Icuch 2020 B2

HERITAGE AT RISK
SPECIAL EDITION
HERITAGE UNDER WATER

AT RISK
THREATS – CHALLENGES – SOLUTIONS
HERITAGE AT RISK
SPECIAL EDITION
HERITAGE UNDER WATER

AT RISK
~
LE PATRIMOINE SOUS L‘EAU
EN PERIL
MENACES – DÉFIS – SOLUTIONS
~
PATRIMONIO BAJO EL AGUA
EN PELIGRO
AMENAZAS – DESAFÍOS – SOLUCIONES
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EDITED BY
ALBERT HAFNER – HAKAN ÖNIZ – LUCY SEMAAN – CHRISTOPHER J. UNDERWOOD
PUBLISHED BY
THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON MONUMENTS AND SITES (ICOMOS)
INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE ON THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE

(ICUCH)
4 Impressum
IMPRESSUM
Heritage Under Water at Risk: Challenges, Threats and Solutions

Edited by Albert Hafner – Hakan Öniz – Lucy Semaan – Christopher J. Underwood
Published by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
International Committee on the Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH)
President: Mr Toshiyuki Kono (Japan)

Secretary General: Mr Peter Phillips (Australia) international council on monuments and sites
Treasurer General: Ms Laura Robinson (South Africa)
Vice Presidents: Mr Leonardo Castriota (Brazil)
Mr Alpha Diop (Mali)
Mr Rohit Jigyasu (India)
Mr Grellan Rourke (Ireland)
Mr Mario Santana Quintero (Canada)
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)

Office: 11 Rue du Séminaire de Conflans, 94220 Charenton-le-Pont, Paris, France
Editorial support, layout and design Amelie Alterauge, Susanna Kaufmann and Andrea Bieri,
Institute of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland.
The production of this publication was substantially supported by the University of Bern.
© November 2020 ICOMOS

ISBN 978-2-918086-37-6
eISBN 978-2-918086-38-3
Front Cover: A cargo of roof tiles from a shipwreck from Catal Island/Kalkan in Antalya, Turkey. © Hakan Öniz.
Inside Front Cover: Platform for diving and drilling cores at Plocha Michov Grad, Lake Ohrid, North Macedonia. © Marco Hostettler,
EXPLO, University of Bern.
Inside Back Cover: An amphora from the Three Islands of Kemer-Antalya, Turkey. © Ufuk Dönmez, 19th International
Kemer Underwater Days.
Photo credits: Many photos-credits can be found in the captions. Most other pictures were provided by the various authors or individual
members of ICOMOS.
Authors are solely responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in signed articles and for the opinions expressed
therein, which are not necessarily those of ICOMOS or ICUCH and do not commit the organization.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this edition of Heritage at Risk do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of ICOMOS concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Foreword – Avant-Propos – Preámbulo 5
FOREWORD – AVANT-PROPOS – PREÁMBULO
Toshiyuki Kono, President ICOMOS
One of my favorite themes in the field of international Comparé à d‘autres types de patrimoine culturel, le patrimoi-
heritage law is the protection of underwater cultural herita- ne culturel subaquatique souffre d‘un manque de reconnais-
ge. At least three different areas of law, i.e. the salvage law, sance au-delà du domaine des experts, car il est par défini-
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and tion moins visible, conséquence directe aussi du principe de
the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwa- protection in situ. C‘est pourquoi il relève de la responsabilité
ter Cultural Heritage are related to this area. One can trace sociale et professionnelle d‘ICOMOS de contribuer à faire
an important part of the history of the relationship between prendre conscience de l‘importance du patrimoine culturel
human activities and the sea through the lens of norms and subaquatique et de sa protection. Je tiens donc à remercier
regulations. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of l‘ICUCH d‘avoir pris l‘initiative de publier cette édition spécia-
the Underwater Cultural Heritage would not have been adop- le. J‘espère qu‘elle sera largement diffusée parmi les experts,
ted without the scientific advice from underwater archaeology la communauté professionnelle au sens large et le public, et
experts. I am therefore particularly proud of the fact that ICO- qu‘elle contribuera à une meilleure promotion et une meilleu-
MOS experts played a crucial role in providing UNESCO with re protection du patrimoine culturel subaquatique.
the scientific foundation for the Convention.
~
Compared to other types of cultural heritage, underwater cul-
tural heritage suffers from a lack of recognition beyond the Uno de mis temas favoritos en el campo del derecho inter-
expert field, as it is by definition less visible, also stemming nacional del patrimonio es la protección del patrimonio cultu-
from the principle of in situ protection. Therefore, it is ICO- ral subacuático. Al menos tres áreas diferentes del derecho,
MOS’s social and professional responsibility to raise awaren- es decir, el derecho de salvamento, la Convención de las Na-
ess of the importance of underwater cultural heritage and its ciones Unidas sobre el Derecho del Mar y la Convención de
protection. Hence, I would like to thank ICUCH for taking the la UNESCO sobre la Protección del Patrimonio Cultural Sub-
initiative to publish this special edition. I hope that it will be acuático están relacionadas con esta área. Se puede rastrear
widely shared among experts, the wider professional commu- una parte importante de la historia de la relación entre las
nity and the public, and that it will contribute to the increased actividades humanas y el mar a través de la lente de las nor-
promotion and protection of underwater cultural heritage. mas y reglamentos. La Convención de la UNESCO sobre la
Protección del Patrimonio Cultural Subacuático no se habría
~
adoptado sin el asesoramiento científico de los expertos en
L‘un de mes thèmes favoris dans le domaine du droit arqueología subacuática. Por lo tanto, estoy particularmente
international du patrimoine est la protection du patrimoine orgulloso del hecho de que expertos del ICOMOS desempe-
culturel subaquatique. Ce thème réunit au moins trois do- ñaron un papel crucial al proporcionar a la UNESCO la base
maines juridiques différents, à savoir le droit en matière de científica de la Convención.
sauvetage, la Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de En comparación con otros tipos de patrimonio cultural, el pa-
la mer et la Convention de l‘UNESCO sur la protection du trimonio cultural subacuático adolece de una falta de recono-
patrimoine culturel subaquatique. Nous pouvons retracer une cimiento más allá del ámbito de los expertos, ya que por defi-
partie importante de l‘histoire des relations entre les activités nición es menos visible, lo que también se deriva del principio
humaines et la mer à travers le prisme des normes et des ré- de protección in situ. Por lo tanto, es responsabilidad social y
glementations. La Convention de l‘UNESCO sur la protection profesional del ICOMOS generar conciencia sobre la import-
du patrimoine culturel subaquatique n‘aurait pas été adoptée ancia del patrimonio cultural subacuático y su protección. Por
sans l‘avis scientifique des experts en archéologie sous-ma- lo tanto, me gustaría agradecer a ICUCH por tomar la iniciati-
rine. Je suis donc particulièrement fier du rôle crucial qu’ont va de publicar esta edición especial. Espero que sea amplia-
joué les experts d’ICOMOS en fournissant à l‘UNESCO les mente compartida entre los expertos, la comunidad profesio-
bases scientifiques de la Convention. nal más amplia y el público, y que contribuya a una mayor
promoción y protección del patrimonio cultural subacuático.
6 ICUCH
ICUCH
The International Committee on the Underwater Cultural Her- Among its activities are to promote sound ethical manage-
itage (ICUCH) is one of ICOMOS’ (International Council on ment of underwater cultural heritage where in situ preserva-
Monuments and Sites) International Scientific Committees. It tion is the first option; support scientific research, including
was founded in 1991 to promote international cooperation in both disturbance and non-disturbance activities; encourage
the protection and management of underwater cultural her- public presentation of underwater cultural heritage and public
itage and to advise ICOMOS on issues related to underwater participation in underwater cultural heritage; raise the profile
cultural heritage around the world. and increase public awareness of the existence and value
of the world’s underwater cultural heritage; promote ethical
The committee is composed of international experts, mem- activities on and with underwater cultural heritage through fa-
bers of ICOMOS, in underwater cultural heritage. It currently cilitating development of national and regional cooperation,
has more than 60 members representing 47 countries, span- programs and legislation; encourage an inclusive approach
ning the five geographical regions as defined by UNESCO: Af- to underwater cultural heritage; support, initiate and/or assist
rica, the Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and North in education and capacity-building initiatives in respect of the
America, and Latin America and the Caribbean. ICUCH’s first management, research, protection, conservation and disse-
mandate led to the creation of the Charter on the Protection mination of underwater cultural heritage and provide informa-
and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage, adopted tion for governments, the general public and political organi-
by ICOMOS in 1996, which formed the basis of the Rules in zations about the protection and preservation of underwater
the Annex of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of cultural heritage.
Cultural Heritage (Paris 2001).
The authors wish to dedicate this book to past and present ICUCH members
and especially to Pilar Luna Erreguerena and Thijs Maarleveld,
who are sadly no longer with us.
The dedication is for their outstanding contributions to promoting the better
protection of the world’s underwater cultural heritage.
Preface 7
INTRODUCTION TO HERITAGE UNDER WATER AT RISK: THREATS,

CHALLENGES, AND SOLUTIONS
Christopher J. Underwood, President ICUCH
In his introduction to Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: ge and quality of the peer reviewed articles published in The
Managing Natural and Human Impacts, published in 2006, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and the Journal
Robert Grenier then president of the International Committee of Maritime Archaeology. Underwater cultural heritage is also
on the Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH) reflected on represented in heritage management and other thematic aca-
the ‘very tough four-year battle’ during the extensive and in- demic journals, further evidence that research applied to un-
tense drafting process between 1998 and 2001 at UNESCO. derwater heritage is of a sustainably high academic standard.
The result was the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of
the Underwater Cultural Heritage, adopted on 2nd November There has been a development of field techniques which
2001. It was a watershed. Combined with the ICOMOS Char- are allowing more sites to be preserved in situ rather than
ter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultu- being left unprotected and subject to unauthorised human
ral Heritage (Sofia 1996) — that had formed the foundation interventions or environmental forces. The application of so-
of the Convention’s Rules — there was a recognised interna- phisticated remote sensing equipment has become routine
tional legal framework of standards and practices that would practice producing ever higher resolution imagery of the sea-
help improve the protection and management of underwater bed and sub-seabed in 2D and 3D. In recent years, there
cultural heritage, worldwide. At the time of publishing Under- has been a dramatic increase in the use of photogrammetry
water Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Hu- software to produce accurate and stunning 3D representati-
man Impacts, eleven states had ratified the 2001 UNESCO ons of complex underwater sites. This is not only assisting
Convention. archaeologists to interpret sites but also helping to present
them to the public in innovative and interactive ways. The po-
Grenier went on to mention the significant challenges in pre- pularity of cultural heritage in the media is high, which shows
serving and protecting underwater cultural heritage other public awareness and interest, above and below water. The
than encouraging states to ratify and implement the embryo- aforementioned factors have gone some way to illustrate the
nic convention. He noted that clear differences remained with broad range of science involved in the search for underwa-
some stakeholders about the utilisation and relative import- ter cultural heritage sites and subsequent research. What is
ance of underwater cultural heritage, noting other problems. not so clear is whether the public is aware of the challenges
He saw a continuing need to dispel stereotypic impressions and problems in sustaining underwater cultural heritage in the
that it was impossible to undertake science under water and face of traditional and additional new threats.
change the public perception of underwater cultural heritage
away from the comic book characterisations and romantici- A further development has seen an expansion of citizen sci-
sing often seen in the media. ence programmes, They offer recreational divers, coastal wal-
kers, and other members of the public training in the requisite
Since 2006, there has been progress. Having fulfilled the cus- skills to enable their effective participation in domestic and
tomary requirement of twenty ratifications, the 2001 UNESCO international cultural heritage projects, the latter illustrated in
Convention entered into force, 2nd January 2009, and at the this volume. These citizen scientists are often working in sup-
time of this publication now stands at sixty-six states with ot- port of heritage bodies including some of UNESCO’s accre-
hers actively working towards ratification. As a consequen- dited non-governmental organisations (NGOs) accomplishing
ce, more countries have domestic legislation protecting their tasks ranging from surveying, monitoring, researching, and in
underwater cultural heritage. There has also been a growth some cases excavating sites.
in professional capacity, evidenced by the increasing num-
bers of universities in UNESCO’s UniTwin network, supple- Looking to the future, there are growing concerns and chal-
mented by vocational training programmes, workshops, and lenges relating to Climate Change. Consequences such as
other events, many involving ICUCH members. The strong rising sea-levels will exacerbate tidal ranges and increase as-
academic base of the discipline is also reflected in the ran- sociated current strengths; the impact of ocean acidification
8 Preface
and ocean warming cannot be underestimated and should not The cultural heritage community must recognise the challen-
be ignored. The combined impacts are a significant existential ges including understanding and adapting to an eco-system
threat to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage, par- management approach, which will require, in relevant cir-
ticularly in coastal or shallow water environs. More science cumstances, a closer working relationship with other marine
is required to fully understand the impacts and remediation. sciences.
Another significant indirect threat is the Covid-19 pandemic.
At the beginning of 2020 it was unthinkable to conceive that it In this volume there are 29 authors contributing 30 articles
would be necessary to consider such an impact on heritage. representing 23 countries from Asia and the Pacific, Arab
In some respects, it is too early to do much more than spe- States, Europe and North America, and Latin America and the
culate as to the full range of consequences. It is, however, Caribbean. With such geographical diversity there is inevita-
feasible to say that in the short-term, international co-ope- bly a wide range of themes and scope of archaeological sites
rative projects will be delayed or even cancelled due to travel located in, rivers, lakes, cenotes, as well as coastal and off-
or quarantine restrictions, and that there is likely to be a redi- shore marine environments. The articles cover all of the the-
rection of government resources to what are considered more mes and topics mentioned above in more detail and related to
important aspects of economies. This would see a reduction specific sites. This book is divided into five sections: legal and
in public spending on heritage and cuts to grant programmes. policy frameworks, challenges and solutions, preservation in
It is already known that the sustainability of some museums situ, public engagement, and capacity building, noting that
and NGOs is at risk, putting more pressure on private finance some papers span more than one theme. The focus is aimed
and philanthropy to fill funding gaps. at presenting examples of where heritage is at risk, but also
where applicable, presenting sustainable solutions.
On a more positive theme, there are new opportunities for
the development of the discipline, not least is the United Nati- For readers with an interest in the discipline’s fundamental
ons Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development principles a first-hand account describes the challenges in
2021–2030. The Decade is directly related to Sustainable establishing whether a wreck could be received as a gift even
Development Goal 14 Life Below Water, one of seventeen though it was already within its own territorial waters, prior to
sustainable development goals. The United Nation’s Intergo- initiating a multi-national partnership project. The story emp-
vernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) is managing hasises the importance of embracing the concept of ‘shared
and promoting the Decade. The key aim is to develop a sus- heritage’ where irrespective of the legalities underwater cultu-
tainable ocean environment with the tag ‘the science we need ral heritage brings together nations to cooperate in the inves-
for the ocean we want’. ICUCH has been increasingly aware tigation of sites with interwoven histories. Other chapters out-
of the UN’s SDGs, the Decade, and the realisation that the line the development of national and international legal and
underwater cultural heritage community can and must play policy frameworks, including how one geographic region’s
an important role in making the Decade a success. In 2019, heritage managers and archaeologists remain sceptical ab-
a coordinated cross-discipline campaign ensured that under- out the application of the 2001 UNESCO Convention, which
water cultural heritage is fully integrated into the Decade. A must be a concern.
fundamental step towards this goal came through interaction
with the natural marine science community — First Global Although not mentioned above there has been a disturbing
Planning Meeting for the Decade National Museum of Den- increase in commercial salvage, not for the antiquities con-
mark Copenhagen, May 2019 — and with UNESCO’s Inter- tained within a shipwreck, but for the economic value of pre-
governmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC). ICUCH nuclear steel, from which thousands of vessels were built
was well represented among a group of archaeologists who prior to 1945. The focus of the salvage are warships sunk in
successfully lobbied for greater representation of cultural the Far East during the Second World War and considered
heritage in the Decade’s planning and consciousness. This the last resting place of their crews. Industrial-scale salva-
success is recognised within the Decade’s Implementation ge activity has led to entire shipwrecks literally disappearing,
Plan which mentions the need for interaction with the 2001 leaving only scars on the seabed. This raises issues of so-
UNESCO Convention and the importance of the social and vereignty and the ethics of disturbing ‘war graves’. Another
cultural aspects of humanity’s connection with the ocean. As global trend is the increasing urbanisation of coastal zones.
many will recognise heritage organisations and archaeolo- The resultant pressure to expand coastal industries and living
gists have been doing this for years. Using this experience spaces is leading to numerous threats, including land recla-
will be of significant benefit in increasing the public’s ocean mation and infilling which could destroy, as yet, undiscovered
literacy throughout the Decade. and unrecorded cultural heritage.
Preface 9
The following section discusses in situ preservation which is The articles in Heritage Underwater at Risk: Threats, Chal-
recognised as one of the fundamental principles of the 2001 lenges, and Solutions outline the strategic process of custo-
UNESCO Convention. Over recent years more cultural her- mising regional capacity building requirements, the evolution
itage sites are being actively preserved and monitored in situ and utilisation of the foundation course, and the particular
rather than leaving them at the mercy of the natural environ- needs of a nation with limited cultural heritage resources.
ment. The papers in this section focus both on the underlying
philosophy and case studies featuring shipwrecks and lake This compendium of papers reveals that the members of
dwellings. ICUCH encompass a very broad scope of themes and inter-
ests within underwater and coastal cultural heritage. They
By contrast, some shipwrecks have been excavated and re- range from research, university teaching, archaeological in-
covered in their entirety, and are now on public display. One vestigation, in situ preservation, archaeological conservation,
such example takes the reader on a journey from the initial public engagement, legal advocacy, and heritage manage-
search for the wreck site in the mid-1960s to a museum hou- ment. Such diversity within ICUCH underlines the strength of
sing the ship’s hull and associated artefact collection. Through- the committee in possessing the knowledge and experience
out the archaeological process the author explains how the to continue to be an important and influential force in all mat-
project team were acutely aware of the need to justify actions ters relating to cultural heritage, underwater or coastal. By
and proposes that full excavation under the right circumstan- so doing ICUCH will continue to demonstrate the importance
ces and resources is a legitimate protective solution. and relevance of the ICOMOS Charter on the Protection and
Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Sofia 1996)
The articles on public engagement cover a broad range of the- that underpins the fundamentals of the committees formation
mes from the values of community archaeology, public invol- and purpose.
vement, and presentation to the public, with others featuring
the less positive outcomes such as vandalism and the illegal I hope readers will find within this ‘cornucopia’ of themes and
discovery and recovery of artefacts by stakeholders. A case topics related to underwater cultural heritage something of
study describes the issues with a group of recreational quad- particular interest.
bikers who discovered and subsequently recovered part of a
cargo of ceramics found exposed as a result of beach ero-
sion. The relationship between them and the archaeological
team and local government began with mistrust on both sides
but eventually, through dialogue, led to improved cooperation
and an understanding of the importance of the archaeological
process, conservation, and public display. Another investiga-
tes the values and opinions of subsistence fisherpersons who
find underwater cultural heritage in a country which is only
beginning to raise national awareness of the cultural and tou-
ristic value of underwater cultural heritage.
The final section of the book features capacity building, a the-

me in which many ICUCH members have been involved for
decades. They have participated in regional planning mee-
tings which stressed the need for additional professional ca-
pacity considered essential in assisting the implementation of
the 2001 UNESCO Convention and in undertaking the multi-
faceted requirements of managing, preserving, and resear-
ching underwater cultural heritage. Consequential to these
meetings, members have been closely involved in the design
and delivery of courses, contributing major parts and respon-
sible for the technical editing of what has become known as
UNESCO’s Foundation Course. It has been utilised in its long
form of six weeks, whereas others have been shorter.
10 Contents
A maritime archaeologist is surveying masonry blocks from

the shallow-water archaeological site south of Ras al-Qalaat
at Anfeh, Lebanon. © Salvatore Collela.
CONTENTS
FOREWORD – AVANT-PROPOS – PREÁMBULO 5

Toshiyuki Kono, President ICOMOS
ICUCH 6
INTRODUCTION TO HERITAGE UNDER WATER AT RISK: THREATS, CHALLENGES, AND SOLUTIONS 7

Christopher J. Underwood, President ICUCH
SECTION 1: LEGAL AND POLICY PERSPECTIVES 15
CULTURAL HERITAGE: ITS INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTION 16

Mariano J. Aznar, Spain
RISK AND PROBLEMS RELATING TO PROTECTING AND RESEARCHING UNDERWATER

CULTURAL HERITAGE IN EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 22
Akifumi Iwabuchi, Japan
UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES UNDER WATER: ARCHAEOLOGICAL PLACES

OF OUTSTANDING UNIVERSAL VALUE 26
Albert Hafner, Switzerland
UNDER THE WATERS OF GALLE: A PRELUDE TO THE AVONDSTER PROJECT 31

Somasiri Devendra, Sri Lanka
JAPAN’S APPROACH TO CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS: DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY FOR UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE 37
Jun Kimura, Japan
LEGAL TOOLS FOR THE PROTECTION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA 42
James K. Reap, United States of America
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN BELGIUM: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 2012–2019 46

Marnix Pieters and Christophe Delaere, Belgium
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN INDIA 50

Alok Tripathi, India
SPAIN AND THE LEGAL PROTECTION OF THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE 56

SECTION 2: THREATS – CHALLENGES – SOLUTIONS 61
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN THE YUCATAN PENINSULA, MEXICO 62

Helena Barba-Meinecke, Mexico
THE ISSUES WITH LARGE METAL WRECKS FROM THE 20TH CENTURY 73
Martijn R. Manders, The Netherlands
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE AT RISK: PROBLEMS RELATED TO URBANIZATION 77

Hakan Öniz, Turkey
THE MARY ROSE: EXCAVATION, SALVAGE, AND DISPLAY.

IS THIS A SOLUTION FOR PRESERVING THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE? 83
Christopher Dobbs, United Kingdom
EXPLORING, DOCUMENTING, AND PROTECTING THE RIVER HERITAGE IN HUNGARY: EXPERIENCES

AND CHALLENGES OF CLIMATIC EVENTS AND PUBLIC AWARENESS 89
Attila Tóth, Hungary
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND: CHALLENGES

AND OPPORTUNITIES 94
Matthew Carter and Kurt Bennett, Aotearoa New Zealand
CAPTURING CULTURAL VALUE: CAN ECONOMIC CONCEPTS PROVIDE SOLUTIONS

IN PROMOTING THE PRESERVATION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE? 99
Christopher J. Underwood, United Kingdom
CARIBBEAN MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW OF ITS DEVELOPMENT FROM

THE MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY 104
Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton, Cayman Islands
THE LJUBLJANICA RIVER PHENOMENON: RESCUE RESEARCH, CONSERVATION, AND PRESENTATION

OF THE LATE 2ND/EARLY 1ST CENTURY BC LOGBOAT FROM THE LJUBLJANICA RIVERBED* 113
Andrej Gaspari and Irena Šinkovec, Slovenia
INTRODUCTION TO THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE

AND THE DECADE OF OCEAN SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021–2030 118
Albert Hafner, Switzerland and Christopher J. Underwood, United Kingdom
SECTION 3: IN SITU PRESERVATION 127
IN SITU PRESERVATION OF SITES AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL

HERITAGE MANAGEMENT 128
IN SITU PRESERVATION OF SITES AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL

HERITAGE MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDIES 133
THE QUESTION OF IN SITU PRESERVATION. SHIPWRECKS AND SUBMERGED SITES
PROTECTION METHODS 138
Vladas Žulkus, Lithuania
IN SITU PROTECTION AND MONITORING OF UNDERWATER PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT REMAINS:

EXAMPLES OF THE PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION IN SWITZERLAND 142
SECTION 4: PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT 147
NOT JUST DIVERS AND FISHERMEN: INCREASING THE PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT IN THE SAFEGUARDING
OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN TIERRA DEL FUEGO, ARGENTINA 148
Dolores Elkin, Argentina
PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT, COMMUNITY ARCHAEOLOGY AND UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE

MANAGEMENT: AN AUSTRALIAN CASE STUDY 152
Andrew Viduka, Australia
ANCIENT SHIPWRECKS IN CYPRUS: REACHING OUT TO THE PUBLIC 158

Stella Demesticha and Anna Demetriou, Cyprus
TREASURE HUNTING AND LOOTING: ISSUES OF PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT IN VIETNAM 163

Le Thi Lien, Vietnam
SECTION 5: CAPACITY BUILDING 169
STANDARDIZING CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY: A STRATEGY

FOR THE CENTRAL ASIAN AND CASPIAN SEA REGION 170
Arturo Rey da Silva, Spain
CAPACITY BUILDING: THE UNESCO UNDERWATER CULTURAL

HERITAGE FOUNDATION COURSE 178
Hans K. Van Tilburg, United States of America
CAPACITY BUILDING MODELS AND INITIATIVES IN REGIONS WITH LIMITED CULTURAL HERITAGE
RESOURCES: THE CASE OF LEBANON 184
Lucy Semaan, Lebanon
APPENDICES 190
APPENDIX I: ICOMOS CHARTER ON THE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF UNDERWATER

CULTURAL HERITAGE (SOFIA 1996) 191
APPENDIX II: UNESCO CONVENTION ON THE PROTECTION OF THE UNDERWATER

CULTURAL HERITAGE (PARIS 2001) 194
APPENDIX III: AUTHORS‘ BIOGRAPHIES AND CONTACT EMAILS 205

14
A Lykian type sarcophagus from Simena, a partially

submerged Roman City in the Kekova Region of Antalya,
Turkey. © Tahsin Ceylan.
15
SECTION 1
LEGAL AND POLICY PERSPECTIVES
16 Cultural Heritage: Its International Legal Protection
CULTURAL HERITAGE: ITS INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTION
Fig. 1 The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001. At the time
of writing 66 states have subsequently ratified it, with other states using the Rules in the Annex to the Convention as an
operational framework. © UNESCO.
Introduction reefs which became ecosystems, or marine gravesites trans-

