MODULE 1

Data Transmission: Communication model Simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission - Periodic Analog signals:
Sine wave, phase, wavelength, time and frequency domain, bandwidth - Digital Signals; Digital data Transmission:-
Analog & Digital data, Analog & Digital signals, Analog &Digital transmission – Transmission Impairments:
Attenuation, Delay distortion, Noise - Channel capacity: Nyquist Bandwidth, Shannon's Capacity formula

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Data communication refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers.A
computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data.
The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable media or
wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium
such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A data communications system has five components.

The five components or elements of data communication are :

1. Message
It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text, pictures, audio, video
etc. Text is converted to binary, number doesn’t converted, image is converted to pixels, etc.

2. Sender
It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.

3. Receiver
 It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.

4. Transmission Medium
It is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples include twisted-
pair wire, coaxial cable, radio waves etc.

5. Protocol
It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.

A protocol performs the following functions:

1. Data sequencing
It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data sequencing rules define the
method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets, and to correctly identify packets, which
belong to same message.

2. Data routing
Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.

3. Data formatting
Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet constitute data, control,
addressing, or other information.

4. Flow control
A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver. It ensures
resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow of data on communication
lines.

5. Error control
These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission of correct messages. The
most common method is to retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a block having error is
discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.

6. Precedence and order of transmission

These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to use the communication lines and other resources of
the network based on the priorities assigned to them.

7. Connection establishment and termination

These rules define how connections are established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a
network want to communicate with each other.

***CHARACTERISTICS of data communication

Four fundamental characteristics for effective data communication are :

1.Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.

3.Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video and
audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
Data Representation

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of bit
patterns have been designed to represent text symbols.
Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers;
the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. It is continuous, not discrete.
Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,arranged to convey the idea of
motion.

***TRANSMISSION MODES / DATA FLOW / COMMUNICATION MODE

 Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as communication
mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between individual devices that are
interconnected. There are three types of transmission mode:-

● Simplex mode
● Half-Duplex mode
● Full-Duplex mode

Simplex

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices
on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can only
give the output.

Half-Duplex

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device
is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no
need for communication in both direction at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized
for each direction.It is like one-lane road with traffic allowed only in one side at a time.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both the directions.
Full-Duplex

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode, signals
going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in other direction,
this sharing can occur in two ways:
- Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and other for
receiving.
Or
- the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

When full duplex mode is used?

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time. The capacity of the
channel, however must be divided between the two directions.It is like two-way street where traffic flowing in
both directions at the same time.

Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone line,
through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

DATA and SIGNALS

Analog and Digital Data

 Data refers to information that conveys some meaning based on some mutually agreed up rules or
conventions between a sender and a receiver and today it comes in a variety of forms such as text, graphics,
audio, video and animation.

Data can be of two types; analog and digital.

Analog data take on continuous values on some interval. Typical examples of analog data are voice and
video. The data that are collected from the real world with the help of transducers are continuous-valued or
analog in nature.
Digital data take on discrete values.Text or character strings can be considered as examples of digital data.
Characters are represented by suitable codes, e.g. ASCII code, where each character is represented by a 7-bit
code.
For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous
form;the movements of the hands are continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and
the minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.

Analog and Digital Signals

It is electrical, electronic or optical representation of data, which can be sent over a communication
medium.
Stated in mathematical terms, a signal is merely a function of the data.
For example, a microphone converts voice data into voice signal, which can be sent over a pair of wire.
Signals can be Analog or Digital.

Analog Signals

Analog signals are continuous-valued.Here the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion.These signals
are continuous in both values and time. The use of analog signals has been declined with the arrival of digital
signals. In short, to understand the analog signals – all signals that are natural or comes naturally are analog
signals.
 Digital Signals

Unlike analog signals, digital signals are not continuous but signals are discrete in value and time. These
signals are represented by binary numbers (0&1)

Difference Between Analog Signal And Digital Signal

Analog Signals Digital Signals

1. Continuous signals 1. Discrete signals

2. Represented by sine waves 2. Represented by square waves

3. Human voice, natural sound, analog electronic 3. Computers, optical drives, and other electronic
devices are few examples devices

