or more ions of the

same charge are present in a solution of an electrolyte, under
identical conditions, and are competing for discharge at the same
electrode and one of them gets preferentially discharged.

Any ion lower in the electrochemical series gets discharged at

the relevant electrode in preference to those above it.
The electrochemical series of metals places metals in order of ease with which
they lose reactions or ionise.
9.8 Discuss the electrolysis of certain substances;
Principles related to:
(a) Concentration of electrolyte.
If an electrolyte has a much higher concentration of a particular ion, then that ion
will be discharged at the relevant electrode in preference to those lower in the
electrochemical series with the exception of reactive metals like Sodium and
Potassium.

(b)Type of electrode (active and inert).

Inert - does not take place in reactions like graphite and platinum.
Active - takes place in the reaction and the product formed is different.

(c) Position of ions in the electrochemical series with respect to the named
substances.
9.9 Define the Faraday constant; Approximate value of the Faraday constant as
96 500 C mol-1 (coulombs per mole) of electrons

The Faraday Constant is the size of the electrical charge on one mole of
electrons ie. 96 500C.

Note: Q= It
9.11 Describe industrial applications of electrolysis. Reference to:
(a) metallic extraction (based on position in electrochemical series)

Electrolysis of the molten ore is used to extract aluminum and metals above
aluminum in the electrochemical series from their ores.

During electrolysis of the molten ore, the metal ions move towards the cathode
where they are discharged.

The molten metal formed is denser than the molten electrolyte and it sinks to the
bottom of the electrolytic cell and is tapped off.
Electrorefining/Purification - the production of pure metals from impure samples of
the metal.
1. The anode is impure metal
2. The cathode is a very thin strip of the pure metal
3. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing ions of the metal being
purified.
(c) electroplating
Electroplating is the process by which a thin layer of on metal is deposited on
another by electrolysis. It is used to make materials more attractive or protect
them from corrosion.
1. Pure sample at anode
2. Cathode is the material
(d) Anodising

The thickness of an unreactive oxide layer on the surface of the metals can be
increased by anodising. We observe this through aluminum.
1. The anode is the cleaned aluminum object.
2. The electrolyte is usually the sulfuric acid.
QUESTIONS?