The international legal protection of the underwater cultural formed into venerated places.
heritage (UCH) offers a clear example of its legal complexities UCH is thus governed by a complex canvas of domestic and
given the nature, the location, and the uses of that heritage. international rules, the latter sometimes expressed in recom-
Cultural objects, sometimes of the greatest importance, des- mendatory soft language and nature; sometimes in hard con-
erve to be properly preserved for future generations, and are ventional texts with compulsory and hortatory language; and
thus governed by international heritage law mainly codified by some others transformed in general principles, applicable to
the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Orga- all states, irrespective of their conventional obligations, be-
nization (UNESCO). As cultural objects located at sea , other
1
cause a particular rule has gained customary status oppo-
corpuses of law may apply, mainly the law of the sea gene- sable to the entire international community. Attending to its
rally codified in the 1982 United Nations Law of the Sea Con- terms, to a longstanding practice of states and the object and
vention (UNCLOS)2 and sometimes maritime law mainly con- purpose of its content — and its context, including the general
formed by private law rules occasionally codified by treaties. 3
duty to protect cultural heritage in broad terms, deduced from
Depending on its location, whether under the sovereignty or numerous treaties —, Art. 303(1) UNCLOS can be conside-
jurisdiction of the coastal state or not, the domestic legislation red among those general universal rules when saying that
of the latter may also apply. Finally, as objects, UCH may also ‘States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological
have a private or public owner, may be a marine peril — for and historical nature found at sea and shall cooperate for this
navigation or for the environment — or deserve to be protec- purpose.’
ted or managed for other reasons, for example as artificial
Keywords: Legal Protection – Law of the Sea – Underwater Cultural Heritage – Maritime Law – UNCLOS
Cultural Heritage: Its International Legal Protection 17
This twofold obligation imposed by UNCLOS is echoed in mains of human traces. This concern, however, forgets that
the special agreement states have adopted on the subject: these traces must have ‘a cultural, historical or archaeological
the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Un- character’, thus implying a scientific identification and valori-
derwater Cultural Heritage4 (2001 UNESCO Convention). To sation of the object before labelling it as UCH. The second is
complete the sometimes contradictory and ambiguous (even the time limit of 100 years which was adopted due to two in-
counterproductive) regime for the UCH created by UNCLOS5, tertwined motives: to leave aside, for the moment, recent hu-
states decided to negotiate this new international agreement man traces beneath the waters — therefore also avoiding the
around four main ideas: problems of the title of recent sunken vessels, for example
— and because that threshold was predominantly adopted
(a) the enhancement of this general duty to protect and the
by the majority of domestic legislations imposing age limits
organization of the duty to cooperate,
in their heritage laws.8 However, it must be underlined that
(b) the prohibition of commercial exploitation of UCH,
the 2001 UNESCO Convention time limit does not prohibit
(c) the importance of a scientific approach to UCH avoiding
domestic legislation from protecting more recent UCH in their
the discussion on title upon that heritage, and
respective waters under sovereignty or jurisdiction. Again, as
(d) the incardination of this new convention into a more am-
with the ‘blanket protection concern’, it will depend on the re-
ple and diverse canvas of laws and policies trying to preser-
levance of the archaeological site and the objects within it.
ve cultural heritage, in general, and underwater heritage, in
2. The in situ preservation concept has been misused by
particular, for future generations.
politicians, lawyers and, even, archaeologists, as an excuse
This new convention has provoked, however, some criticisms, for inaction or as an absolute rule provoking an overzealous
most of them due to misunderstandings generated around its desire to protect, regardless of the specific needs of each un-
terms and purposes. There are also some problems still exis- derwater site. However, the 2001 UNESCO Convention in its
ting which deserve a close legal scrutiny; and some challen- art. 2(5) and rules 1 and 4 of the Annex clearly define in situ
ges that need to be evaluated and, if possible, resolved. preservation ‘as the first option before allowing or engaging
This contribution will briefly address some of these questions in any activities directed at this heritage.’ In situ preservation
in legal terms, i.e. focusing only on the legal aspects of the- is not necessarily the best underwater archaeological solu-
se misunderstandings, problems, and challenges that may of tion, nor is it legally required in all circumstances. Rather, it is
course have some other profiles including historical, archaeo- the first and, perhaps, the most technically desirable option,
logical, and technical. when archaeological, legal, and political circumstances — in
that order — so advise. The removal of an historical object or
Misunderstandings objects found under the sea and their conservation outside
Three main misunderstandings can be discussed here: the marine environment is another plausible option, provided
the concept of UCH as defined in Art. 1(1)(a) of the 2001 the archaeological standards accepted by the international
UNESCO Convention; the exact meaning and purpose of scientific community are met (Aznar 2018).
the in situ preservation rule outlined in art. 2(5) and rules 1 3. Perhaps the most problematic misunderstanding is that re-
and 4 of the Annex6; and the relationship between the 2001 garding the relationship between the 2001 UNESCO Conven-
UNESCO Convention and UNCLOS. tion and UNCLOS. This concern was generated by what has
1. Art. 1(1)(a) definition of UCH includes ‘all traces of human been qualified as ‘constructive ambiguities’ of the Conven-
existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological cha- tion, needed for its final adoption.9 The misunderstanding de-
racter which have been partially or totally under water, perio- rives from the negotiating days of the Convention when some
dically or continuously, for at least 100 years such as: states (prominently Norway) understood it to be a ‘subordina-
(i) sites, structures, buildings, artefacts and human remains, ted text’ to UNCLOS, i.e. a treaty on the law of the sea instead
together with their archaeological and natural context; of a treaty on cultural heritage, as was widely understood by
(ii) vessels, aircraft, other vehicles or any part thereof, their the rest of the states’ delegations at UNESCO. This derives
cargo or other contents, together with their archaeological from the fact that UNCLOS, as already said, is the ‘Constitu-
and natural context; and tion of the Oceans’, and thus was apparently carved in stone.
(iii) objects of prehistoric character.’ 7 However, both UNCLOS and 2001 UNESCO Convention pre-
ambles declare ‘the need to codify and progressively develop’
Two questions may be discussed: the first, for some states
international rules; and the latter does it regarding the protec-
— particularly the United Kingdom —this would propose the
tion and preservation of underwater cultural heritage in con-
‘blanket protection’ of millions of objects located at sea, crea-
formity with international law and practice, including UNCLOS
ting an impractical regime that might protect all and any re-
and other cultural heritage conventions already in force.
Actually, this special relationship with the UNCLOS is antici- some misunderstanding was created with regard to the notifi-
pated in art. 3 of the Convention, which plainly states that ‘[n] cation process foreseen in art. 9 for UCH discoveries in those
othing in this Convention shall prejudice the rights, jurisdiction zones. Its paragraph 1 establishes an alternative system to
and duties of states under international law, including the Uni- report them by the discoverer (a person or a vessel) either to
ted Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea’; and that the the coastal state — which implies for some states a new ob-
Fig. 2 Maritime zone definitions in the United Nations law of the Sea Convention. © US Navy. The Commander’s Handbook
on the Law of Naval Operations (2017).
Convention ‘shall be interpreted and applied in the context of ligation not provided for by UNCLOS — or to its national/flag
and in a manner consistent with international law, including state, which would transmit the information to the rest of the
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea’. States parties, including the coastal state (a reporting obliga-
The misunderstanding, and consequently the concern, most- tion peacefully nested in UNCLOS). Surprisingly, concerned
ly arrived with the regime established in the Convention for states seem to forget that this reporting system only applies
the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and the continental shelf to the States parties to the 2001 UNESCO Convention. It is
(CS) in arts. 9 and 10. However, on the one hand, and with not compulsory for third party states, nor has it changed the
regard to the activities directed at UCH in these zones, art. text of UNCLOS.11
10(2) clarifies that ‘[a] State Party in whose exclusive econo-
mic zone or on whose continental shelf underwater cultural Problems
heritage is located has the right to prohibit or authorize any There are three problematic issues that originated some di-
activity directed at such heritage to prevent interference with scussions and, to some extent, still generate concerns among
its sovereign rights or jurisdiction as provided for by inter- states: the legal regime of sunken state vessels as UCH; the
national law including the United Nations Convention on the applicability of the law of finds and, most particularly, the law
Law of the Sea.’ In addition, under art. 10(6), any decision or of salvage relating to UCH; and the regime provided for the
measure adopted by the so-called ‘coordinating state’ imple- UCH located beyond national jurisdiction.
menting those activities ‘shall not in itself constitute a basis 1. With regard to the legal status of sunken state vessels
for the assertion of any preferential or jurisdictional rights not (and aircraft)12, the problem derives from two facts and two
provided for in international law, including the United Nati- negotiated decisions: first, that states jealously preserve the
ons Convention on the Law of the Sea.’ On the other hand,
10
immunity of those vessels as public property, most time in-
volved in sovereign and sensitive activities, both today and in sources — ancient like fishing, recent like submarine mining,
the past13; second, that a relevant number of these vessels – including hydrocarbons, and even more recent like the profit
again: today and in the past – when sunk, accidentally or in of energies or biogenetic marine resources — created new
combat, become marine gravesites, thus deserving a spe- and renewed threats to that fragile environment, including its
cial protection given by the law of nations (Forrest 2015); intimately linked natural and cultural resources. The problem
third, that states considered however that those vessels and is that natural heritage (environment) has already been in the
their archaeological submerged sites are undeniably good agenda of the policy- and law-makers during the last deca-
examples of UCH, thus meriting to be protected by the 2001 des. How to expand this concern to the cultural heritage lo-
UNESCO Convention; and, fourth, notwithstanding this, that cated in the Area and, perhaps, to mirror and expand to UCH
should not discuss or affect the ownership of these sunken the legal regime already existing for the protection of natural
vessels. 14
Rather, with another ‘constructive ambiguity’, the resources should be a thought-provoking task for the coming
Convention tries to solve this question with a typical non-pre- years (Aznar 2017).
judice clause in its art. 2(8), saying that ‘[c]onsistent with state
practice and international law, including the United Nations Challenges
Convention on the Law of the Sea, nothing in this Convention Having addressed some misunderstandings and problems
shall be interpreted as modifying the rules of international law still existing with regard to the international legal protection of
and state practice pertaining to sovereign immunities, nor any UCH, some challenges ahead must also be faced in order to
state’s rights with respect to its state vessels and aircraft’. The make workable the effective protection of this heritage propo-
Convention thus moves the question to general international sed by the 2001 UNESCO Convention (read in context with
law (including UNCLOS), but practice and doctrine have not other international and domestic texts): 1. to underline that
yet settled this problem definitively (IDI 2015; Aznar 2010). the major threat to UCH comes from activities indirectly affec-
In any case, what might be underlined is not so much the ting this heritage; 2. to realise that the protection unfailingly is
question of ownership but that of responsibility in the best a cooperative task and 3. that most states and, what is even
protection of those fragile pieces of UCH and the cooperation more dangerous, the general public still ignore what UCH is
between nations under strict scientific standards. and how it should be preserved for future generations.
2. This is also urgently needed with regard the applicability
to UCH — and particularly to old state vessels sunk while 1. From my point of view, the most important but rarely di-
carrying precious metals or valuable cargoes — of the law scussed proviso of the 2001 UNESCO Convention is art. 5,
of finds and the law of salvage. 15
This is because treasure which states that ‘[e]ach State Party shall use the best practi-
hunters are using the law of salvage as a legal conceptual cable means at its disposal to prevent or mitigate any adver-
framework to recover UCH and commercialize it without any se effects that might arise from activities under its jurisdiction
scientific care (Varmer and Blanco 2018). Therefore, the 2001 incidentally affecting underwater cultural heritage.’ This is a
UNESCO Convention, after sound discussions, opted for a wide-ranging duty imposing both obligations of result (to pro-
non-total exclusion of the application of the law of finds and tect UCH) and of behaviour (to use best practicable means)
the law of salvage to UCH. Rather, the reference text — its against licit, day-by-day and generalized activities performed
art. 4 — was precisely drafted in negative tense, as an ex- at sea by different stakeholders, including states: from fishing
ception, and imposing cumulative conditions in its application: to coastal development, from laying submarine cables or
‘[a]ny activity relating to underwater cultural heritage to which pipelines to installing off-shore wind farms, from creating new
this Convention applies shall not be subject to the law of sal- artificial reefs to draining coastal wetlands. This also relates
vage or law of finds, unless it: is authorized by the competent to art. 16 of the Convention (See Petrig and Stemmler 2020).
authorities, and (b) is in full conformity with this Convention, Along with the impact of climate change and natural events,
and (c) ensures that any recovery of the underwater cultural the Anthropocene era characterized by a deep impact in all
heritage achieves its maximum protection.’ kind of environments, with global effects. To inoculate the
3. Finally, the third problem relates to the protection of UCH ‘UCH-DNA’ into any policy and law-making process — as it
in the Area, that is, the seabed and ocean floor and subso- was gradually done with the (natural) environmental variable
il thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, i.e. be- — is the main challenge we have in the very near future, both
yond the habitual outer limit of 200 nm of states’ EEZ/CS. at international and domestic level.17
As submarine technologies advance, deeper marine sites 2. This should be done properly through a more cooperati-
are accessible to human activities. As these (and coastal) ve approach since challenges to UCH cannot usually be
activities increases, threats to marine environment intensify spatially reduced to one or two adjacent states. Moreover,
quantitatively and qualitatively. 16
Exploitation of marine re- UCH sites cannot be totally explained only from a national
perspective: old Phoenician or Roman routes, for example, ons like UNESCO is to imagine and perform all kinds of disse-
intensively used by different cultures transporting products, mination, education, outreach and research efforts to fulfil the
languages, ideas, artistic artefacts, technical solutions, faiths mandate to adequately preserve UCH for future generations
and gossips, did not end at sea. They crossed the waves and imposed by UNCLOS, the 2001 UNESCO Convention, and
opened new trading and cultural routes. The Manila Galleon general international law.
enterprise (1565–1821) — the most fabulous, longest, and
longstanding maritime route linking for centuries three con-
tinents and four oceans — implied that cargoes and peop-
le bound for the Indian Ocean coasts and South China and
Philippines Sea were loaded in Manila in a Spanish vessel
which, guided by the newest state-of-the-art technologies of
1 Objects located in continental waters (rivers, lakes, inlets, wetlands, etc.) are ultimately
that period, arrived to Mexico by the safest and fastest route governed by the domestic law of the territorial state and do not offer (unless special cases)
‘international’ problems.
crossing the Pacific Ocean. Some cargo and people dissemi- 2 UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), adopted in 1982 and in force since
nated from Mexico throughout the Americas. The rest arrived 1994. As for today, UNCLOS has 168 States Parties, that is, the vast majority of states
which consider UNCLOS — even those nonparties like the US — as the ‘Constitution of the
to the Caribbean where, from Havana, crossing the Atlantic Oceans’.
Ocean in new vessels to the route, were finally downloaded 3 The 1989 London Salvage Convention or the 2007 Nairobi Wreck Removal Conven-
tion may be good examples.
at Cádiz, Spain, from where people and cargo disseminated 4 Adopted 2 November 2001, in force since 2nd January 2009. As for today, the
UNESCO Convention has 66 States parties: Albania, Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda, Argen-
throughout Europe. Add to this incredible voyage the return- tina, Bahrain, Barbados, Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cambodia,
Cabo Verde, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, DR Congo, Ecuador, Egypt, Estonia, France, Ga-
ing route, with people and cargo from Europe to America and bon, Ghana, Granada, Guatemala, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, the
Asia.18 If the remains of one of these galleons were found, Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Mada-
gascar, Mexico, Micronesia, Montenegro, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Niue, Oman, Palesti-
how many countries would be therefore involved as what ne, Panama, Paraguay, Portugal, Romania, San Kitts & Nevis, Saint Lucia, San Vincent &
the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Switzer-
the 2001 UNESCO Convention denominates as ‘interested land, Togo, Trinidad & Tobago, Tunisia and Ukraine.
states’?19 Cooperation is the landmark of the Convention, as 5 Most particularly, paragraph 3 of art. 303 UNCLOS is really counterproductive for the
protection of UCH when it says that ‘[n]othing in this article affects the rights of identifiable
expressed in its arts. 2 and 19 — echoing art. 303 (1) UN- owners, the law of salvage or other rules of admiralty, or laws and practices with respect to
cultural exchanges’, mixing public and private law rules without hierarchizing the public and
CLOS — 20 and establishing in arts. 10 and 12 a perhaps per- private interest also included.
6 The negotiating States decided to include in the Convention (as an integral part of it,
fectible system of collaboration. But cooperation may be also under art. 33) a set of 36 rules (the Annex) which constitutes the archaeological protocol
sought through new hard and soft agreements (art. 6) and widely accepted by the scientific community and seminally drafted by ICOMOS in its Charter
of Sophia (1996).
including both information sharing and training in underwater 7 Subparagraphs (b) and (c) of this same article leave aside the concept of UCH the
pipelines and cables placed on the seabed as well as installations other than pipelines and
archaeology (art. 21). cables, placed on the seabed and still in use. I consider the later exception inconsistent with
some underwater heritage (fish traps, old harbor structures, for example) which merit to be
3. However, all these normative and institutional efforts must consider UCH but, because they may be (and actually are) still in use, are not technically
be directed to the main purpose of the Convention, summari- protected by the Convention.
8 There are numerous domestic legislations which do not impose any kind of time limit
sed in its art. 2(3) when saying that ‘States Parties shall pre- trying to be as protective as possible when addressing cultural heritage through archaeolo-
gical methods.
serve underwater cultural heritage for the benefit of humanity
9 Adoption according to the typical procedure in UNESCO, that is, vote of the states pre-
in conformity with the provisions of this Convention.’21 Unfor- sent in its General Conference, showing a positive result of 87 votes in favor, 15 abstentions
and 4 against (Norway, Russia, Turkey, and Venezuela). The United States of America did
tunately, due to the spatial location of UCH and the special not vote since they were (and are) not a UNESCO member.
characteristics of its preservation (preferably in situ), the ge- 10 The ‘coordinating State’ for these activities in the EEZ/CS — normally the coastal State
— acts always ‘on behalf of the States Parties as a whole and not in its own interest’ when
neral public very often ignores the richness of its heritage be- organizing and conducting the measures to protect UCH in these zones.
neath the waters. The Convention is ‘convinced of the public’s 11 Actually, most States parties which have declared what reporting procedure they do
prefer have select the second option, more aligned with UNCLOS.
right to enjoy the educational and recreational benefits of re-
12 For the 2001 UNESCO Convention, those are ‘warships, and other vessels or aircraft
sponsible non-intrusive access to in situ underwater cultural that were owned or operated by a state and used, at the time of sinking, only for government
non-commercial purposes, that are identified as such and that meet the definition of under-
heritage, and of the value of public education to contribute to water cultural heritage’ (art. 1(8)). Art. 29 UNCLOS defines (only) warship as ‘a ship belon-
ging to the armed forces of a state bearing the external marks distinguishing such ships of
awareness, appreciation and protection of that heritage’ (Pre- its nationality, under the command of an officer duly commissioned by the government of the
state and whose name appears in the appropriate service list or its equivalent, and manned
amble); and its art. 2(10) calls for a ‘[r]esponsible non-intrusi- by a crew which is under regular armed forces discipline.’
ve access to observe or document in situ underwater cultural 13 Art. 32 UNCLOS recognizes that ‘nothing in this Convention affects the immunities of
warships and other government ships operated for non-commercial purposes.’ See further
heritage shall be encouraged to create public awareness, apart 16(2) of the UN Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property,
adopted in 2004, not yet in force but codifying customary law.
preciation, and protection of the heritage except where such
14 From the earlier drafts of the Convention and during the negotiating meetings, the
access is incompatible with its protection and management’. questions of abandonment and title upon these wrecks were explicitly avoided in order to
prevent a deadlock among two opposite group of States: those strictly defending the supre-
Because the public protects what they appreciate, and appre- macy of the immunity rule (derived from the public property of the flag States) and those
giving prominence to the territorial sovereignty (derived from the assumption that everything
ciate what they know, the most challenging task for historians, located in its territory, including maritime territory, belongs to the coastal state). As long
as the territorial argument diminishes, the immunity argument increasingly applies, as can
archaeologist, curators, and policy- and law-makers acting be seen in the Convention in arts. 10(7) and 12(7) where, for the EEZ/CS and the Area
(respectively), no activity directed at state vessels and aircraft shall be adopted without the
through NGOs like ICOMOS and intergovernmental instituti- agreement or consent of the flag state.
15 Although rooted in ancient law, including roman law, the law of salvage as discussed References
here has been mainly conceptualized in common law doctrine and admiralty courts. The
latter has asserted, for example, that the law of salvage and the law of finds are mutually Aznar MJ (2018) In situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage as an In-
exclusive [R.M.S. Titanic, Inc. v. Haver, 171 F.3d 943, 961 (4th Cir. 1999)]. Both set of rules
ternational Legal Principle. In: Journal of Maritime Archaeology 13(1) 67–81.
are different indeed: ‘Granting title to artefacts under a salvage award is different from gran-
ting title to the salvor as a finder; in the former case but not the latter, the court may retain doi:10.1007/s11457-018-9192-4
jurisdiction and continue to supervise the salvage operations.’ (Schoenbaum 2018, 802).
— (2017) Exporting Environmental Standards to the Protection of Underwa-
16 As a reaction, UNESCO has decided to revisit its 1972 World Heritage Convention ter Cultural Heritage in the Area. In: The International Legal Order: Current
and discuss the possibilities to expand its regime beyond the outer limit of the territorial seas
Needs and Possible Responses. Crawford J, Koroma AG, Mahmoudi S and
of States parties. See the special website of UNESCO at http://whc.unesco.org/en/highsea;
accessed 30th September 2020. Pellet A (eds) (2017) Essays in Honour Djamchid Momtaz (The Hague: Brill/
Nijhoff, 2017), 255–273.
17 Unfortunately, the 2021-2030 Sustainable Development Agenda (see https://www.
un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-agenda/; accessed 30th September 2020, — (2010) Treasure hunters, sunken State vessels and the 2001 UNESCO Con-
does not specifically refer to the protection of UCH in its Sustainable Development Goal
(SDG) 14 on oceans, seas and marine resources. However, the United Nations Conference
vention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. In: The Internatio-
to Support the Implementation of SDG 14 of the 2030 Agenda that took place in June 2017 nal Journal of Marine and Coastal Law (2010), 209–236.
expressly recognized that the ocean forms an important part of our cultural heritage and cal-
led on all stakeholders to develop comprehensive strategies to raise awareness of the natu- Forrest C (2015) Towards the Recognition of Maritime War Graves in Interna-
ral and cultural significance of the ocean. See https://oceanconference.un.org/callforaction; tional Law. In: U. Guérin, A. Rey da Silva and L. Simonds (eds) Underwater
accessed 30th September 2020. On the contrary, the UN General Assembly, during the last Cultural Heritage from World War I (UNESCO Publishing, Paris 2015), pp.
annual sessions has constantly urged all States ‘to cooperate, directly or through competent
international bodies, in taking measures to protect and preserve objects of an archaeological
126–134. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2764767; accessed 30th September
and historical nature found at sea […]’ See A/Res/72/73, 4th January 2018, on ‘Oceans and 2020.
the law of the sea’, for its last mention.
IDI–Institut de droit international (2015) The Legal regime of Wrecks of Wars-
18 The same could be said about the maritime ‘silk route’ across Asia or any west African
hips and Other State–owned Ships in International Law’ (Resolution, Tallinn
cabotage nautical routes along the centuries.
Session) http://www.justitiaetpace.org/idiE/resolutionsE/2015_Tallinn_09_
19 That is, those States with ‘a verifiable link, especially a cultural, historical or archaeo- en.pdf; accessed 30th September 2020.
logical link, to the underwater cultural heritage concerned’ (art. 9(5)) (Maarleveld 2014).
20 Completed for the Area with art. 149 UNCLOS, which establishes that ‘[a]ll objects of
Maarleveld T (2014) The Notion of ‘Verifiable Links’ in the 2001 UNESCO Con-
an archaeological and historical nature found in the Area shall be preserved or disposed of vention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. In: Art Antiqui-
‘for the benefit of mankind as a whole, with particular regard being paid to the preferential ty and Law XIX(2), 101–119.
rights of the State or country of origin, or the State of cultural origin, or the State of historical
and archaeological origin’. Petrig A and Stemmler M (2020) Article 16 UNESCO Convention and the pro-
21 The Preamble of the Convention further acknowledges the importance of UCH ‘as tection of underwater cultural heritage. In: International and Comparative
an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in Law Quarterly (2020), 397–429. doi: 10.1017/S0020589320000081
the history of peoples, nations, and their relations with each other concerning their common
heritage.’ Schoenbaum TJ (2018) Admiralty and Maritime Law (6th edn). West Academic,
St Paul MN.
Varmer O and Blanco CM (2018) The case for using the law of salvage to
preserve underwater cultural heritage: The integrated marriage of the law of
salvage and historic preservation. In: Journal of Maritime Law and Commer-
ce (2018), 401–424. https://www.gc.noaa.gov/pdfs/Blanco; accessed 30th
September 2020.
Further reading
Along with the cited references in this article, a complete general overview
of the international legal protection of UCH and the making of the 2001
UNESCO Convention may be seen in these five books in five different lan-
guages:
Aznar Mariano J (2004) La protección internacional del patrimonio cultural sub-

acuático. Tirant, Valencia.
Bonifácio Ramos JL (2008) O achatamento de bens culturais subaquáticos.

Livraia Petrony, Lisbon.
Dromgoole Sarah (2013) Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law.

Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Garabello Roberta (2004) La Convenzione UNESCO sulla protezione del patri-

monio culturale subacqueo. Editore Giuffrè 4, Milano.
They M (2018) La protection international du patrimoine culturel de la mer.

Brill, Leiden.
22 Risk and Problems in Protecting and Researching UCH in East and Southeast Asia
RISK AND PROBLEMS RELATING TO PROTECTING AND

RESEARCHING UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN EAST AND
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Fig. 1 Stone Tidal Weirs in Mainland China. © Akifumi Iwabuchi.
Introduction foreign universities in order to foster professional underwater

The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwa- archaeologists. Some of them have already gained skills and
ter Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO Convention) is extre- knowledge in no way inferior to Occidental maritime archaeo-
mely unpopular in East and Southeast Asia. Only Cambodia logists. Chinese Taipei adopted a new law on the protection of
has ratified it in these regions. It is possible that the absence underwater cultural heritage in 2015, which is highly receptive
of ratifications of the Convention in Asia is due to the under- to the ideas and principles of the 2001 UNESCO Convention.
development of Asian underwater archaeology, but this view-
point is radically mistaken. In Japan, the academic subject of The 2001 UNESCO Convention and in situ preservation
underwater archaeology was, practically speaking, born on Why is the 2001 UNESCO Convention still so unpopular in
submerged sites in Lake Biwa in 1959, noting that it is often East and Southeast Asia? First of all, the Convention itself
stated that George F. Bass, the father of underwater archaeo- seems to contain some problematic items, which many Asian
logy, started his career in the Mediterranean Sea in 1960. The nations or people are unwilling to accept. For instance, Article
National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in 2–5 stipulates that in situ preservation shall be considered as
South Korea, which was originally established in 1994, is now the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities
one of the best developed underwater archaeological instituti- directed at underwater cultural heritage. The region’s under-
ons in the world. Many training courses for local researchers, water environment is influencing archaeologists’ opinions that
mainly in Southeast Asia, were offered since by UNESCO or preservation in situ is interfering with their desire to investiga-
Keywords: 2001 UNESCO Convention – In Situ Preservation – Human Remains – War

Risk and Problems in Protecting and Researching UCH in East and Southeast Asia 23
te sites. In comparison to the Mediterranean or the Caribbean that proper respect is given to all humans remains located in
Seas the degree of sea clarity is generally much reduced in maritime waters and Rule 5 says activities directed at under-
Asian waters. For example, at the Mongolian shipwreck site, water cultural heritage shall avoid the unnecessary disturban-
from around the 13th century, located in western Japan, the ce of human remains or venerated sites. Almost all underwa-
water visibility is only a few metres at a depth of about 20 ter cultural heritage sites in the Pacific from the Second World
metres. It is believed that if wrecks are not completely or even War have the potential for the discovery of human remains.
partially recovered it would be more difficult for scholars to When Japanese human remains are found underwater, Ja-
Fig. 2 Wagae-no-shima. © Akifumi Iwabuchi.
study in detail a vessel’s structure or their loaded cargoes. In pan has committed to recover them seemingly against the
addition, countless shipworm such as Teredo navalis live in 2001 UNESCO Convention, to repatriate them if they are in
the warm Asian waters, which consume temporarily excava- foreign waters, and then consign them to land-based graves
ted wooden hulls left in situ. in their home country; its government having promised Japa-
Indeed, the Convention’s Annex Rule 1 suggests that salva- nese soldiers going to the battle-fields to do so, although its
ging or recovery is allowed for the purpose of scientific stu- navy partially adopted burial at sea. Several years ago, the
dies or for the ultimate protection of the underwater cultural UNESCO Bangkok office made a poster of Japanese human
heritage. For the sake of the aforementioned objects, therefo- remains in the Pacific with the view to their protection. Alt-
re, the desalination, preservation, and storage facilities such hough UNESCO did not mean offense, almost all Japanese
as underwater archaeological museums or institutions have felt that honoured fallen soldiers’ bones were exposed to pu-
to be prepared on land. In East and Southeast Asia, only Chi- blic view, as if in the pillory. According to my anthropological
na and South Korea have already built such proper scientific surveys relating to Muslims in Southeast Asia, the concept
institutions, but other countries cannot afford to do so. of publicly displaying human remains is considered a kind of
punishment. This matter has occurred due to the rapid de-
Human remains velopment of underwater technology; human remains in the
According to Article 1–1(a) of the Convention, underwater deeper parts of the sea, to which neither skilled diver nor un-
cultural heritage includes submerged human remains. For derwater vehicle was able to gain access to in the past, have
Asians, human remains have never been ‘cultural heritage’, nowadays, relatively easily, attracted the attention of divers or
but are considered to be ‘religious objects’ (Iwabuchi 2014, the operators of remotely operated vehicles.
47–48), although Article 2–9 says States Parties shall ensure
24 Risk and Problems in Protecting and Researching UCH in East and Southeast Asia
Territorial and border disputes tial World Cultural Heritage site, which is carefully protected
Secondly, however, the most important outside factor for the by its government. In 2018, three representatives of member
apparent unpopularity of the 2001 UNESCO Convention is institutions of the UNESCO UNITWIN Network for Underwa-
the fact that the Cold War has not yet ceased in East and ter Archaeology, viz. Guam University in the U.S., Warsaw
Southeast Asia. In Asian waters, there have been conside- University in Poland, and Tokyo University of Marine Sci-
rable disagreements concerning maritime national borders ence and Technology in Japan discussed the preservation
between many nations since 1945, so that the borders have management or further research possibilities of stone tidal
not been demarcated in accordance with the 1982 United weirs in the world, together with Chinese Taipei’s authority.
Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS), which the The first National Historic Site of underwater cultural heritage
2001 UNESCO Convention follows concerning ocean boun- in Japan, which was designated in 1968, is not a shipwreck,
daries. Due to the extent that some territorial seas or exclu- but a mediaeval port ruin off the city of Kamakura, i.e. Wa-
sive economic zones have not been precisely defined, many gae-no-shima (Fig. 2). Ports of ancient Southeast Asia have
countries have not been able to legislate, for example, for the also started to be investigated recently (Miksic 2012, 53–54).
protection of underwater cultural heritage under their exclusi- Rather than submerged shipwrecks in deep waters, indeed,
ve economic zones. In South Korea, therefore, its navy is the these underwater cultural heritage sites along the shore are
main opposing force to the 2001 UNESCO Convention. Alt- more vulnerable to ocean environmental change such as the
hough détente on the Korean Peninsula may be possible for global sea level rise.
the time being, the diplomatic and military tensions in the East
and South China Seas are intensifying rather than the contra-
ry (Chand et al. 2018, 23). The 2001 UNESCO Convention
does not include the issue of the ownership of wrecks, but a
few Asian countries claim their ownership for the purpose of
using them as icons of national jingoism. Quite the opposite
in bringing Asia to peace, underwater cultural heritage might
possibly lead this region to war (Campbell 2015, 23). Under
these circumstances, all major powers around East and Sout-
heast Asia, viz. the U.S., Russia, India, and Australia, have
not ratified the 2001 UNESCO Convention, either. The U.S.
has not even ratified UNCLOS, therefore it would be difficult
for Asian countries, which have congenial diplomatic relations Fig. 3 Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Bangka-Belitung
with the U.S., to ratify the 2001 UNESCO Convention. Islands. © Akifumi Iwabuchi.
The 2001 UNESCO Convention does not contain the word Commercial exploitation of underwater cultural heritage
‘shipwreck’ in its articles at all, but most Asian countries seem Treasure hunters are still active in East and Southeast Asia.
to be interested only in shipwrecks as underwater cultural In 2018, a fraudulent South Korean group, which collected
heritage. This is partly due to the frequent focus on ship- investments for the purpose of salvaging gold in a Russian
wrecks containing treasure, which bring about the possibility shipwreck were arrested; as it is a wreck without any gold
of gaining further research funds, and partly because they bars which sank during the Russo-Japan war in 1905. Presu-
can be symbolized for justifying the territorial expansions into mably, the 2001 UNESCO Convention is meant to protect it.
alien waters. On the other hand, the underwater cultural her- The Indonesian 2010 Cultural Property Act seeks to promote
itage sites around intertidal zones such as old harbour ru- the preservation of all cultural properties including underwa-
ins or shellfish middens, which have usually nothing to do ter cultural heritage more than 50 years old, to ban their pos-
with nationalism, are occasionally discarded or destroyed to sessions by foreigners, and so forth (Ghautama 2012, 117),
the verge of disappearance. For example, the underwater but mainly due to bureaucratic or geographical reasons many
cultural heritage of stone tidal weirs in mainland China has underwater cultural heritage sites are still ‘legally’ looted by
not been studied by underwater archaeologists properly and foreign treasure hunters in Indonesia. For example, there are
demolished rapidly, owing to coastal developments (Fig. 1). numerous shipwrecks with ceramics around the Bangka-Be-
In some nations, however, such underwater cultural herita- litung Islands (Fig. 3), where European treasure hunters are
ge sites have already been well preserved and surveyed planning to salvage some shipwrecks and to sell recovered
by professional scholars; Chinese Taipei has designated a items to museums around the world. Because foreigners
group of stone tidal weirs in the Penghu Islands as a poten- themselves are not allowed to export any cultural properties
Risk and Problems in Protecting and Researching UCH in East and Southeast Asia 25
from Indonesia, they have established a front foundation. and the ownership of wrecks, conversely, protecting war-re-
As long as enough museums keep buying such items from lated shipwrecks in East and Southeast Asia does not seem
treasure hunters, treasure hunting will never be eradicated. to be so easy. As a consequence, a new multilateral interna-
Everybody still remembers the shocking news that almost all tional agreement for the region might be needed.
cultural properties from the Belitung shipwreck were purcha-
sed from ‘poor’ Indonesia by ‘rich’ Singapore legitimately in
2005, when the 2001 UNESCO Convention had already been
adopted, but not yet in force until 2009. Since then the exhi- References
bitions of the Belitung shipwreck have been held in several Campbell PB (2015) Could Shipwrecks Lead the World to War? In: The New
York Times, 19th December 2015, p. 23.
museums around the world, under the artful title of ‘The Tang
Shipwreck’ for fear visitors would realize it is actually from Chand B, Garcia Z and Modlin K (2018) Southeast Asian Hedging and Indo–Ja-
panese Strategies for Regional Balance: Managing China’s Rise. In: Journal
Indonesia. Cham Island off Vietnam has a private maritime of Indo-Pacific Affairs, vol. 1(2), pp. 23–56.
museum, consisting of ceramics from local shipwrecks, many Ghautama G (2012) Underwater Archaeology in Indonesia: Experiences and
of which were recovered often local fisherpersons, and not by Prospects. In: Marine Archaeology in Southeast Asia: Innovation and Ad-
aptation, ed. H. Tan, Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum, pp. 114–119.
trained underwater archaeologists.
Iwabuchi A (2014) The Shipwreck of the Takachiho, Japanese Cruiser Sunk
off China in 1914. In: Underwater Cultural Heritage from World War I, ed.
Especially in Southeast Asia, not only treasure hunters but UNESCO, Paris: UNESCO, pp. 41–49.
also professional salvage companies have become a threat Miksic JN (2012) Archaeology of Ports in Ancient Southeast Asia. In: Marine
Archaeology in Southeast Asia: Innovation and Adaptation, ed. H. Tan, Sin-
to modern metal shipwrecks. In particular, many shipwrecks gapore: Asian Civilisations Museum, pp. 52–69.
from the Second World War have been recovered and sold
U.S. Government Publishing Office (2001) Statement on U.S. Policy to Protect
as scrap iron, and human remains inside them have been Sunken State Craft. In: Public Papers of the Presidents of the U.S.: Wil-
liam J. Clinton, Book III, Washington: U.S. Government Publishing Office,
abandoned on the spot. It is true that the 2001 UNESCO Con- p. 2956.
vention does not apply to shipwrecks from the Second World
War; it applies only to the underwater cultural heritage which
has been under water for at least 100 years. However, war-
related shipwrecks from the Second World War will become
underwater cultural heritage from 2039. In Indonesia, these
have already been recognized as being Cultural Property.
Such salvage issues have been complex, because there are
many different interpretations of the law of war, the Treaty of
San Francisco, the Treaty of Den Haag between the Nether-
lands and Indonesia, and so on, even among internationa-
lists. In accordance with sovereign immunity, the U.S. pre-
sident gave the following statement on U.S. policy to protect
sunken State craft in 2001:
‘The United States will use its authority to protect and preserve
sunken State craft of the United States and other nations,
whether located in the waters of the United States, a foreign
nation, or in international waters’ (U.S. Government Publishing
Office 2001: 2956).
Although many war-related shipwrecks in East and Southeast

Asia are of Japanese descent, Japan has not passed any
domestic laws or cabinet orders on them since 1945. For in-
stance, however, the Reparations Agreement between Japan
and the Philippines, which was signed in 1956, exceptionally
includes an article on the political disposal of Japanese ship-
wrecks. In contrast, Japan has not even signed the peace
treaty with Russia since the end of the Second World War.
Because neither the 2001 UNESCO Convention nor UN-
CLOS has solved problems concerning the sovereignty rights
26 UNESCO World Heritage Sites Under Water
UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES UNDER WATER:

