The Complex Erection of Angkor Wat

Dr Uday Dokras, Ph D Stockholm SWEDEN

1
 CONTENTS
1. Great structures built to honour the gods 32. Ghost Temple:
2. Hindu Cosmology 33. In 2016 CE, a New York
3. Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat Times article
4. The height of Angkor Wat 34. History
5. The overall profile imitates a lotus bud 35. Architecture and Construction
6. Scale of the ambition determined the structure 36. classical style of
of the Angkor. Angkorian architecture:
7. Several years must have gone into the planning 37. Built on rising ground
as such. and surrounded by an
8. The perspective artificial moat,
9. Scholarly vision 38. Sculpture
10. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the 39. The massive sandstone
universe as a cosmic world. bricks
11. The central tower mountain, Its 5 towers 40. Architectural
correspond to peaks of Meru. Features
i. Planning 41. Construction techniques
ii. The explaination and concurrence 42. Materials;
from the Monarch 43. Bricks
iii. The Model 44. Sandstone
iv. Schedule 45. Laterite
v. Approvals 46. Central sanctuary
vi. The site 47. The central prang of
vii. The water source Angkor Wat temple
viii. The material sources symbolizes the mount
ix. The manpower Meru.
x. Assorted materials 48. legendary home of
xi. Skill and unskilled labour the Hindu gods.
xii. Logistics 49. Prang
xiii. manpower planning 50. Khmer temples
xiv. Lodging abd boarding of workers 51. Thai temples
xv. Material Storage and facilitation 52. Enclosure
xvi. Training & development of workers 53. Gallery
12. Urban planning 54. Gopura
55. Hall of Dancers
13. 72 major temples  56. dancing.
14. How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements 57. House of Fire
of style? 58. Library
15. What was the cultural significance of Angkor 59. Srah and baray
Wat? 60. Temple mountain
16. What is unique about where Angkor Wat is 61. Bas-relief
built? 62. Colonette
17. Site and plan 63. Corbelling
18. temple mountain  and concentric galleries 64. List of Khmer lintel styles
19. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to 65. Stairs
the morning sun 66. MOTIFS
20. Rose Bud shape 67. Apsara and devata
21. Ogival 68. Dvarapala
22. The principal temple of the Angkorian 69. Gajasimha & Reachisey
region, Angkor Wat 70. Garuda
23. Vaishnavism 71. THE MANY GODS of
24. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism  ANGKOR
25. Vishnu-Suman 72. Indra
26. Mahayana Buddhism 73. Kala

2
 27. Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian 74. Krishna
architecture  75. linga 
28. Many temples had been built before 76. Makara
Cambodia:[ 77. Nāga
29. The temple itself consists of two of the primary 78. Quincunx
elements 79. Shiva
80. The.Australian
30. In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and archaeologist Damian
Claude Jacques  Evans.
31. Religious Background 83.Rervelation painting
81. Secret Paintings

Great structures built to honour the gods, have led to groundbreaking

construction techniques, and pushed the limits of engineering. No expense was
spared in the ancient world, as temples were built over decades or even
centuries. But one stands out from the rest. Hidden deep in the Cambodian
jungle lies a temple that eclipses all others- Angkor Wat is a 900-year-old
complex covering more than 400 acres across a monsoon-plagued swampland.
The largest religious monument in the world by land area. Its endless hallways
and colossal structures exhibit precision stonemasonry. While some of the
great medieval cathedrals took over a century to build, Angkor Wat was
completed in just 30 years. A masterpiece of craftsmanship, sculptural
decoration and engineering. But how did an early society with little technology
build this vast monument? It is one of the most important pilgrimage sites for
Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world. It has become a symbol of
Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's main tourist
attraction. Angkor Wat played a major role in converting Cambodia into a
Buddhist nation and the one and only source of income for Cambodia today.

Angkor Wat Architectural Features

HINDU.COSMOLOGY: According to Stuart-Fox, Martin ,

and Paul Reeve,“Symbolism in City Planning in Cambodia from Angkor to Phnom
Penh.” (Journal of the Siam Society 99: 105–38. . 2011) Khmer Kings never decided
arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their orientation and their
layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired by the model of the
Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu cosmology. It should have a
perfect quadrangular shape, walls with four gates in the middle of each side
and an organised internal layout resembling a mandala, with the city temple in
the centre and its main sanctuary inside it, with a tower shape which
represents the mythological Mount Meru, the sacred axis mundi, separated by
successive concentric walls.

3
At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city planning
was based on the religious and political idea of the “god-king” (devaraja), which
considers monarchs as incarnations on the Earth (avatars) of Shiva, Vishnu or
Buddha.’ ( “Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast
Asia.” Chihara, Daigoro . 1996. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology 19. Leiden: Brill.)

Cosmos: At a paper presented at Vaastu Kaushal: International Symposium on

Science and Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, New Delhi, November
16-17, 2002. Subhash Kak presenting the paper- Space and Cosmology in the
Hindu Temple pointed out that according to the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian
tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should mirror the cosmos.
The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore, related in their
conception.
“ Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the
temple fall far short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions,
and the astoundingly beautiful sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the
viewer. Its architecture is majestic and its representation of form and
movement from Indian mythology has astonishing grace and power.”
 Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 208 hectares (500 acres)
defined by a laetrile wall. The first evidence of the site is a moat with a long
sandstone causeway (length 250 meters, 820 feet; width 12 meters, 39 feet)
crossing it and serving as the main access to the monument. The moat is
200 meters (656 feel) wide with a perimeter of 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles).

 Angkor Wat is influenced by the Hindu temple architecture of southern

India, which combines harmony and symmetry with a high degree of outer
adornment. The five beehive-shaped domes that rise impressively from the
center of the temple are adorned with rows of lotuses and are designed to
look like lotus buds. The temple is conceived so that all five domes are visible
when the temple is viewed from certain angles.

 The largest dome sits over the main sanctuary. Four slightly smaller domes
are organized in a square plan around the central dome. The five domes
represent the five peaks of Mt. Meru, arranged in the shape of a lotus
blossom. What makes the towers and Angkor Wat as a whole so beautiful are
the way the small details harmonize and mix with the massive architecture.
The dome-topped main sanctuary is surrounded by halls, arranged together
in a square plan, with lower walls and ceilings, and smaller temples on their
corners that represent the mountains on the edge of the world. The galleries,
corridors and halls are aligned with directions of the compass.