4. Continuous range of values 4. Discontinuous values

5. Records sound waves as they are 5. Converts into a binary waveform.

6. Suited for digital electronics like computers,

6. Only be used in analog devices.
mobiles and more.
  In a communications system, data are propagated from one point to another by means of
electromagnetic signals.
 An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a
variety of media, depending on spectrum; examples are wire media, such as twisted pair and coaxial
cable; fiber optic cable; and unguided media, such as atmosphere or space propagation
 A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire medium; for
example, a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 0 and a constant negative voltage level
may represent binary 1.
 The advantages of digital signaling are that it is generally cheaper than analog signaling and is less
susceptible to noise interference.
 The disadvantage is that digital signals suffer more from attenuation than do analog signals.

Periodic and Non Periodic Signals

A signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of time is called periodic signal.
A signal which does not repeat itself after a specific interval of time is called aperiodic or non periodic signal.
Continuous time signals are said to be periodic.Get over in limited time called aperiodic or non periodic...
Both the Analog and Digital can be periodic or aperiodic. but in data communication periodic analog
sigals and aperiodic digital signals are used.
 Fig.Periodic signals

Fig.Non Periodic Signal

Fig: Analog and digital signaling of analog and digital data

PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine
wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple
sine waves.
 (a) Sine Wave

A sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.

A Sine wave can be represented by three parameters:

1.Peak Amplitude
2.Frequency
3.Phase

1. PEAK AMPLITUDE

The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity, proportional to the energy it
carries.It is normally measured in VOLTS.

Fig.Two signals with same phase and frequency but different amplitudes.
2. PERIOD and FREQUENCY

Period refers to the amount of time , in seconds , a signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of period in 1sec. Formally expressed in Hertz(Hz), which is cycle per sec.
Period refers to the amount of time , in seconds , a signal needs to complete 1 cycle. Period is the inverse of
frequency and vice-versa.

NOTE :
Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.If the value of signal change in a short span of time means
high frequency and if it change in low span of time means low frequency.If the signal does not change at
all,the frequency is zero and if it change instantaneously,its frequency is infinite.

8 periods in 1s ---->Frequency is 8Hz 3 periods in 1s ---->Frequency is 3Hz

Period is 1/8s Period is 1/3s

Units of period and frequency

3.PHASE

Phase describe the position of the waveform relative to time 0.Wave as something that can be shifted
backward or forward along with time axis, phase describe the amount of that shift. Measured in degrees or
radian.
 It indicates the status of the first cycle.
 Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360° is 2n rad; 1° is 2n/360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2n)].
 A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a
shift of one-half of a period; and a phase shift of 90° corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period.
Another way to look at the phase is in terms of shift or offset.
1. A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
2. A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by ¼ cycle(ie,1/4*360=90degree phae)
However, note that the signal does not really exist before time O.
3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to the left by ½ cycle. However, note that the signal
does not really exist before time O.

Example: A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and radians?
Solution: We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

1/6 x 360 = 60 = 60 x (2π/360)rad =π/3 rad =1.046 rad

(b) WAVELENGTH

It is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a
simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium.
Wavelength isusaully measured in micrometers(micro) instead of meters.
 Fig. Wavelengh and period

Difference between frequency & wavelength:

While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength depends on both the frequency
and the medium.
In data communications, we often use wavelength to describe the transmission of light in an optical fiber. The
wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period. Wavelength can be calculated if the
propagation speed (the speed of light) and the period of the signal is given. However, since period and
frequency are related to each other, if we represent wavelength by propagation speed by c (speed of light), and
frequency by 1, we get
wavelength = (propogation speed) x period = propogation speed
frequency

ƛ=c/f

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

Time domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time( amplitude versus time
plot).Phase is not explicitly shown in a time-domain plot.
Frequency domain plot is concerned with only the peak value amplitude and the frequency.Changes of
amplitude is not shown here.
NOTE:
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in the frequency domain

Example : Time and frequency domain of two sine waves is shown below.

(c) Composite Signal

Composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,

amplitudes and phases. It can be periodic or non-periodic.
A periodic composite signal can be decompressed into a series of simple sine waves with discrete
frequencies, that have integer values(1,2,3, and so on)
A non-periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a combination of an infinite number of
simple sine waves with continuous frequencies, that have real values.