ARCHAEOLOGICAL PLACES OF OUTSTANDING UNIVERSAL VALUE
D
Oberschwaben
Salzkammergut
Oberbayern
Bodensee
Zürichsee
Jurafussseen
Zentralschweiz
A
Trois Lacs CH
Combe d' Ain
Keutschacher See
F
Lac Léman
SLO
Trento Alto
Adige Friule
Venezia Ljubljansko barje
Lacs alpins Giulia
savoyards Lombardia
I
Piemonte
Veneto
Fig. 1 Pile dwellings of the Alpine Space. Mapping of about 1,000 Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement sites as part of the
successful UNESCO nomination of 2011. © Archaeological Service of the Canton of Bern.
Introduction origin, but above all are the human impacts on the seabed
The protection of cultural heritage under water has only re- and inland waters in connection with industrial and construc-
cently become a matter of public interest. Cultural properties tion activities, and the destructive pillaging of shipwrecks in
on land such as historical buildings and archaeological sites search of valuable objects.
were already the subject of discussion in the Hague Conven-
tions of 1899 and 1907. An institutional interest in protecting The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
archaeological sites that are submerged in the seas and in- Cultural and Natural Heritage is perhaps the most success-
land waters was first expressed in the 1996 ICOMOS (Sofia) ful UNESCO Convention. Adopted in 1972, this Convention
Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater combines the concepts of nature conservation and the pres-
Cultural Heritage and the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the ervation of cultural properties. The programme identifies and
Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 UNE- preserves sites of outstanding universal value to be consid-
SCO Convention). The 2001 UNESCO Convention entered ered the common heritage of mankind. Outstanding Univer-
into force in 2009. It is beyond question that the implementa- sal Value implies cultural and/or natural significance that tran-
tion of the Convention and the further ratification by 66 states scends national boundaries and is of common importance
(2020) have led to a significantly improved awareness of the to present and future generations. As such, the permanent
importance of the cultural heritage for achieving a global un- protection of this heritage should be an aim to the interna-
derstanding of the past of human societies. At the same time, tional community.1 As of today, 1,121 sites are inscribed on
the 2001 UNESCO Convention drew attention to the fact that the UNESCO World Heritage list. These are located in 167
underwater archaeological sites are exposed to a variety of countries and of these 869 are cultural properties, 213 natu-
hazards. These include erosion-induced destruction of natural ral properties and 39 mixed, cultural and natural. The World
Keywords: World Heritage Sites – Under Water – Universal Value – UNESCO Convention
UNESCO World Heritage Sites Under Water 27
Fig. 2 Swiss underwater archaeologists on Lake Lucerne, Fig. 4 Working place under water: Each pile is numbered
near the pile-dwelling of Stansstad-Kehrsiten. © State Archi- and tagged, discovered objects are recovered and mea-
ves of Nidwalden; Thomas Oertle, Department of Underwa- sured at the site of Stansstad-Kehrsiten at Lake Lucerne,
ter Archaeology of the City of Zurich, 2008. Switzerland. © State Archives of Nidwalden, Thomas Oertle,
Department of Underwater Archaeology of the City of Zu-
rich, 2008.
Fig. 3 Excavations yield large quantities of wood which can Fig. 5 Underwater archaeological excavations make special
in many cases be dated to the exact year by using den- demands on the surveying of sites. Divers in Thun, Lake
drochronology. Divers are excavating and sampling woo- Biel, Switzerland, setting up a measuring system.
den piles of the Neolithic settlement of Sipplingen, Osthafen © Archaeological Service of the Canton of Bern, Carlos
at Lake Constance (Germany). © State Office for Cultural Pinto.
Heritage Baden-Württemberg, 2008.
Heritage list will continue to grow in the future, as numerous Prehistoric Lake Dwellings around the Alps is a serial UNE-
sites are still listed on the so-called tentative list. It can be SCO World Cultural Heritage property consisting of 111 indi-
assumed that applications for inscription of these properties vidual sites in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Slovenia and
on the official World Heritage List will be made in the future. Switzerland (Figs. 1– 5).4 They represent a selection from 937
Approximately 50 sites of marine character have been in- archaeological waterlogged sites known to date within the Al-
scribed on the World Heritage List since 1978, the year of pine space (Hafner 2014). This cultural heritage includes the
the first inscriptions. The most famous ones of these are ma- remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in and around the Alps,
rine ecosystems like the Australian Great Barrier Reef, but built between 5000 and 500 BC on the shores of lakes, rivers,
also less known are entire archipelagos or islands like UK’s and wetlands. Research into these settlements of early Euro-
Henderson Island in the South Pacific. The UNESCO’s World pean farmers began as early as the middle of the 19th century.
Heritage Marine Programme has been designed to protect Archaeological excavations took place in bogs, but also un-
those sites. The scope of the programme is however limited der water: The first scientific diving was undertaken in 1854
to natural sites only. Underwater cultural heritage sites can in Lake Geneva and since the 1920s, specific methods have
be proposed for inscription on the World Heritage List for their been developed for the excavation of settlement remains un-
cultural significance and they have to fulfil at least three of der water. From the 1970s onwards, specialized diving teams
the defined cultural criteria.2 Cultural sites are expected to be were active in various lake regions. So far, only some of the
outstanding witnesses of the material, architectural, techno- sites have been excavated on a large scale and only in a few
logical, subsistence, and cultural traditions of past and pres- cases complete settlements have been investigated. In many
ent civilizations. cases, only small parts of the settlement area were explored
and are thus held back as a research reserve for future gen-
On the UNESCO World Heritage list there are currently only erations. Nevertheless, there are sufficient indications of life
very few sites that are partially or completely under water in prehistory during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in the Alps
and that can be considered as cultural heritage under water. of Europe. They shed light on the way the communities dealt
To anticipate it: although more than two thirds of the earth is with their environment. The settlements are a unique group of
covered by oceans and seas, there is not a single cultural exceptionally well-preserved and culturally rich archaeologi-
property that lies exclusively under water. There is also no cal sites, which represent one of the most important sources
famous shipwreck among the objects on the UNESCO World for research into early European agricultural societies. The
Heritage List. Sites inscribed on the World Heritage list like land on which they were built was flooded after climatic cy-
Papahānaumokuākea (US), Mahabalipuram (India) and cles, leaving their remains under water and under these ideal
Chichen-Itza (Mexico) are occasionally mentioned in context conditions of preservation organic materials such as wood,
with underwater cultural heritage. Papahānaumokuākea is
3
textiles, plants, and discarded food survived the intervening
a vast and isolated cluster of islands and atolls in the Pacific millennia. In particular, the massive preservation of wood has
Ocean northwest of the main Hawaiian Archipelago (inscribed allowed the precise dating of sites and layers by referring to
in 2010). The region is of great cosmological and traditional a continuous year-ring chronology (dendrochronology). The
importance for the life of the indigenous Hawaiian population. submerged settlement remains have provided substantial
On two of the islands there are archaeological remains of evidence of the design and subsistence practices of early
cult sites on land from the pre-European period. A group of agricultural societies and their millennia-long development in
temples in Mahabalipuram was listed in 1984 and consists Alpine Europe during the Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Early
of numerous shrines along the Indian Ocean. In 2005, a tsu- Iron Age. The prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps were
nami hit the coast and revealed the presence of underwater the first underwater UNESCO World Heritage sites to be in-
archaeological remains by uncovering harbour and temple scribed on the list.
ruins. In the vicinity of the prehispanic city of Chichen-Itza,
inscribed in 1988, natural water basins (cenotes) were used The Red Bay Basque Whaling Station is located in north-east-
for sacrificial acts. Gold and jade objects as well as human ern Canada on the Belle Isle Strait, which separates New-
skeletons were discovered under water. foundland Island and the Labrador Peninsula (Figs. 6 –7). In
Only two archaeological sites inscribed on the UNESCO the 16th century, Basque sailors established a maritime base
World Heritage list clearly show evidence of underwater cul- for Arctic whaling in Red Bay (Grenier and Tuck 1989). It is
tural heritage. These are the prehistoric Neolithic and Bronze the earliest, most comprehensive and best-preserved archae-
Age settlement remains in Alpine lakes (inscribed in 2011) ological record of a pre-industrial whaling station.5 In summer,
and a 16 century Basque whaling station in the Arctic added
th
coastal whaling and whale processing were carried out, and
to the list two years later (2013). oil was produced and stored. Whale oil was sold in Europe
UNESCO World Heritage Sites Under Water 29
Fig. 6 Red Bay is considered to be one of the best natural harbours on the Atlantic coast of Newfoundland, Canada. From
the 16th century on it was for a short time a centre of Basque whaling activities. It is a National Historic Site of Canada
and UNESCO World Heritage since 2013. © Ko Hon Chiu Vincent/UNESCO, 2014. https://whc.unesco.org/en/docu-
ments/133758; accessed 30th September 2020.
mainly for lighting purposes. The cultural heritage includes

the remains of ovens, cooperages, a quay, living quarters,
and a cemetery, as well as the underwater wrecks of ships
and whale bone deposits. In Red Bay, underwater remains
of five 16th century shipwrecks have been found at a depth
of about 25–70 metres. Their condition is very good and they
are clearly identifiable, such as the San Juan, built in 1565.
The wrecks provide information about shipbuilding and the
use of ships for whaling.
The World Heritage tentative list includes the cultural and nat-
ural monuments nominated by the individual States Parties to
the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage.6 These will in future be pro-
posed to the World Heritage Committee for inclusion in the
UNESCO World Heritage List. Among these candidates are
also several cultural properties under water.7 These include
sites with shipwrecks, sunken cities and other sites of special
character. Among these are the stone carvings from the his- Fig. 7 Ruins of buildings, a historic graveyard, and under-
torical period on the island of Gaddtarmen (Hauensuoli, Fin- water wrecks of whaling ships and sloops are evidence of
the whalers‘ activities in Red Bay. A diver is examining a
land), where three shipwrecks with well-preserved structures
plank with a carved representation of a ship at the wreck
were discovered. The Banco Chinchorro Biosphere Reserve of San Juan, dating to 1565. © Parks Canada, Denis Pagé,
(Mexico) is located in the Caribbean. Its archaeological and 1983.
historical importance is due to the existence of 44 wrecks on UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater
the barrier reef dating between the 16th and 20th centuries. Cultural Heritage and the 1972 UNESCO Convention for the
SS President Coolidge was launched as America’s largest Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (leading
passenger ship in 1931 (with her twin sister, SS President to the establishment of the World Heritage list) are two indis-
Hoover). In 1942, the ship sailed as a military craft and sank pensable instruments.
after hitting a mine near Vanuatu. The SS President Coolidge
is currently known as the largest accessible wreck dive in the 1 WHC.19/01
world. Kekova is the name of a region in Turkey with islands, 2 WHC.19/01
bays and sunken cities. The geological movements after an 3 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1326/; https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/; https://whc.
unesco.org/en/list/483/; accessed 30th September 2020.
earthquake in the 2nd century AD led to the disappearance of
4 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1363/; https://www.palafittes.org/homepage.html; ac-
the ancient city of Simena and a strange situation with half of cessed 30th September 2020.
the city under water and half above. In Alexandria, Egypt, an- 5 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1412/; accessed 30th September 2020.
cient archaeological remains have been identified at a depth 6 https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/; accessed 30th September 2020.
of 6 to 8 metres. Excavations since 1995 have led to the dis- 7 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/muse-

ums-and-tourism/tentative-list/: accessed 30th September 2020.
covery of 30,000 blocks scattered over more than 2 hectares.
An examination of all the remains could make it possible to
confirm that monuments and perhaps even parts of the fa- References
mous Pharos of Alexandria lighthouse are still under the sea.
World Heritage Centre (ed.) (2019) Operational Guidelines for the Implementa-
Since 1997, several wrecks of Greek and Roman ships from tion of the World Heritage Convention. WHC.19/01. Paris, 10. July 2019. In:
https://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines; accessed 30th September 2020.
the 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD have been discov-
ered. A survey of the underwater remains identified large Grenier R, Tuck JA (1989) Red Bay, Labrador: world whaling capital A.D. 1550–
1600. St. John’s, Newfoundland.
Pharaonic, Greek and Roman objects, including five colossal,
Hafner A (2014) UNESCO World Heritage, Prehistoric Pile–dwellings around
12 m high statues from the Ptolemaic period and 25 sphinxes.
the Alps: Chances and Challenges for Management and Research of Cultu-
The underwater remains are extremely valuable and testify ral Heritage Under Water. In: The Changing Coastal and Maritime Culture.
The 5th Baltic Sea Region Cultural Heritage Forum, Tallin 18–20. September
to the important role Alexandria played in the Mediterranean 2013. pp. 36–40. Tallin: Cultural Heritage Forum Tallin.
from its foundation until its demise. Port Royal, Jamaica, pop-
Prehistoric Pile Dwellings around the Alps: https://www.palafittes.org; accessed
ularly referred to as ‘the most wicked city in the world’, looks 30th September 2020.
back on a turbulent history, as it quickly became the most

important trading post in the New World. At the height of its
wealth, 7th June 1692, the trading centre was struck by an
earthquake and two-thirds of the city sank into the sea after
only 37 years of existence. Two sites with features under wa-
ter, the Flegrea Area of Pozzuoli, Italy and Baiheliang Ancient
Hydrological Inscription, China are of completely different
character. Bradyseism is a phenomenon of the Italian site,
which led to an uprise level of submerged coastal parts during
the Holocene. Ancient hydrological inscriptions on a rock wall
in the Yangtze River in the Chinese province of Hubei were
submerged after the construction of a dam within the Three
Gorges Project.
This brief overview reveals the remarkable breadth of cultural

heritage sites lying under water, which represent the diver-
sity of human settlement, navigation, and water exploitation
strategies. But it also shows the status of efforts in raising the
awareness of this submerged heritage, which was still hardly
accessible a few decades ago. However, awareness needs
to be combined with specific protection and conservation pol-
icies in order to preserve the cultural heritage under water for
future generations. In order to achieve the goal of establish-
ing cultural heritage as being of global importance, the 2001
Under the Waters of Galle: A Prelude to the Avondster Project 31
UNDER THE WATERS OF GALLE: A PRELUDE TO THE AVONDSTER

PROJECT
Fig. 1 Hydrographic chart showing the location of all known underwater cultural heritage sites in Galle Bay. © Somasiri
Devendra.
Introduction Avondster: a shipwreck and its discovery.

The following text is a personal record of how and why Sri The Avondster, was an armed merchantman of the Veree-
Lanka faced the question of its title to the wrecks of the Dutch nigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC),1 a ship of dual pa-
East India Company (VOC) that now lie in Sri Lankan waters. rentage, which had begun life as the John and Thomas of
The writer, a party to the decisions eventually taken, places the English East India Company in 1641, having been cap-
the relevant matters on the record in this chapter. The focus is tured and modified by the VOC and used in their inter-Asian
on the question of title to such wrecks, the arguments advan- trade. She was one of nine ships carrying areca nuts to the
ced and the pertinent historical issues that led to Sri Lanka Coromandel coast. The last nuts of the harvest were slow to
taking a particular position in regard to these wrecks and spe- arrive in Galle and the Avondster had been ordered to await
cifically to the Avondster wreck in Galle Bay. While the issue them. She was wrecked on 2nd July 1659 while at anchor,
and its solution were relevant to Sri Lanka and Sri Lankan becoming one of many cultural heritage sites in Galle Bay
law, certain strands will be seen as relevant in other inter- (Fig. 1). During the night she slipped her anchor and hit the
national contexts and this is the justification for this narrative shore northeast of the anchorage, breaking in two, and soon
and its contribution to this volume. becoming totally submerged in the soft sand.
Keywords: Avondster – Title – VOC – Sri Lanka – Central Cultural Fund (CCF)
32 Under the Waters of Galle: A Prelude to the Avondster Project
In the mid-twentieth century developments along the shore- to pursue it and assigned the subject to the CCF, while retai-
line brought about changes in the tidal flow over the site, cau- ning its statutory authority. As a result, the CCF emerged as
sing the Avondster’s shroud of soft sand to be stripped away, the lead organisation during the discussions that ultimately
revealing her uppermost structural parts. led to clarifying legal title to the Avondster.
The first steps in the development of maritime and nauti- A question of ownership, a gift, and shared heritage
cal archaeology in Sri Lanka In 2002, I received a call from the Additional Director General,
Interest in nautical/maritime archaeology had first surfaced Central Cultural Fund (ADG/CCF) to discuss a glitch in the
in Sri Lanka at two symposia featuring these themes in 1986 Avondster Project which was soon due to get off the ground.
and 1987. By 1990, during an international conference to I was, then, wearing several hats: Consultant (to the CCF)
mark 100 years of archaeology in the country, it was resolved and Special Advisor on Maritime Archaeology to the Director-
that the Department of Archaeology should take the lead in General, Archaeology (DGA); and a member of the Adviso-
developing capacity in nautical/maritime archaeology, though ry Committee to the Ministry of Cultural Affairs. I was also a
initially no concrete steps were taken. In a parallel develop- member of ICUCH (the ICOMOS International Committee on
ment in 1991, the new Sri Lankan President of ICOMOS 2
the Underwater Cultural Heritage) and had been marginally
Dr Roland Silva appointed a steering committee (headed involved in the formulation of both the 1996 ICOMOS Sofia
by Graeme Henderson of the Western Australian Maritime Charter and the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection
Museum) to form an ICOMOS scientific committee on the of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO Conven-
underwater cultural heritage (now ICUCH), nominating me tion). Neither I, nor anyone else in the country, had received
a member. The following year a consortium comprising the formal training in maritime archaeology, so it was very clear
Central Cultural Fund, the Department of Archaeology, and that I needed expert advice. Weighed down as I was by all
the Post-Graduate Institute of Archaeology of the University these honorary positions, I strove to balance national and
of Kelaniya (all of Sri Lanka) partnered with the Department of international interests.
Maritime Archaeology of the Western Australian Maritime Mu-
seum (MADWAM) to train a core of future maritime archaeo- The ADG/CCF had been shown a copy of a letter drafted by
logists. The site selected for the training was the Bay of Galle. the Netherlands Embassy in Sri Lanka, which had not yet
The first practical steps were taken in 1992 to induct archaeo- been formally delivered (it never was). The draft stated that
logy students and conservators into the new discipline and, the Netherlands, wished to formally gift the Avondster to Sri
at the same time, to investigate the many shipwrecks in the Lanka and to join Sri Lanka in exploring and excavating the
historic Bay of Galle. This was the Sri Lanka-Australia ‘Gal- wreck. The letter said that according to Netherlands’ law,4 the
le Harbour Project’. During the third season, 1996–1997, the shipwreck belonged to the Netherlands government, which
Netherlands joined the project and after extensive research was derived from the State being the successor to the VOC,
in their national archives identified that one of the wrecks was liquidated in 1798.5 The company’s Assets Register included
that of the Avondster. It was then that the Netherlands’ autho- all ships afloat or shipwrecked. Therefore, though the Avond-
rities showed interest in exploring, and eventually excavating ster had been wrecked a hundred and fifty years previously
the site in cooperation with Sri Lanka; talks were initiated with she now belonged to the Netherlands Government.
the Central Cultural Fund (CCF). 3
The question was asked whether Sri Lanka was willing to ac-
The CCF had been created for a specific function under the cept the gift. The letter shown was only a draft: it would be
Central Cultural Fund Act No.57 of 1980. Its function was to delivered only if embassy officials were assured of a positive
raise funds for the development, restoration, and preserva- response. A quick answer was required. Though a positive
tion of monuments and other matters pertaining to the cultural one came to mind, I required time for consultation. Our expe-
heritage from sources other than revenue. Not bound by all rience was very limited and a hasty response could place the
of the restrictions placed on a state department, it was able project at risk. Moreover, this matter involved two sovereign
to raise funds from several sources, enter into agreements, nations: the CCF was not empowered to make a commitment
and other such instruments and, thereby, assist the State in the country’s name.
Departments of Archaeology and Cultural Affairs to carry out
their functions. The Director-General of Archaeology gave it To accept the gift, Sri Lanka would have to recognize that the
the authority to undertake the restoration and preservation of shipwreck belonged to the Netherlands, even though it was
specified monuments. When maritime archaeology appeared in Galle. I gained time by invoking the Antiquities Act which
as an issue, the DGA felt his department lacked the flexibility placed all sites under the authority of the Director General of
Archaeology. As it stands, Art. 2(3) of this Act states that: Australia, it must be noted, was not a sovereign state in 1798
and could not have made a counter-claim to the wrecks. This
‘All undiscovered antiquities (other than ancient monuments),
was where the Australian solution did not suit Sri Lanka or
whether lying on or hidden beneath the surface of the ground or
enable us to accept the gift of the Avondster, noting we had to
in any river or lake or within the territorial sea of Sri Lanka, shall
agree that it was property of the Netherlands as successors
be deemed to be the absolute property of the State, subject to
to the VOC.
the provisions of this Act’. ‘Territorial sea’ is defined as ‘the area
By the time the VOC arrived in Sri Lanka (around 1640), it had
declared to be territorial waters of Sri Lanka by Proclamation
its own government and, in fact, the VOC arrived here at Sri
made under the Maritime Zones Law, No.2 of 1976’.6
Lanka’s invitation. The VOC left Sri Lanka in 1796, a clear two
Realising the question could be answered only by the Direc- years before the Constitution of the Batavian Republic (1798)
tor General, Archaeology, the ADG/CCF called for a meeting from which the Netherlands’ claim to VOC shipwrecks flow.
with the Archaeological Department, asking me to draft a re- The departure of the VOC in 1796 as a result of the impact
ply to be tabled. In the draft I noted that: of the Napoleonic wars had significant consequences. Four
1. The Department (Dept.) was the statutory authority, alt- years later, in 1802, the Batavian Republic formally ceded
hough it authorized the CCF to carry out certain functions. Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and all property, sovereignty, pos-
2. The Dept. was fully aware of and committed to the inter- sessions and establishments to the British under the Treaty
national agreements laid down by UNESCO7 in 1956 and of Amiens.10 Among the possessions were the wrecks in Sri
notes that the Netherlands also follows them. Lanka’s territorial water. In 1798, therefore, the VOC had no
3. The Dept. will ask the CCF to submit a project proposal. assets in this country it could effectively claim: not even the
4. The question of rights to the site involves two sovereign by-then 150-year old wreck of the Avondster could be consi-
nations and will have to be referred to the Foreign Ministry. dered an asset. I quote:
‘Clause 3 – His Britannic Majesty restores to the French Republic
Searching for precedent: Australia and to her allies, viz., to His Catholic Majesty and Batavian Re-
This was an administratively correct position but I was curi- public, all the possessions that formerly belonged to them, and
ous as to how other countries had dealt with the problem of that have been conquered and occupied by the British forces in
VOC ships sunk in their territorial waters. I decided to seek the course of the present war, with the exception of the Island
assistance from fellow ICUCH member Jeremy Green of the of Trinidad and the Dutch possessions on the Island of Ceylon.
Western Australian Maritime Museum. Green advised me to

Clause 4 – His Catholic Majesty cedes and guarantees in full
go along with the Netherlands’ proposal as Australia had sig-
property and sovereignty to His Britannic Majesty the Island of
ned a similar agreement and had set up the Australian Net-
Trinidad.
herlands Committee on Old Dutch Shipwrecks (ANCODS).8
This Committee was tasked with maintaining and allocating
Clause 5 – The Batavian Republic cedes and guarantees in full
artefacts from 17th and 18th century Dutch shipwrecks off the
property and sovereignty to his Britannic Majesty all the pos-
coast of Western Australia. In 1976, the Historic Shipwrecks
sessions and establishments in the Island of Ceylon that before
Act was enacted where the nature of the Netherlands’ claim
the war belonged to the Republic of the United Provinces and to
for these centuries-old shipwrecks was very clearly spelt out
their East India Company. Amiens, 4th day of Germinal (March
as:
27th) 1802’ Government Gazette of July 7th. 180211, 12.
‘Having Regard to the Fact:
The British departed Ceylon: in 1947,13 Ceylon becoming a
1. That vessels that belonged to the Dutch Vereenigde
self-governing Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka in
Oostindische Compagnie known as the VOC, hereinafter
1972. At this juncture, all British Crown property, possessions
referred to as ‘the VOC’, were wrecked on or off the coast
and establishments now became Ceylon’s among them were
of Western Australia;9
the wrecks in territorial waters. Ceylon’s claim to the Avond-
2. That the Netherlands, by virtue of article 247 of the 1798
ster thus stemmed from it having been a British possession.
Constitution of the Batavian Republic, is the present legal
Reviewing all of this it appeared, to me, that Sri Lanka, unlike
successor to the VOC:’ and it is as ‘successor to the pro-
Australia, was in a position to lay claim to all wrecks in its
perty and assets of the VOC’ that the Netherlands trans-
seas.
fers, ‘all its right, title and interest in and to wrecked vessels
of the VOC lying on or off the coast of the State of Western
Australia’ to Australia. The other party to the Agreement,
Australia, must have been content with this position.
ment institutions would be united in their views. I informed Dr

Perera, leaning heavily on the Antiquities Act, the Maritime
Zones Law that the Avondster was in internal waters and not
even in the territorial sea. I then expanded on the Netherlands
claim to the shipwreck. Dr Perera agreed, stressing that the
outcome should only depend on Sri Lankan law and not be
concerned about any other law and guided by the Antiquities
Act and that, should the matter go beyond that, it should be
referred to him.
A short time later, with neither of the previously draft letters
being written, the Netherlands authorities and the CCF ent-
ered into a formal Agreement for Sri Lanka and the Nether-
lands to undertake the study of the Avondster wreck site for
a period of three years. The question of title was not raised
Fig. 2 ICUCH meeting project participants at the Avondster nor referred to and the focus shifted to the heritage value of
site office, 2003. © Somasiri Devendra.
the wreck, concerning which there could be no dispute. The
Avondster Project became the first maritime archaeology pro-
ject to be conducted under the requirements of the Annex to
the UNESCO Convention. It resulted in the design of an appli-
cation form, to be submitted annually to the Director General,
Archaeology by the Project proponents, which spelt out the
obligations of each party.14
Problem resolved
How did our problem of title solve itself? The answer lay in a
sequel to the meeting with the Legal Advisor, Ministry of Fo-
reign Affairs, which was made known to those involved infor-
mally, only sometime later. It appeared that the Netherlands
authorities had sought a meeting with legal adviser, later the
same day, where they had broached the question. As a result
Fig. 3 ICUCH meeting at Nooit Gedacht in progress, Galle, of our timely action all the information had been put in the
2003. © Somasiri Devendra. hands of Dr Perera at the correct time to present the case
that the Avondster for the reasons stated above was already
Sri Lankan.
Administrative and legal arrangements
At the meeting between the Heads of the Department of Ar- The Avondster project
chaeology and the Central Cultural Fund, at the latter’s Office With the minefields of conflicting laws satisfactorily negotiat-
in 2002 with Dr Wijepala (DG/Archaeology), Dr Siran Dera- ed, the Avondster Project was undertaken in a spirit of co-
niyagala (former DG/Archaeology), Mr Hettipathirana (ADG/ operation and respect for the underwater cultural heritage,
CCF) and myself, the idea was floated that the Ministry of which belongs to humanity and not to any one nation.
Foreign Affairs be consulted at an informal level. I suggested The project was the first new one to be undertaken under the
that we contact Dr Rohan Perera, then Legal Advisor to that ideals of the UNESCO Convention. It was also Sri Lanka’s
Ministry (and, until recently, our Permanent Representative first (and yet only) maritime archaeological excavation. As
to the United Nations at New York), with whom I had met in such it attracted world-wide interest and students from other
relation to maritime archaeology law in the lead up to the countries participated in it as a part of their training (Fig. 2). In
UNESCO Convention. The suggestion being approved, I con- 2003 ICUCH itself met in Galle (Fig. 3) to view the progress of
tacted Dr Perera while the meeting was still in progress and the Project and to critically evaluate it (Fig. 4).
explained the problem to him. He immediately agreed to meet
us and a very early date was agreed on. The project provided immense experience to local fledging
The problem was discussed iterating the need for the Ministry team of archaeologists, and much hands-on experience for
to advise the Department and the CCF so that all govern- the conservators at MAU’s laboratory. Although the team had
Fig. 4 A cross-section of the excavation of Avondster’s galley area. © Somasiri Devendra.
worked with visiting maritime archaeologists as part of their tion had not been brought up by Sri Lanka) we did not pay
induction to the discipline, this was their first experience of sufficient attention to the matters dealt with at length by the
working under a systematic and research-oriented excava- Australian Netherlands Committee on Old Dutch Shipwrecks
tion. It was a steep learning curve and, with many obstacles ANCODS. Had Sri Lanka entered into a detailed agreement,
to overcome, but they did emerge as the archaeologists of the we would have profited immensely in the long run. My own
future (Fig. 5). input had been specifically sought on the matter of ‘Title’ and,
blinkered by this fact, I had failed to appreciate the broader
Further challenges implications of ANCODS.
The day after the Avondster Project was completed the tsu-
nami on Boxing Day in 2003 devastated the premises of the It can now be said that, shortcomings notwithstanding, the
MAU and the laboratory. Buildings were destroyed, shipping Avondster Project was of great importance to Sri Lanka, and
containers of chemicals were on top of trees, and 80% of the that laying to rest the legal conundrum was an important part
artefacts reclaimed by the sea (Fig. 6). All team members, of that experience. In and near Galle Bay, alone, the VOC
however, were safe and the CCF and MAU sifted through the ships Hercules (1661), Molen (1658), Dolfijn (1661), Vliss-
debris and started again: the legacy of the Avondster Project ingen (1665–66), Landsman (1679), Gienwens (1776), and
was not allowed to die. Today, the MAU and the laboratory are Barbestijn (1735) were wrecked. There is, thus, much poten-
under their own management and their field of operations has tial for future collaboration between the Netherlands and Sri
expanded to cover the entire Sri Lankan coastline. Members Lanka unhampered, now, by dubious questions of law.
have ventured abroad, worked at other sites, and are on the
verge of undertaking investigations on a very significant site
which they hope to work on in collaboration with foreign insti-
tutions. But, this time, under Sri Lankan management.
In objective and scientific terms, however, the project was a
qualified success.15 It did lead to an international conference
being held in Galle, a General Meeting of the ICOMOS In-
ternational Committee on the Underwater Cultural Heritage
(ICUCH) followed by a UNESCO Asia-Pacific Meeting of ex-
perts on the Underwater Cultural Heritage on 9th April, 2007.
The shortcomings in the management of the project were
then identified and discussed and the Netherlands, too, had
conducted an audit and suggested several improvements.
Such shortcomings stemmed, largely, from the fact that Sri
Lanka was venturing into maritime archaeology for the first Fig. 5 Our first woman archaeologist diver, checking her di-
time. Obsessed with the issue of ‘Title’, (though this ques- ving gear with an on-looking admirer. © Somasiri Devendra.
Fig. 6 The Maritime Archaeology Unit’s (MAU) laboratory after the tsunami, 2004. © Somasiri Devendra.
1 Dutch East India Company, officially the United East India Company. Further reading
2 International Council on Monuments and Sites, a Paris-based international non-go-
vernmental organisation focused on the protection and preservation of cultural heritage. Avondster Project Field Reports
3 The CCF is not the statutory authority in charge of archaeology and antiquities: this Green J and Devendra S (eds) (1992) The Galle Harbour Project 1992. Ar-
responsibility lies with the national Department of Archaeology, empowered under the An-
chaeological Department of Sri Lanka, Central Cultural Fund, Western
tiquities Act No.9 of 1940 (though it had functioned under another name since 1890) and
subsequent amendments. Australian Maritime Museum and Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology.
Colombo Sri Lanka.
4 Art. 247 of the 1798 of the Constitution of the Batavian Republic.
5 The Dutch East India Company, as I remembered, had been in a bad way after the
— (1993) Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka: The Galle Harbour Project 1992.
outbreak of the Napoleonic wars. The Stadtholder William V, had fled the country and, at Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, Central Cultural Fund, Western
home, the Batavian Republic had been established. Australian Maritime Museum and Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology.
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
6 Legislative Enactments of Sri Lanka. Maritime Zones Law No. 22 of 1976. https://www.
lawnet.gov.lk/1948/12/31/maritime-zones-2/; accessed 30th September 2020.
Green J, Devendra S and Millar K (eds) (1993) Maritime Archaeology in Sri
7 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict with Lanka: The Galle Harbour Project – 1993. Interim Report. Dept. of Maritime
Regulations for the Execution of the Convention. The Hague, 14 May 1954. The General Archaeology, Western Australian Maritime Museum Report No.65. Fremant-
Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, meeting at New le, Australia.
Delhi, from 5 November to 5 December 1956, at its ninth session.
8 Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 - Schedule 1 Agreement between the Netherlands and Green J, Devendra S and Parthesius R (eds) (1998) Report for the Sri Lanka
Australia concerning old Dutch shipwrecks. Federal Register of Legislation. https://www. Department of Archaeology: Galle Harbour Project 1996–97. Special Pu-
legislation.gov.au/Details/C2012C00174; accessed 30th September 2020. blication No.4 of the Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime
9 Section 3, Clause 2A. Archaeology. Fremantle, 1998. ISBN1-876465-06-9.
10 The Treaty (also called the Peace) of Amiens was signed in that city by Britain, France, Parthesius R, Millar K, Devendra and Green J (2003) The Avondster Project
Spain and the Batavian Republic on March 27th 1802. It was called a ‘Definitive Treaty of Report 2001–2002. In: A Sri Lanka Maritime Archaeological Unit publication.
Peace’ but lasted only for 14 months, yet it was the only period of peace during the Napoleo-
no.1. 2003, 76–81.
nic Wars, 1803–1814. Some matters in dispute were not dealt with to achieve an agreement.
France and Spain regained territories lost in war but Britain retained Ceylon [now Sri Lanka]
and Trinidad. Parthesius R (ed) (2007) Avondster: Excavation Report of the VOC ship Avond-
ster. Vols. 1 and 2. In: Special Publication no.1. Centre for International Her-
11 ‘The Ceylon Manual (for the use of Officials). Historical, Statistical and Other Informa- itage Activities. The Netherlands.
tion concerning The Island of Ceylon and its Administration. For the Year 1910. By Herbert
White (of the Ceylon Civil Service)’.
12 The Kings of Sri Lanka, the successors to Rajasingha II had no claim to any of it. After
annexation, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was briefly administered by the British East India Com-
pany but, shortly afterwards, taken over as a Crown Colony in 1802. In 1815 the reigning
King of Ceylon was defeated and exiled and the British Crown took possession of the whole
of the island. For the next 150 years or so it remained one with degrees of self-govern-
ment being meted out incrementally. Ceylon was a ‘loyal’ colony with a rapidly expanding
educated middle class. After the World Wars it became questionable whether Ceylon was
worth the cost to Britain and the British, too, departed these shores declaring, by the Ceylon
Independence Act of 1947.
13 Ceylon Independence Act 1947 (Westminster).
14 I presented a paper on this experience [‘Designing a licensing system for maritime

archaeology: The Sri Lanka experience.’] at a UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the
Underwater Cultural Heritage, for the Americas, in Kingston, Jamaica (2002).
15 For a most readable account of the Project see ‘Maritime Lanka: maritime archaeolo-
gy & history of Sri Lanka’ https://maritimeasia.ws/maritimelanka/index.html; accessed 30th
September 2020
Japan’s Approach to Challenges and Solutions 37
JAPAN’S APPROACH TO CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS:

DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY FOR UNDER-
WATER CULTURAL HERITAGE
Jun Kimura, Japan
Introduction tural governments’ agencies and more than 1,700 municipal