 The wall that surrounds Angkor Wat is 5/8th of a mile long on each side;
the central tower is eight stories (213 feet) high; the square moat around the
compound is three miles long; and the causeway that leads across the moat
to the temple is 1,500 feet long. The sandstone blocks at Angkor Wat were

4
quarried from at least 50 different quarries at the foot of Mt. Kulen 32
kilometers to the northeast. They are believed to have been transported by
canals visible today with satellite imagery.

Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents an

earthly model of the cosmic world. The central tower rises from the center of
the monument symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the
center of the universe. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru. The
outer wall corresponds to the mountains at the edge of the world, and the
surrounding moat the oceans beyond.

 The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the
monument because of the vastness. Its complexity and beauty both attract
and distract one's attention. From a distance Angkor Wat appears to be a
colossal mass of stone on one level with a long causeway leading to the
center but close up it is a series of elevated towers, covered galleries,
chambers, porches and courtyards on different levels linked by stairways.

 The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central tower
is greater than it might appear: 213 meters (699 feet), achieved with three
rectangular or square levels (1-3) Each one is progressively smaller and
higher than the one below starting from the outer limits of the temple.

 Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and second
levels. The third level supports five towers –four in the corners and one in the
middle and these is the most prominent architectural feature of Angkor Wat.
This arrangement is sometimes called a quincunx. Graduated tiers, one
rising above the other, give the towers a conical shape and, near the top,
rows of lotuses taper to a point.

 The overall profile imitates a lotus bud, Several architectural lines stand
out in the profile of the monument. The eye is drawn left and right to the
horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to the soaring height of the
towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a view of all five towers
from certain angles. They are not visible, for example, from the entrance.
Many of the structures and courtyards are in the shape of a cross. The.
Visitor should study the plan on page 86 and become familiar with this
dominant layout. A curved sloping roof on galleries, chambers and aisles is a
hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance it looks like a series of long narrow
ridges but close up from identifies itself. It is a roof made of gracefully arched
stone rectangles placed end to end. Each row of tiles is capped with an end
tile at right angles the ridge of the roof.

5
 The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums with elaborate frames.
Steps provide access to the various levels. Helen Churchill Candee, who
visited Angkor in the 1920s, thought their usefulness surpassed their
architectural purpose. The steps to Angkor Wat are made to force a halt at
beauteous obstruction that the mind may be prepared for the atmosphere of
sanctity, she wrote In order to become familiar with the composition of
Angkor Wat the visitor should learn to recognize the repetitive elements in
the architecture. Galleries with columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums,
steps and the cross-shaped plan occur again and again.

 It was by combining two or more of these aspects that a sense of height
was achieved. This arrangement was used to link one part of the
monument to another. Roofs were frequently layered to add height, length
or dimension. A smaller replica of the central towers was repeated at the
limits of two prominent areas-the galleries and the entry pavilions. The
long causeway at the entrance reappears on the other side of the entry
pavilion.

1. Scale of the ambition determined the structure of the Angkor. Several

years must have gone into the planning as such.
2. The perspective
3. Scholarly vision
4. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and
represents an earthly model of the cosmic world.
5. The central tower rises from the center of the monument symbolizing the
mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the universe.
6. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru.
7. Planning
8. The explaination and concurrence from the Monarch
9. The Model
10. Schedule
11. Approvals
12. The site
13. The water source
14. The material sources
15. The manpower
16. Assorted materials
17. Skill and unskilled labour
18. Logistics
19. manpower planning
20. Lodging abd boarding of workers
21. Material Storage and facilitation

6
 22. Training & development of workers

Urban planning

This, perhaps, was the first low-density city – a phenomenon normally

associated with the railway age, the car and the spread of suburbia – a vast-
reaching conurbation, its parts linked by an ambitious network of roads and
canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest. Khmer cities were
connected to one another, by roads and waterways- so the “built-up” area of
Angkor seems to have been bigger than anyone today, much less barefoot 16th
Century Portuguese friars, has been able to figure. An enormous and intricate
irrigation system mapped today lidar and other tech provided Angkor with food
– rice for the main part – and yet the ever-increasing scale of this engineered
and well populated landscape was, it seems, its undoing.

The top of the central tower, the highest part of the entire temple complex, is a
dizzying 700 feet above the ground. As you get into the temple and start
exploring, you would find that the Angkor Wat layout and plan consists
of numerous courtyards, chambers, porches, galleries, and stairways.
According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the
temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its
finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a
work of power, unity and style." It was originally built in the first half of the
12th century as a Hindu temple. Spread across more than 400 acres, Angkor
Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. ... Originally
dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by
the end of the 12th century.

How is Angkor characterized based on elements of style?It is a work of power,

unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style
include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to
broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform
terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. How many temples
are in Angkor Wat?

7
Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and the
remains of several hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered
throughout the landscape beyond.

How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements of style?

It is a work of power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements
characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus
buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting
enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the
temple.

What was the cultural significance of Angkor Wat?

Although Angkor Wat was no longer a site of political, cultural or commercial
significance by the 13th century, it remained an important monument for the
Buddhist religion into the 1800s. Indeed, unlike many historical sites, Angkor
Wat was never truly abandoned. Rather, it fell gradually into disuse and
disrepair.

What is unique about where Angkor Wat is built?

Also unusual for the time of construction, Angkor Wat was dedicated to
Vishnu, a Hindu deity, rather than the current king. The original outer wall at
Angkor Wat once enclosed the temple proper, city, and royal palace, occupying
a space of 203 acres (820,000 square meters). Nothing remains of the wall
today.

This phenomenal city was established in the late 9th century, when it became
the home of Khmer King Yashovarman I. At that stage it was a small, modest
settlement. Over the following 500 years a huge amount of power became
concentrated in Angkor. It was the heart of the Khmer Empire, which grew and
grew and grew. From this central base at Angkor, the empire’s territory
eventually stretched as far north as China, as far south as what as what is now
southern Thailand, as far west as Myanmar and as far east as Vietnam.