Fig. A composite periodic signal

  The frequency of the sine wave with frequency f is the same as the frequency of the composite signal; it
is called the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic.
 The sine wave with frequency 3f has a frequency of 3 times the fundamental frequency; it is called the
third harmonic.
 The third sine wave with frequency 9fhas a frequency of 9 times the fundamental frequency; it is called
the ninth harmonic.
 The frequency decomposition of the signal is discrete; it has frequencies f, 3f, and 9f, because f is an
integral number, 3f and 9f are also integral numbers. There are no frequencies such as 1.2f or 2.6f .

Fig: Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and frequency domains
 A nonperiodic composite signal can be created by a microphone or a telephone set when a word or two
is pronounced. In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic.

(d) Bandwidth

The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. It is normally a difference
between two numbers.
Example:
 If a composite signal contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000-1000=4000
 The Bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
Fig.Bandwidth of a periodic and non periodic composite signals
DIGITAL SIGNALS

In addition to being represented by an analog signal,information can also be represented by a digital

signal.For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have
more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

Fig.Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels

Example - A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?

We calculate the number of bits from the formula

Number of bits per level = log2 8 = 3
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
Example - A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?
log2 9 = 3.17

We calculate the number of bits by using the formula. Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However,
this answer is not realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For
this example, 4 bits can represent one level.

(a)Bit Rate

Bit Rate (Instead of frequency) – The number of bit sent in 1s, expressed in bits per seconds (bps)

Most digital signals are periodic, so instead of period and frequency,bit rate is used.
Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

(b)Baud rate is the number of signal units per second. Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.

Example 1:
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000 signal units are sent per second, find the baud
rate and the bit rate
Solution:
Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps

Example 2:
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6 bits, what is the baud rate?
Solution:
Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

Example 3 - Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?

Solution - A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that one character
requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
100 x 24 x 80 x 8 =1,5,36,000 bps =1.536 Mbps

Example 4 - A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We need
to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each sample
requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?

Solution - The bit rate can be calculated as

2 x 4000 x 8 =64,000 bps =64 kbps

Example - What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solution - HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video signals. The HDTV Screen is normally a
ratio of 16 : 9 (in contrast to 4 : 3 for regular TV), which means the screen is wider.
There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times per second. 24 bits represents one
color pixel. We can calculate the bit rate as
1920 x 1080 x 30 x 24 = 1,492,992,000 or 1.5 Gbps
The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps through compression.

(c)Bit Length

The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

Bit length = propagation speed * bit duration

ANALOG and DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals without regard to their content; the signals may
represent analog data (e.g., voice) or digital data (e.g., binary data that pass through a modem). In either case,
the analog signal will become weaker (attenuate) after a certain distance. To achieve longer distances, the
analog transmission system includes amplifiers that boost the energy in the signal. Unfortunately, the amplifier
also boosts the noise components. With amplifiers cascaded to achieve long distances, the signal becomes more
and more distorted.
Digital transmission, in contrast, assumes a binary content to the signal. A digital signal can be transmitted
only a limited distance before attenuation, noise, and other impairments endanger the integrity of the data. To
achieve greater distances, repeaters are used. A repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of 1s
and 0s, and retransmits a new signal. Thus the attenuation is overcome

(c) ***Transmission of digital signals / how the digital signals are transmitted?

There are two different approaches for the transmission of digital signals:

1) Baseband transmission and

2) Broadband transmission.

1. Baseband transmission

Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing the digital signal to an
analog signal.
 Fig.Baseband Transmission

Baseband transmission requires low pass channel for transmission. A low pass channel is a channel whose
bandwidth starts from zero.
A low-pass channel has an upper limit to the frequencies that it will pass, while a band-pass channel has both an upper limit
and a lower limit to the frequencies that it will pass. 

It is a signaling technology that sends digital signals over a single frequency as discrete electrical pulses.
The entire bandwidth of a baseband system carries only one data signal and is generally less than the
amount of bandwidth available on a broadband transmission system.

The baseband signal is bidirectional so that a baseband system can both transmit and receive signals
simultaneously.
Baseband signals can be regenerated using repeaters in order to travel longer distances before weakening
and becoming unusable because of attenuation.