In 2017, Japan implemented new policies regarding heritage governments — districts, towns, and cities. The decision-ma-
management to facilitate the protection and management of king processes regarding archaeological administration are
underwater cultural heritage (UCH) at municipal and prefectu- made not by the ACA but by prefectural governments. There
ral level. Japan has a comprehensive heritage management is a legislative system that designates an archaeological site
system for terrestrial sites, which developed as measures to according to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Property.
prevent their destruction from a number of construction pro- A rescue survey and excavation are mandatory and must be
jects from the 1960s onward during the period of rapid econo- implemented ahead of any construction project at the desig-
mic growth (Habu and Okamura 2017). The system, however, nated sites. While there are approximately 90 private consul-
did not function in safeguarding archaeological sites in water tant companies for archaeological work, most of the rescue
environments, and which faced similar circumstances in that excavations and surveys are directed by qualified civil ser-
underwater archaeological sites in Japanese waters could vants at the Board of Education of the local municipalities or
have been exposed to the various threats from human im- by archaeologists of the research units of municipal offices,
pact. To improve the situation, the Agency for Cultural Affairs such as the Buried Cultural Properties Research Centre loca-
(ACA) under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education ted in each prefecture nationwide. As of 2018, there are 5,629
established the Advisory Committee for the Protection of Un- experts in archaeology that are employed by municipal and
derwater Archaeological Sites (National Committee) in 2013. prefectural governments across Japan.2.
In 2017, The ACA and National Committee issued the Gui- An archaeological site is considered national common pro-
delines for the Protection of the Underwater Archaeological perty and local governments are mainly responsible for their
Sites (Guidelines) to facilitate the better protection of UCH.1 protection. Since the 1970s excavation surveys of archaeo-
In the Guidelines, the ACA and the National Committee outli- logical sites that were to be lost due to development have
ned principles for the protection of underwater archaeological been actively carried out nationwide, and now recuse exca-
sites and highlighted the importance of the protection of Ja- vations are carried out at around 8,000 sites a year with some
pan’s valuable underwater cultural resources, which eviden- 468,000 sites having been identified. The annual spending
ce past human activities remaining in the rich water environ- total for the rescue excavations conducted in 47 prefectures
ments of the country. The Laws for the Protection of Cultural are approximately 60 billion Japanese Yen (554 million US
Properties applies to waters, and the Guidelines explained dollars) in fiscal year 2017; however, almost all of the expen-
legal perspectives on UCH in relation to related laws. It out- diture is used on sites on land.
lines the effective methods for their protection and stipulates Even though Japan has the sixth longest coastline in the
the roles of the national and the local governments regarding world and its waters have been the scene of numerous his-
UCH management. The sections below show where the new torical maritime incidents, the municipal offices administering
Guidelines for UCH management are situated within the exis- Japan’s archaeological heritage have not shown a particularly
ting framework of the archaeological heritage management strong interest in the protection of its underwater archaeologi-
system. cal sites. In the case of underwater sites only 387 sites have
been recognized, just 0.08% of the 468,000 identified terres-
Archaeological heritage management in Japan trial sites, and annually only one site is excavated. There has
The ACA has a division that specializes in the protection of been a concern about the loss of sunken relics resulting from
archaeological sites and archaeological heritage. They are human disturbance including: the non-scientific recovery of
defined as ‘buried cultural properties’. Heritage Management archaeological artefacts located under water; the negative
for the buried cultural properties is implemented by 47 prefec- impact of fishing activities on submerged landscapes and
Keywords: Archaeological Heritage Management – Underwater Cultural Heritage – Underwater Archaeology – Japan – Agency
for Cultural Affairs – Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties
38 Japan’s Approach to Challenges and Solutions
wreck sites, and the destruction of underwater sites due to pan. The result shows that as of 1990, the 3,245 municipali-
existing policies and guidelines that do not encourage herita- ties located 216 potential underwater sites (Hayashida et al.
ge officers to protect sites when they are in areas of onshore 2014). Based on this data, it has been determined that 109
and offshore development, such as harbour or bridge cons- sites were located at sea or coastal areas and 88 sites were
truction, are implemented and so impossible to determine found in inland waterways, such as lakes and streams (Ki-
whether an underwater archaeological site is present or not. mura 2009). According to the result of the most recent ques-
tionnaire survey conducted in 2012, municipalities reported
Existing studies of underwater cultural heritage the existence of 387 underwater sites. The underwater sites
It is considered that due to the country’s rich sea and inland– are distributed widely from Hokkaido in the north to Iriomo-
water environments there should be extensive evidence of te Island in the southernmost prefecture. The importance of
human activities underwater, in effect a submerged cultural unique value of the sites beneath the waters became to be
landscape, though it is not known exactly how many of these recognized in recent years in some prefectures tightly linked
sites there may be. The first attempt to identify such a site in to maritime history (Ono et al. 2016).
Japan even dates back to 1908 when prehistoric lithic stones
were found at a lakebed in Lake Suwa (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Stone tools from the Sone Site (approximately 12000– Fig. 2 Artillery shells at the warship Kaiyomaru found during
9000 BP) located at the lakebed of the Lake Suwa, Nagano the rescue underwater excavation. © Board of Education,
Prefecture inland Japan. © Board of Education, Suwa City. Esashi.
Due to the limited availability of information about the ar- The resultant data of the above survey, however, may not ne-
chaeological sites under water, the ACA has funded projects cessarily reflect the exact nature and proportion of underwa-
to survey the state of such sites through the 1980–90s. The ter sites in Japan. For example, the number of reported sites,
first extensive survey was conducted in 1980 and studied as a percentage, has less wreck sites compared to UCH sites
the archaeological contexts of representative underwater in other countries at only 14%. The distinctive value of shared
sites in different environments. The sites which had already maritime heritage has hardly been addressed (Fig. 3) but the
been surveyed and excavated below were highlighted to be number of designated wreck sites is relatively low. The lack
reported: Awazu site at Lake Biwa (largest lake in Japan) in of the development of nautical archaeology as a scientific di-
Shiga Prefecture that is composed of shell middens dating to scipline is possibly one of the factors restricting the identifica-
the Middle Jomon, or around 4500 BP., and the Kaiyomaru tion of wreck sites. Also, the date of a number of submerged
(1868), a Dutch built steam ship, sunk during Japan’s civil war wreck sites does not necessarily fit to a preservation scheme
period (Boshin War), and was excavated in 1976 in the wa- which would not prioritize archaeological heritage dating back
ters offshore Esashi in Hokkaido, the northernmost prefecture to post-medieval periods onward. There are historically im-
(Fig. 2). portant shipwrecks dating from the 19th-20th centuries, and the
archaeological recording of Second World War (WWII) wreck
Between 1989 and 1991, the ACA had conducted surveys to sites is conducted for academic purposes in extremely limited
obtain the statistical information of potential underwater sites cases (Kan et al. 2018).
that have been reported to municipal offices from all over Ja-
The management framework for UCH must be consistent

with the existing management system for terrestrial archaeo-
logical sites. Municipal governments are responsible for the
system that is composed of:
• Site identification in which the existence of an archaeologi-

cal site must be registered to a local government inventory
and database administrated by the municipal office.
• Initiation of actions that reduce the damage from planned
development work to the designated areas, including the
implementation of a rescue excavation at the site to record
archaeological information.
• Preservation measures that are taken into consideration
due to the impact that a development project could have on
the site and its contents.
• Public access, use of the excavated artefacts and in situ
Fig. 3 Possible wreckage of the Dutch shipwreck Van Bosse
(1857) sunk off the coast of Tarama island, Okinawa Pre- preservation.
fecture, investigated during the joint project for the Shared
Cultural Heritage of the Netherlands and Japan. © Martijn As with terrestrial sites, UCH is subject to protection in accor-
R. Manders.
dance with the Laws for the Protection of Cultural Properties.
The scope of the legislative protection extends to areas of
Challenges to developing a policy and guideline for the inland waters as well as the areas of sea floor within Japan’s
effective management of underwater cultural heritage territorial waters. The basic principles for the protection of the-
The mission of the ACA and National Committee was to de- se areas are the same as those for land sites and the jurisdic-
velop a new management framework for the more compre- tion applies to municipal and prefectural level. In reality, ho-
hensive protection of UCH. This movement occurred partly by wever, most municipal governments do not have the capacity
witnessing the expansion of other countries’ management of to adapt the terrestrial management to underwater cultural
their UCH. The lack of effective and appropriate management heritage management. Moreover, the jurisdiction of terrestri-
of UCH has been recognized, and the state may cause the al waters is unclear as there are no maritime administrative
loss of cultural resources from threats that include increased districts, so that coordination is required among the relevant
development, industrial extraction, diving and fishery activi- local governments.
ties, and sea-level rise and erosion. The impact of these ac-
tivities and environmental changes on UCH have not been
fully assessed yet; for example, while there are a few reports
by fisheries cooperatives about the finding of ceramics during
the net fishing (Fig. 4).
The discovery of the 13th century Mongol Empire fleet wreck
site offshore from Takashima Island, in Nagasaki Prefecture,
initiated the change to the country’s attitudes to UCH (Kimura
2006; Ikeda et al. 2019). Immediately after the discovery, the
area concerned was registered as the first nationally desig-
nated underwater ‘Historic Site’. The municipal city of Mat-
suura is primarily a custodian and is responsible for the site
management in cooperation with Nagasaki Prefecture with
the aim of supporting the municipal and prefectural govern-
ments, as well as facilitating the broader protection for UCH.
The ACA established the National Committee in March 2013,
directed by 12 experts in the fields of archaeological herita-
ge management for burial cultural properties, Asian studies,
Fig. 4 Ming Dynasty celadon bowls recovered by fishermen
archaeology, maritime archaeology, conservation, and ocea- from the seabed of the Bay of Osaka before the designation
nography. of the site. © Jun Kimura.
40 Japan’s Approach to Challenges and Solutions
The potential issues and difficulties for municipal officers im- exchange with neighbouring Asian and European countries.
plementing relevant management of UCH has been addres- Artefacts found underwater tend to be well-preserved and
sed, including: found in large numbers due to them being part of the ships’
• Applicable laws and regulations for underwater archaeolo- cargo for trade.
gical surveys other than those stipulated in the Law for the The guidelines explicitly explain a structure for the bodies
Protection of Cultural Properties apply. responsible for the management framework of underwater
• Safety measures for the implementation of archaeological archaeological sites according to the existing system of ar-
operations in and above waters due to the additional tech- chaeological heritage management and recommends:
nical difficulties and risks not encountered at land sites.
• Increased budget for underwater archaeological work as • At municipality level a local heritage agency under the
well as the conservation of waterlogged artefacts that are Board of Education is responsible for the identification of
more complex and time consuming than artefacts found on a site and the registry of designated areas and is obligated
a land site. to share such information with stakeholders including ot-
• The limited human resources and the requirement for di- her government agencies, local fisheries officials, and port
ving qualifications required for underwater surveys and ex- development representatives. Municipal officers should
cavations. undertake rescue excavations and initiate all necessary
• That ownership and administration issues must be determi- actions to prevent the disturbance and destruction of sites
ned in the case of a sunken vessel registered to a foreign from development and fishing activities.
country. • Prefectures are a legal authority in the heritage manage-
ment system and a prefectural heritage agency is a com-
Guidelines for underwater cultural heritage management missioning entity and an advisory body for municipalities.
The associated guidelines were issued to enhance the exis- They approve the designation of the underwater archaeo-
ting framework of Japan’s archaeological heritage manage- logical sites by municipal offices and provide them with
ment. The concept of UCH is not legally determined under relevant advice for a long term of site protection and ma-
the Law for Cultural Properties as it only defines archaeolo- nagement.
gical remains as ‘buried cultural properties’. The guidelines, • National government will need to enhance the capacity to
however, state that the jurisdiction for the safeguarding of the facilitate administrative, financial, and technical support to
buried cultural properties under the Law extends to Japan’s municipal and prefectural governments. The national go-
terrestrial waters in which sites are defined as an ‘underwater vernment should assign specialist staff who will be in char-
archaeological site’. Such a site is considered to be consist- ge of the protection of underwater archaeological sites, and
ently beneath water or underwater at high tide or is located in should establish organizations/departments within relevant
inland water environments such as lakes and rivers. The dis- national governments to be pursue relevant methodologies
tinctive site formation processes of the underwater archaeo- for the survey, preservation and collaboration with foreign
logical sites are acknowledged relating to the wrecking event countries.
of ships, the deliberate/accidental loss of cargo and goods,
cargo and the submersion of landscape due to natural and Summary
human forces. Over the last few decades there has been an increasing inter-
est in the existence of archaeological assets in Japanese wa-
The guidelines highlight the archaeological value of sunken ters. The heritage management system for the buried cultural
watercraft which has not been extensively addressed before. properties has successfully identified a vast number of ar-
The National Committee had proposed a survey to be con- chaeological sites on land for protection, but it did not neces-
ducted to clarify the potential remains of unidentified ship- sarily lead to the identification of sites located in the sea and
wrecks and associated cargo in Japans terrestrial waters. inland-water environments. The survey led by the ACA during
The result of research, in cooperation with all 47 prefectures, the 1980–90s clarified the state of well-preserved sites ran-
shows that there are at least 5,598 records regarding aban- ging from the prehistoric to the pre-modern periods. While the
doned or sunken ships between the 11th and 19th centuries. result from a series of surveys in cooperation with municipal
The Guidelines have pointed out that the loss of the ships offices shows there are a limited number of underwater sites
often includes episodes involving stories of lives being lost compared to the designated land sites, there would probably
or saved and have been handed down as local oral history be more unidentified sites, illustrating the people’s interaction
thereby adding to the historical value of these sites. The other with the rich water environment over history.
recorded shipwrecks relate to overseas trade and diplomatic
The Japanese government, however, has never developed References

a national policy or a systematic approach for the safeguar- Habu J and K Okamura (2017) Japanese archaeology today: New develop-
ding of underwater archaeological sites. Whereas it has been ments, structural undermining, and prospects for Disaster Archaeology. In:
Handbook of East and Southeast Asian Archaeology, Habu J et al. (eds)
interpreted that the Law for Cultural Properties can give in- New York: Springer, pp. 11– 25.
clusive protection for those buried cultural properties under Hayashida K, Kimura J and R Sasaki (2014) State and Perspectives of Sub-
water, the lack of implementation by government has placed merged Sites in Japan. In: Prehistoric Archaeology on the Continental Shelf:
A Global Review, Evans M- A et al. (eds) New York: Springer, pp. 275 – 290.
vulnerable underwater archaeological objects under thre-
Ikeda Y, Sasaki R and J Kimura (2019) Recent underwater investigations at Ta-
at from human activities. To improve this situation, the ACA kashima: searching for the lost fleet of the Mongol empire. Current Science
and National Committee has worked together since 2013 and 117 (10): 1635 –1639.
have issued the Guidelines for the Protection of the Underwa- Kan H, Katagiri C, Nakanishi Y, Yoshizaki S, Nagano M and R Ono (2018)
Assessment and significance of a World War II battle site: recording the
ter Archaeological Sites. These guidelines are for municipa- USS Emmons using a high–resolution DEM combining multibeam bathy-
lities and prefectures to facilitate the protection of underwa- metry and SfM photogrammetry. In: The International Journal of Nautical
Archaeology 47(2): 267– 280.
ter archaeological sites within the framework of the existing
Kimura J (2006) Recent survey and excavation on the Mongolian fleet sunk
archaeological heritage management system. The national off Japan: the Takashima underwater site. In: Bulletin of the Australasian
government needs to promote further the idea of safeguar- Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 30: 7–13.
ding of underwater archaeological sites in cooperation with — (2009) Issues of Protection and Management of Domestic Underwater Sites
as Cultural Heritage. In: The Collection of Treaties for the 30th Anniversary
regional heritage agencies. of the Department of Archaeology, Department of Archaeology Tokai Uni-
versity (ed) Tokyo: Rokuichi Shobo [In Japanese].
Acknowledgements Ono, RC, Katagiri H, Kan N, Nagano Y, Nakanishi Yamamoto Y, Takemura F

and N Sakagami (2016) Discovery of Iron Grapnel Anchors in Early Modern
This article is based on the outcomes from a series of mee- Ryukyu and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritages in Okinawa, Ja-
tings by the ACA and National Committee. The ACA and pan. In: The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 45(1): 75 – 91.
National Committee received support from the following

overseas agencies: Western Australian Museum (Austra-
lia), Department of the Environment (Australia), National
Research Institute of Maritime Culture (Korea), Département
des recherches archéologiques subaquatiques et sous-mari-
nes (France), Vasa Museum (Sweden), Viking Ship Museum
(Denmark), Cultural Heritage Agency (Netherland), Historic
England (UK), National Park Service (US), Navy Heritage
and History Command (US), National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration (US), and Bureau of Ocean Energy
Management (US).
1 The electronic copy of the Guidelines for the Protection of the Underwater Archaeo-
logical Sites is available for online access [in Japanese]: http://www.bunka.go.jp/seisaku/
bunkazai/shokai/maizo.html; accessed 30th September 2020.
2 Statistical data related to archaeological heritage management available in a publis-

hed report available for online access [in Japanese]: http://www.bunka.go.jp/seisaku/bunka-
zai/shokai/pdf/r1392246_13.pdf/; accessed 30th September 2020.
42 Legal Tools for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the USA
LEGAL TOOLS FOR THE PROTECTION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL

HERITAGE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Introduction Zone (EEZ), seeing the possibility of creating new rights for
While the United States of America (U.S.) is not a party to coastal states over foreign nationals and vessels. Second,
the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea the U.S. objected to the provision allowing a coastal state to
(UNCLOS), it actively participated as an observer delegation impose protective measures, including recovery, in situations
during the development of the 2001 UNESCO Convention of ‘immediate danger’ to UCH without the formal consent of
on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 the flag state as inconsistent with the current legal regime in
UNESCO Convention). In fact, the U.S. had one of the larg- the U.S. (Varmer et al 2010).1
Fig. 1 Blakely cannon from the CSS Alabama on display in the main hall of the Cité de la Mer in Cherbourg, France.
© Keralab.
est delegations representing a variety of interests, the most US cooperation

controversial being those of the salvage industry. The U.S. Although the U.S. is not a formal party to the 2001 UNESCO
delegation expressed support for the preservation principles Convention, it has shown that it seeks to follow the funda-
included in the Convention. However, as with the UNCLOS, mental spirit of the Convention. One example of this is The
the United States did not become a signatory. Nevertheless, Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic
the delegation indicated support for underwater cultural her- which the U.S. negotiated with the United Kingdom, France,
itage (UCH), its protection and management consistent with and Canada and signed in 2003. The agreement, which re-
customary international law. quired ratification by two of the four states parties to enter
The U.S. cited two primary reasons for refraining from signing into force, languished until November, 2019 when the United
the 2001 UNESCO Convention. First, the U.S. disapproved States deposited its acceptance with the United Kingdom.
of the ‘creeping coastal state jurisdiction’ over the UCH on While the United Kingdom had ratified soon after the treaty
the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) and Exclusive Economic was negotiated, France and Canada have yet to do so.2 This
Keywords: United States of America – Environmental laws – Marine sanctuaries – Archaeological resource laws – Abandoned
shipwrecks – Sunken military craft
Legal Tools for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the USA 43
agreement provided for the preservation and management of National Seashore.7 Yet, while designating marine national
the RMS Titanic which currently lies on the Canadian conti- monuments to protect natural and cultural heritage within the
nental shelf. It designates the wreck as a historical wreck of EEZ/OCS is clearly within the U.S. government’s authority,
international importance and establishes it as a memorial to it is unclear whether and to what extent the U.S. will use its
the lives lost from the tragedy. The agreement also obligates authority to enforce the permit process on lands outside des-
the parties to take ‘all reasonable measures’ to protect recov- ignated Marine National Monuments.
ered artefacts and regulate access to the wreck. 3
Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979

The U.S. has also entered into agreements with France to The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 was
manage and protect the sunken warships CSS Alabama enacted
(Fig. 1) and La Belle, and with Japan on the Kohyoteki midg-
‘...to secure, for the present and future benefit of the American
et submarines (Fig. 2).4 These agreements recognized the
people, the protection of archaeological resources and sites
ownership and sovereign immunity of the respective sunken
which are on public lands and Indian lands, and to foster increa-
warships and, more generally, that coastal states hold juris-
sed cooperation and exchange of information between govern-
diction and authority over foreign sunken warships located
mental authorities, the professional archaeological community,
within their territorial seas.
and private individuals (Sec. 2(4)(b)).’
US Laws and policies

In addition to the aforementioned international agreements,
the U.S. has adopted a number of laws and formal policies
that are consistent with the 2001 UNESCO Convention.
Specifically, these laws, in order of importance and impact on
policy, include:
Antiquities Act of 1906.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979.
National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972.
Abandoned Shipwrecks Act of 1987.
Sunken Military Craft Act of 2004.
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966.
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969.
Below is a brief explanation of each of these laws and how

they mesh with the policies promoted by the 2001 Conven-
tion.
Fig. 2 KN-2589 Japanese Type A Midget Submarine, photo-
graphed soon after its recovery near the entrance to Pearl
Antiquities Act of 1906 Harbour, Hawaii, circa late July 1960. It had participated in
The Antiquities Act, passed by the United States Congress the attack on Pearl Harbour on 7 December 1941, but had
apparently been unable to enter the harbour as its torpe-
and signed into law by President Theodore Roosevelt in does had not been fired. © Official U.S. Navy Photograph
1906, gives the President authority to proclaim national mon- Catalogue.
uments on lands owned or controlled by the United States
and to protect ‘historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric OCS is not included in the definition of ‘public lands.’ The
structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest.’ 5
U.S. has notified other nations that it will enforce national law
While most monuments are on land, there are several marine against foreign-flagged vessels and nationals within the 12-
national monuments managed by the National Oceanograph- mile territorial sea, 24-mile contiguous zone, and 200-mile
ic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).6 The most nota- EEZ in a manner consistent with customary international law.
ble marine national monuments include the Marianas Trench, However, this statute does not protect cultural resources in
Papahānaumokuākea, and Northeast Canyons Seamounts. those zones from either foreign or U.S. nationals and flagged
Beyond designation, research and recovery of antiquities on vessels. Consequently, while this statue establishes the
such lands requires permits. The Antiquities Act, has been U.S.’s authority to protect UCH, it has not resulted in concrete
used to protect cultural property in a marine environment steps towards enforcement of such policies. Nonetheless,
managed by the U.S. National Park Service, the Canaveral ARPA may be a tool to prevent trafficking in underwater cul-
44 Legal Tools for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the USA
tural property. Section 6(c) prohibits interstate or international Warships in January 2001.13 Not long thereafter, Congress
sale, purchase, or transport of any archaeological resource passed the Sunken Military Craft Act of 2004. SMCA protects
excavated or removed in violation of a state or local law, ordi- sunken U.S. military craft in U.S. waters, the high seas, and
nance, or regulation.8 marine zones controlled by foreign nations. SMCA also pro-
vides authority for the protection of foreign military craft ly-
National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972 ing within U.S. waters. In addition to protecting these military
In 1972, President Richard Nixon signed the National Marine resources, SMCA also protects associated contents includ-
Sanctuaries Act (NMSA), authorizing the designation and ing archaeological and historical resources and, often, war
protection of areas in the marine environment. The laws spe- graves. The Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC)
cifically called for protection of areas possessing significant manages the wrecks of more than 17,000 ships and aircraft
‘conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, across the globe. The Department of the Navy has estab-
educational, cultural, archaeological, or aesthetic qualities.’ lished a permitting programme for ‘controlled site disturbance’
The law grants the U.S. authority to protect natural and cul- of military craft for archaeological, historical, or educational
tural resources on the OCS and within the 200-mile EEZ. purposes.14
Authority is delegated to the National Oceanographic and At-
mospheric Administration (NOAA) to regulate activities, issue National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
permits, assess civil penalties, and conduct enforcement to Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
protect resources. The NMSA prohibits removing or injuring (NHPA) requires federal agencies to conduct a review pro-
historic resources within the sanctuary, and any alteration of cess to ‘take into account’ the effects of any proposed feder-
the seabed (Fig. 3). The NMSA may be enforced against US- ally funded or licensed projects (‘undertaking’) impacting any
flagged vessels and nationals or against foreign-flagged ves- historic property included in or eligible for listing in the Nation-
sels and nationals with their consent. However, in the case of al Register of Historic Places (National Register).15 The U.S.
seabed alteration, the law may be enforced against foreign National Park Service, which administers the National Reg-
vessels and nationals without their consent. The NMSA ap- ister programme, has published a bulletin dedicated to the
pears to be entirely consistent with customary international nomination of historic vessels and shipwrecks both floating
law as incorporated in the UNCLOS (Varmer 2014).9 and submerged.16 As part of its required procedural review,
NHPA regulations provide for inventorying a project area, de-
Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 termining if properties eligible for the National Register will be
The Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 (ASA) law grew out of affected and whether an adverse effect is expected. A con-
legal uncertainty and the severe damage caused by treasure sultation process with appropriate parties seeks to mitigate
hunters to wrecks in the Great Lakes and other coastal areas or avoid any adverse effects. Unfortunately, the Act is proce-
during the 1970s. It asserts title to ‘abandoned shipwrecks’ dural rather than substantive in nature and cannot prevent an
embedded in a state’s submerged lands, or in coralline for- undertaking or require mitigation.
mations protected by a state on its submerged lands, and
abandoned shipwrecks located on a state’s submerged lands National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
and included in or determined eligible for inclusion in the Na- The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)17 seeks to en-
tional Register of Historic Places. The Act transfers title and sure that all branches of government give prior consideration
control of the shipwrecks to the states on which land it rests.10 to the effects of a ‘major federal action significantly affecting
In general, abandonment is established after a considerable the quality of the human environment,’ including UCH. En-
period where the owner has not attempted to salvage the vironmental assessments (EA) and environmental impact
property or claim it under salvage law, or through other ev- statements (EIS) are the tools used to assess the likely im-
idence. One example where abandonment was established pacts from the proposed actions and their possible alterna-
was in the case of the ‘Dunkirk Schooner.’ The court in North- tives. Agencies are to take a ‘hard look’ at the potential long
east Research v. One Shipwrecked Vessel found the wreck and short-term impact of their actions on the environment
to be abandoned and title passed automatically to the State (including historical and archaeological resources) as they
of New York under the ASA.11 conduct activities under the authorizing legislation.
Sunken Military Craft Act (SMCA) of 2004 Summary

This statute was the product of a series of court cases that
12
Although the United States has not ratified either the Law of
eventually led President William Clinton to adopt the State- the Sea Convention or the Convention on the Protection of
ment on the United States Policy for the Protection of Sunken the Underwater Cultural Heritage, a number of federal laws
Legal Tools for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the USA 45
1 Varmer, Ole, Jefferson Gray, and David Alberg, United States: Responses to the 2001
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. In: Journal of
Marine Archaeology 5 (2010): 129–141
2 U.S. State Department media note, December 19, 2019, https://www.state.gov/united-

states-accepts-agreement-protecting-titanic-wreck-site/; accessed 30th September 2020.
3 Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Article 3.
4 La Belle Agreement between France and the U.S., March 31, 2003; CSS Alabama
Agreement between France and the U.S., March 8, 1995; Agreement between United States
and Japan (12th February 2004).
5 54 U.S.C. § 320301
6 National Marine Sanctuaries, NOAA. https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/; accessed 30th

September 2020.
7 Lathrop v. Unidentified, Wrecked, and Abandoned Sailing Vessel, 817 F. Supp. 953
(M.D. Fla. 1993).
8 16 U.S.C. §§ 470aa-470mm
9 Varmer, Ole. Closing the Gaps in the Law Protecting Underwater Cultural Heritage
on the Outer Continental Shelf. Stanford Environmental Law Journal 33, no. 2 (May 2014):
251–87.
10 43 U.S.C. §§ 2101-2106
11 Ne. Research, LLC v. One Shipwrecked Vessel, 729 F.3d 197 (2d Cir. 2013).
12 Hatteras, Inc. v. The USS Hatteras, 698 F.2d 1215 (5th Cir. 1983); United States v.
Steinmetz, 973 F.2d 212 (3d Cir. 1992); Sea Hunt v. Unidentified Shipwrecked Vessel, 221
F.3d 634 (4th Cir. 2000); Int‘l Aircraft Recovery, L.L.C. v. Unidentified, Wrecked & Abandoned
Aircraft, 218 F.3d 1255 (11th Cir. 2000).
13 37 WCPD 195 (Monday, 22nd January 2001).
14 Naval History and Heritage Command, Sunken Military Craft Act. https://www.history.
navy.mil/research/underwater-archaeology/policy-and-resource-management/sunken-mi-
litary-craft-act.html; accessed 30th September 2020.
15 16 U.S.C. § 470 et seq.
16 James P. Delgado & A National Park Service Maritime Task Force, National Register
Bulletin 20: Nominating Historic Vessels and Shipwrecks to the National Register of Historic
Places, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1992.
17 42 U.S.C. § 4321 et seq.

Fig. 3 The shipwreck of the wooden schooner E. B. Allen at
Thunder Bay Marine Sanctuary. This ship was built in 1864
and wrecked November 20, 1871. © NOAA/NOS/Thunder
Bay National Marine Sanctuary.
have recognized the importance of cultural property, including References

UCH. The protection of UCH under these laws varies greatly. Varmer O (2014) Closing the Gaps in the Law Protecting Underwater Cultural
Heritage on the Outer Continental Shelf. In: Stanford Environmental Law
Some laws like the NHPA and NEPA are purely procedural Journal 33, no. 2 (May 2014): 251–87.
but, in the best of circumstances can result in the avoidance
Varmer O, Gray J and D Alberg (2010) United States: Responses to the 2001
of UCH or mitigation of the effects of federal projects. Oth- UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.
In: Journal of Marine Archaeology vol. 5 (2010), 129–141.
ers like the Archaeological Resources Protection Act and the
Antiquities Act potentially provide substantive protections, but Further reading
have not been utilized to their full potential. Other laws could Aznar–Gomez M J (2010) Treasure Hunters, Sunken State Vessels and the
have substantive and far-reaching implications. The Aban- 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Herita-
ge. In: International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, no. 2, 209.
doned Shipwreck Act protects UCH in the submerged lands
Hoffman B T (2003) Sailing On Uncharted Waters: The U.S. law of historic
of the states and the National Marine Sanctuaries Act pro- wrecks, sunken treasure and the protection of underwater cultural heritage.
tects any UCH located in National Marine Sanctuaries. The Presented at: Convegno Internazionale Sulla Cooperazione nel Mediterra-
neo per la Protezione del Patrimonio Culturale Subacqueo, 3–5 July 2003
Sunken Military Craft Act protects U.S. military craft wherev- Siracusa, Italy.
er they are located as well as foreign sunken craft in U.S. Murphy S D (2002) U.S. Concerns Regarding UNESCO Convention on Un-
waters. These laws provide substantive protections, but such derwater Heritage. In: American Journal of International Law 96, no. 2 (April
2002), 468.
protections tend to be narrow in scope or jurisdiction. Yet, tak-
Neil J (2011) Sifting Through the Wreckage: An Analysis and Proposed Reso-
en as a whole, and with some amendments, these tools could lution Concerning the Disposition of Historic Shipwrecks Located in Interna-
serve to establish a comprehensive UCH preservation frame- tional Waters. In: New York Law School Law Review 55, no. 3 (2010/2011),
895–921
work for the U.S. that supports the goals of 2001 UNESCO
Convention.
46 Underwater Cultural Heritage in Belgium
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN BELGIUM: RECENT

DEVELOPMENTS 2012–2019
Marnix Pieters and Christophe Delaere, Belgium
Introduction the other on legal aspects related to UCH (Derudder 2018).