The empire accumulated so much wealth and boasted such a vast workforce
that it had the means to turn Angkor into a jaw-dropping city, a symbol of
Khmer supremacy. Not only was its architecture remarkable, but the concept
behind the city’s layout was incredibly complex. Angkor was intended to
represent a universe from Hindu cosmology. Anchoring the city was its only
natural hill, Phnom Bakheng, with each of Angkor’s temples then positioned in

8
“orbit” around this hill, while the city’s outer walls symbolized the edge of the
cosmos and its irrigation system represented the rivers of this universe.
It was in Sukhothai in the 13th century that Thailand is widely considered to
have been born and, over that century and the next, the Thais began to take
control of vast areas of what had been Khmer territory. Many historians have
long claimed this rivalry reached a head in 1431. They believe Angkor was
captured and looted by the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which was essentially the Thai
successor to the Sukhothai Kingdom. It has been widely stated that Angkor
was deserted as a result of this raid. Now a new tale has emerged.

Site and plan-Plan of Angkor Wat

9
An aerial view of Angkor Wat ////A detailed plan of the central structure

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard

design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of
concentric galleries, most of which were derived from religious beliefs
of Hinduism originally. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that
there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is
observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces
within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the
sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home
of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers
symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize
the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the
temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to
the lowest level.
The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of
the spring equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the
west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice
Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve
as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-
reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—
prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order.
Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.
Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been
a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been
nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a
corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples
of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor
Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with
the west.
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and
arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the
structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II:
"as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred

10
space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated
chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour
and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions
have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic
circlesShe distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham
Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the
constellation Draco. a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name
is Latin for dragon. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd
century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations
today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that is,
never setting), and can be seen all year from northern latitudes.
Rose Bud shape: Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include:
the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways;
axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the
main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs,
and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is
considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other
elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time,
including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and
wooden ceiling panels and doors. One of the defining characteristics of Gothic
architecture is the pointed arch.
the pointed arch may have originated as in Sitamarhi caves in 3rd century BCE. The free-
standing temple of Trivikrama at Ter in Maharashtra India dated to Satavahana
period also contains ogive arch but it is constructed using principles of corbel.
Archaeological excavation conducted by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
at Kausambi revealed a palace with its foundations going back to 8th century BCE until
2nd century CE and built in six phases. The last phase dated to 1st–2nd century CE,
featured an extensive structure which features four centered pointed arches which were
used to span narrow passageways and segmental arches for wider areas. [3] Pointed arches
as load bearing function were also employed in Gandhara. Two pointed arch vault system
was built inside the Bhitargaon temple as noted by Alexander Cunningham, which is
dated to early Gupta period of 4th–5th century CE.[4] Pointed arches also appeared
in Mahabodhi temple with relieving arches and vaults between 6–7th century CE.
Ogival: The pointed arch as an architectonic principle in the Middle East, is said by
several scholars to have first been established in Islamic architecture during the Abbasid
Caliphate in the middle of the 8th century CE, and in Gothic architecture in the 11th
century CE. Some scholars have refused to accept Indian origin of pointed arch including
Hill (1993), some scholars have argued that pointed arches were used in the Near East in
pre-Islamic architecturebut others have stated that these arches were, in
fact, parabolic and not pointed arches.
In Gothic architecture, ogives are the intersecting transverse ribs of arches which
establish the surface of a Gothic vault. An ogive or ogival arch is a pointed, "Gothic" arch,
drawn with compasses as outlined above, or with arcs of an ellipse as described. A very
narrow, steeply pointed ogive arch is sometimes called a "lancet arch". The most common
form is an equilateral arch, where the radius is the same as the width. In the
later Flamboyant Gothic style, an "ogee arch", an arch with a pointed head, like S-shaped
curves, became prevalent.

11
the-ogival-redented-tower-shaped-like-lotus-bud-of-angkor-wat-and-the-very-steep-
stairways-representing-the-difficulty-of-ascending-to-the-kingdom RIGHT Cathedral in
Rome showing the ogival that also lay a role of bolstering support to the roof

The principal temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat, was built

between 1113 and 1150 by King Suryavarman II. Suryavarman ascended to
the throne after prevailing in a battle with a rival prince. An inscription says
that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his rival's war elephant
and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a serpent.
After consolidating his political position through military campaigns,
diplomacy, and a firm domestic administration, Suryavarman launched into
the construction of Angkor Wat as his personal temple mausoleum. Breaking
with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced perhaps by the
concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple
to Vishnu rather than to Siva. With walls nearly half a mile long on each side,
Angkor Wat grandly portrays the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers

12
representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains
enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.
The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods, and his
residence with that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The
measurements themselves of the temple and its parts in relation to one another
have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of the temple
decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from mythology, but also
from the life of his own imperial court. In one of the scenes, the king himself is
portrayed as larger in size than his subjects, sitting cross-legged on an elevated
throne and holding court, while a bevy of attendants make him comfortable
with the aid of parasols and fans.

13
Vaishnavism
In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that
of Shiva. The relationship seems to have changed with the construction
of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman II as his personal mausoleum at the
beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of Angkor Wat was
an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as
"Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu."
Religious syncretism, however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society: the
state religion of Shaivism was not necessarily abrogated by Suryavarman's turn
to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a royal lingam.
Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality
cult of Angkor. by which the reigning king was identified with the deity.
According to Angkor scholar Georges Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a
vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was not the ancient
Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king
Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him,
residing in a mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just
like Vishnu in his celestial palace."[Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with
Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed consubstantiation with Shiva.
Vishnu-Suman
Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations
of the god himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or Avatars,
especially Krishna and Rama. Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor
Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas
reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on the
shoulders of his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's
attributes include the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb.

Face towers of the Bayon represent the king as the Bodhisattva Lokesvara.

14
Mahayana Buddhism
In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed radically
from the tradition of his predecessors when he adopted Mahayana Buddhism
as his personal faith. Jayavarman also made Buddhism the state religion of his
kingdom when he constructed the Buddhist temple known as the Bayon at the
heart of his new capital city of Angkor Thom. In the famous face towers of the
Bayon, the king represented himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved
by compassion for his subjects. [63] Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate
the royal personality cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of
the cult with the bodhisattva rather than with Shiva
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures,
were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious
in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious
buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of
Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are
identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles
succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features
were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred
to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for
dating the remains.
Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian architecture , is the
architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer
Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE to the first half
of the 15th century CE.
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures,
were widely adopted in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater
India). In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious
in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious
buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable
materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of
Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are
identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles
succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features
were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred

15
to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for
dating the remains.