Baseband transmission technologies do not use modulation, but they can use time-division multiplexing
(TDM) to accommodate multiple channels(signals)over a single baseband transmission line.

Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the shape of the digital signal is possible only if we
have a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth.

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;if we need to send bits
faster, we need more bandwidth

Eg.Comm
on local
area
network (LAN) networking technologies such as Ethernet use baseband transmission technology. All stations
on a baseband network share the same transmission medium, and they use the entire bandwidth of that medium
for transmission. As a result, only one device on a baseband network can transmit at a given instant, resulting in
the need for a media access control method to handle contention.

2. Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)

Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog signal for
transmission.
Modulation allows to use a bandpass channel - a channel with bandwidth that does not start from zero.

// A low-pass channel has an upper limit to the frequencies that it will pass, while a band-pass channel has
both an upper limit and a lower limit to the frequencies that it will pass. 

Broadband Transmission is a signaling technology that sends signals simultaneously over a range of different
frequencies as electromagnetic waves.

The bandwidth of a broadband system can usually carry multiple, simultaneous data signals.
These signals are unidirectional - traveling in only one direction at a time - so a broadband system can
generally either transmit or receive but cannot do both simultaneously. Broadband signals can be regenerated
using amplifiers in order to travel longer distances before becoming attenuated.

Working:
Broadband transmissions are divided into multiple bands or channels by multiplexers using a multiplexing
scheme such as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). Each channel has a carrier frequency that is
modulated to carry the signal from a given source. At the receiving station, multiplexers separate the various
signals. Guard bands are used to prevent interference among channels.

Eg.Broadband transmission is typically used for environments in which video, audio, and data need to be
transmitted simultaneously. Cable television systems are based on broadband transmission technologies. Other
examples of broadband services include T-carrier services, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), and variants
of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL).
Key differences between baseband and broadband transmissions

Baseband transmission Broadband transmission

Transmit digital signals Transmit analog signals
To boost signal strength, use repeaters To boost signal strength, use amplifiers
Can transmit only a single data stream at a time Can transmit multiple signal waves at a time
Support bidirectional communication simultaneously Support unidirectional communication only
Support TDM based multiplexing Support FDM based multiplexing
Use coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic cables Use radio waves, coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables
Mainly used in Ethernet LAN networks Mainly used in cable and telephone networks

Reasons for preferring digital transmission method:

1. Digital technology: The advent of large-scale integration (LSI) and very-largescale integration (VLSI)
technology has caused a continuing drop in the cost and size of digital circuitry. Analog equipment has
not shown a similar drop.
2. Data integrity: With the use of repeaters rather than amplifiers, the effects of noise and other signal
impairments are not cumulative. Thus it is possible to transmit data longer distances and over lower
quality lines by digital means while maintaining the integrity of the data.
3. Capacity utilization: It has become economical to build transmission links of very high bandwidth,
including satellite channels and optical fiber. A high degree of multiplexing is needed to utilize such
capacity effectively, and this is more easily and cheaply achieved with digital (time division) rather than
analog (frequency division) techniques.
4. Security and privacy: Encryption techniques can be readily applied to digital data and to analog data
that have been digitized.
5. Integration: By treating both analog and digital data digitally, all signals have the same form and can
be treated similarly. Thus economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating voice,
video, and digital data.

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment.
This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is received.

Three causes of impairment are :

1. Attenuation
2. Delay Distortion
3. Noise

1.Attenuation

The strength of a signal decrease with the increase in distance travelled over a medium. Attenuation means loss
of energy. When any signal travels over a medium or channel, it loses some of its energy in the form of heat in
the resistance of the medium.To compensate for this loss,amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
 For guided media, this reduction in strength, or attenuation, is generally exponential and thus is
typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance.
 For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance and the makeup of the
atmosphere.
 Beyond a certain distance, the attenuation becomes unacceptably great, and repeaters or amplifiers are
used to boost the signal at regular intervals.
 Because the attenuation varies as a function of frequency, the received signal is distorted, reducing
intelligibility.
 To overcome this problem, techniques are available for equalizing attenuation across a band of
frequencies.

Measurement of attenuation

To show the loss or gain of energy the unit “decibel” (dB) is used.
Variables PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively

P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal
NOTE :
The decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified.