The ratification of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection The doctoral study by De Clercq received an interesting fol-
of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO Conven- low-up through investigations in the summer of 2017 of an
tion) by Belgium in August 2013 was a key moment in Bel- area with exceptionally high concentrations of Late Pleisto-
gium. It emancipated what had been, until that moment, lar- cene and Palaeogene bone finds in the lowest parts of the
gely undervalued heritage. The ratification of the Convention ‘Scheur’. The ‘Scheur’ is the name of a shipping lane a few
allowed a legal framework to be put in place that stimulated miles off the Belgian coast and situated at a similar latitude
scientific research and awareness-raising activities, related with the port of Zeebrugge. These finds promise to offer new
to underwater heritage known to be present in the North Sea. insights on potentially well-preserved underwater paleo-land-
scapes present in the Belgian Territorial Sea.
The Belgian part of the North Sea and its intertidal zones
Less than a year after the ratification, in June 2014 a com-
pletely new underwater cultural heritage law came into force.
The territorial scope of this new law covered the Belgian part
of the North Sea — Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic
Zone/Continental Shelf — and as such allowed, for the first
time, underwater archaeological sites to be protected in situ.
At the end of 2019, 11 archaeological sites were protected
including the recently identified First World War (WW1) U-
boat (UB-29). This law also established a procedure for re-
porting underwater cultural heritage (UCH) found incidentally
in the North Sea. In 2018, two UCH sites received internatio-
nal attention: the identification of an unknown German WW1
U-boat and the discovery of the crash site of a B-17 ‘Flying
Fortress’. The newly identified German U-boat was the fo-
cus of an ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Forum’ organized in
Berlin on the 4th December 2018, collaboratively by Flanders
and Germany in the context of the ‘European Year of Cultural
Heritage’.
In 2013, the year of the ratification, a multiannual (2013 –2016)
research project focused on UCH in Belgium (‘SeArch’, Mis-
siaen et al. 2017) was funded by ‘Flanders Innovation and
Entrepreneurship (VLAIO)’, a Flemish research funding body.
The project developed a site assessment methodology and
a sustainable management policy for the archaeological her-
Fig. 1 Sven Van Haelst ready to explore an unknown ship-
itage of the North Sea in Belgium. It offered sea-users clear wreck in the River Scheldt with zero visibility. © M. Pieters.
instructions on how to deal with incidentally found UCH via
tailormade protocols for each activity or activity zone (sea, The first experiences with the practical application of the 2014
intertidal zone, terrestrial aggregate sites). In parallel with this UCH law in the period 2014 – 2018, the results of the SeArch
project two PhD research projects were also initiated, one fo- and the PhD research by T. Derudder (2018) revealed that
cused on the geology of the North Sea (De Clercq 2018) and some improvements to the law were highly desirable.
Keywords: Belgium – North Sea – Inland Waters – Scheldt – Lesse – Sambre

Underwater Cultural Heritage in Belgium 47
Fig. 2 Stratigraphic section of the 2012–2018 excavations in the River Lesse at Han’s cave. © C. Delaere.
The federal government took the initiative in 2018 to start the This was a re-initiation of the Han-sur-Lesse cave project lo-
preparations for amending the UCH law or even for replacing cated on the River Lesse, a known underwater archaeologi-
it with a new law, mainly in order to realize these improve- cal site studied since 1963 (Jasinski 1965) (see below).
ments, but at the same time also to optimize the implementa-
tion of the ratification of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. In Belgium, archaeological heritage is mainly the responsi-
Seen from the heritage perspective the legal and research bility of the regions (Flanders, Brussels, Wallonia). In 1999
situation related to UCH in the Belgian part of the North Sea and 2000, the Walloon Department of Heritage took a major
including the intertidal zone, that legally does not belong to part in the UNESCO talks that finally led to the Convention on
the territorial sea, is clearly evolving in the right direction. The the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted
challenge is actually to achieve the same positive evolution in in 2001. While the first drafts were mostly aimed at heritage
relation to the inland waters, mainly rivers, in the three Belgi- lost at sea, inland water heritage was also taken into account,
an regions of Flanders, Brussels, and Wallonia. Similarly, in largely thanks to the efforts of the Walloon members of the
rivers there are a lot of threatening activities that impact UCH, Belgian delegation.
such as construction works, tunnels, and dredging activities.
Meanwhile, river archaeology techniques had been gradual-
Inland waters ly developing in Wallonia since the early sixties. From 2012
In an inland water context, it seems to be more difficult at the Centre de Recherches Archéologiques Fluviales (CRAF)
times to apply the protective measures prescribed by the implemented a new programme of planned excavations in
2001 UNESCO Convention, mainly through a lack of awaren- Han-sur-Lesse to evaluate the formation and disturbances of
ess, but also practically speaking. the archaeological deposits of the River Lesse as a ‘test pro-
In the slipstream of the SeArch-project a test case was car- ject’. On this historic site, the aim was to document, through
ried out in 2016 in the River Scheldt (Van Haelst et al. 2019), new interventions, the results obtained by divers in the past.
whose waters have no visibility at all, and with a strong cur- Indeed, since the first underwater excavations carried out in
rent (Fig. 1). In the southern part of Belgium, a further test 1963 in the cave, thousands of artefacts dating from the Late
case was carried out in 2017 in the River Sambre and exca- Neolithic to modern times have been collected from the un-
vations are organized in the River Lesse since 2012. derground River Lesse.
48 Underwater Cultural Heritage in Belgium
RIVE GAUCHE
10 0 14 0 22/0 10 20 30 40
40 30 20
e 60 50
80 Chem
in de halag
PONT DU M
#1
Boulet Pierre
en pierre striée
B Corbeau
en pierre
C
USÉE
S A M B R E >>> Coupe #2
A en étain #3
0 10 20 30 40
lage
Chemin de ha
Légende
RIVE DROITE
Sondage (#) 0 50m
Pierre de taille ≥ 80 cm
Pieux en bois ± 8-12 cm Ø (Type 1)
Pierre de taille ≤ 80 cm
Pieux en bois ± 16-18 cm Ø (Type 2)
Élement exceptionnel
Sabots en métal (associés aux pieux Type 2)
A Zones prospectées (DGO2) Pieux en bois - section quadrangulaire (Type 3)
36 33 32 27 25 18 3 1
4 Boulet
38
31 20 19 10 14 7 2 en pierre
55 47
52 46 39 6 5
51 48 45 42
43 12 Grande
8 Dalle 54
41 26 13
30 28 22 21 9
53 50 49 44 35 15 11
C 37 40 29 24 23 16
34 17
0 10m
TOPOGRAPHIE DES PIEUX EN BOIS ET SABOTS (ZONE C)
BATTE/BIEF DU VIEUX MOULIN (1733-1865)
TOPO: DGO2 / D. PREUD’HOMME (AWaP)
TRAITEMENT, DAO et TYPOLOGIE: C. DELAERE (ULB)
Fig. 3 Topographical plan of the 2017 excavations in the River Sambre at Namur. © C. Delaere.
Since 2012, part of the riverbed has been systematically ex- natural transformations of Han’s Cave, and has provided a
cavated to study its sedimentary accumulation (Ansieau et better general understanding of the formation of riverine ar-
al. 2013; 2015, Delaere et al. 2016, 2018; Delaere and War- chaeological sites in the area.
menbol 2019).
In 2017, another operation was conducted as a test project
Between 2012 and 2018, diving archaeologists documen- for preventive archaeology in a navigable river context. A
ted a particularly well-preserved archaeological deposit and group of archaeologist-divers from the Université Libre de
identified different and distinct archaeological strata ranging Bruxelles (ULB), in collaboration with the CRAF and vari-
from the 3 millennium BC to the 21 century AD, which is
rd st
ous departments of the Service Public de Wallonie – SPW
an exceptional case study (Fig. 2). Underwater operations (DGO2, DGO4/AWaP), carried out a night operation in the
aggregated 1,020 hours of diving, the excavation of an 84 waters of the River Sambre at the confluence of the Grognon
m2 area and the recording of more than 10,482 fragments of site in Namur (Delaere et al. in prep.). The team carried out an
artefacts and ecofacts. In 2017, undisturbed deposits from
1 2
archaeological diagnosis of the river, both horizontally, arte-
the Bronze and Iron Age were identified in the lowest levels of facts horizontal contextualization / topography, and vertically
the excavation trench. These layers have literally been sea- — artefacts vertical contextualization / stratigraphy (Fig. 3).3
led, and fairly well protected, by the collapse of cave ceilings More than 4,600 artefacts and ecofacts, ranging from Roman
linked to ancient earthquakes. For the first time protohistoric times to the 21st century, were recorded in three 4 m2 test pits.
artefacts have been discovered in a stratified context in the In addition, the foundations of the Vieux Moulin (1733–1865),
River Lesse. 55 wooden piles which are still preserved in situ in the river,
We can now document, thanks to a 4-metre high stratigra- have been located and surveyed upstream of the ‘Museum
phic section, 5,000 years of almost uninterrupted occupation, bridge’. This first preventive underwater evaluation operation
human activities, and also identify changes in the karst land- in the River Sambre involved 78 hours of diving, the excavati-
scape, whether they are of anthropogenic origin — for exam- on of a 12 m2 area and a further 3,110 m2 area was surveyed.
ple shoreline development — or natural occurrences such as Analysing the state of preservation of the archaeological le-
earthquakes. The sedimentary accumulation of the riverbed, vels of the river, the main objective of this test, confirmed that
slopes, and banks has therefore recorded all the cultural and the river has been disturbed by dredging since 1859; channel-
Underwater Cultural Heritage in Belgium 49
ling from around 1825 to 1830 and between 1950 and 1953. References
However, the presence of many artefacts and of the foun- Ansieau C, Delaere C and Jasinski M (2013) Rochefort, Han-sur-Lesse: reprise
dations of the mill on the bottom of the River Sambre show de la recherche subaquatique à la sortie de la grotte. In: Chronique de l’ar-
chéologie wallonne 21, 288–290.
that there are still partially or completely preserved areas that
— (2015) Rochefort, Han-sur-Lesse: fouilles subaquatiques au Trou de Han,
deserve further study, or at least protected as underwater ar- résultats des campagnes 2012–2014. In: Chronique de l’archéologie wal-
chaeological sites. lonne 23, 324–327.
Recently, the new Code Wallon du Patrimoine (CoPat), pu- De Clercq M (2018) Drowned landscapes of the Belgian Continental Shelf:
implications for northwest European landscape evolution and preservation
blished 22 May 2018, introduced for the first time the notion of potential for submerged heritage, PhD thesis, Ghent University, Belgium.
material heritage located in underwater areas in its sphere of
Delaere C (2017) The location of Lake Titicaca’s coastal area during the Tiwa-
definition. In 2019, the CoPat will replace the Code Wallon de naku and Inca periods: methodology and strategies of underwater archaeo-
logy. In: Journal of Maritime Archaeology 12, 223–238.
l’Aménagement du Territoire, de l’Urbanisme et du Patrimoine
(CWATUP), and gives a positive, albeit discreet, signal on the Delaere C, Ansieau C and Jasinski M (2016) Rochefort, Han-sur-Lesse: fouil-
les subaquatiques au Trou de Han, campagne 2015. In: Chronique de l’ar-
need to include immersed areas in historic areas that would chéologie wallonne 24, 302–304.
currently benefit from preventive archaeological action in the — (2018) Rochefort, Han-sur-Lesse: fouilles subaquatiques au Trou de Han,
event of redevelopment. bilan des campagnes 2015–2017. In: Chronique de l’archéologie wallonne
26, 220–223.
These test cases in inland water contexts provided useful ex-
Delaere C and E Warmenbol (2019) The watery way to the world of the dead:
perience and information, and will form a good starting point Underwater excavations (old and new) at the cave of Han-sur-Lesse, Bel-
to further develop an assessment methodology and a sustai- gium. In: Büster L., Warmenbol E., Mlekuž D (eds) Between Worlds: Cham,
Springer, pp. 137–161.
nable management policy for inland waters in Belgium.
Delaere C, Ansieau C, Byl S, Preud’Homme D and Bourguignon A (in prep.)
Diagnostic archéologique subaquatique dans la Sambre (Grognon, Namur);
rapport d’intervention. Service public de Wallonie (SPW), Agence wallonne
1 Examples of artefacts found in Han-sur-Lesse: ceramics, weapons, pearls, coins, le- du Patrimoine (AWaP).
ather soles, bronze and iron objects, glass fragments, etc. dating from the Late Neolithic to
modern times.
Derudder T (2018) Our Past Beneath the Waves. The Legal Protection of Un-
2 Ecofacts: natural objects used by humans without modification. derwater Cultural Heritage from an International, North Sea and Belgian Per-
spective, PhD thesis, Ghent University, Belgium.
3 For the excavation strategy see Delaere 2017.
Jasinski M (1965) Plongée sous la terre, Paris, pp. 7–153.
Missiaen T, Pieters M, Maes F, Kruiver P, De Maeyer P and Seys J (2017)

The SeArch Project: Towards an assessment methodology and sustaina-
ble management policy for the archaeological heritage of the North Sea in
Belgium. In: Bailey G. N., Harff J. and Sakellariou D (eds) Under the sea:
archaeology and palaeolandscapes of the continental shelf. Springer, Cham,
pp. 415–424.
Pieters M, De Clercq W, Demerre I, Missiaen T and Van Haelst S (2018) Belgi-

um – finds from trawl fishing, dredging and beach walking. In: Fischer A and
Pedersen L (eds) Oceans of archaeology. Jutland Archaeological Society
and Aarhus University Press, Aarhus, pp. 88–93.
Van Haelst S, Pieters M and Vandevelde J (2019) Archeologische prospec-

tie met ingreep in de bodem. Vaargeul Boven-Schelde. Baasrode-Fa-
briek and Mariekerke (archeologische vergunning 2016/312). Eindrapport
(inclusief aanbevelingen), Onderzoeksrapporten agentschap Onroerend
Erfgoed 115.
50 Underwater Cultural Heritage in India
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN INDIA
Introduction The subject has since progressed considerably in the last

The Republic of India (Bharat), the seventh largest country four decades. Although the Archaeological Survey of India
in the world, by area, is prominently positioned in the Indian (ASI) had proposed to start underwater archaeology well be-
Ocean. Protruding deep into the Ocean, it played a very acti- fore it actually started, the desire to implement the proposal
ve role in trade and contacts in both, eastern and the western never materialised. It seemed archaeologists working on the
seas for the last several millennia. With a coastline of more ground somehow did not appreciate the idea of exploring the
than 7,500 km and over 5,000-year-old known maritime his- ‘liquid’ earth. The first dedicated project was sponsored by the
tory, she is appropriately called the ‘Mistress of the Eastern Indian National Science Academy supported by the National
Sea’. About 2.1 million sq. km of water surrounds the vast Institute of Oceanography and the Archaeological Survey of
peninsula with 1,197 islands, and is one of the richest repo- India. After a long gap, in 1987, the training of archaeologists
sitories for underwater cultural heritage. Besides the above, started as a part of an ongoing project at Dwarka. In 1990,
internal waters comprise rivers, lake beds, swamps, tanks, ASI conducted the first independent underwater exploration
and reservoirs, which have been used throughout the ages, on a shipwreck off Bangaram Island in Lakshadweep (Tripat-
and which are places to look for important submerged herita- hi 1994, 125–128) in accordance with existing laws. Despite
ge. This brief article touches upon some of the relevant issues having required technical competence, and staff having re-
in the field such as the development of underwater archaeo- ceived advanced training abroad (1990–92), ASI could not
logy in the country, some major investigations, legal aspects, decide to develop its own branch. Popularity of this branch
professional training and public engagement for study and attracted many senior officers who organised some program-
preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in India. mes from time to time, in collaboration with other institutions.
India offers a vast variety of UCH, inland as well as in the Establishment of the Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW)
seas. Remains of hundreds of major and minor ports can be in the Archaeological Survey of India was the real beginning
found on the coasts, in estuaries, and on river banks, or lying of systematic underwater archaeological researches having
submerged. Besides them, as recorded in ancient texts there clear objectives and methodology. The very extensive water
are several port cities believed to be submerged. Underwa- areas around India are extremely rich in UCH but a system-
ter archaeological investigations at Dwarka, Mahabalipuram, atic search and study requires a significant number of trained
Elephanta, etc. have revealed a variety of submerged struc- underwater archaeologists. In the first two decades, not even
tures and finds related to ports, maritime trade, and naviga- half a dozen personnel could be trained. Thus, proper trai-
tion. Some of these sites were global centres for maritime ning and exposure in the field was the primary need to further
trade and long-distance contact points. Furthermore, naviga- develop the subject. Though short-term training programmes
ble perennial rivers provided excellent inroads for transport for young and willing archaeologists from different institutions
of goods and people to hinterlands in different parts of the were organized, more advanced stages to impart practical
country. training could not be held, as was originally planned, for want
of suitable diving training facilities.
Beginning and development
Systematic and organized archaeological studies started in The first excavation, approved by the Government of India
the country in 1861 with the personal efforts of Colonel Alex- under the existing laws, was conducted off Mahabalipuram
ander Cunningham. Similarly, underwater archaeology mar- (Tripathi 2001–02). The UAW had a practical approach to-
ked its beginning with an underwater survey conducted in wards spreading the knowledge and utilizing available exper-
1981 by geophysicists to establish the veracity of a legend tise and equipment shared with other institutions. With this
mentioning the submergence of a city recorded in ancient li- clear vision, ASI worked in collaboration with the Indian Navy.
terature (Vora 1987, 159–164). As a result, the first decade of the 21st century witnessed
Keywords: Underwater Excavations – Dwarka – Mahabalipuram – Lakshadweep

Underwater Cultural Heritage in India 51
Fig. 1 Diving ship INS Nireekshak. © Alok Tripathi.
major systematic underwater excavations off Bangaram Is- In order to draw attention of land–locked states, towards the
land (2002), Mahabalipuram (2005), Dwarka (2007), and Ele- potential for UCH in their internal waters, underwater explo-
phanta (2009). ration was conducted in Loktak lake (Fig. 6) in North–eastern
Judicious utilization of state infrastructure (Fig. 1) towards part of India (Tripathi 2019a, 1–9). Besides underwater ex-
the study of cultural heritage resulted in the successful excavations, a systematic study and documentation of ancient
cavation of Princes Royal, a shipwreck off Bangaram Island boats and boatbuilding technology is another important area
(Fig. 2) at a depth of 54 metres (Tripathi 2004). Results of the of research. There is also great scope in the field of nautical
excavation were presented to experts regularly to seek their archaeology, which deserves immediate attention.
views and improve skills. With the adoption of a planned and Besides these major systematic excavations, other agencies
methodical approach, the UAW had now become the leading have also worked on a number of sites. Some of these inclu-
centre in the Asia-Pacific region, in the field of underwater de: explorations on the Tamil Nadu coast by Tamil University,
archaeology. Thanjavur (Athiyaman 2007, 141–154); exploration on the
Since the establishment of the Wing, it emphasized on in Andhra coast by Andhra University, Visakhapattnam (Gan-
situ preservation. Well–trained divers, exposed to archaeo- gadharam 1991, 198); geophysical survey off Mahabalipuram
logical methods, became an asset (Fig. 3). Onsite training by the Marine Wing of the Geological Survey of India, Kolka-
was always an integral part of every project, which effectively ta; geophysical survey in the Gulf of Khambhat by National
catered for the need for trained manpower. Underwater exca-
vations off Mahabalipuram (Tripathi 2007a, 127–139) had to
be limited due to a tsunami which had occurred in December
2004.
Underwater investigations at Dwarka, the place associated
with Lord Krishna (Fig. 4), generated huge popularity among
the public about this branch of archaeology. At the same time
a huge confusion was also created in academic spheres by
contradictory claims made by different scholars on the basis
of exploratory dives and digs made here and there, for about
two decades (Rao 1988, 47–53; Desa et al. 2001). Results of
the excavations conducted by UAW off Dwarka (Fig. 5) put
all speculation to rest, and provided scientific data about the
Fig. 2 Bangaram Island: in situ documentation of
submerged remains off Dwarka (Tripathi 2013). shipwreck. © Alok Tripathi.
Fig. 3 Diving on a shipwreck site. © Alok Tripathi.
Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai; and several works Over the last four decades, considerable progress has been
at Dwarka, Kaveripattinam, Tranquebar, Lakshadweep, Som- made and several institutions, such as the Tamil Nadu De-
nath, Gujarat coast, Goa waters, etc. reported by the National partment of Archaeology, Indian National Science Academy,
Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula (Sila, Gaur and Sun- National Institute of Oceanography, Tamil University, Andhra
daresh 2004, 28–41). University, and Indian Navy, have also played important ro-
Experimental archaeology has not become popular in India, les. Although some excellent projects have been executed,
so far, but India’s participation in the Magan Boat Project, maintaining high standards, there should be no hesitation in
followed by an international seminar was a welcome step in mentioning that more is required to deal with the emerging
this direction (Tripathi 2006, 8–11). Recommendations of an challenges in near future.
experimental project on Harappan ships are yet to be imple-
mented. Such projects on ancient shipping and shipbuilding Legal provisions
technology would add considerably to existing knowledge, India is a union of states, and as per the Constitution of In-
which is based upon excavated finds and other archaeologi- dia matters concerning cultural heritage, ancient monuments,
cal evidence. archaeological sites and remains, are divided amongst the
Union and the States. All of the ‘ancient and historical monu-
ments’, which have been declared to be of national import-
ance are allotted to the Union (List I, item 67), whereas all
remaining monuments are allotted to the states (List II, item
12). All ‘archaeological sites and remains’, which have been
declared as of national importance are allotted to the Union
(List I, item 67), and the remaining ones are placed in the
Concurrent list (List III, item 40). Under this complex arran-
gement various departments under the central and state go-
vernments work for the protection and preservation of cultural
heritage (Tripathi 2007b).
Until the establishment of the Underwater Archaeology Wing

Fig. 4 Dwarka: Near shore acoustic survey. © Alok Tripathi. (UAW) in 2001, there was no mechanism to regulate activities
Fig. 5 Dwarka: Submerged structural remains. © Alok Tripathi.
directed towards UCH. UAW started regulating these activi- sionals working in diverse areas are readily willing to collabo-
ties by implementing relevant provisions of existing national rate with projects related to the study and protection of UCH.
legislation, which marked a paradigm shift in the underwa- The enthusiasm from these institutions to conduct fieldwork,
ter archaeological studies in the country. In the same year, at times, is so high that it practically becomes difficult to ob-
the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, lige them, as the systematic analysis, study, and conservation
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) adopted the is a time-consuming process.
Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Her-
itage (Paris 2001). India voted in favour of the Convention The collaboration of the UAW and the Indian Navy was a turn-
and in principle, legally, the government had no issue in ratifying point in the history of underwater archaeology in India. It
ing the Convention. Somehow, this issue was side-lined and was a unique venture where professionals who were more
the Convention was not ratified, as yet. However, in 2004 the accustomed to military training for underwater operations
Rules annexed to the Convention were adopted, with minor were deployed, on a large scale, to the conservation of cul-
modifications, for implementation (Tripathi 2019b, 33–42). tural heritage which was often destroyed in the past. State-
For effective implementation of policies towards protection of of-the-art technology and scientific tools available for military
UCH in the country, there is a need to have a dedicated agen- purposes were effectively used for search, study, and retrie-
cy with an effective secretariat, and a Scientific and Technical val in the field of culture. Human resources and advanced
Advisory Committee. It should regularly meet the officials of equipment were made available according to specific requi-
states and offer required necessary scientific and technical rements, which resulted in the most systematic underwater
support. archaeological excavations and important discoveries during
the first decade of this century.
Collaboration
Sharing resources, expertise, and collaboration are neces- Concerns
sary for any meaningful multidisciplinary research. Inputs Like terrestrial archaeology, underwater archaeology also
from experts from relevant fields, collaboration with various started with individual efforts and seriously lacked a wider na-
agencies, and participation of the public is a tested path to tional vision. As a result, until today we could not adequately
success. As far as technological advances and availability of prioritize our concerns. Those in position to control all the ac-
scientific equipment is concerned, institutions in the country tivities directed to underwater cultural heritage created a big
are second to none. It is satisfying that scientists and profes- hurdle in the development of this branch of archaeology and
Fig. 6 Loktak: Underwater archaeological investigations in internal waters. © Alok Tripathi.
the subject could not develop as it should have been by now. cies requires a drastic change. This is an area where cus-
Agencies like the Archaeological Survey of India, universities, todians of the heritage have to work seriously. The old sense
the Department of Ocean Development, the National Institute of ownership needs to be replaced by a democratic sense of
of Ocean Technology, the National Institute of Oceanography, partnership.
the Indian Navy and Coast Guards, the Maritime Boards,
port authorities, and the Marine Police, need to collaborate The way ahead
and work together for the preservation of underwater cultural Oceans are an integral part of our cultural heritage. In the
heritage. International agencies, particularly academic and decade (2021–2030) which is termed as the UN Decade of
research institutions can also be involved as is permissible Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, Indian agen-
under the law. cies will have to work together to prioritize common goals to
Proper management of UCH would require effective legis- conserve coastal and marine areas according to national and
lation and an active framework for its implementation. As international law. With the sustainable use of oceans and their
mentioned above, India has not ratified the 2001 UNESCO resources, an appropriate focus on conservation of cultural
Convention, as yet. There is no national legislation dealing heritage will also have to be ensured. Mechanisms will have
exclusively with UCH. Provisions in existing national legisla- to be devised so that developmental activities are permitted
tions and shipwreck protection are being used for regulating as per internationally accepted best practices.
underwater operations and maintaining standards.
Lack of awareness among the concerned agencies combined To achieve these goals, there is a need to develop compre-
with the impact of rapid developmental activities is undoub- hensive strategies towards the underwater cultural heritage.
tedly posing a serious danger for the underwater cultural her- In general, the cultural significance of the ocean, and in parti-
itage. Salvage of sunken cultural heritage has not been repor- cular, raising awareness about the underwater cultural herita-
ted frequently but with to-days easy availability of information ge is the need of the hour. In a country like India, with a huge
and technology, a phenomenal increase in such incidents in water area it is a gigantic task which can only be achieved
the near future cannot be ruled out. by active collaboration, sharing of information, resources and
Viable options for the preservation of heritage requires the expertise.
active participation of the public, to whom it belongs. The pre-
sent approach of total dependence on governmental agen-
Acknowledgement References
While writing on Underwater archaeology in India it becomes Athiyaman N (2007) Underwater Archaeological Studies off Tamil Nadu Coast.
my duty to express my thanks to all those who played a key In: Alok Tripathi (ed) India and the Eastern Sea. New Delhi: Organising Com-
mittee of the ISMA and Agam Kala Prakashan.
role in this field in various capacities. I record my thanks to
Desa E, Vora KH, Sundreshand Gaur AS (2001) Marine Archaeological Ex-
the Archaeological Survey of India, Ministry of Culture, Go- plorations of Dwarka, Bet Dwarka and Somnath, Gujarat, Phase II, Final
vernment of India for funding my training in India and abroad Report (1998–2001) Goa: Department of Ocean Development, New Delhi,
and National Institute of Oceanography.
and for providing all the necessary facilities to conduct under-
Gangadharam EV (1991) The Lost Temple for Vaisakheswara off Visakhapat-
water archaeological excavations. I would fail in my duty, if I nam, Andhra Pradesh, India, In: S.R. Rao (ed) Recent Advances in Marine
forget to express my gratitude to Shri Jagat Pati Joshi, the Archaeology. Dona-Paula: Society for Marine Archaeology.
Director-General, Archaeological Survey of India for selecting Rao SR (1988) Excavation of Submerged Ports: Dwarka – A Case Study, In:
S.R. Rao (ed) Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries. Dona–Paula:
me for the training and to Dr S.R. Rao, Principle Investiga- National Institute of Oceanography.
tor, Marine Archaeology in India Project for my initial training.
Sila T, Gaur AS and Sundaresh (2004) Marine Archaeology in India. In: Man
Thanks are also due to Smt. Komal Anand, the Director-Ge- and Environment XXIX (1): 28–41.
neral, Archaeological Survey of India and Dr. R.V.V. Ayyar, Tripathi A (1994) A Historic Ship–Wreck in Lakshadweep Waters. In: S.R. Rao
Secretary, Department of Culture for according sanctions for (ed) The Role of Universities and Research Institutes in Marine Archaeology.
Dona Paula: National Institute of Oceanography.
the establishment of the Underwater Archaeology Wing. I am
— (2001–2002) The Underwater Exploration of Mahabalipuram in Bay of Ben-
also thankful to the Secretary, Ministry of Culture for streng- gal. In: Puratattava, p. 32.
thening the Underwater Archaeology Wing and providing the
— (2004) Excavation of Princes Royal – An Interim Report. New Delhi: Organi-
much needed functional autonomy within the system. Menti- sing Committee of the International Seminar on Marine Archaeology.
on must also be made of Admiral Madhvendra Singh, Chief of — (2006) Magan Boat Reconstruction Project: An Introduction. In: Alok Tripathi
the Naval Staff, Indian Navy, and Smt. Kasturi Gupta Menon, (ed) Magan and Indus Civilisation, Information, Keynote Address, Abstracts.
Vadodara: Archaeological Survey of India.
Director-General, Archaeological Survey of India, for appro-
— (2007a) Offshore and Onshore Excavation at Mahabalipuram – 2005. In:
ving the collaboration between Archaeological Survey of India Alok Tripathi (ed) India and the Eastern Seas. Delhi: Organising Committee
and the Indian Navy for the search, study and preservation of International Seminar on Marine Archaeology, and Agam Kala Prakashan.
of underwater cultural heritage. Thanks are also due to my — (2007b) The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains
Act, 1958 (with Rules, Amendments, Notifications and Orders). Delhi: Sun-
colleagues in the Archaeological Survey of India and officers deep Prakashan.
and officials of Indian Navy, who supported me and those who
— (2013) Excavations at Dwarka – 2007 (An Interim Report), Delhi: Organising
tirelessly worked with me on these projects. Committee of the International Seminar on Marine Archaeology and Shara-
da Publishing House.
— (2019a) Underwater Archaeological Exploration in Loktak Lake. In Alok Tri-

pathi (ed) Cultural Heritage of Northeast India: Recent Perspective. Delhi:
Sharada Publishing House.
— (2019b) Progress and Prospects of Underwater Archaeology in India. In:

Puratattva, p. 49
Vora KH (1987) A Note on Geophysical Explorations for Marine Archaeology off

Tamil Nadu Coast, India. In: The International Journal of Nautical Archaeo-
logy, 16.2:159–164.
56 Spain and the Legal Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
SPAIN AND THE LEGAL PROTECTION OF THE UNDERWATER

CULTURAL HERITAGE
Introduction strong reaction coinciding with the start of the negotiations

Spain’s position between the Mediterranean Sea and the of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the
Atlantic Ocean, and between Europe and Africa, located the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO Convention).
country in a maritime carrefour from very early times, with
more than 8,000 kilometres (≈ 5,000 miles) of coastline. His- The road to ratification of the 2001 UNESCO Convention
torically, the different populations, peoples, and kingdoms During these negotiations, Spain had a complex position sin-
in the Iberian Peninsula (Phoenicians, Romans, Arabs, and ce, as a naval power, it defended, for example, the applicabi-
Christians, to mention just a few)1 along with visitors from el- lity of the immunity principle to non-abandoned sunken state
sewhere, made their presence felt along Iberian waters, with vessels, and the relevance of the UN Convention on the Law
traces of civilization, commerce, architecture, and fisheries. of the Sea (UNCLOS); but, at the same time, Spain also en-
Later, the leading role undertaken by Spain in the Modern Era dorsed the principles and cooperative scheme framed by the
(≈ 1470) spread its vessels and sailors through all the seas up Convention and wished to collaborate with other states (parti-
to the end of the 19 century.
th
cularly the former Spanish dominions in America and Asia) in
However, contemporaneous Spain only considered its inter- the protection and enhancement of shared UCH. Spain even-
national role on the protection of its underwater cultural her- tually considered that the 2001 UNESCO Convention neither
itage (UCH) quite recently, a turning point resulting from sad affected the immunity rule nor the delicate balance created by
cases occurring in the 1980s, such as the looting of the Ato- UNCLOS in the different marine zones, most particularly the
cha2 or the destruction of the San Diego.3 That same decade exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and the Continental Shelf,
witnessed, however, the main legal development of protec- but also the Contiguous Zone.
tion at a domestic level: The Law 16/1985, on the Spanish Consequently, Spain was able to ratify the Convention on 6th
Historical Heritage, followed by replicant regional laws in June 2005 and, once the Convention entered into force on 2nd
all the quasi-federal territorial entities created by the 1978 January 2009, it was incorporated into Spanish domestic law
Constitution (the Comunidades Autónomas: autonomous re- on 5th March 2009.
gions). The Constitution and these laws operated, not with-
out discussions, a general transfer to the regions of most of Spain decided to ratify the Convention to send a clear mes-
the legal responsibilities regarding the protection of UCH in sage to states saying that Spain found in the principles and
Spanish waters, including the continental shelf (art 40 of the rules embodied in the Convention the best common language
Law 16/1985). Since then, all historical and archaeological to protect UCH. This was done amid another two turbulent
objects located up to the outer limit of the continental shelf cases, discussed before foreign and international tribunals,
(i.e. 200 nautical miles) are declared to belong to the Spanish again around the looting of Spanish UCH: the destruction of
Historic Heritage. This declaration is mirrored in all and each the Spanish frigate Mercedes5 by a treasure-hunter company
of the regional laws governing the cultural heritage, declaring (Odyssey Marine Exploration) and the looting from the M/V
also that these objects belong to the respective regional cul- Louisa6 of some heritage in the Bay of Cádiz (Figs. 1, 2).
tural heritage. Spain won both cases and reinforced the policy to react vigo-
rously against any attempt by commercial enterprises to de-
Up to this legislative change, UCH located on Spanish coasts stroy Spanish UCH located elsewhere. But, at the same time,
was not properly protected since, as in many other count- Spain also decided to complement this policy with another
ries, there was no clear protective awareness of a heritage one, nested in the Convention itself: to create a network of
that was still largely unknown. However, another turning point cooperation via administrative and political agreements with
may be found in the first cases (in the 1990s) when Spain liti- different states. Two Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
gated against treasure-hunters before foreign courts: the ca- have been signed between the US-NOAA and with México,
ses of the illegal salvage of two Spanish Armada frigates sunk and some others are in preparation. Both MoUs have as their
in U.S. waters – the Juno and La Galga – which provoked a
4
objectives the creation of a framework of cooperation between
Keywords: Spain – Law of the Sea – Underwater Cultural Heritage – UNCLOS