1. Sambor Prei Kuk

2. Pre Rup
3. Banteay Srei
4. Bayon

Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful Kingdom
of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time,
Cambodia was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer
empire. There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles :[
The temple itself consists of two of the primary elements of Khmer
architecture: the pyramid, and concentric galleries. The pyramid takes the form
of three stepped terraces, with each step bordered on all sides by covered
galleries. At each level gateways in the galleries indicate the pathway to the
central shrine, and towers punctuate the corners. The pyramid culminates in
five towers–an indication of the temple's central shrine.
A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple
which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in
construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles
north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is
unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated
with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal
as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and
imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great
stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and

16
up the columns of the great temple. All around the complex, homes and
workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a
network of roads created.
Dimensions and Building elements: Suryavarman II & Construction

In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and Claude Jacques  say thet “The entire
complex symbolizes the Hindu beliefs enshrined within. As Freeman and
Jacques describe, “It is, above all else, a microcosm of the Hindu universe. The
moat represents the mythical oceans surrounding the earth and the succession
of concentric galleries represent the mountain ranges that surround Mount
Meru, the home of the gods. The towers represent the mountain’s peaks, and
the experience of the ascent to the central shrine is, maybe intentionally, a
fairly convincing imitation of climbing a real mountain.”

The dimensions and building elements at Angkor Wat correspond to

“calendrically and cosmologically significant totals”
Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer
Empire (802-1431 CE) for his creation of a strong central government that
united the land. Suryavarman II also sent numerous military expeditions
against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the neighboring
Champa kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His greatest successes
were in diplomacy, not war, as he successfully opened relations
with China which increased trade and stimulated the economy.

Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a usurper,

who assassinated his great uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113 CE) to
take the throne. He is said to have compared the coup to destroying a serpent
but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was, is unclear. He then
legitimized his rule through personal accomplishments and immortalized it
through the construction of the grand complex of Angkor Wat, dedicated to his
personal protector-god Vishnu, most likely in gratitude for his victory. He had
amassed considerable wealth through trade and taxes and spared no expense
in the creation of his temple. Scholar Christopher Scarre notes:

The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an

austere civilization like that of the Indus, a society that carried the cult of
wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths. This cult reached it
apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of Angkor Wat.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so
that visitors could only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated
with the land of the dead but also with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal
as they drew closer to the divine energies of the temple. The design, and
imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great
stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and

17
up the columns of the great temple. All around the complex, homes and
workshops were built, markets and other businesses were opened, and a
network of roads created.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia-Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)

A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple

which was then encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in
construction were quarried from a site known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles
north, and floated to the construction site through a series of canals. It is
unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

Religious Background
Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II
wanted to ensure that, however one saw the work, he would be part of it.
Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as Vishnu, consorting with the god, and
performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing his troops and
holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many different
scenes, in fact, led early excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary
temple.

There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other
temples in the area - which face east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the land
of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs which adorn the temple are clearly meant
to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services, one conducts traditional
religious rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of
Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would be no contesting the claim for
it as a funerary temple; but there is no evidence of this.

18
It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained unfinished
at Suryavarman II's death and he was cremated and buried elsewhere. It is
more likely, however, that Suryavarman II had it purposefully built to honor
his god, and this claim holds more weight when one considers the king's
religious beliefs.

Suryavarman II-Kris

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which

is devotion to the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally
regarded as a polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic,
meaning there is only one god with many different aspects. In a henotheistic
belief system, a single god is considered too immense to be grasped by the
human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of which focus
on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his
form as Vishnu he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards
humans for their toil with death, which then continues the cycle of rebirth or
leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat reflects the course of life, death,
and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the supreme god
and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as

avatars - like the popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people.
The most famous example of this comes from the religious text Bhagavad-
Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of
Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's purpose in life. The

19
temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of
the gods, and how one is to best live one's life.

SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE,

USING RELIGION, BY DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY
WHO WAS A PROTECTOR OF ALL.
The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts
between the Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-
1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his reign and
came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The Champa's religion
was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which was viewed
with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a
protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash
against Buddhism.
By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known
as Brahmanism, which favored the elite, was growing more popular in the
region and Buddhism had also gained more adherents. Suryavarman II
elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by decreeing the
worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator
aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and
the divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the
interests of human beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The
Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in which he tricks the demons into surrendering
the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods immortal and preserve eternal
order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at Angkor Wat
and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a
temple of worship rather than a funerary site.
Stories in Stone

Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical
nexus in Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount
Meru are represented by the five spires of the temple. Brahma and the Devas
(demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is famously referenced
in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to the gates of
heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira and his faithful
dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells
Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are
not allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not
include dogs and turns away, but the gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself
as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before allowing him
entrance.

20
Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from
the classic works of Hindu religious literature such as
the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of Kurukshetra from
the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As
most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a
gigantic book on which the important religious and cultural tales could be
related visually.

Churning of the Ocean of Milk-Jason Eppink (CC BY)

The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of

galleries - giving ample room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious,
and temporal history of the people. The outer gallery of the temple stretches for
over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these reliefs. Angkor Wat was designed to
represent the world with the four corners of the outer wall anchored at the four
corners of the earth and the moat representing the surrounding oceans. Scenes
from everyday life, mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal
processions all wind themselves around the façade.

At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed
in the present day to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in
supplication or in gratitude for prayers answered. The central sanctuary of the
temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and the Vishnu statue
once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of all
earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to some scholars, were
used for astronomical observations and were built specifically for that purpose
so that astronomers could clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night
sky. There is no doubt the site was linked to astronomical observances as it is

21
precisely positioned to mirror the constellation of Draco, the dragon, which
represents eternity because it never sets.
Rededication – Transformation

Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE and
statues of the Buddha and Buddha-related stories were added to the already
impressive iconography. As the Buddhists respected the beliefs of the Hindus
who still worshipped there, all of the original statuary and artwork was left in
place. The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate story of the temple while
taking nothing away.
By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it was
still occupied by Buddhist monks, and it became the subject of stories and
legends. It was said to have been built by the gods in the distant past and a
popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as a palace for his son
and that it rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The temple was
protected from the surrounding jungle by the immense moat and so, unlike
other ancient temples and cities (such as those of the Maya of Mesoamerica) it
was never completely lost.