2.Delay Distortion

Meaning of distortion is change in shape of the signal. This type of distortion is observed for the composite
signals made by different frequencies. If the medium is not perfect, then all the frequency components present
at the input will not only be equally attenuated and will not be proportionally delayed.
 Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times, resulting in phase
shifts between the different frequencies.
 This effect is referred to as delay distortion because the received signal is distorted due to varying
delays experienced at its constituent frequencies.
 Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data.
 Consider that a sequence of bits is being transmitted, using either analog or digital signals.
 Because of delay distortion, some of the signal components of one bit position will spill over into other
bit positions, causing intersymbol interference, which is a major limitation to maximum bit rate over a
transmission channel.
 Equalizing can also be used for delay distortion.
Equalization is the reversal of distortion incurred by a signal transmitted through a channel.
Equalization or equalisation is the process of adjusting the balance between frequency components within an
electronic signal. 

3.Noise
 When the data travels over a transmission medium, noise gets added to it. Noise is a major limiting factor
in communication system performance. Noise can be categorized into four types as follows:

(i) Thermal noise (ii) Induced noise (iii) Crosstalk (iv) Impulse noise

(i) Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire creates an extra signal. It is present in all electronic
devices and transmission media and is a function of temperature. Thermal noise is uniformly
distributed across the bandwidths typically used in communications systems and hence is often
referred to as white noise. Thermal noise cannot be eliminated.

Amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or conductor is:
N0=kT(W/Hz)
N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 x 10-23 J/K
T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)

Noiseis assumed to be independent of frequency

Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz (in watts):

N0=kBT(W/Hz)
(ii) Induced/ Intermodulation noise - When signals at different frequencies share the same
transmission medium, the result may be intermodulation noise. The effect of intermodulation noise
is to produce signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of the two original frequencies or
multiples of those frequencies. For example, the mixing of signals at frequencies f1 and f2 might
produce energy at the frequency f1+f2. This derived signal could interfere with an intended signal at
the frequency f1+f2.

(iii) Crosstalk - same as above but between two wires. Crosstalk has been experienced by anyone who,
while using the telephone, has been able to hear another conversation; it is an unwanted coupling
between signal paths. It can occur by electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs or, rarely,
coax cable lines carrying multiple signals. Crosstalk can also occur when microwave antennas pick
up unwanted signals; although highly directional antennas are used, microwave energy does spread
during propagation.
(iv) Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines, lighning, etc. - Impulse noise, however, is
noncontinuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and of relatively high
 amplitude. It is generated from a variety of causes, including external electromagnetic disturbances,
such as lightning, and faults and flaws in the communications system.

***Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) / what is SNR?

To measure the quality of a system the SNR is often used. It indicates the strength of the signal with respect
to the noise power in the system. It is the ratio between two powers.It is usually given in dB and referred to as
SNRdB.

Fig.Two cases of SNR : a high SNR and A low SNR

Example: Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one-half.
This means that P2 = ½ P 1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

10 log10 (p2/p1) = 10 log10 (0.5p1)/p1

= 10 log10 (0.5)
=10 (-0.3)
= -3db
A loss of 3 dB (-3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

Example:
CHANNEL CAPACITY

The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given
conditions, is referred to as the channel capacity.
There are four concepts :

 Data rate: The rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can be communicated.
 Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the transmitter and the nature of
the transmission medium, expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz.
 Noise: The average level of noise over the communications path.
 Error rate: The rate at which errors occur, where an error is the reception of a 1 when a 0 was
transmitted or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.
 DATA RATE LIMIT

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate data rate.

1. Nyquist bandwidth for noiseless channel
2. Shannon’s Capacity Formula for noisy channel

1.Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit rate

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate

BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x 1og2 L

In this formula,
bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,
L is the number of signal levels used to represent data
BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of the system.

According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any bit rate we want by
increasing the number of signal levels.

Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the number of signal
levels, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily
distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to
distinguish between 64 different levels. In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability
of the system.
2.Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude Shannon
introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy
channel:
Capacity =bandwidth x log2 (1 +SNR)

In this formula,

bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel

SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio
capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.

The SNR is the statistical ratio of the power of the signal to the power of the noise.
SNRdB = 10 log10 signal power
noise power

In conclusion, we can say for channel capacity that the Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit while the
Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.