Spain and the Legal Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 57
the signatories concerning the identification, protection, ma- and the Annex — are also included in the domestic legislation
nagement, and preservation of underwater cultural heritage under the scheme of the natural and cultural impact assess-
sites and resources within the signatories’ respective areas of ments, compulsory before any activity which may indirectly
responsibility. affect UCH in Spanish waters.
Fig. 1 Enforcement actions by the Spanish Civil Guard de- Fig. 2 Enforcement actions by the Spanish Civil Guard de-
tained the ‘Louisa’. © AFP/José Luis Roca. tained the ‘Odyssey Explorer’. © Spanish Guardia Civil.
A new national policy: domestic legislation and institu- Along with the action of the National Museum (ARQVA)11 and
tional cooperation several regional centres for the protection of the UCH (Figs.
Along with that foreign policy, at a domestic level some ot- 3, 4), there is also a high-tech monitoring and surveillance
her changes have also been produced. Although there is system provided by the Guardia Civil: the Sistema Integrado
not an implementing law of the 2001 UNESCO Convention, de Vigilancia Marítima (SIVE, Integrated System of Maritime
most prominent principles and rules have been endorsed by Surveillance), which covers most of the Strait of Gibraltar wa-
Spanish legislation (both as State legislation and as regional ters as well as the Spanish Mediterranean coasts, including
legislation). As already said, after its official publication, the the Balearic Islands. Initially created for the monitoring of drug
Convention forms part of Spanish law; and given the self-exe- trafficking and illicit migration, it now permits a total control of
cuting nature of some of its rules (and particularly those of any movement of vessels — even the smallest ones — and
the Annex), the Convention may be legally evoked before the their navigation patterns in archaeological sensitive areas.12
administration and courts. These areas are not only those declared as ‘archaeological
Several questions have been implicitly or explicitly applied, areas’13 but also other categories of protective areas which
or implemented at a domestic level. In general terms, threats have proven to be an extreme useful tool for the protection of
to UCH have been catalogued as threats to national security UCH: the so-called ‘archaeological preservation areas’, i.e.
both in the National Security Strategy 2017 and in the Natio- those clearly determined areas in which the existence of ar-
nal Maritime Security Strategy 2013. This has meant for the
7
chaeological remains of UCH is presumed to be located and
very first time, that Spain had categorised these questions it is considered necessary to adopt precautionary measures.
among other serious threats to national security. Previously, As may be seen in figure 5 as an example, the coast of An-
several inter-ministerial agreements were concluded between dalucía is mapped with numerous cases of the two types of
the ministries of Culture, Home Office, and Foreign Affairs as zones: those with known archaeological remains (in red) and
a by-product of the 2007 National Plan for the Protection of those preservation areas with most probable archaeological
Underwater Cultural Heritage and the Green Paper published sites (in green). The latter implies several limits to different
in 2009.8 activities to be performed in these areas (from fishing to di-
Once the basic of the renewed national policy was adopted, ving, from mining to prospecting) and the need of special per-
some legislative initiatives were passed. For example, the mits for any activity.
Law 14/2014 on Maritime Navigation which, going beyond This brief tour d’horizon shows how Spain has legally and
article 4 of the Convention, prohibits the application of the politically implemented some relevant parts of the Conven-
law of salvage to UCH. Most of heritage regional laws and
9
tion. There are still gaps and on-going policies which must
regulations explicitly endorsed – or are going to endorse – the be correctly implemented. Once adjured most cases and
preservation in situ as the first option. 10
Precautionary mea- opportunities for treasure hunting, the biggest challenge for
sures foreseen in the Convention — particularly its article 5 Spain – as well as for the rest of the States Parties to the
58 Spain and the Legal Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
Fig. 3 Divers working on the in situ preservation of the Bou- Fig. 5 The coast of Andalucía is mapped with two types of
Ferrer roman wreck. © José A. Moya. zones: those with known archaeological remains (in red)
and those preservation areas with most probable archaeo-
logical sites (in green). © Spanish Government.
Convention – is to properly implement its article 5, under Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo
which each State Party shall use the best practicable me- (AECID), Spain is currently discussing the signature of new
ans at its disposal to prevent or mitigate any adverse effects MoU with several States as Colombia, Panama, Uruguay, or
that might arise from activities under its jurisdiction inciden- Ecuador, among others, where treasure hunters are still ma-
tally affecting underwater cultural heritage. This implies a rauding, or with other States with already strong collaborative
multi-layered, integrated, and complete national policy which approaches, like Argentina or Cuba.
need to be implemented in the forthcoming years. Last but
not least, Spain is trying to have an intense scientific and Funding
political cooperation with other states where UCH linked to This paper has been elaborated within the R+D Project fun-
Spain is located, most particularly with American States and ded by Universitat Jaume I ‘Intereses de España y de la UE
the Philippines. Along with the funding offered by the Agencia en el ámbito marítimo’ (R + D Project UJI-B2017-71).
Fig. 4 Divers working on the in situ preservation of the Bou-Ferrer roman wreck. © José A. Moya.
Spain and the Legal Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 59
1 It is estimated that Phoenicians established in the southern part of Spain more than References / Further reading
3,000 years ago, founding the oldest western European city: Gadir, later the Greek Gádeira
(τὰ Γάδειρα) and the Roman Gades, then the Arab Qadis (‫ )سداق‬and today’s Cádiz. Rome Álvarez EM (2012) La protección jurídica del patrimonio cultural subacuático
began its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula after the Second Punic War (218 BC) and the en España, Tirant, Valencia.
Arab invasions commenced in 711 BC. The Christian Reconquista ended in 1492, the same
year of Columbus’ arrival to America.
Aznar MJ (2004) La protección del patrimonio cultural subacuático. Especial
2 The remains of the Atocha a Spanish galleon of the fleet sunk in the Florida Keys in referencia al caso de España, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia.
1622 — were looted and commercialised by Mel Fisher since the end of the 1980s, and its
collection was irremediably dispersed.
Carrera FJ (2005) Protección internacional del patrimonio cultural submarino,
3 The San Diego was a galleon pertaining to the route of the Manila Galleon, sunk in Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca.
1600 fighting against a Dutch fleet in Manila Bay. The site was ‘recovered’ by Frank Goddio
and part of its collection was bought by the Spanish Government. Dromgoole S (2004) Murky waters for government policy: the case of a sev-
4 Sunk in Virginia waters in 1750 (La Galga) and 1802 (Juno). See T Scovazzi (2018)
enteenth century British warship and ten tonnes of gold coins, 28 Marine
Sunken Spanish Ships before American Courts, 33 International Journal of Maritime & Co- Policy 189.
astal Law 1; and M J Aznar (2010) Treasure hunters, sunken State vessels and the 2001
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, 25 International García M and Agudo MJ (2008) Underwater Cultural Heritage and Submerged
Journal of Maritime & Coastal Law 209. Objects: Conceptual Problems, Regulatory Difficulties. The Case of Spain,
5 This well-known case initiated when a US treasure-hunting company – Odyssey Ma- 14 Spanish Yearbook of International Law 1.
rine Exploration Inc. – recovered in 2007 from the Portuguese continental shelf a cargo of
around 600,000 coins (mainly silver Spanish Reales de a Ocho) and some other artifacts Ortiz M and Albert MM (2011) La protección del patrimonio arqueológico sub-
from the remains of a Spanish Royal Navy frigate sunk in October 1804 while in combat acuático, competencias sancionadoras de la Comunidad Autónoma de An-
against a British squadron. The recovery of the cargo was made without any permit from dalucía: Caso Odyssey, 79 Revista Andaluza de Administraciones Públicas
Spanish or Portuguese authorities and without any scientific care of the submerged remains
155.
— including human remains —, thus ‘irreparably’ disturbing the archaeological site, as the
Admiralty decision which decided the case plainly said (for references, see previous note).
6 The case around the Louisa begun with the looting of underwater heritage in the Span-
ish internal waters and territorial sea from that vessel flying St. Vincent and the Grenadines
flag. The case ended before the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in 2010–2013.
See M J Aznar (2015) Patrimonio cultural subacuático español ante tribunales extranjeros
o internacionales: Los casos de la Mercedes y del Louisa’, 19 Anuario de la Facultad de
Derecho de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid 47.
7 See the text of both National Strategies at

https://www.dsn.gob.es/en/estrategias-publicaciones/estrategias
8 The Green Paper https://es.calameo.com/read/000075335015cc9543e0f; accessed

30th September 2020.
9 The text of the Law 14/2014 https://www.boe.es/eli/es/l/2014/07/24/14/con; accessed

10 The VII BC Mazarrón I & II wrecks are a good example: wrecked in south-east Spain
they were discovered, excavated and protected by the Spanish authorities and are allegedly
the oldest Phoenician vessels ever excavated. For a complete appraisal of the site, see M
Martínez Alcalde, J M García Cano, J Blánquez Pérez & Á Iniesta Sanmartín (eds) (2017)
Mazarrón II. Contexto arqueológico, viabilidad científica y perspectiva patrimonial del barco
B-2 de la bahía de Mazarrón (Murcia). En homenaje a Julio Mas García (Madrid: UAM Edi-
ciones).
11 The Museo Nacional de Arqueología Subacuática (ARQVA) was initially created in

1980 and transformed and moved into its current building with its collection in 2008. http://
www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/mnarqua/en/visita/horarios.html; accessed 30th September
2020.
12 More information available at the Guardia Civil webpage: http://www.guardiacivil.es/

en/prensa/especiales/sive/funciones.html; accessed 30th September 2020.
13 The highest protection being given to those declared as Bien de Interés Cultural (Cul-
tural goods of interest), which can be established up to the outer limit of the territorial see,
i.e. 12 nm.
60
A drone image of the sunken Roman City of

Aperlai in the Kekova Region of Antalya, Turkey.
© Günay Dönmez and Hakan Öniz.
SECTION 2
62 Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN THE YUCATAN PENINSULA,

MEXICO
Helena Barba-Meinecke, Mexico
Fig. 1 The map by Miguel de Alderete, 1776 which identifies the inner and outer Campeche routes. © INAH-SAS.
Introduction Campeche
The Yucatan Peninsula, comprising the states of Yucatan, The port of Campeche, on the west coast of the Peninsula
Quintana Roo, and Campeche is located in south-eastern facing the Gulf of Mexico, was an important shipbuilding fa-
Mexico. It has a coastline of more than 1,300 kilometres (≈ cility from the 18th century. It was also from these shores that,
800 miles), with rivers, coastal lagoons, marshes, swamps in November 1979, the first Mexican underwater archaeolo-
and land reclaimed from the sea. There is also an extensive gy scientific campaign set sail for Cayo Nuevo, Campeche
network of underground caves, cenotes, and water holes Sound, Gulf of Mexico. During this campaign, the first wrecks
among other inland bodies of water. In these aquatic spac- were identified, dating from the 16th and 18th centuries. This
es, a large part of the registered underwater cultural heritage watershed in the development of UCH research in Mexico
(UCH) in this area of Mexico has been identified and stud- gave rise to a series of further investigations related to sub-
ied during forty years of exploratory and historical research merged cultural heritage and the development of the disci-
projects. These important advances carried out by the Sub- pline in Mexico.
aquatic Archaeology Subdirectorate (SAS)1 of the Instituto In the 1980s, INAH-SAS carried out the first inspections and
Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) are presented in explorations along the Mexican Caribbean coastline and is-
this article. lands of Quintana Roo State: Palma and Xcalak, Banco Chin-
chorro; Bahia Mujeres, Cancun and Hanan and Cocos, of
Cozumel Island (Luna 1984a; 1984b; 1985a; 1985b; 1991).
Keywords: Archaeology – Underwater – Cenote – Cave – Yucatan – Maya

Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico 63
During the 1990s, larger scale projects emerged, among The UCH in and around the Yucatan Peninsula including the
them: Aids to Navigation on the Eastern Coast of Quintana maritime landscape, is a reflection of both the intense mari-
Roo (Romero 1993). The results from this project provided time traffic and the prevailing technology of the societies that
important information about the Mayan culture, including produced them (Fig. 2). Broadly speaking, the resource in-
identifying routes, a system of navigational signs and mark- cludes the remains of wooden hulled sailing vessels (16th–
ers from ports of embarkation and disembarkation, safe ha- 18th centuries), wooden hulled steamships, those with both
vens, as well as the type of watercraft used. As a result of sail and steam propulsion (early 19th century); metal hulled
Fig. 2 Map of the Underwater Cultural Heritage identified in marine and inland waters. Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. © INAH-
SAS 2020. Design: María José Cota Tello.
their navigation of rivers that cross the Yucatan Peninsula, the steamships (from the mid-19th century), and both metal and
ancient Mayans established a trade network from 2500 BC fibreglass watercraft, equipped with engines (20th century).
that strengthened over time. By the Post-Classic period (AD During Montejo’s mandate3 and the establishment of the Vice-
1100 –1500), this had expanded to include trans-peninsular royalty of New Spain in 1535, the waters of the Gulf of Mexi-
and Gulf of Campeche routes (Fig. 1).2 co and the Caribbean Sea were crossed by Spanish-flagged
vessels using inner and outer routes (Fig. 1). These ships
Underwater cultural heritage on the coast of the Yucatan patrolled, carryied fleet messages or mail; moving in convoys
Peninsula such as the New Spain, Tierra Firme, and Barlovento fleets.
From 1997 and the first decades of the 21st century IN- Ships of other foreign powers were also present in the area
AH-SAS actions focused on creating an inventory of sites during this period.
(Barba-Meinecke 2017). This phase integrated information
from site identifications, historical, and archaeological re- The importance of Campeche port
cords of UCH in the Gulf of Mexico, the Mexican Caribbean Surrounding the Yucatan Peninsula there are a variety of nav-
and land reclaimed from the sea. The aims were to define the igational hazards. In the east, the Mesoamerican reef is a
extent of the study area, carry-out diagnostic investigations, coral barrier with few breaks allowing beach landings or entry
and generate appropriate protective legal instruments. There into bays. To the north and west the extension of the conti-
was also a strong campaign to disseminate the scientific re- nental platform of Campeche Sound (0.1% slope) influences
sults, build capacity and popularise UCH through various me- the shallow depths, with a first step at a depth of 18 metres lo-
dia outlets. cated at 18 km offshore, and a second step at a depth of 180
Fig. 3 16th to 18th century wrecks. Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. © INAH-SAS 2020. Design: María José Cota Tello.
metres, 150 km from the coast. In Campeche Sound, sandy These are distributed as follows: Campeche coast 93; Yuca-
shallows, coral reefs, and rocky outcrops are common-place tan coast 51 and Campeche Sound 31 (Gulf of Mexico). In the
where vessels and their crews have and continue to become Mexican Caribbean 155 underwater archaeological contexts
trapped and at nature’s mercy. have been recorded: 130 located on the islands of Cozumel,
Mujeres, Contoy and Banco Chinchorro, and 25 on the coas-
In this context, the port of Campeche played an important role tal strip of Quintana Roo. As for inland waters with access to
in the distribution of goods produced by the Yucatan Penin- the sea, 50 sites have been recorded in Laguna de Términos,
sula, such as purple dye sticks or Campeachy wood (also nine in the Palizada River and one on the banks of the Can-
known as Campeche logwood), murexes or rock snails, co- delaria River, all in the State of Campeche. These correspond
coa, honey, leather and cotton, among other goods, which to the following periods: Pre-Hispanic (2500 BC - AD 1517),
were transported to Europe. The returning ships brought Eu- Discovery (AD 1517-1535), Viceroyalty (AD 1535 -1803), In-
ropean products to be consumed by the colonists. Howev- dustrial (AD 1803 -1914) and Contemporary (1914 - present).
er, not all of the ships reached their final destination, leaving A key part in the identification and protection of submerged
cultural remains and thousands of documents containing the archaeological sites has been the joint work between INAH
stories of such disasters to be studied by nautical and under- and the Mexican Navy (SEMAR) supported by the valuable
water archaeologists. Some examples found in the historical participation of the coastal and offshore fishing communities,
documentation are the Nuestra Señora del Juncal (1630), ‘El as well as by sport diving groups (Barba-Meinecke 2011).
Ángel’ (Banco Chinchorro) and ‘Tejas’ (Isla Mujeres). Thanks
to the record of the entry and exit of ships, it is possible to Wrecks from the 16th to 18th century
reconstruct the maritime landscape and imagine port scenes. Among the 16th century wrecks located in Campeche Sound
As a result of the work carried out by various INAH-SAS4 illustrated in figure 2 are the CN-I5 wreck on Cayo Nuevo,
projects; a total of 390 submerged archaeological sites have already mentioned, as well as the ‘Pilar’ on Cayo Triángulos;
been recorded in the waters around the Yucatan Peninsula: ‘Bombardeta’ on Cayo Arenas; ‘Bahía Mujeres’ on Chitales
175 located in the Gulf of Mexico and 155 in the Mexican Ca- Reef (Luna 2010), as well as the ‘Anchors and Artillery XVI’
ribbean, as well as 60 in inland waters (lagoons and rivers), and ‘Bombarda Escorpionidae’ on Banco Chinchorro.
identified in figure 2. Although it has proven difficult to chronologically place sites
Fig. 4 19th to 20th century wrecks. Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. © INAH-SAS 2020. Design: María José Cota Tello.
corresponding to the 17th century, numerous sites have been Lagartos estuary at a depth of 5.5 m. Commanded by Captain
linked to the 18 century. Many of these have been subject
th
Andrés Valderrama, it was part of a larger force led by Cap-
to multidisciplinary case studies where the application of ar- tain Juan Bautista Bonet. The squadron set sail from Havana
chaeometric techniques and new technologies has been re- to guard the coasts of Yucatan and force any English pres-
warding. The ‘El Pesquero’ wreck, located on the coast of ence to withdraw, a prelude to the Battle of Mobile in 1781.7
Champoton, contained the remains of six cannons represen- In addition to the above, there were investigations of three
ting four types,6 9lb and 12 lb cast-iron cannonballs, an an- wrecks located on the east coast of the island of Cozumel:
chor, various types of stone ballast, and parts of the wooden the ‘Hanan’, ‘Cocos’ and ‘Elvis Canyons’ (18th century) (Fig.
hull. The wreck has been interpreted as a copper sheathed 3). These sites relate to the following historical references: a
wooden ship, probably dating from the end of the 18 to the
th
warship that sank in 1623 during its return voyage to Spain,
early 19th century (Barba-Meinecke 2008). which transported war materials; the ship La Candelaria sail-
ing from Santo Domingo to Havana (1623); the galleon San-
There is also the case of the wreck named ‘Carron’ (previ- tiago (1659) of the Navy of Tierra Firme; the Spanish ship La
ously CN-II), a two decked-ship with 60 cannons, under the Fetis lost during its return voyage to Spain (1760) from Carta-
command of Brigadier Miguel Alfonso de Sousa until it ran gena, and the merchant ship Tates sailing from Cartagena to
aground on Cayo Nuevo (Bajo Nuevo) during a storm, 7 May th
England, which sank in March 1761.
1783. It is currently the object of detailed historical research Likewise, in Espiritu Santo Bay, among 14 wrecks located, the
and the application of archaeometric techniques in the study wreck of Ánimas de la Victoria stands out; a wooden hulled
of its materials (Barba-Meinecke 2019). ship sailing vessel, where 19 cannons, four anchors, olive oil
Another wreck locally known as the ‘Cañones del Gato’, iden- jars of different ceramic types and square glass (case-gin)
tified as the Spanish warship Santa Marta lost on 6th March bottles were discovered and recorded. Archival research
1780 was found approximately 3 km off the shore of the points to six possible references: an unknown ship of 1557,
Fig. 5 Map Underwater cultural heritage identified in inland waters. Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. © INAH-SAS 2020. Design:
María José Cota Tello.
unknown galleon of 1628, the galleon Santiago (1647), San Also identified in the wreck were six artillery pieces — cast-
Raymundo de Peñafort (1755), an unknown ship of 1762 and iron cannons —, covered by calcareous concretions mimi-
the merchant ship, Nuestra Señora del Carmen (1794), all cking the surrounding coral mass, which made it difficult to
flying the Spanish flag (Barba-Meinecke, Díaz, Luna 2010). record their construction details. Despite this, it was estima-
ted that four of the documented cannons — No. 1, 2, 4 and
The wreck known as the ‘Ancla Macuca’ 6: length of 1.70 m x 33 cm diameter — had very similar di-
Also noteworthy are the archaeological, historical, and ar- mensions and correspond to the same type of artillery, being
chaeometric investigations of the wreck of the ‘Ancla Ma- probably of similar calibre, while cannons No. 3 and 5, given
cuca’, discovered on the Alacranes Reef, Yucatan, possibly their smaller characteristics — length of 80 cm x 20 cm dia-
a Spanish flagged wooden sailing ship. Fragments of lead, meter — it is possible that they were mounted on the ship’s
nails, bolts and copper sheets, as well as two possible floor sides and used to repel enemy boarders.
timbers were found. As the floor timbers were not found in Similarities in the barrel’s general morphology between the
direct association with the other remains, we were cautious No. 1, No. 2, No. 4 and No. 6 guns suggest a similar casting
in connecting them to the metallic elements recorded in this pattern, characterized by the presence of two reinforcement
section. The copper sheets are believed to be copper sheat- rings — at the joints of the first and second barrel sections
hing — manufactured by hammering or rolling — used from — and two ornamental taluses, at the rim and first barrel sec-
the last quarter of the 18th century onwards to protect ships tion; the latter limiting and defining the sector of the vent field.
hulls from attack and degradation caused by Teredo navalis , 8
None of them comply with the 3/7 rule.10 With the exception
as well as improving a ship’s sailing qualities. of the cannons believed to have been cast outboard during
With regard to the lead fragments, the studies carried out in-
9
the wrecking process, the two other cannons were found with
dicate that they are likely to be lead sheets used for patching ventral side uppermost. So far, it has not been possible to see
repairs or the manufacture of ammunition for light weapons whether they have inscriptions or identification marks, usually
such as pistols and muskets. visible on their dorsal side.11
16th century 18th century 18th - 19th century 19th- 20th century
CN-I (Cayo Nuevo) El Pesquero (Campeche) 40 Cañones Antoniette
(Banco Chinchorro) (San Felipe, Yucatan)
Pilar (Cayo Triángulos) Carron (previously CN-II) / El Dragón El Ángel La Unión (1861)
(1783) (Cayo Nuevo) (Banco Chinchorro) (Sisal, Yucatan)
Bombardeta (Cayo Arenas) Cañones del Gato / Fragata Santa Cañón de Cañones / H.M.S. Meleager RMS Forth (1849)
Marta (1780) (1801) (Arrecife Alacranes)
18th century (San Felipe, Yucatan) (Cayo Triángulos)
Bahía Mujeres (Arrecife Chitales) Ancla Macuca Cañones Madagascar RMS Tweed (1847)
(Arrecife Alacranes) (Sisal, Yucatan) (Arrecife Alacranes)
Anclas y Artillería XVI (Banco Hanan & Cocos (Cozumel, Q. Roo) Barco del Vigía
Chinchorro) (Chico)
Bombarda Escorpionidae Cañones de Elvis (Cozumel) Puchero / Crijnssen (1942)
(Banco Chinchorro) (Punta Herrero, Q. Roo)
Ánimas de la Victoria
(Bahía Espíritu Santo)
Table 1 Chronology of the main shipwrecks identified in the Yucatan Peninsula – see Fig. 2 for their geographic location.
© INAH-SAS.
From the number and dimensions of the guns an estimate 19th – modern sites
can be made of the ship’s dimensions, however, it should not It should be noted that dozens of isolated finds such as an-
be ruled out that there was contemporary salvage of other chors, cannons, cannon balls, rudders, masts, among other
pieces of ordnance. Setting aside this possibility, the types items, lost during nautical accidents have also been recorded.
of vessels that could correspond with the number of artillery They are used mainly as comparative archaeological materi-
pieces found could be a varity of armeed merchant ships or als, useful for the relative chronological dating of the wrecks.
small warchip.12 With the technological development of steam-powered ships,
Some of the ship’s cargo was identified, consisting of 409 navigation around the world underwent a major transfor-
complete and fragmented items of jewellery (gold), precious mation. In the region, the wreck Lolá has been registered;
gems (74 emeralds set and three loose, five diamonds set a vessel belonging to the French merchant navy under the
and one amethyst also mounted) and rosary beads (Barba- command of Captain Diego Begovich (Pérez 1944), strand-
Meinecke 2017a). In order to establish their characterization, ed in the Bay of Campeche. The wrecks Antoniette and La
71 archaeological elements representing ~18% of the total as- Unión — in San Felipe and Sisal, Yucatan, respectively — ,
semblage) have been subjected to archaeometric analysis 13
related to a ship of possible French affiliation and believed
(Tab. 2; Barba-Meinecke 2019). to be a Cuban flagged slaver, have also been registered; the
wreck Puchero (Punta Herrero, Quintana Roo), possibly the
18th to 19th century sites ship Crijnssen, a vessel of the Royal Dutch Steamship Com-
Between the end of the 18 century and the beginning of the
th
pany (Luna 2009), which sank at 6 pm, May 10th, 1942 (Bar-
19th century, various shipwrecks under English, Dutch, and ba-Meinecke and Pizá 2019); the English mail ships identified
French flags have been recorded in the field, and through aron Alacranes reef, Yucatan: RMS Forth, sank 14th January
chival studies. Among them are the wrecks of the ‘40 Cannons’ 1849, and RMS Tweed, which ran aground 12th February
(Moya and Reichert 2010) and ‘El Angel,’ a ship possibly be- 1847. Both belonged to the Royal Mail Steam Packet Compa-
longing to the British merchant company that transported dye ny. Another example is the Vigia Chico ship, Ascension Bay
sticks (Carrillo and Zuccolotto 2017), both located on Banco (Barba-Meinecke 2017a), as well as the so-called ‘Calderas’
Chinchorro,14 the ‘Cañón de Cañones’ wreck, associated with (boilers) and ‘Ladrillos’ (bricks) wrecks identified in Banco
the English frigate HMS Meleager that sank in 1801 on Cayo Chinchorro, Quintana Roo State (Carrillo 2010). In addition to
Triángulos, Campeche Sound; the wreck ‘Madagascar Caño- the above (Fig. 4), there are numerous wrecks related to the
nes’, which has been associated with the British warship HMS contemporary fishing industry which, being the most visible,
Madagascar that ran aground around in 1837 off the coast of are in greater danger of disappearing.
Sisal, Yucatan. According to references she was re-floated,
which required several of its cannons, munitions, cables and Underwater cultural heritage in flooded and semi-flooded
anchors to be cast overboard, which coincides with what has caves and cenotes
been observed in the archaeological context.15 In this regard, As for the explorations and studies in flooded and semi-flood-
there are also texts describing two Dutch ships shipwrecked in ed caves, several research projects preceded those led by
the area with contraband on board (see Tab. 1).16 SAS-INAH.17 In the 1980s the first cave divers18 began to
16 reliquaries for 3 - - X - - X - - - -
Agnus Dei
Relicarios de
17 rosetón 2 - - - - - - - - - -

Cross for
18 1 X X X X - X - - - -
neck or chest
N°
N° ITEM
ITEM QUAN’Y
QUAN’Y IMAGE
IMAGE DRX
DRX FTIR
FTIR MO
MO FRX
FRX MEB
MEB EDX
EDX RMN
RMN SEM
SEM UV
UV COL
COL N°
N°
N°N° ITEM
ITEM
ITEM
ITEM QUAN’Y
QUAN’Y
QUAN’Y
QUAN’Y IMAGE
IMAGE
IMAGE
IMAGE DRX
DRX
DRX
DRX FTIR
FTIR
FTIR
FTIR MO
MO
MO
MO FRX
FRX
FRX
FRX MEB
MEB
MEB
MEB EDX
EDX
EDX
EDX RMN
RMN
RMN
RMN SEM
SEM
SEM
SEM UV
UV
UVUV COL
COL
COL
COL
Dragon-
shaped
Crimped
Crimped artifacts
Crimped
Crimped
Crimped
Crimped
11 Chaton
Chaton 14
14 XX -- XX XX -- XX XX XX -- XX 19 (centre)
111 1 Chaton
Chaton
Chaton
Chaton and 14314
14
14 XXXXX X
--- - XXXX XXXX ---- - X
XXXX X
XXXX X
XXXX ---- - X
XXXX
Rings
Rings snakes
Ringsset
Rings
Rings
Rings
with emeralds
and diamonds
Rings
Rings Rings
Rings
Rings
Rings
22 Without
Without 109
109 -- -- XX -- -- XX -- -- -- -- Artefacts
222 2 Without
Without
Without
Without 109
109
109
109 ---- - ---- - X
20 17 -XXX ---- - ---- - X
-XXX ---- - ---- - ---- - ---- -
Chaton
Chaton (flower
Chaton
Chaton
Chatonshape)
Chaton
Artefacts
21 (circular 2 - - - - - - - - - -
shape)
Rings with
Rings with Rings
Rings
Rings
Rings
with
with
with
with
gemstones
gemstones gemstones
gemstones
gemstones
gemstones
33 10
10 -- -- XX -- -- XX -- XX -- -- 333 3 10
10
1010 --- - --- - XXXX --- - --- - XXXX --- - XXXX --- - --- -
setand
set and 22 22
22 Fig set
set
set
Fig set
and
Figand
and
and 11 1 -- - XX
X XX
X -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- -
motifs
motifs motifs
motifs
motifs
motifs
2323 Emeralds
23 Emeralds
Emeralds 33 3 XX
X -- - -- - XX
X -- - -- - XX
X XX
X -- - XX
X
Fakegem
Fake gem Fake
Fake
Fake
Fake
Glass gem
gem
gem
gem
bead
44 11 -- -- XX -- -- XX -- XX -- -- Glass
444 4 Glass bead
bead 111 1 --- - --- - XXXX --- - --- - XXXX --- - XXXX --- - --- -
ring(glass)
ring (glass) ring
ring
ring
2424 (Fake ring
(Fake (glass)
(glass)
(glass)
(glass)
24 (Fake 22 2 XX
X -- - -- - XX
X -- - -- - XX
X XX
X -- - XX
X
emerald)
emerald)
emerald)
Gold
Gold
Gold foilfoil
foil with
with
with
cut
cut
cut and
andand
2525
25 11 1 -- - -- - XX
X XX
X XX
X -- - -- - -- - -- - -- -
percussion
percussion
percussion
55 Toothpick
Toothpick 15
15 XX -- XX -- -- XX -- -- -- -- prints
555 5 prints
Toothpick
Toothpick
Toothpick
Toothpick
prints 15
15
1515 XXXX --- - XXXX --- - --- - XXXX --- - --- - --- - --- -
Macuquina
Macuquina
Macuquina
2626
26 2020
20 -- - XX
X -- - XX
X -- - XX
X -- - -- - XX
X -- -
coins
coins
coins
Shoe
Shoe Shoe
Shoe
Shoe
Shoe
66 22 -- -- XX -- -- XX -- -- -- -- 666 6 222 2 --- - --- - XXXX --- - --- - XXXX --- - --- - --- - --- -
buckles
buckles buckles
buckles
buckles
buckles
Stone
Stone
Stone
hammer
hammer
hammer
2727
27 11 1 XX
X -- - XX
X XX
X -- - XX
X XX
X -- - -- - -- -
(jadeite // /
(jadeite
(jadeite
onfacita)
onfacita)
onfacita)
777 Buttons
Buttons
Buttons 222 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Rosario's
Rosario's
Rosario's
2828
28 11 1 -- - -- - XX
X -- - XX
X XX
X -- - -- - -- - XX
X
beads
beads
beads
Cap
Cap
Cap
2929 screw/bolt
29 screw/bolt
screw/bolt 11 1 -- - -- - XX
X -- - -- - -- - -- - XX
X -- - -- -
(antique)
(antique)
(antique)
888 Fragments
Fragmentsofof
Fragments of 333 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Chain
Chain
Chain
3030 Copper
30 Copper
Coppersheet
sheet
sheet 11 1 -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - -- - XX
X -- - -- -
Pink
Pinkmollusk
Pink mollusk
mollusk
rosaries
rosariesand
rosaries and
and
filigree
filigree
filigree
999 444 --- --- --- --- --- XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX
(10R
(10R6/8
(10R 6/8Light
6/8 Light
Light
Reed-Munsell
Reed-Munsell
Reed-Munsell 3131 Lead
31 Lead sheet
Lead sheet
sheet 11 1 -- - -- - XX
X -- - -- - -- - -- - XX
X -- - -- -
color)
color)
color)
Rosaries
Rosarieswith
Rosaries with
with
10
10
10 444 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
gold
goldlinks
gold links
links
Gold
Goldbeads
Gold beads
beads
11
11
11 141
141
141 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
for
forrosary
for rosary
rosary
Religious
Religious
Religious
12
12
12 888 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Crosses
Crosses
Crosses
Devotional
Devotional
Devotional
13
13
13 11
11
11 XXX XXX XXX --- XXX --- --- --- ---
medals
medals
medals
Horizontal
Horizontal
Horizontal
14
14
14 333 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
reliquaries
reliquaries
reliquaries
Vertical
Vertical
Vertical
15
15
15 222 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
reliquaries
reliquaries
reliquaries
Double
Double
Doubleglass
glass
glass
1616 reliquaries
16 reliquariesfor
reliquariesfor
for 333 --- --- XXX --- --- XXX --- --- --- ---
Agnus
Agnus
Agnus Dei
Dei
Dei
Relicarios
Relicariosde
Relicariosde
de
1717 rosetón
17 rosetón
rosetón 222 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Cross
Cross
Crossfor
for
for
18
18
18 111 XXX XXX XXX XXX --- XXX --- --- --- ---
neck
neckororor
neck chest
chest
chest
Dragon-
Dragon-
Dragon-
shaped
shaped
shaped
artifacts
artifacts
artifacts
1919 (centre)
19 (centre)
(centre) and
and
and 333 XXX XXX XXX XXX --- XXX XXX XXX --- XXX
Table 2 Archaeometric analysis applied to diagnostic materials recovered from the wreck ‘Ancla Macuca’, Yucatan, Gulf of
snakes
snakes
snakes set
set
set
with
with
withemeralds
emeralds
emeralds
and diamonds
Mexico. © Archive INAH-SAS, 2020 created by Helena Barba-Meinecke.
and
and diamonds
diamonds
Artefacts
Artefacts
Artefacts
20
20
20 17
17
17 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
(flower
(flower shape)
(flowershape)
shape)
Artefacts
Artefacts
Artefacts
2121 (circular
21 (circular
(circular 222 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
shape)
shape)
shape)
Pleistocene Pre-hispanic Classic Post-classic Modern >19th - Industrial