Ghost Temple: very few people know that even though local people still visited
the site, it became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark spirits. The
great enthusiasm of devotees who used to visit the temple, it was said, needed
to be continued to infuse the area with positive energy. Once worship at the
site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the afterglow of the high energy,
moved in and made the place their home. Dark energy was now thought to
emanate from the empty galleries, porches, and entranceways, and fewer and
fewer people went to visit. With only a few monks to care for it, the buildings
began to decay and even though it was never completely taken by the jungle,
natural growth made headway up the walls and through the cracks between
the stones.

In 2016 CE, a New York Times article reported on the ongoing efforts of
archaeologists who continue to make discoveries in the surrounding jungle and
have located the sites of the workers who built the temple and of others who
lived around the complex. The temple itself has undergone major restoration
and is one of the most popular archaeological parks in the world. Those who
visit Angkor Wat today are following in the footsteps of literally millions of
people from the past who have emerged from the surrounding jungle to find
themselves at the site Suryavarman II created as the nexus of earth and
heaven.

Along with the Hindu and Indian Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho,

Central India, and the Taj Mahal in northern India, the Cambodian Khmer
temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest examples of
religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest specimens

22
of Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe. Situated some 4
miles (6 km) north of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern Cambodia
(Kampuchea), the temple was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of
the Khmer Empire, by King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), to serve as his
mausoleum. Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu,
then a Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th century. Today Angkor Wat
is Cambodia's most famous site of religious art and its silhouette appears on
the Cambodian national flag. The temple is renowned for its high classical style
of Khmer architecture, as well as the staggering quantity of its relief
sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts taken from the site and large
sections cast from the temple buildings were exhibited in Paris in 1867,
announcing a great and unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the
work of the greatest architects in the West. In 1992, along with a sister temple
Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN World Heritage Site.
For other examples of Asian art, see: Traditional Chinese Art. Also, please
see: India: Painting & Sculpture.

History
The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from
which Khmer kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms
in the history of Southeast Asia. From 890, when King Yasovarman I moved his
capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of Angkor controlled an area that
extended from the southern tip of the Indochina peninsula northward to
Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of Bengal. During this
era, these kings implemented a series of massive construction projects
designed to glorify both themselves and their dynastic capital. After the death
of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), the Angkor Empire went into decline,
although as late as 1280 Angkor was still a thriving metropolis and one of the
most magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great construction boom was
over, Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai armies
were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which was then abandoned.

From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was
limited almost entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having been
maintained by Buddhist monks, became one of the most significant pilgrimage
sites in Southeast Asia. In time, the complex fell into disrepair and all that
remained were jungle-covered ruins of the ancient temples and the remnants of
the once-magnificent series of waterways, although it was never completely
abandoned and its moat helped to preserve it against total engulfment. After
the French took over Cambodia in 1863, they instigated a thorough program of
reconstruction, under which Angkor Wat's buildings, reservoirs, and canals
were restored to something approaching their original grandeur. The political
and military upheavals which took place in Cambodia during the period 1935-
1990 put an end to this program, but otherwise caused no great headaches.
The site's only serious problem remained the encroachment of the jungle.

23
Architecture and Construction
The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of
which has an average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more
stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and originally occupied an
area considerably greater than modern-day Paris. Given the additional
complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was designed
and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia.

The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political ideas
imported from India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time of King
Yasovarman I, for whom the city (originally called Yasodharapura) was named,
Angkor was designed as a symbolic universe modelled on traditional Indian
cosmology, and its temples were built in order to provide a means whereby
Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming closely identified
with Shaiva or one of the other important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for
instance, was built by King Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and
tomb to serve as a home for his earthly remains and to confirm his immortal
and eternal identitification with Vishnu.

Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the classical style
of Angkorian architecture: other temples designed in this idiom include
Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern
Thailand. It combines two basic features of Khmer temple architecture: the
temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on early Dravidian
architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a raised platform or
terrace upon which many buddhist and hindu temples were built. In addition
to Angkor Wat, another famous shrine with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple, at Khajuraho.

24
Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple of
Angkor Wat is laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend to the
central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to a height of 213 feet (65
metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each stepped level in
concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined
with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across the moat,

25
via a stone causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending towers represent
the spiritual world and mountain homes of the gods and were probably built in
homage to ancestral deities. The temple's structures are chiefly built in stone
with detailed bas-reliefs carved into the walls; the corbelled blockwork and
pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly animated figures chiseled into
the sandstone and volcanic rock.

Sculpture
The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be
seen on almost all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are literally
miles of reliefs, typically in the form of bas-relief friezes illustrating scenes from
Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering array of animal and human
figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes and garlands. They
include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas,
snakes, winged dragons, dancing girls and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely
some of the greatest sculptors in southeast Asia - paid meticulous attention to
the headdresses, hair, garments, posture and jewellery of the deities and
human figures. In addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat contains numerous statues of
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the
shrines. While the inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are decorated
with a series of large-scale scenes depicting episodes from Hindu sagas like the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern gallery walls there is a
representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu mythology, while the
eastern gallery houses one of the most celebrated friezes, the Churning of the
Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu showing 88 devas and 92 asuras.

The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of

Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals,
according to new research.

The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some
weighing up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from
quarries at the base of a nearby mountain. The researchers found many

26
quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor temples and also the
transportation route of the sandstone blocks. Archaeologist knew that the rock
came from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the
sandstone bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously people
thought the stones were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed
against the current through another river to the temples.

To see whether this was the case the area was surveyed to find 50 quarries
along an embankment at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also scoured satellite
images of the area and found a network of hundreds of canals and roads
linking the quarries to the temple site. The distance between the quarries and
the site along the route Uchida's team found was only 22 miles (37 kilometers),
compared with the 54 miles (90 km) the river route would have taken.
The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when
constructing the temple, which may explain how the imposing complex was
built in just a few decades.

 Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as

Isanapura, was the capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei
Kuk were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that include a
bulb.
 Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture
but examples are scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles.
Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in
standards.
 Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on
colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being
continued.
Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural
styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named
for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style.

 Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a

period of innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is
mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and
stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear.
 Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of
the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area
now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city
of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the
others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known

27
 for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their
lintels.
 Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain
constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the
state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura
around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most
endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists
eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor.
 Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital
of Khmer empire was removed from Angkor region through the north which
is called Koh Ker. The architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of
buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone
also used.
 Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian
Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their
common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
 Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian
temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its
small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including
several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian
mythology.
 Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries.
Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A
few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
 Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed
the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of
the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality
that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of some other periods. As
of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently be appreciated
in its full magnificence.
 Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and
perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the
Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the classical
style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay
Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in
modern Thailand.
 Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century,
King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an
invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program of
monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple
called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of
the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom,
and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated,

28
 the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the
perfection of Angkor Wat.
 Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic
construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the
period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known
for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas.

Construction techniques

Corridor

The monument was made out of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a
maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater
amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an
area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the
Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0.5 km (1⁄4 mi) away all
the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km
(25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount
Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast.
The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal
towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and
finally 15 kilometres (9 mi) against the current along Siem Reap River, making
a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi). However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita
Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2011 a
shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat
using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There
are kilometres of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including
unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following
an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate

29
hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost
1,000 m  (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls
2

indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were
highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers.
While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated
a stone sculpture under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60 days to
carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry
limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.
The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone
must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The
skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years
earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh
century, before the Khmer came to power
Materials; Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as
their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the
wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes.
Brick
The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are
the temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations
were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the
brick itself. This because bricks being softer material do not lend itself to
sculpting as opposed to stones of different kinds such as the Sandstones or the
Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the
Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks
are assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have
been used only in relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko.
Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones
(mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick
temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins
are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries
settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the
Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po
Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and
wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick
tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the contest
Sandstone
The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from
the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive
than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was
used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple

30
of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely
from Sandstone
Laterite
Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the
ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other
hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not
suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was
more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. [10] Because
the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in the
underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones),
because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple.

1. Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brick
2. Ta Keo, a temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less
entirely from sandstone
3. Prasat Prang Ku in Sisaket, Thailand, was built with laterite STRUCTURES

Central sanctuary

31
The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.

The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's

primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated:
typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or
a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a
statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple
was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but
rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to
hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its
importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising
above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater
decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru,
the legendary home of the Hindu gods.
Prang
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much
Khmer religious architecture. A prang (is a tall tower-like spire, usually richly
carved. They were a common shrine element
of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were later
adapted by Buddhist builders in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya
Kingdom (1350–1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932). In Thailand it
appears only with the most important Buddhist temples.
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in front')
and aṅga (limb of the body), with the contacting vowels united by sandhi.
Prang tower took form of a multi-tiered structure with receding size as it
ascends. The receding size of almost identical roof structures of the stepped
pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the tower is taller than it
actually is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of Indic shikhara of Hindu
temple, although slightly different in design. On each cardinal points,
a prang usually has richly adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or
blind doors. The prang took plan of multi corners rectangular, which on top of
each roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which mostly took theme of multi-
headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.

32
Khmer temples

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.RIGHT PIC Wat Arun Thornbury

Thailand PRANGS

Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of the Hindu gods,
such as Shiva and Vishnu. The space within the prang tower, the cella, was
relatively small for two reasons:

1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite (in the
capital of the Khmer only the god king could enter the shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls. (Ringis,
1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which was
called the Mandapa. Over the cubic cella rose the central tower, the bud-
shaped prang, modeled after the cosmic mountain Meru, crowned by a top
stone in form of a lotus bud.
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha
(temple towers) elements. The early 10th century and the late 12th century
prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects of the great temple
complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.

33
Thai temples

Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai style prang

The first prangs in Thailand were built in Phimai and Khao Phnom

Rung and Lopburi between the early 10th century and the late 12th century,
when the Khmer kingdom was dominant.
After the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of the Sukhothai
Kingdom adapted the Prang form. They extended and developed it. The
building material was no more separate small sandstone blocks, instead the
Thais built the Prang in brick or laterite covered with stucco. And the cella
could be reached only by stairs. An example for this is the Prang of the Wat
Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later developments of the Prang suggested the cella
only. The entrance door became a niche, in which was placed
the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had originally taken the central
position inside. For reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all four
sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul, the "weapon of Indra".
A "more modern" Prang is a slim construction, like an ear of corn, which lets its
Khmer origin be only suspected. The best example is Wat Arun, the landmark
of Bangkok. Also Wat Phra Kaeo has six thin Prangs arranged in a row.
Another example is the four Prangs arranged in all four directions around Wat
Pho in Bangkok, and the five Prangs in Wat Pichayart in Thonburi.
Enclosure
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the
central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain
ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures
are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the
temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre
outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently
lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located
at the cardinal points.

34
Gallery
A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.

A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the

axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the
gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways
which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple.
During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional
half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the
temple.
Gopura

A gopura leads into the 12th-century temple compound at Ta Prohm./Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end
of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure

walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of
an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway.
Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each
of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and
elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall.
If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is
sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have
a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often
decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on
either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century
temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah
Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building
elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by

35
galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the
stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved
designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall itself
may have been used for dancing.
House of Fire
House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found
only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century
monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A
House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing
windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire"
for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining
the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his
admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE Another
theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the
sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.

Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.

Library
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer
temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they
functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of
manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on
either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.
Srah and baray
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation
and embankment, respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these
reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East
Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry.

36
The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the West
Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at the center of
the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which
stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that
the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its
miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian
period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation
of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hinduism. The style was influenced
by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain
chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The
temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the
gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated
in 881 by King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped
pyramid, popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple
architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong and Borobudur in Java,
going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper
terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype
of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission,
between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to
Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of
Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker,
the Phimeanakas, and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.
According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler,
whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central
sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his
death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal
ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship."