126,000-10,000 BC Late to end Pre-classic Early Late End Early Late AD 1535-1803 AD 1803-1914
350 BC-AD 250 AD 250-550 AD 550- 830 AD 830-950 AD 950-1200 AD 1200-1535
Balankanché Sutupil Ziiz Ha
Hoyo Negro San Manuel Nai Tucha Huachabí San Antonio Cocodrilo Mercadillo
Las Palmas Yaalutzil Mariposa Balmí El Templo La Guadalupana Aktun Amm Noria del Exconvento
Naharon Canún Angelita Cenote Azul Grupo Xibalbá-Val- Cenote Sagrado, Aktun Koot/Calica
ladolid 1 Chichén Itzá
Aktun Ha Canun Cheén Las Calaveras Xibalbá-Calkmul Cueva Ikil Xcanyuyum Tzaatz
Cenotes de los Xkankal Calica Ka Ú Hum/Calica Akulá San Antonio Yaxché Xtabay Loché
huesos
Koi Kankabchenén Manitas Xtacumbilxunaan Usil Loxboxbé Tres Bocas
Taj Majal Satachanah/Calica Calica Cacalchén Kukultún Lol-Ha Zopilotes
Toh Manantial Huachabí Chancancazonot Kikal Cueva Sagrada Tres Labios
Muknal X-AUIL Xibalbá-Calkmul Grupo Xibalbá- La Cavernita
Valladolid 2
Sifa La Noria-Chemax Cueva Domingo Con Aire
Papakal Yandzonot Kantemó Ranchito
Tres Potrillos Mono Xtabay Loché
Cueva C1 Kisim-Calica
Cueva 1 Km
Cueva Tortuga
Table 3 Chronology of the main caves and cenotes with cultural heritage in the Yucatan Peninsula. © INAH-SAS, 2020.
explore and map the interior of the flooded karst systems Hoyo Negro
(caves and cenotes) in Quintana Roo and Yucatan States , 19 The multi-disciplinary research of the Hoyo Negro23 cave, part
in parallel with archaeological and geological expeditions in of the Sac Actun System, identified geofacts and specimens
semi-flooded caves (Fig. 5). 20 that contributed to the paleoecological reconstruction of the
Technological advances in caving and potholing equipment area: stalactites, clusters of calcites — 19,000 years old —
in the 21 century led to intense exploration, recording 7,000
st and shells. In addition, there are samples of ten plant fami-
caves and cenotoes and more than 600 km of flooded galle- lies; charcoal and seeds from the guano deposits dating from
ries and tunnels. Not all have revealed cultural heritage (Bar- Paleo-Indian period from 12,000 to 9000 BC; and 15 animal
ba-Meinecke and Benítez 2015) , but many led to a series
21 species — extinct and extant — among them.24
of paleontological and archaeological discoveries that INAH- In addition, the bones of a young woman known as ‘Naia’ were
SAS specialists are currently studying. found, estimated to have lived between 13,000 and 12,000
The registration, study, and protection of cenotes and caves BC and died between 15–17 years old. According to DNA
in the Yucatan Peninsula, was carried out in various stages analysis it is believed that the skeleton corresponds to the
of the project Underwater Archaeological Atlas of Cenotes, sub-haplogroup D1, of Asian origin, whose ancestors lived in
Flooded and Semi-flooded Caves and other bodies of wa- Beringia25 before entering the Americas26. ‘Naia’ is among the
ter in the Mexican Republic, has identified 93 archaeological six human skeletons scientifically dated as the oldest found,
contexts, 50 of them located in cenotes and 43 in flooded 22 so far, on the American Continent (Gallareta 2000).
and semi-flooded caves (Tab. 3). Of these, 16 have evidence During the pre-Hispanic period, the importance of cenotes
from the late Pleistocene and Holocene periods in the coastal and caves for the Mayan culture was related to obtaining wa-
strip of Quintana Roo and the cenotes ring (Yucatan). ter. This was mainly due to different periods of drought repor-
In most of the primary contexts, bones of extinct Ice Age an- ted towards the Classic period from AD 250–900, when a re-
imals were identified. They date to the pre-flooding times of latively dry climate dominated, albeit, with periods of extreme
the karst systems, where both animals and hominids are be- drought dated around AD 585, 862, 986 and AD 1051+/-50.
lieved to have explored these cavities in search of fresh water The materials recorded in these contexts are associated with
and shelter. This is supported by the archaeological evidence activities that include domestic tasks such as the collection of
registered in the caves of Hoyo Negro, Las Palmas, Naharon, water and the acquisition of raw material for the manufacture
Aktun Ha, Cenotes of the bones and Koi located around Tu- mainly of metates (flat stones for grinding); as well as food
lum; Taj Majal, Toh and Muknal, close to Solidaridad, and Sifa preparation during long stays inside the caves. These could
in Cozumel, all in the Quintana Roo State, with the exception also be indirectly related to ritual and religious activities such
of Papakal which is in Cuzamá, Yucatan State (Fig. 2). as initiation rites, investiture, cults associated with fertility,
mortuary deposits (Bonor 1987) and sacrifice, among others
(Barba-Meinecke and Benítez 2015).
There is archaeological evidence of the use of these spaces Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This was pre-
during the pre-Hispanic era from the late Pre-classic period ceded by initiatives such as the Museum of Life (MUVI) and
(350 BC–AD 250) until the Post-classic period, many of them El Principal (on fortifications, navigation and trade), all in the
continuously such as: the cenotes San Manuel (Tizimín) (Bar- city of San Francisco de Campeche (Barba-Meinecke 2018).
ba-Meinecke and Pizá 2015).
With respect to the semi-flooded caves, the presence of Acknowledgement
architecture such as small temples and staircases, as well Four decades after its founding, we can only thank my dear
as mural paintings and petroglyphs is recurrent. Examples friend and colleague archaeologist Pilar Luna Erreguerena
include Huachabí in Hopelchén; Aktun Amm and Loxboxbé (RIP), for having the vision to recognise the need to pro-
in Champotón; Xibalbá and Cueva Domingo, both located in tect such important heritage, and for her support at all times
Calakmul, in Campeche State. 27
during the development of those of us who have been part of
her team for the past 20 years. To INAH for their financial sup-
Closing comments port, as well as to the participants of the Vice-Directorate of
Progress in underwater archaeology in the Yucatan Penin- Underwater Archaeology in the Yucatan Peninsula: Hist. Abi-
sula has been achieved thanks to co-ordination between the ud pizá Chávez, Tec. Gabriel Quetz León and archaeologists
SAS and the regional INAH Centres, entities that have been Fernanda Ramírez Islas and Jesús Manuel Gallegos Flores.
supported by the three levels of government, civil associati- To the team of researchers led by PhD Javier Reyes Trujeue
ons, and the local coastal communities. (CICORR, Autonomous University of Campeche)
Thanks to this partnership, more than thirty campaigns have
been carried out in marine and inland/continental waters in
the region, together with continuous desk-based research in
the general, provincial, parish and technical archives, both
nationally and around the world. All of this has led to the iden-
tification of 482 palaeontological, archaeological and histor-
ical contexts, in addition to studies of the maritime cultural
landscape from a holistic viewpoint.
The study of this heritage has encouraged a generation of
specialized professionals and technicians, so that various
regional projects have multidisciplinary teams comprising
archaeologists, historians, conservators, metallographic en-
gineers, architects, biologists, graphic designers, photog-
raphers, museographers, speleodivers and speleologists.
These specialists come from INAH, as well as from various
institutions, universities, and civil associations, national and
international.
Although progress has been made around the Yucatan Pen-
insula, there remain many miles to be sailed, roads to be trav-
elled, and caves to be explored. In this sense and as a con-
clusion, it is worth mentioning that, thanks to the continuity of
the work of INAH-SAS and its collaborators, the Geographic
Information System and the Underwater Archaeological Chart
of the region, the first ones at national level in this matter, are
being developed.
Likewise, a significant achievement at an international level
was the management and implementation of the Museum of
Underwater Archaeology (MARSUB), at Fort San José el Alto,
which houses a collection of more than 700 pieces recovered
from underwater archaeological contexts in the Yucatan Pen-
insula and Veracruz. This museum, the first of its kind in the
Americas, has been declared as representing ‘Best Practice’
by the Secretariat to the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the
1 The Sub-direction of Underwater Archaeology is a Mexican legal entity entrusted with 25 Beringia is the name given to the land bridge or plain (1,500 km2) that covered the
the protection, conservation, research and dissemination of Mexico‘s cultural heritage. eastern end of Siberia (Asia), western Alaska (America) and most of the current Bering Sea,
which was formed in two periods during the last glaciation (Würm or Wisconsin 80000–
2 The inner gulf that is part of the Gulf of Mexico borders the southwest coast of the Yu- 10000 BP), due to the drop in ocean levels, with a temperate climate. Most of the ‘bridge’
catan Peninsula. It includes part of the coast of the State of Veracruz to the west, the States was where the Bering Strait is today.
of Tabasco and Campeche, and the western part of the State of Yucatan.
26 Ten other pre-ceramic human skeletons are known to exist, but their absolute dates
3 Governor and Captain General of Yucatan from 1526 to 1553. have not yet been verified.
4 Inventory and Diagnosis of Submerged Cultural Resources in the Gulf of Mexico, Spe- 27 Also Loltún, Actun, Actun Ch‘on and Tixkutun (Oxcutkab), Dzibichen (Tizimín), Actun
cial Programmes of the SAS, Inventory and Diagnosis of Submerged Cultural Resources Kahua (Tinum), Manitas (Homún), Chemax and Aktun Santuario (Tec 2016) in Yucatan; as
in the Banco Chinchorro Biosphere Reserve, Quintana Roo and the Integral Project for the well as in: Tancah, Xcaret (Andrews and Andrews 1975), Aktunkoot-La Rosita (Tec 2016),
Protection, Conservation, Research and Dissemination of the Submerged Cultural Heritage Punta Venado, Cueva del Danzante, Cueva de las Caritas (Martos 2002), Aktun Na Kan,
of the Yucatan Peninsula. Xelha, Ich Tun and the area of Yalahau (Rissolo 2001), among many others.
5 The archaeological context CN-I, was placed chronologically in the 16th century
thanks to the discovery of a bronze demi-culverin, an artillery piece considered until now
to be the oldest of its kind located in the Western Hemisphere, along with other artefacts of
everyday life and for the defence of the ship that carried them. Luna 1985a, pp. 59–71. With
respect to the CN-II wreck, as of 2009 it was renamed as ‘Carron’, derived from the archaeo-
logical evidence found, which is related to the Carron Iron Foundry and Shipping Company
artillery foundry in Falkirk, Scotland (18th century). Luna 2009, pp. 41–60. References
6 The measurements (length and calibre) of six of the seven guns found resemble small
English ship’s guns from the second half of the 18th century and used 3, 6, 9 and up to 12lb Andrews E W (1962) Excavations at Dzibilchaltun, Yucatan 1956-1962. In: Es-
cannon-shot. tudios de Cultura Maya. Vol. 2, pp. 149-183. Instituto de Investigaciones
Filológicas (IIF), Centro de Estudios Mayas (CEM), UNAM. D.F., México.
7 The Battle of Mobile, between the Spanish empire and the Kingdom of Great Britain,
7th January 1781.
https://revistas-filologicas.unam.mx/estudios-cultura-maya/index.php/ecm/
article/view/218/219; acccessed 30th October 2020.
8 Teredo navalis is a marine mollusc which is commonly known as ship-worm.
Andrews E W and A P Andrews (1975) A Preliminary Study of the Ruins of
9 Idem.
Xcaret, Quintana Roo. Middle American Research Institute. Publication N°
10 By applying the system of 3/7 with respect to its length (divided by 7), it is possible to 40, Vol. VIII. Tulane University. New Orleans, U.S.A.
determine if the trunnions are centred, besides helping to estimate the date and culture of
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The Issues with Large Metal Wrecks from the 20th Century 73
THE ISSUES WITH LARGE METAL WRECKS FROM THE

20TH CENTURY
Introduction The approach towards shipwrecks from these more recent

The management and protection of shipwrecks from the Se- periods has now changed. Archaeologists today see the be-
cond World War (WW2) is very complicated, not least becau- nefits of studying these ‘young’ sites because they provide
se of the various values that different stakeholders attach to additional information to the narratives we already know from
them. These WW2 shipwrecks contain military information, historical sources. Shipwrecks are a source of objective in-
are often war graves, important to relatives as lieux de mé- formation from a time in which contemporary documents are
moire, and due to their often-high upstanding structures are almost by definition not objective.
also important as artificial reefs and their biodiversity. Ship-
wrecks, therefore have an emotional component, a comme-
morative value, and are important for nature and sometimes
also a threat due to pollution from for example, leaking fuel
oil. They also have valuable historical and archaeological
information (intrinsic) that can help us reconstruct the past.
However, this is not all: metal ships also have an economic
value. Divers pay to get the chance to dive on these often-
recognisable remnants of war, and fisherpersons know that
significant quantities of fish can be caught near the wrecks.
However, this income is insignificant in comparison to the
money that can be made by the salvage of the precious me- Fig. 1 A multibeam sonar image of the HNLMS Java ship-
tals relating to wrecks. Only with a proper understanding and wreck location that is clearly showing the hole in the seabed
where once the ship was lying. © KDF/Royal Dutch Navy.
consideration of the different values WW2 shipwrecks hold
to different stakeholders, can new ways of managing these
complex sites be developed. Only then can we develop ways Different values
that will be effective in the long run. Countries and different Although WW2 ended 75 years ago, there are still people ali-
interest groups must work together on this. ve that experienced the associated maritime disasters. Fami-
lies are still dealing with the loss of (grand)parents, uncles,
Background aunts, brothers and sisters, or other relatives that died on
In the 1980s when underwater archaeology was still in its these ships. People consider the wrecks to be war graves. In
infancy, metal shipwrecks, especially those from the World some countries these wrecks therefore have an official pro-
Wars and after, were often of no interest to professional ar- tection status while in other countries they do not. In these
chaeologists. In fact, earlier, right after WW2 these wrecks places wrecks may be threatened by another value they con-
seemed to be of no importance to anyone except contrac- tain: an economic value. Copper, lead, and steel salvaged
tors that needed to remove the wrecks from shipping lanes from the seabed are worth millions. Salvage companies make
and harbour entrances. Quite a few salvage contracts were use of that, destroying wrecks, and mining them on an indust-
issued at that time, economies had to grow. Archaeologists rial scale. By doing so, they take away the only hard substrate
and heritage managers, if they had any interest in maritime from the seabed which has an effect on the local biodiversity.
sites, focused on wooden shipwrecks from before 1800. Ho- They also take away the places for commemoration and/or
wever, when sports diving became fashionable it was the me- diver enjoyment.
tal wrecks that instantly became popular because they were
large, exposed, and full of sea life.
Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage Management – Metal Wrecks – Second World War – Salvage – Low-background
Steel – War Graves – Lieu de Memoire
74 The Issues with Large Metal Wrecks from the 20th Century
Dutch Second World War wrecks in the Java Sea In relation to the salvage of the three Dutch warships, the
These different values played a major role in the joint Dutch- American battleship Houston, the Australian HMAS Perth,
Indonesian investigation that followed after the report in No- and British and Japanese ships, the Chinese salvage ship
vember 2016 that three Dutch warships had disappeared Chaung Hong 68 was arrested. No other arrests have been
from the bottom of the Java Sea (Figs. 1– 3). Relatives of the made. The marine areas where the salvage takes place are
ones that died on board HNLMS De Ruyter, HNLMS Java, enormous, making law enforcement difficult. The problem of
and HNLMS Kortenaer reacted emotionally to the news. The salvage is not only an Asian problem. Also, in Europe illegal
media paid a lot of attention to this matter, making the sub- salvage operations have been noticed in the North Sea.
ject even more politically focused than it already was. To un-
derstand what might have happened, scientists had to view, Money
weigh, and evaluate the available data from third parties. Du- The question asked is why are salvage companies so persis-
ring this process the question arose: what is important in the tent in the salvage of these wrecks when they know there is a
management and protection of these shipwrecks? How can lot of emotion associated with the sites? The bare answer is:
we establish their value, and who determines that? These because of the money. Metal has become a precious commo-
questions are relevant because they affect an eventual ma- dity. We do not have an unlimited access to all metals anymo-
nagement plan that needed to be drawn up. Both the Nether- re, and apart from steel contained within these wrecks, there
lands (as a flag state) and Indonesia (as a coastal state) were is also bronze, copper, and lead in large quantities. With the
involved in the assessment. development of new techniques to investigate the seabed,
sites are being found more easily, and for less money than
Different angles before. New salvage techniques have reduced the cost of
To be effective, their management should be a cooperation recovering the materials, and equally important, in a shorter
and a shared responsibility between the two countries. It is amount of time, so that the activities can stay under the radar
therefore important to also consider friction points when it of coastguard or police authorities.
comes to decisions about management, in order to be able Metal, particularly steel from shipwrecks, worldwide, that
to overcome them. In this case an additional sensitivity was sank before the first nuclear bomb ‘Trinity’ exploded on the
brought in due to the fact that the Netherlands is the former 16th of July 1945, has a high industrial value. This ‘low-back-
colonizer of Indonesia. This memory remains locally sensi- ground steel’ as it is referred to, contains many less radioiso-
tive and did play a role in the background of the project. In topes than steel that was produced at a later date. After the
other situations, it may be a troubled relationship due to the ’Trinity’ explosion and those of the two atomic bombs during
sides they took during the war, political situations they are in WW2, the worldwide background radiation count increased.
nowadays or other (local, national or global) ethical, cultural, Therefore, during the smelting process of steel, the radio-
or religious tensions. Recent heritage means that these may isotopes become embedded. The ‘low-background steel’ is,
be associated with recent sensitivities as well. We therefore among other purposes, used in the manufacture of medical
need to be inclusive and opt for multiple angles in research equipment and Geiger counters. This makes battleships and
and appreciation. There is not just one history, there are mul-
tiple, and we can only learn from the ones we do not know.
Different views on the same events or periods, especially in
times of war, are essential for the real understanding of what
has happened or how it could have happened. In the case of
the Java Sea shipwrecks, both the Netherlands and Indone-
sia are learning a lot from each other and the way history is
perceived.
Law enforcement
The fact that individual countries may have different opinions
about what is considered heritage, or not and for different
reasons, is widespread and not exclusively the case with the
three Dutch wrecks in the Java Sea, but many other sites
as well. In Asia, from the Philippines to Malaysia during the
Fig. 2 A pilot is deploying his remotely operated vehicle
last couple of years, many wrecks have been salvaged for (ROV) at the wreck site of the Java. © Battle of the Java Sea
the value of their metal. Law enforcement is still very weak. Project.
The Issues with Large Metal Wrecks from the 20th Century 75
cruisers with their thick protective steel plates very attractive in protection and management. The United Nation General
targets for salvage companies. Besides the steel, there is of- Assembly resolution 71/257 (2017) paragraph 341 addresses
ten also other valuable metal present on these warships such the concerns of war graves being looted at sea, and the lead
as phosphor bronze (the propellers), brass, copper, lead, and role of the coastal state in order to prevent this through the
high-grade aluminium (Allen 2017; Geertsma 2016; Miles regulation of commercial exploitation and the activities of its
2017; Perez Alvaro 2013, 41– 43). Wrecks are the new mines citizens (see also Campbell 2016).
and they have become accessible.
Management and protection of Second World War ship-
wrecks
As we have seen above, besides gaining of knowledge of or
the commemoration of an event, the management of WW2
shipwrecks involves other specific issues such as human re-
mains and repatriation, unexploded ordinance, and potential
pollution by oil spill. Implementation of a management re-
gime can be even more difficult due to regulated and unre-
gulated visitors and wreck divers. This puts pressure on the
sites (Emesiochel et al. 2017). The difficulties of managing
these sites is a worldwide problem. Issues have occurred
not only in Asia, but also in the North Sea in Europe, where
the Netherlands and Great Britain have repeatedly failed to
prevent shipwrecks from being illegally (partially) salvaged in
Fig. 3 Ammunition found on the wreck site of HNLMS Java. the North Sea (Brockman 2018), and in South America where
© Battle of the Java Sea Project.. salvage has been conducted on the German WW2 battleship
Admiral Graf Spee, in Uruguay.6
The legal status of warships An example of a wreck that is under threat by too many dive
Warships are state vessels and enjoy sovereign immunity at visitors is the USAT Liberty in Bali. The opening up of the site
all times. This is stated in the UN Convention on the Law of to sports divers has been a big success in the past. Protected
the Sea (UNCLOS).1 This immunity remains in force even af- through customary law (called Awig-awig), the site has been
ter sinking, as long as the ship is considered to be a state ship a great touristic attraction for the island. However, in recent
or a warship by the flag state.2 Immunity of warships is a gene- years the pressure on the site has been so great that the
rally accepted principle in international law and is usually not number of diver-visits needed to be reduced considerably in
disputed.3 However, according to international law, the flag order to maintain the integrity of the site.
state and the coastal state must agree to all activities aimed For a few years, heritage agencies have been frantically sear-
at these wrecks, including conservation (Fink 2017, 4– 5). ching for better ways to protect sites underwater, or in cases
Some shipwrecks are regarded as war graves. This is usually where it went wrong, to be able to find those who damaged
based on an ‘emotional appeal’. However, it is possible to sites and bring them to justice. The methods used to protect
find international law in the UN Convention on the Law of the half-buried wooden wrecks can often not be used for the large
Sea (UNCLOS) that supports this. None of the Dutch ships upstanding steel wrecks of the World Wars. It serves no pur-
that were lost during WW2 were claimed by the Netherlands pose to cover them up. The solutions to protect them have to
to be war graves, while there are still many shipwrecks in be found in legislation, policies, awareness raising, and better
Indonesian waters that probably still contain the remnants of law enforcement. Especially with respect to law enforcement,
Dutch sailors.4 In many countries there is no regulation for big steps are being made. Monitoring at a distance with sa-
war graves at sea, while on land it is common practice. Britain tellite systems is being trialled, as well as the use of acoustic
has protected more than thirty WW2 shipwrecks under the listening devices. Also, materials to mark the wrecks under-
Protection of Military Remains Act 1986. The protection of
5
water so that these can be tracked when removed from the
the Dutch WW2 shipwrecks therefore depends to a great ex- seabed are also under development.
tent on legislation made by the coastal state. The Netherlands
can put a claim on ownership of a site, but this has to be ac- Conclusions
cepted by the coastal state. If done, they can work together in Metal wrecks from WW1 and WW2 are under heavy and
the management of it. This is very much in line with what the persistent threat. Besides the relatively normal processes of
UNESCO Convention of 2001 wants to achieve: cooperation deterioration, illegal salvage is putting a lot of pressure on
76 The Issues with Large Metal Wrecks from the 20th Century
the resource. For most of the post-war period extending to References

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why-do-we-build-medical-scanners-from-sunken-battleships/; accessed
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Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Problems Related to Urbanization 77
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE AT RISK: PROBLEMS RELATED

TO URBANIZATION
Hakan Öniz, Turkey
Introduction The UniTwin4 Network of Underwater Archaeology, establis-

A significant part of modern life has become increasingly ent- hed by UNESCO in 2012, is actively promoting inter-universi-
wined with the sea, but this greater connectivity has become ty collaboration between many universities around the world
a source of a wide variety of problems that are having a sig- aimed at improving academic standards. There is also a gro-
nificant impact on it, including underwater cultural heritage wing awareness of the importance of protecting UCH among
(UCH). These problems influence both natural and cultural the recreational diving community. In particular, the participa-
heritage in numerous ways, either directly or indirectly. These tion of CMAS5 (World Underwater Federation) with more than
effects are more obvious in cities and their environs built on 100 member countries is encouraging sport divers to take
the shores of oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. As coastal ci- unified steps in raising awareness, promoting preservation,
ties have evolved as important centres of social and cultural and the value of UCH. Raising global awareness is also a
development over millennia, associated trade and commer- way of reducing the illicit traffic of historical artefacts, treasure
cial activity has increased in parallel. The result is that many hunting, and looting. Despite the continuing progress there is
more people are choosing them as places to live. As a result
1
a long way to go from discovering and documenting many un-
of this population growth, expanding city infrastructure and derwater heritage sites, or from providing protective legal po-
associated industrialization has created factors that put more licies which aim at preventing illicit trade and promoting public
pressure on the ocean, lakes, and rivers. awareness. This article illustrates the problems and suggests
As a consequence of these pressures described in this artic- ways in how to mitigate them.
le, either consciously or unconsciously, numerous archaeolo-
gical remains lying under coastal waters or on shores are now Direct impact of urbanization on coastal and underwater
gone. It is widely recognised that the archaeological values cultural heritage
hidden beneath the surface of seas, lakes, and streams are a As the number of people living on the coast has increased,
rich source of information belonging to the past. The scientific they began to urbanise the shoreline and reclaim land from
value of this fragile resource should be protected and made the sea which has led to significant changes in the coastal
accessible to the public, and where appropriate passed on to profiles of many places. The reasons for coastal and land rec-
future generations. lamation are numerous and varied. They include improving
and expanding settlements, industrialization, tourism, hotel
Current situation regarding the protection of UCH and business complexes, park and beach recreation areas,
In this author’s opinion we are, undoubtedly, in a much bet- coastal roads, piers, harbours, breakwaters, themed sea tou-
ter place than ten years ago. Significant steps have been ta- rism areas, underwater hotels, artificial reef units, artificial is-
ken by both UNESCO2 and ICOMOS.3 In 1996, the ICOMOS lands, airports, international natural gas, oil, and water pipe
Charter on the Protection and Management of the Underwa- lines, removal of waste materials from industrial areas and
ter Cultural Heritage created a set of standards and guidance port dredging.
for the management and protection of UCH. This was follo-
wed by UNESCO’s 2001 Convention on the Protection of the The worldwide attraction to living on the coast, stimulated by
Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO Convention), economic opportunity, has caused the value of coastal land
currently ratified by 66 states. Other countries that have not in urban areas to rise significantly, and within this framework,
yet ratified it for various reasons have created their own laws land reclamation projects have increased around the world.
in compliance with the Convention; with some, such as the These threats are confronting archaeologists, museums, and
United Kingdom, committing to manage their UCH according cultural heritage experts in many countries, within municipa-
to the Rules of the Annex of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. lities, and national public institutions. Unfortunately, in this
struggle, the loser is often cultural heritage.
Keywords: Underwater – Heritage – Risks – Urbanization – Protection

78 Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Problems Related to Urbanization
Fig. 1 Fontvieille Stadium, Monaco: the difference in the country’s coast line between 1955 and 2018 as a result of the infil-
ling. Map data © 2020 Google – Image © 2020 TerraMetrics.
Such reclamation operations are frequently encountered not This process was even bi-directional, with a necropolis being
only today, but also in the past. For example, in the 5 and 6
th th
destroyed, and with potential shipwreck sites being covered
centuries, the harbour breakwater in Antalya’s Side Ancient by the displaced material (Öniz and Stefanile 2016, 117; Öniz
City (Turkey) was infilled with the remains of a necropolis, 2017, 83).
sarcophagi, and grave steles6 dating from earlier periods.
Similar examples, most of which are port and dock infillings,
have been observed in Istanbul throughout history, such as
in the Sea of Marmara including the ports of Iulianus and
Theodosius (Sodini 2011, 17–18). The port of Iulianus was
probably built by Emperor Flavius Claudius Iulianus between
the years of AD 361 – 363, and the Port of Theodosius was
possibly built by Emperor Flavius Theodosius (AD 347– 395)
between the years of AD 379 – 395. Also, in Istanbul, a sec-
tion of the Beşiktas coastline was infilled with the aim of ma-
king docks for Ottoman warships in the 16th century (Öniz
2014a, 63). While the Istanbul-Dolmabahçe Palace of the
Ottoman Empire was a military port during the Roman peri-
od (27 BC – AD 476), Eastern Roman period (330 –1453 BC)
and Ottoman period (AD 1300 –1900), it was built on an area
that was subsequently infilled. Undoubtedly, such actions
are ongoing operations in many coastal cities worldwide. It
is possible, through Google Earth, to quantify the amount of
coastal reclamation that has occurred over the last 20 – 30
years. As an example, on the shores of Monaco in the 1990s,
an area of about 500,000 m2 was infilled for the construc-
tion of Fontvieille Stadium, its surrounding marina, and living
quarters (Fig. 1).
Fig. 2 Dubai UAE: the difference in the country’s coast line The artificial islands built in Dubai are another example (Fig. 2).
between 2001 and 2019 as a result of the infilling. Map data
Subsequent to building Kansai Airport in 1994 on land rec-
2001: Image LandSat / Copernicus © Google 2019: Image
LandSat / Copernicus © Google Data SIO, NOAA, U.S. laimed from the Gulf of Osaka, Japan, at least 10 airports
Navy, NGA, GEBCO. worldwide including Nagasaki (Japan), Rize-Artvin (Turkey)
and Dalian (China) (Fig. 3), were built in a similar way. It is un-
known how many cultural sites have been lost beneath these
constructions.
Submerged archaeological settlements are seen in many
places around the world. The ancient settlements of Baia in
Italy, Butrint in Albania, and in Turkey, Aperlai (Fig. 4), Sime-
na, Dolikeste and Teimussa around Kekova Island of western
Antalya in Turkey, are but a few examples. These and similar
settlements were generally submerged as a result of earth-
quakes (Fouache et al. 1999, 305; Özdoğan 2011, 22). The
famous lighthouse of Alexandria, dating to the 3rd century BC,
was also submerged by earthquakes in the 4th and 14th centu-
ries (Khalil 2004, 51). Many of these examples — due to the
clarity of the water — can be detected by aerial photography
and underwater surveys.
However, the remains of UCH required to be protected are
undoubtedly not limited to these sites and include sites from
the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and sometimes Bronze Age sett-
lements (about 10,000 –3,000 years ago). The first Neolithic
settlements established on the shores of, for example, the
Mediterranean and the Black Sea, are now submerged be-
cause of subsequent rising sea-levels. It is thought that the Fig. 3 Dalian (difference between 2010 and 2019) – Map
data 2010: Image LandSat / Copernicus © Google 2019:
first Neolithic settlements near the coast of the Sea of Mar- Image © 2019 Maxar Technologies.
mara were inundated in 8000 – 5500 BC (Özdoğan 2010, 40).
Neolithic and Bronze Age remains found on the island of Avşa
in the sea of Marmara (Fig. 5) (Günsenin 1996, 361– 362), in
the Dardanelles, and Selimpaşa in Istanbul (Aydıngün et al.
2014, 21) can be given as examples of infilling to approxima-
tely 8000 –1200 BC.
Research on the submerged late Neolithic-Chalcolithic
(5600–3000 BC) necropolis at Cape Shabla on the north-eas-
tern coast of Bulgaria in the Black Sea reveals a difference
of minus 7 metres compared to today’s water level (Peev,
2008, 303). In studies conducted on the Black Sea coast of
Bulgaria, 10 settlements from the Late Neolithic Period and
29 settlements from the Bronze Age were found underwater Fig. 4 Aerial Photo of Aperlai – Kekova Region/Antalya-Tur-
(Stanimirov 2003, 2). There are also similar examples on the key. Drone Photo: Gunay Dönmez © Hakan Öniz.
Carmel coast of Israel in the Eastern Mediterranean (Galili et
al. 1993, 134 –136). These settlements are extremely hard to
recognize through aerial photography. They cannot be easily Indirect effects of urbanization: problems caused directly
recognised by divers neither because of their irregular cons- by the hands of urban people: scuba diving
tructions. Since self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCU-

BA) was invented in the 1940s, the equipment has undergone
Therefore, comprehensive investigations by expert under- rapid expansion throughout the world, particularly over the
water archaeologists are essential prior to any infilling and last 25 years. Owing to the general rise in society’s purchas-
associated construction work on the ocean shores, seas, la- ing power combined with the advantages of mass produc-
kes and rivers. In addition, awareness to this issue should be tion, there has been a relative decline in the associated cost,
created by public institutions, universities, and non – govern- which has brought about an increase in the number of divers
mental organizations. Laws and regulations should be rene- worldwide. Together with other factors, the increasing number
wed to prevent ancient sites from being covered without first of divers and the spread of dive tourism have created pres-
being investigated by archaeologists. sure on UCH.