37
Bas-relief
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into
stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a
background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-
relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases
almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-
relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history.
Until about the 11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative
bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous
early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple
of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from
the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls
with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is
covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of
them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at
the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the
medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman
VII.

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to

extinguish the fire created by Agni./ RIGHT The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-
relief at Angkor Wat.

38
This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is a  lintel,
above which is a tympanum with a scene from the  Mahabharata.
Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction,
typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain
symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls. RIGHT PIC This
scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats negotiating with Khmer
merchants at an Angkorean market.

The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous
Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs:

 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

o the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the
intervention of the human hero Rama on behalf of the latter
o the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
o the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which
sit Shiva and his shakti
o Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
o the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to
extinguish the flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th
century)
o the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or
monkeys
o the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of
Angkor Wat
o the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas
o the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
o the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
o a battle between devas and asuras
o a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
o the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana

39
 o the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late
12th century)
o battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops
o scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
o civil strife among the Khmer
o the legend of the Leper King
o the worship of Shiva
o groups of dancing apsaras
Colonette
Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the
beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they
were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled
with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves.

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom./Corbelled hallway at Ta

Prohm.

Corbelling
Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms,
passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding
layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive
layer projecting further towards the centre than the one supporting it from
below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally
weaker than the true arch. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian
engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with
stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were
no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings
constructed with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden roof. The problem
of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious
one for modern conservation.

40
Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two
vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the
Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed
their passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly
triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a
pediment.

Lintel and  pediment at  Banteay Srei; the motif on the

pediment is Shiva  Nataraja.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the

decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result,
the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to
the dating of temples. Some scholars have
endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel
styles.[28] The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of
the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.
Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and
the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation. [30] Also frequently depicted
are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the
identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the
direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with
East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the
ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.
List of Khmer lintel styles

 Sambor Prei Kuk style : Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies.

Four arches joined by three medallions, the central once carved with Indra.
Small figure on each makara. A variation is with figures replacing the
makaras and a scene with figures below the arch.
 Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras
disappear, being replaced by incurving ends and figures. Arches more
rectilinear. Large figures sometimes at each end. A variation is a central
scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining.
 Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a
garland of vegetation (like a wreath) more or less segmented. Medallions
disappear, central one sometimes replaced by a knot of leaves. Leafy
pendants spray out above and below garland.
 Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java,
including the kala and outward-facing makaras.
 Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich,
will-carved and imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either side.

41
 Distinct loops of vegetation curl down from garland. Outward-facing
makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu on Garuda common.

Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel.

 Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny

figures disappear. Loop of vegetation below the naga form tight circular
coils. Garland begins to dip in the center.
 Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up almost
the entire height of the lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of figures
shows a curved line to the sampot tucked in below waist.
 Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and
Bakheng. Central figures. Re-appearance of lower border.
 Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland
sometimes makes pronounced loop on either side with kala at top of each
loop. Central figure.
 Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala with
triangular tongue, its hands holding the garland which is bent at the center.
Kala sometimes surmounted by a divinity. Loops of garland on either side
divided by flora stalk and pendant. Vigorous treatment of vegetation.
 Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding
a steed or a Vishnu scene, typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of
garland no longer cut. Another type is a scene with many figures and little
vegetation.
 Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second
type is a narrative scene filled with figures. When nagas appear, they curls
are tight and prominent. Dress mirrors that of devatas and apsaras in bas-
reliefs. No empty spaces.
 Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom of
the lintel surmounted by small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the
middle of the period the garland is cut into four parts, while later a series of
whorls of foliage replace the four divisions. [32]

42
Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.

Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of

the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere
between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both
religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep stairway can
be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the
monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the
advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface
area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."
MOTIFS
Apsara and devata

Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple

the Bayon.///Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.

Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian
mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of
Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the Vishnu Purana. Other stories in the
Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by
the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and

43
ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and
pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was
a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term
"apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor
female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather
than dancing are more commonly called "devatas".
Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the
foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are
found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that
line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon, and in the famous
bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The
largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they
appear individually and in groups.

This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.

Dvarapala
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with
lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief
carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to
entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas
may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah
Khan and Banteay Kdei
Gajasimha and Reachisey
The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an
elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount
for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the
temples belonging to the Roluos group.

44
The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the
head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It
occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery.
Garuda

In this 9th century lintel now on display at the Musée Guimet, Garuda bears Vishnu on his
shoulders.

Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds,
the mythological enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of
Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration
exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer.[37] They may be classified as follows:

 As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed

of Vishnu or Krishna, bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously
fighting against the god's enemies. Numerous such images of Garuda may
be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat.
 Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas
relief at Angkor Wat that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized
mythological lions are the most common atlas figures at Angkor.
 Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in
the gigantic relief sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this
context, Garuda symbolizes the military power of the Khmer kings and their
victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city of Preah Khan was
built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over invaders
from Champa.
 In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and
balustrades, Garuda is often depicted in relief against the fan of nāga
heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga heads is ambiguous
in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may again be one of
domination of the nāga by Garuda.[

45
 THE MANY GODS of ANGKOR
Indra
In the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the
medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served
only as a decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East;
since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes
encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is
mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon,
the thunderbolt or vajra. The numerous adventures of Indra documented in
Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor.
Kala

A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple Banteay Srei.

The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and
associated with the destructive side of the god Siva.[38] In Khmer temple
architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels,
tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large
upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas
are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other
figures.
Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in
Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls
of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective
magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the
ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may

46
represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of
elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents.
Krishna
Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are
common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in
Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are
the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata Purana. The following are
some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna:

 A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid

called Baphuon depicts scenes of the birth and childhood of Krishna. [41]
 Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing
the nāga Kaliya. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly
stepping on and pushing down his opponent's multiple heads.
 Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts
Mount Govardhana with one hand in order to provide the cowherds with
shelter from the deluge caused by Indra.
 Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons,
including his evil uncle Kamsa. An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery
of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's battle with the asura Bana. In battle,
Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the traditional mount
of Vishnu.
 In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and
protector of Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known bas relief
from the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei depicts the Krishna and
Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest.
As described in the Bhagavata Purana, the
youthful Krishna miraculously raises Mount
Govardhan, near Mathura in northern India, to
protect the villagers and cowherds from a great
rainstorm sent by Indra. The sculptor of this
image, active in the Phnom Da workshops,
clearly understood the essence of his subject. It
is evident that this sculpture evolved from a long-
standing local tradition, which, by the seventh
century, had surpassed any Indian prototypes
that were remembered.

A twelfth-century Phnom Da inscription credits a

group of seven cult images to the patronage of
an early Funan ruler and lists a Krishna
Govardhana in the group. This sculpture is likely
one of those works.METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
ART

47
Linga

The corner of a lintel on one of the brick towers at Bakong shows a man riding on the back of
a makara that in turn disgorges another monster./// This segmented linga from 10th century Angkor
has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip.

The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative

power. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of
worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. In the Khmer
empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were
housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with
Siva. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally made of
polished stone.
The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.

 Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a yoni, symbolic of
the womb.
 On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas
are called mukhalingas.
 Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic
of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round
tip symbolic of Shiva.
Makara
A makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an
elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile,
or a dragon. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is generally
part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. Often the makara is

48
depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its
gaping maw. The makara is a central motif in the design of the famously
beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah Ko, Bakong, and Lolei.
At Banteay Srei, carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters may be
observed on many of the corners of the buildings.
Nāga

Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for
Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175
CE/ RIGHT This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century.

Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer

architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted
as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each
head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such

lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a
rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the
rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike vegetation
or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing crowns, and
others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders.
To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the
myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the
union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia. [47] Nāgas
were also characters in other well-known legends and stories depicted in
Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend of the Leper

49
King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and the story of Mucalinda,
the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements. [48]
Nāga Bridge

Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century

city of Angkor Thom.

Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped

as nāgas.
In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances
to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades are
supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors. These
giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in order to the
churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of immortality. The
story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra manthan has its source
in Indian mythology.
Quincunx

A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the riverbed
at Kbal Spean.

50
A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements
placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five
peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer
temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic identification
with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple
known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx.
The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in
the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.
Shiva
Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian
Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though they
also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic
representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous tympanum
from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort,
while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor
Wat and Bayon, Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include
the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the trident, and the rosary.
His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi.

The Australian archaeologist Damian Evans has discovered undocumented

ancient cities between 900 and 1,400 years ago buried in the Cambodian
jungle surrounding Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument in the world.
Some cities can reach the size of Cambodia's capital, Phnom Penh (about 678.5
square kilometers). The new finding may rewrite the history of Southeast Asia.

51
Angkor Wat, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Cambodia

The existence of Mahendraparvata (the 1,200-year-old lost medieval city in

Cambodia) was confirmed in 2012. In 2015, Damian Evans and his colleagues
utilized the advanced light-scanning equipment lidar to scan more than 735
square miles of the Angkor region. Recently, the entire ancient cities beneath
the jungle have been found by analyzing data captured in 2015. These cities
seemed to have constituted the Khmer Empire, the largest empire on earth in
the 12th century.

The new discovery can deepen our understanding of Khmer culture and cast
into doubt the traditional assumptions about the empire. In addition, the
survey detected elaborate water systems were constructed hundreds of years
earlier than historians previously believed. It appears that these ancient cities
will become the new secrets attracting tourists to visit and explore soon.

Although it remains unknown when the newly discovered ancient cities will be
opened to visitors, the Angkor Wat has already been extremely popular with
world travelers. The magnificent temple was built by King Suryavarman II and
considered among the most significant attractions in Southeast Asia widely. It
consists of three rectangular galleries surrounding a central tower, each level
higher than the last. Small apsara images are used as decorative motifs on
pillars and walls and larger devata images are employed in the entry pavilion of
the temple to the tops of the high towers.

52
 Devatas,
characteristic of the Angkor Wat style

If you have a plan to travel in Cambodia, contact Odyssey Tours to tailor-make

a private tour based on your interest and needs. We'll take you to experience
the best Cambodia!
https://www.indochinaodysseytours.com/news/new-secrets-around-angkor-wat-
discovered.html

New, digitally enhanced images reveal detailed murals at Angkor Wat showing

elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people riding horses — all
invisible to the naked eye. Many of the faded markings could be graffiti left
behind by pilgrims after Angkor Wat was abandoned in the 15th century. But
the more elaborate paintings may be relics of the earliest attempts to restore
the temple.

Painting discovery: Subtle traces of paint caught the eye of Noel Hidalgo Tan,
a rock-art researcher at Australian National University in Canberra, while he
was working on an excavation at Angkor Wat in 2010. While spotting traces of
red pigment all over the walls when one rfesearcher was taking a stroll through
the temple on his lunch break one day.he took a few pictures and planned to
digitally enhance them later. The digitally enhanced pictures revealed paintings
of elephants, lions, the Hindu monkey god Hanuman, boats and buildings —
perhaps even images of Angkor Wat itself. Tan went back to the site to conduct
a more methodical survey in 2012 with his Cambodian colleagues from
APSARA (which stands for the Authority for the Protection and Management of
Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap).

Invisible images- Some of the most detailed paintings, the ones located at the top of
the temple, are passed by literally thousands of visitors every day, but the most
elaborate scenes are effectively invisible to the naked eye. To make these paintings
visible, a technique called decorrelation stretch analysis, was used, which exaggerates

53
subtle color differences. This method has become a valuable tool in rock-art research, as
it can help distinguish faint images from the underlying rock. It has even been used to
enhance images taken of the Martian surface by NASA's Opportunity rover.

One chamber in the highest tier of Angkor Wat's central tower, known as the Bakan,
contains an elaborate scene of a traditional Khmer musical ensemble known as the
pinpeat, which is made up of different gongs, xylophones, wind instruments and other
percussion instruments. In the same chamber, there's an intricate scene featuring
people riding horses between two structures, which might be temples
Secret Paintings

Digitally enhanced images revealed hidden paintings on the walls of

Cambodia's Angkor Wat, one of the largest religious monuments in the world,
built between A.D. 1113 and 1150. The paintings, once invisible to the naked
eye, show elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people riding
horses, according to a new research article detailed online in May 2014 in the
journal Antiquity.
Angkor Wat-Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway and
the central tower surrounded by four smaller towers

54