Thousands of sunken ships, artefacts, and settlements that ble for all divers to be trained to preserve UCH rather than
remained unseen until the 1960s began to be visited by div- disturb it. The Turkish Underwater Federation has already
ers. A diver’s natural curiosity can easily lead to an artefact trained about 400 CMAS diving instructors in the framework
being taken as a souvenir, broken, or disturbed, an apparent of a special programme. This and similar programmes raise
innocent act that can destroy the archaeological information awareness regarding the preservation of UCH in popular dive
related to it. As contact between divers and cultural remains spots. With greater awareness among divers, the greater the
increases, the likelihood of harm increases. The most signif- chance that information acquired will be passed on to under-
icant concern is that the vast majority of divers do not un- water archaeologists who will have the opportunity to record
derstand the concept of non-intrusion, which helps protect the sites. Moreover, dive training programmes should take
the scientific integrity of UCH. Even today, a small number of responsibility for encouraging the preservation of UCH under
people believe that archaeological shipwrecks are similar to the direction of trained archaeologists with the aim of transfer-
pirate shipwrecks projected in Hollywood productions.7 How- ring information to the scientific world.
ever, it is unlikely to find skulls, sail cloths, or ‘traces of pirates
running on board’ in archaeological shipwrecks. The reality
is that, in most cases, the wooden hull and organic remains
of a ship have been wholly or partially destroyed or covered
with layers of vegetation, sand, and rock or reef formations. In
cases where the remains of ships are found exposed on the
seabed, they are at risk of being erased from the submerged
historic landscape by divers looting anything that appears of
value.
Another point to focus on is the risk posed by recreational

diving organizations working with financial objectives. Un-
fortunately, various training programmes around the world
encourage diving on shipwrecks and archaeological sites by
creating a sense of wonder, not ‘preservation’. Commercial
touristic diving centres also utilize ‘archaeological’ dives as
a significant factor in promoting a greater diversity of under-
water adventures. However, the risks to archaeological sites
lying in the waters are often ignored. The vast majorities of
those who plan these programmes and give the training are
divers, not archaeologists or cultural heritage experts. There-
fore, such programmes pose an additional risk to UCH that
has been preserved for thousands of years without being dis-
turbed by human interference. It is therefore right that divers
should focus, not on archaeological dives that might pose
risks, but on the reporting of artefacts that they might encoun- Fig. 5 Bronze Age Ceramic Grave from Avsa Island (Mar-
mara Sea - Turkey) sunken Necropolis. © Günay Dönmez.
ter underwater.
A very small number of UCH sites have been investigated
worldwide, owing to the scarcity of scientific research teams Indirect effects of urbanization: fishing
and the relative limited availability of resources and funds. Much of our food requirements come from the sea, lakes, and
Given that 70% of the world is covered by water, the exam- rivers. To that end, both traditional fishing methods and ma-
ination and protection phase in this extensive area is still in rine fish-farms pose indirect risks to UCH. Fishing methods
its infancy. Therefore, sport divers who see shipwrecks or the such as beam trawling, that scours the seabed, increases
remains of settlements, or historical artefacts they encounter pressure on UCH. Some countries fish with explosives. Such
in the depths of the sea, lakes, and rivers are likely to be the methods lead to hard-to-trace harm to cultural remains. Rais-
first people to do so. Today, it is more widely recognised that ing awareness and cooperation among beam trawling fisher-
the interest in the underwater world generated by hundreds of persons would be a significant step in preserving submerged
thousands of divers, can be turned into a scientific advantage. cultural heritage. Legal regulations are needed to mark ar-
Through various programmes, it is difficult, but not impossi- eas where cultural artefacts are regularly caught in fishing
nets, and to restrict or even ban fishing in these areas, until ing forced into shallow coastal waters and sinking by crashing
scientific survey studies have been carried-out. Fishing with into shoreline reefs or rocks may have been repeated more
explosives should be completely forbidden due to the risk it than once on separate occasions (Öniz 2019b, 179; Bass
poses to submerged heritage and the indiscriminate damage 1967, 177; Bass 1961, 267). Shallow sea areas, especially
caused to the marine environment. those located away from the coastal zone are often invisible
Fish-farms are set up at sea as well as on land with the con- from the surface, which might have led to the sinking of many
struction of private industrial pools; a practice dating back to ships in the past.
the Roman period. Thousands of kilograms of concrete are This situation damages submerged heritage, as well. For ex-
used to anchor fish-farm systems that can damage cultural ample, a freighter that sank in shallow waters off the coast of
heritage beneath them. Fish-feeding systems can also bring Mersin Silifke on the coast of Mediterranean Turkey about 25
about changes in seafloor flora and fauna and can also result years ago covered two shipwrecks that had sunk about 2,000
in damage to archaeologically sensitive areas. Therefore, the years before, thereby endangering artefacts. Ships deliber-
locations where fish-farms are planned should also be first ately sunk for the purpose of increasing dive tourism can also
examined by archaeologists to ensure there is no cultural her- be regarded in the same context. Disused modern objects
itage at risk. such as ships, tanks, aircraft, which are sunk in tourist re-
gions, in order to generate artificial reefs and create a variety
Indirect effects of urbanization: anchoring of diving may also have the same negative impact.
The most significant elements that enhance coastal cities are War damages coastal and UCH just as likely as it damages
the ports, with most cities growing in the same environment terrestrial buildings and port structures. The port of Piraeus,
for hundreds, even thousands of years. Today’s ships, some which has been connecting Athens with the world for 2,500
hundreds of metres in length, anchor in the same places and years, was bombed in both the First and Second World War,
use the same areas in the Eastern Mediterranean as more resulting in the destruction of many unrecorded objects of
modestly-sized ships used to do in the past (Öniz 2010, 147). cultural heritage. Non-inhabited islands are used as targets
During underwater research along the coast of Antalya be- in military exercises where live ordnance is used. It should
tween 2000 and 2020, many examples were recorded (Öniz not be forgotten that valuable cultural heritage can be found
2019a, 3; Öniz 2014b, 13; Öniz 2012, 111). There is no doubt around these islands as well (Cherry and Leppard 2015, 10;
that in the past thousands of storms caused some of these O’Connor et al. 2018).
ships to sink in ports, anchorages, or the navigable approach-
es to them. Today, some modern anchorages are placed di- Indirect effects of urbanization: dredging
rectly above these shipwrecks. It is also impossible to accuse The effects created by humans are undoubtedly varied. There
a ship’s captain of damaging UCH if there isn’t a widespread might be other threats to UCH that may occur in the futu-
warning system that alerts the captain of the presence of an re that we are not aware of today. It should not be forgotten
archaeological site. Archaeological examinations of such that the construction of dams across rivers have created new
places should be undertaken, and important places or ship- artificial lakes where many types of archaeological remains
wrecks that are found should lead to either the prohibition including entire habitations have been inundated. The extrac-
of anchoring or their relocation. Alternatively, the method of tion of marine aggregates from seas, lakes, and rivers is also
anchoring should be switched to fixed mooring anchors and another direct impact on UCH. Marine aggregates are used
buoyage systems. The location of these mooring anchors can globally in the construction industry for concrete, and also
be decided with the assistance of underwater archaeologists. used as industrial material, and as a moulding material for
The same applies to privately-owned charter sail and tourism metal casting. Operators of dredgers are often unaware of ar-
motor cruisers that use safe anchorages. It is entirely possi- chaeological objects or sites when they are taking aggregates
ble that every anchor thrown today might be thrown on top from the marine environment. It is therefore necessary that
of a ship that sank in antiquity. Such areas also need to be these areas are first investigated by archaeologists to ensure
investigated by archaeologists and archaeologically sensitive that proposed dredging areas are not archaeologically sensi-
areas protected. tive. Where it is suspected that there are archaeological sites,
dredging should be prohibited and moved to ‘safe’ areas. Wit-
Indirect effects of urbanization: marine accidents and hout this preventive measure it is unrealistic to expect dred-
war ging operators to be always aware and alert to the possible
Repetitive winds and currents in oceans, seas, and lakes presence of UCH in a designated dredging area.
have often endangered ships in the same places for the same We can also add the effects of heated seawater in the vicinity
seasons. In any region, the incidence of a ship drifting or be- of outfalls emitted from thermal or nuclear power plants: a
one-degree increase in water temperature can damage cul- References

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2 United Nations Education and Science Organisation.
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commemorate military victories. They were a common, though independent, cultural mani- Age: Underwater Archaeology – Methods and Results. In: Athena Review
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7 One of the examples of this subject is Pirates of the Caribbean which is a series of
fantasy swashbuckler films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and based on Walt Disney’s
theme park attraction of the same name. (Wikipedia: 30th September 2020).
8 The last 3 three risks described above are taken from the Hiranur Gültekin’s presenta-
tion – SOMA 2019 Koper with her kind permission.
The Mary Rose: Excavation, Salvage, and Display 83
THE MARY ROSE: EXCAVATION, SALVAGE, AND DISPLAY.

IS THIS A SOLUTION FOR PRESERVING THE UNDERWATER
CULTURAL HERITAGE?
Fig. 1 Mary Rose on the seabed during the excavation, viewed from the stern. Only 3 of the 20 airlifts are illustrated and just
some of the divers’ support grid. Drawing: Jon Adams.
Introduction outline how the displays are arranged to reflect the archaeol-
The excavation and raising of the Mary Rose were seminal ogy of the wreck site.
events in the development of maritime archaeology both in
the United Kingdom (UK) and internationally. In terms of the Background: ancient and modern
number of dives to the site and the number of artefacts re- King Henry VIII ordered the building of the Mary Rose in Jan-
covered, it remains the largest underwater archaeological uary 1510 not long after he had come to the throne. The first
excavation ever undertaken even 40 years later. Of equal im- recorded voyage was in 1511 and although she was laid up
portance is that because the ship and collection have been for some periods during her lifetime, she served Henry very
on display since 1983, the results of this archaeological work well for 34 years before she finally capsized and sank on 19th
have now been seen by over 10 million people at the museum July 1545. Apart from a brief period in the 1830s when early
in Portsmouth. It is our duty as archaeologists to give peo- pioneer divers rediscovered the ship, she was left alone un-
ple access to our work, not only through publication but also til 1965 when an English historian called Alexander McKee
through whatever formats are available or become available started a search for ancient ships in this area of the coast
in the future. Hence the collection is interpreted in the new (McKee 1982). The first timbers were revealed from beneath
museum in a way that is designed to appeal to the widest the seabed in 1971. Between then and 1978, excavations
spectrum of visitors. around the hull showed how much of the ship had survived
But, is it correct or advisable to raise shipwrecks from the under the protective mud. After the 1978 diving season, two
bottom of the sea rather than to leave them in situ? This is a important meetings were held to discuss the future of the
debate that will continue, but this chapter outlines some of the project. One was attended by archaeologists, ship historians,
modern story of the Mary Rose to give some background to naval architects and museologists to discuss whether the
the decision philosophy and the results, and to give an insight hull should be excavated. The other meeting, with salvage
into why this very expensive and drastic ultimate solution was consultants and contractors, structural engineers and naval
appropriate in this instance. The paper will also introduce architects discussed whether it could be raised (Rule 1983,
readers to some of the access initiatives at the museum and 72). As the answers from the experts to both of these ques-
Keywords: Protection – Excavation – Salvage – Interpretation – Significance – Public Access

84 The Mary Rose: Excavation, Salvage, and Display
tions was ‘yes’, a charitable foundation called the Mary Rose above cannot be over emphasised. It demonstrates the very
Trust was formed in January 1979 with the following aims: responsible nature of the early Mary Rose pioneers and trust-
‘to find, record, excavate, raise, bring ashore, publish, report ees who were keen to ensure that best practice was employed
on, preserve, and display for all time in Portsmouth the Mary in the excavation and management of the Mary Rose project,
Rose; all for the education and benefit of the nation’. Over the years before all the current codes, rules, and conventions
next 40 years, the Mary Rose Trust has been achieving these were implemented. Since the 1980s, a number of countries
aims, the most recent being to finish the active conservation have wanted to raise ships in their territorial waters but often
process and to build a permanent museum in which to display the question asked seems to be ‘can we do it?’ rather than
the Mary Rose for all time. ‘should we do it?’ Apart from the obvious requirements for
substantial resources including finance and trained personnel
for both excavation and conservation, a major consideration
should be whether the ship in question is the most important
example of UCH that will be found in that country in the next
50 years. This raises the question of assessing significance.
To take the example of the Mary Rose, a major exercise as-
sessing the significance of the project had to be completed
before raising the funds for the £35 million project to finish
the conservation of the ship and build a permanent museum.
It had to be demonstrated that the ship and collection were of
such importance that it should attract funds not only from the
Fig. 2 The raising of the Mary Rose on 11th October 1982. Heritage Lottery Fund1 but also from many other charitable
© C. Dobbs and Mary Rose Trust. trusts, commercial sponsors, generous donors, and the gen-
eral public. The basis of this was a presentation to a panel of
Between 1979 and 1982, the main excavation of the Mary experts in June 2007 followed by the significance document
Rose was carried out. Up to 50 divers each day worked in (Dobbs and Kentley 2007). This outlined how the project had
shifts on the underwater site, mostly volunteer avocational ‘layer upon layer of multiple significances’. The significance of
divers, supervised by professional diving archaeologists and the Mary Rose comes from her importance in so many differ-
with a small number of paid divers in roles such as Safety ent areas. Historically, she dates from a period of history that
Officers and Chief Divers. By the end of the project, over 500 is pivotal in the development of England and her relationship
divers had helped with the excavation and contributed enor- with the rest of the world. She was Henry VIII’s favourite ship
mously to raising the skills base in the UK. A total of 28,000 serving him for 34 years of his 38-year reign and personally
dives were carried out in this period totalling over 23,000 ordered by him and owned by him. She was the ‘Key Ship of a
hours work on the seabed (Rule 1983, 220). Many new tech- Key King’. In terms of naval architecture, she is an outstand-
niques were perfected (Fig. 1) and the excavation was also ing surviving example from a period before detailed ships
very important for raising public awareness of maritime ar- plans are available. This means that almost everything we
chaeology and for changing attitudes to the UCH, making discover about the hull is new information that has joined the
people realise that it should be preserved for everybody rath- corpus of material available from ancient ships found around
er than salvaged for profit for the benefit of a few. the world. For archaeology the project has been a turning
The story of the discovery, excavation, and raising of the point and inspiration for maritime archaeologists over the
Mary Rose during the 1970s and 1980s has been well doc- world, demonstrating to sceptical academics that the tech-
umented, from McKee’s accounts of the early years (McKee niques of archaeology can be applied just as well on the sea-
1982), Rule’s account of the excavations (Rule 1983), and bed as they can on land. For UCH in general, the Mary Rose
the five-volume publication outlining the five major areas of project, including the dramatic salvage of the ship watched by
the project. These are: 1. The loss and recovery (Marsden over 60 million people worldwide, raised awareness amongst
2003); 2. The ship (Marsden 2009); 3. The armaments (Hil- the general public of the value of the UCH. It helped with the
dred 2011); 4. The artefacts and human remains (Gardiner movement to change the attitudes of many divers from a cul-
2005); and 5. The conservation programme (Jones 2003). ture of ‘finders’ keepers’ to a culture of ‘look but don’t touch’.
But raising an ancient shipwreck is not a decision or task to
To raise or not to raise and the concept of significance be undertaken lightly. The raising of the Mary Rose took an
The significance of the decision to raise the Mary Rose only extraordinary combination of archaeology, engineering, de-
after considering the results of the two meetings outlined sign, fundraising, and above all ‘the courage to fail’.
The raising of the Mary Rose tents. This was done for the Nan Hai I ship5 near Yangjiang,
Just as the Mary Rose excavation pioneered new techniques China and the entire assemblage was drawn up the beach
for archaeology underwater, so too did the raising of the hull and straight into a vast pool in a newly built museum (Fig. 3).
pioneer new techniques and ambitions for the salvage of an- The final side of the pool and museum were completed after
cient vessels. One particular problem was that only half the the vessel had been placed there and the pool was filled with
hull had survived, so that the ship itself had little structural water so that the ship was submerged but indoors and in a
strength even though most of the timbers were still extremely controlled environment, complete with its surrounding silts.
solid. This meant that the classic salvage method of lifting a The author had hoped that the wreck would be excavated un-
hull on strops positioned under the hull could not be used. derwater in these controlled conditions and there was a plan
Instead, the lift was done by clamping the hull with 170 bolts to do this at one stage but in the end the Chinese authorities
and wiring 67 of these up to a lifting frame. The raising was decided to drain the tank for the excavations to be carried
done in 3 phases. Firstly, a series of jacks were used for an out dry.
Fig. 3 The Nan Hai I vessel, pictured in the museum pool before it was drained for each excavation season. © C. Dobbs.
initial lift of a few centimetres; then the hull was transferred I believe that the next great advance in maritime archaeologi-
underwater, suspended from a lifting frame into a cradle that cal excavation will be the first project that succeeds in raising
had been built to the shape of the hull as surveyed by the dive a shipwreck intact with all its silts. This could result in an exca-
team prior to 1982. Finally, the whole package was lifted into vation to even higher standards as there need not be the time
air (Fig. 2), and the cradle placed on a barge for towing back constraints experienced by the earlier projects. That method
into Portsmouth (Dobbs 1995). was not available to the Mary Rose as it requires all the tech-
It is interesting to compare the approaches used by major nology, expertise, and significant funding to be available at
projects of maritime archaeology over the last 50 years. the start of the project, and maritime archaeology was at its
Whilst the Vasa was salvaged complete with her contents
2
infancy at the time the Mary Rose was discovered and exca-
using more traditional techniques and then excavated ashore vated. Although the Chinese did not use that method for Nan
(Cederlund 2006), the Mary Rose was excavated underwater Hai it is encouraging that projects such as the VOC’s Amster-
in situ and then raised when empty, and placed in the mu- dam and HMS London are considering this method. It will be
seum. In contrast, the Red Bay vessel San Juan in Canada
3
fascinating to see if either of them, or other projects around
was excavated, dismantled underwater, recorded in great de- the world, are ever able to raise the funds and resources re-
tail, and then reburied back on the excavation site (Grenier et quired for such a project, when the world recovers from the
al 2007, Vol I). The Yorktown wreck in the USA was excavat- Covid-19 crisis. It is vital that these and future projects learn
ed in a coffer dam underwater and then left in situ. (Broadwa- from the Mary Rose experience and improve the methodol-
ter 1992) Other ships have been taken apart underwater and ogy even further, just as the Mary Rose benefited from the
then reassembled ashore. The La Belle in Texas USA, had
4
earlier excavation of the Vasa in Stockholm, Sweden.
a coffer dam built around her that was then drained so that
the excavation could be done dry (Bruseth and Turner 2005). A new museum
The hull was then dismantled, conserved ashore, reassem- The first museum for the Mary Rose housed the hull in a sep-
bled and is now on display in Austin, Texas. Another recent arate building to the collection and welcomed 8 million visitors
method that has been tried is enclosing an entire vessel and between 1983 and 2012. The new museum welcomed over 2
surrounding silts in a box and then raising with all the con- million more visitors before the temporary shutdown in March
2020 due to Covid-19. This means that a total of over 10 mil- where they were found. This was one of the main concepts
lion visitors have seen the results of the archaeological exca- for the museum (Fig. 4) whereby the hull is displayed on one
vation. At last the Mary Rose can now be viewed without the side of the museum, whilst galleries on three levels display
previous obstacles of the piping systems and mist from the thousands of objects opposite the area where they were lo-
30-year spraying phase of the conservation programme or cated on board. These displays are only possible because
the large air ducts from the intensive drying programme. This the locations of all the objects were well recorded by the div-
brief chapter can only summarise the current methods we are ers and archaeologists underwater. It is an example of how
archaeology is at the core of the museum but without being
over-explained or over-stated. Another example is in the rela-
tionships between the objects displayed on each level of the
museum in the end galleries. Those on the lowest floor repre-
sent the people and functions of the lower deck: the cook and
the purser, storage, provisioning, and cooking. Those on the
ground floor represent the people and functions of the main
deck: the guns and gun furniture on board and displays about
the Surgeon, the Master Carpenter, and the Master Gunner
as they either had cabins on that deck or chests containing
their possessions. Finally, on the top floor there is the ‘Men
of the Upper Decks’ gallery, reflecting the gentlemen and offi-
cers of higher status whose accommodation would have been
Fig. 4 A vital part of the concept of the Mary Rose Museum high up on the castle decks of the ship. Other stories related
is that thousands of objects are displayed on a mirror to this high vantage point in the ship are those of the archers
image, exactly opposite where they were in the ship when
with their longbows and arrows, as well as the hand-weapons
she sank. © Perkins + Will and Mary Rose Trust.
used by soldiers at their action stations. The fine pewter gar-
using to help the objects, the people, and the ship come to life. nish (dining set) of Sir George Carew the vice admiral who
They show how we approach that final, essential part of the ar- died on board and the high-status musical instruments of his
chaeological process — ‘disseminating the results’ of the work musicians are also displayed at the top level. This reflects
— by displaying the ship and her contents to the widest pos- both the geographical distribution of the artefacts as well as
sible audience. The new museum hopes not just to educate the level in society of their owners.
and inform visitors about the UCH but to immerse them in it. Finally, the floor-to-ceiling glass allows visitors to look back
at the ship from all nine of the major galleries (Fig. 5) so that
Context there is a constant reminder of the context in which all these
Archaeology is about context. Part of our philosophy of au- objects were found, and from which they were carefully exca-
thenticity involves using the context in which the artefacts vated and recovered.
were found. One example of this is how the context of the
personal objects — such as those found in chests — is used Public access
to inform the stories. During the excavation a number of Giving access to the results of excavations is a core part of
chests were discovered intact and with their lids closed — what we do as archaeologists. Much has been said in the
representing the possessions of a single individual. These past about the importance of archaeological publication, and
unique groups of objects, together with other items found that duty is drilled into us during our academic or avocational
very close to each other and sometimes with human remains training. But how wide an audience does traditional publica-
nearby, have enabled us to create a picture of individual lives tion reach? Our obligation should also be to make the results
of members of the crew. These include the master carpenter, of our work accessible to the widest possible audience, and
the master gunner, the surgeon, the cook, the purser, and museums should play a key role in this dissemination. In the
individual gentlemen, officers and archers. These ‘character past, access policies in museums concentrated on the needs
cases’ enable visitors to empathise with individuals from 500 of those with more obvious physical disabilities. But access
years ago. Their possessions are displayed in the context in policies in the 21st century should encompass a whole spec-
which they were found — the chests that they were in when trum of special needs and not just those caused by barriers of
the ship sank. mobility, sight, hearing, and language. They should broaden
Another way in which we apply context is to use the three out to be more inclusive towards a wider variety of intellectual
largest galleries in the museum to display objects opposite abilities and the varied learning styles of visitors.
Four accepted learning styles are Visual, Auditory, Reading/ An example is our large print texts. In each gallery there is a
Writing preference, and Kinaesthetic. Whilst 20th century mu- complete written set of the text and illustrations for that gal-
seums traditionally coped with the Visual and Read/Write lery, situated at a bench in a better-lit area with a magazine
learners, for a 21st century museum to be relevant it should rack that holds the simple A4 booklets. The large texts were
cater for all learning styles, and hence reach a wider audi- originally designed for those who find that the size of text that
ence. So yes, we use the objects themselves with text cap- can be used in the captions and panels is too uncomfortable
tions and panels, but we also use audio and video displays, to read. However, these booklets are used even more fre-
games, interactives, workstations, and hands-on activities quently by visitors who simply get tired and, as they find rest
and demonstrations. Targeting different senses is another on the convenient benches, come across the texts and real-
way of broadening access for different learning styles and ise they can read the information sitting down. But this is not
hence appeal to new audiences. Sight, hearing, and touch the same as sitting at home and reading it as they still have
are obvious senses to reach but smell is also a very power- the museum atmosphere and they can go over to any display
ful sense for evoking memories and experiences. One very that intrigues them and that they have just read about. Porta-
popular exhibit particularly provided for people to smell is a ble fold-up seats have also proved popular for a wide range of
chunk of the anchor cable that was discovered on the wreck visitors who want to sit down closer to the showcases to read
that still has a distinct and powerful smell of tar and hemp. It the captions or gaze at the objects for a longer period.
is a genuine smell from 500 years ago not adjusted by any
conservation treatment. The idea that smells can survive from
the past as well as the physical objects is quite astounding
for many visitors. Other evocative smells experienced by the
excavation team included menthol discovered in one of the
surgeon’s jars and tallow candles found in the hold of the ship
close to the lanterns that used them. The divers even com-
plained about the very smelly remains around the pork bones
as it stayed on their wetsuits for days after they had been
excavating them in the storage area near to the ship’s galley.
A more unusual sense to target is balance. A great deal of
effort was taken to replicate the sheer (slope) of the main
deck in the flooring opposite that level in the ship. This was
to ensure that visitors were level with the deck and able to
Fig. 5 The new museum first opened in 2013 but the final
receive an experience close to walking on the deck of the
format displaying the Mary Rose unencumbered by the
Tudor warship, but it also affects visitors subconsciously so spray system pipework of the conservation programme,
they feel they are in a different environment. Many visitors opened in 2016. © Hufton + Crow and Mary Rose Trust.
will not notice the slope at all, but a few visitors have asked
how we get the floor to move beneath them. The answer is One final aspect of access worth considering is to recognise
that we do not — but if that is their perception, then the whole that visits for those with limiting abilities should not necessari-
concept would appear to be working. So, an atmosphere of ly be identical to those who do not have special needs. But the
low light is combined with subtle background ambient sounds visit should be comparable in terms of giving visitors an expe-
of what might be heard on a sailing warship; headspace is rience or getting a special feeling. We have mentioned above
reduced on the lower decks to hint at claustrophobia whilst that there are a number of learning styles. Visitors also come
the slope on the floor at main deck level heightens visitors’ with different prior knowledge, different pre-conceptions and
awareness of a different environment even if they do not real- different interests. As long as it is possible for all the different
ise what it is. Two people out of over two million visitors have visitor types to leave having felt something rather than just
reported feeling seasick in the main deck gallery. Whilst that having learnt something — having empathised with a Tudor
is not a condition that you would wish on any visitor, perhaps sailor from 500 years ago rather than just having looked at
if one-in-a-million visitors feels seasick, then the targeting of some objects, then our vision will have been fulfilled.
different senses at a subtle level will be working successfully
on many other visitors. Discussion / conclusions
Particularly rewarding access initiatives are those that are The Mary Rose project can certainly be considered as an out-
originally designed for one group but we then find are used by standing example of public archaeology, making our shared
a variety of audiences who we had not predicted in advance. heritage available to the widest possible audience. However,
the cost of following this particular model of preserving and professionalism have been limitless and Dr Eric Kentley
presenting the UCH for the public is so great that it can only whose advice and experience was a key part in the develop-
be followed for the most significant examples of heritage that ment of the exhibitions in the new museum.
come to light in any region or country.
The entire cost of the excavation and salvage of the Mary
1 The Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF) was set up in 1994 and provides grants to heritage
Rose up until when the hull was brought ashore in October projects using an allocation from the National Lottery, which is funded by tickets bought by
the general public for a twice–weekly draw. In 2018–2019, they allocated more than £500
1982 was £2.3 million (Mary Rose Annual Report and Ac- million to good causes, £50 million going to the HLF.
counts 1979-1983). This seems very inexpensive, but it has 2 The Vasa was a Swedish warship that sank on its first voyage in Stockholm harbour in
1629. It was rediscovered in 1956 and raised using traditional salvage methods in 1961. It
to be realised that this is in 1982 money without allowing for was excavated after bringing it to the surface in 1962. Conserved by spraying with polyethy-
lene glycol in a temporary building, it was then moved when dried out into to a purpose-built
inflation and an enormous amount of the cost was covered by museum in 1988, opening to the public in 1990. The 2019 visitor numbers were a staggering
1.2 million people.
donations ‘in kind’ and by voluntary labour. A more realistic
3 The San Juan was a Basque whaler that sank around 1565. It was rediscovered in
example of the costing is the £35 million for the final phase 1978 and excavated underwater between 1978 and 1985. The hull was dismantled during
the excavation programme and the individual timbers were recorded in great detail on the
of the conservation and the building of the new museum and surface before being returned to the seabed where they are being preserved in the silts close
to where they were discovered.
exhibits in Portsmouth. The enormous cost of projects such
4 La Belle was the flagship of French explorer La Salle that crossed the Atlantic to start
as this highlights the importance of assessing significance a new colony in the Gulf of Mexico. It was wrecked in present day Matagorda Bay in 1686.
The wreck was relocated in 1995 and excavated dry using a cofferdam from 1996. It was
that was discussed above. However, the benefit to the local dismantled, recorded and conserved in a tank followed by freeze-drying at Texas A&M. An
exhibition opened in the Bullock Museum in Austin, Texas in 2015 where visitors were able
economy should not be understated as it is estimated that the to watch as it was reconstructed for a second time in the museum.
400,000 visitors that we received in 2014 spent over £21 mil- 5 Nan Hai 1 was a Chinese trading vessel of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279).
It was rediscovered in 2007 and salvaged complete with the surrounding silts and placed in-
lion locally during that year excluding their entry fee (Spend- side a purpose–built museum. Whilst it is in a pool covered in water, this was drained enough
to allow excavation ‘dry’ in front of visitors from 2013 onwards. This process was nearing
per-head figures from Tourism Southeast). completion in 2020 and the Chinese team is currently working on the best way to conserve
the ship.
Does every nation with a coastline need a Mary Rose? Possi-
bly not. But does every nation need at least a centre of excel-
lence to monitor and manage its UCH and a visitor attraction
that will inspire the public and increase their understanding of
References
the UCH? The author would say yes. Whether the functions
of museum, conservation laboratory, research institution, na- Broadwater JD (1992) Shipwreck in a Swimming Pool: An Assessment of the
Methodology and Technology Utilized on the Yorktown Shipwreck Archaeo-
tional archive, UCH management unit, and vocational and logical Project. In: Historical Archaeology 26(4): 36-46.
professional training are combined or separate will depend Bruseth J and Turner TS (2005) From a Watery Grave: The Discovery and
on the circumstances of individual nations but there must be Excavation of La Salle’s Shipwreck, La Belle. Texas A&M.
many advantages in combining a number of these functions Cederlund CO (2006) Vasa 1 The Archaeology of a Swedish Warship of 1628.
Stockholm.
at one location. The UK does not do this at present but coun-
tries that are still developing their infrastructure and manage- Dobbs C (1995) The Raising of the Mary Rose: Archaeology and Salvage Com-
bined. Underwater Technology 21(1): 29–35. In: Journal of the Society for
ment systems to support their UCH should certainly consider Underwater Technology.
creating a centre of excellence that would combine some or Dobbs C and Kentley E (2007) Assessment of Significance. In: The Mary Rose
many of these functions. Submission to the Heritage Lottery Fund, Volume 1, Chapter 7. Document
on file. Portsmouth: The Mary Rose Trust.
Gardiner J and Allen MJ (eds) (2005) Before the Mast: Life and Death Aboard
Acknowledgements the Mary Rose. Portsmouth: The Mary Rose Trust.
The Mary Rose Project has been one of amazing human en-
Grenier R, Bernier M-A and Stevens W (eds) (2007) The Underwater Archaeo-
deavour ever since the first dreams of Alexander McKee to logy of Red Bay. Parks Canada.
find the Mary Rose and the efforts of Dr Margaret Rule to Hildred A (ed) (2011) Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose.
excavate her to the highest possible standards and raise her Portsmouth: The Mary Rose Trust.
for the world to see. Their contribution and those of a wide Jones M (2003) For Future Generations: Conservation of a Tudor Maritime
Collection. Portsmouth: The Mary Rose Trust.
variety of teams cannot be overstated; from archaeologists
and amateur divers to engineers, salvage experts, designers, Marsden P (2003) Sealed by Time: The Loss and Recovery of the Mary Rose.
Portsmouth: The Mary Rose Trust.
architects, shore staff, fundraisers, sponsors, donors, volun-
Marsden P (ed) (2009) Mary Rose: Your Noblest Shippe. Anatomy of a Tudor
teers, visitors, the Heritage Lottery Fund and the great British Warship. Portsmouth: The Mary Rose Trust.
public.
McKee A (1982) How We Found the Mary Rose. London: Souvenir Press.
It would be impossible to name them all, but in terms of this
Rule M (1983) The Mary Rose: The Excavation and Raising of Henry VIII’s
latest chapter in the development of the project there are
Flagship. Second Edition, 1983. London: Conway Maritime Press.
two individuals who must be acknowledged individually:
my colleague Dr Alexzandra Hildred whose hard work and
Exploring, Documenting, and Protecting the River Heritage in Hungary 89
EXPLORING, DOCUMENTING, AND PROTECTING THE RIVER

HERITAGE IN HUNGARY: EXPERIENCES AND CHALLENGES OF
CLIMATIC EVENTS AND PUBLIC AWARENESS
Fig. 1 Map of the Danube River Basin. © Wikimedia commons.
Introduction with ports had fortified bridgeheads and the classis (fleet)
The territory of Hungary is situated in the middle of the Dan- (Mócsy 1974; Lőrincz 1990; Visy 2007).
ube River Basin (Fig. 1). The catchment area of the Danube The late mediaeval and early modern periods are better doc-
and its tributaries, some are themselves huge rivers, covers umented. The decisive element of the 15th –17th centuries was
a substantial area of Europe from the Alps to the Black Sea the war against the Ottoman Empire. The central part of the
(817,000 km²). The river opened a channel of communication Hungarian Kingdom was conquered by the Ottomans, but
and trade between different climatic zones, cultures, econo- the whole Middle Danube Basin became the place of contin-
mies from prehistory to today. V. Gordon Childe titled his mo- uous military conflicts. The main road of military campaigns
nography on the prehistory of Central Europe as the Danube followed the Danube from Belgrade to Vienna. Armies con-
in Prehistory in 1929, and he used ‘Danubian’ as the name for sisting tens of thousands to over a hundred thousand soldiers
cultural phases (Childe 1929). The river played an important followed the river, supported by galleys and smaller oared
role in the spreading of early agriculture from south east to warships (nasad, saika). They were supplied by a large num-
central Europe (Linearbandkeramik) as well as early metal- ber of towed cargo ships transporting supplies (Szentklárai
lurgy (Vinča and Vučedol cultures). 1886). Emblematic moments of this river’s history are the
lost ‘treasure ships’ of Queen Mary during the evacuation of
The Ripa Pannonica was the frontier of the Roman Empire Buda in 1526 (Tóth 2009), and the site of the Battle of Tolna,
consisting of a series of legionary and auxiliary camps, forts, in 1599. This was a surprise attack by Hungarian naval and
and watchtowers and connecting infrastructure such as set- land forces on the annual Turkish supply fleet traveling from
tlements, baths, amphitheatres, and the Danube river itself Belgrade to Buda consisting of 120 transport ships and 13
Keywords: Danube – River Archaeology – Risks – Ship Mill – Community Archaeology

90 Exploring, Documenting, and Protecting the River Heritage in Hungary
warships moving along the Danube, in the Ottoman hinter- survey was a commercial ‘fish-finding system’1 that records
land. In the engagement, the Ottoman forces suffered great swathes of between 2 x 20–25 m wide strips of the riverbed,
losses, Christian prisoners were freed and a large war-booty with a speed of 6–9 km/h providing acceptable quality images
taken (Beszédes 1999). A few years later raids took place on of a 2–3 km section during a 2–3 hour survey. The images
the Ottoman military bridges at Drávatamási, in 1603 (Tóth and coordinates of the sonar anomalies and the continuous
2006, 2009b) and at Eszék, today Ossiek in Croatia, in 1664 sonar files can be saved in the event of scientifically inter-
(Pesić 2011; Surić 2014) on the Drava river. esting regions or individual sonar anomalies being identified.
The pre-railway period of the 18th to 19th centuries was the These sonar files are processed later, producing geo-refer-
age of peace and growth. The Middle Danube Basin func- enced ‘strips’.2
tioned as a supply base for the Habsburg Empire. Wheat was A direct underwater survey is carried out utilising individual
extensively exported onboard towed cargo ships to the west- divers. For dives close to the riverbank, divers use a rope at-
ern part of the empire to feed the growing urban population tached to them held by surface support staff. This and the di-
and large armies during the Spanish and Austrian Succession rection of the current help in their orientation in the very poor
Wars, Seven Years War, and Napoleonic wars (Gráfik 2004). underwater conditions. When searching in a single position
The Danube Basin continued to play its part in the cultural, (for example a sonar anomaly) we try to explore in concen-
economic, and political space during the modern period, and tric semi-circles, otherwise, we move in lines parallel to the
traces of this recent past and the study of contemporary pro- riverbank, surveying in long strips. When the exploration is
cesses are subject of recent and actual studies. The most more than 20 m from the riverbank, it is simpler to dive from
well-known ‘literary travel’ was written by Claudio Magris in an anchored boat. The divers descend using the anchor line
1986 (Magris 1986), but the work of Nick Thorpe from 2014 and search a 2–3 m wide x 25–30 m long strip following the
(Thorpe 2014), or the DANUrB (Benkő, Pavel, Vitkova 2019) current, while remaining connected by a rope to the support
project finished in 2019, should also be mentioned. crew in the boat. When an object is located the rope can be
attached to it, while the diver marks the object with a buoy.
Due to the current and the reduced visibility only marked po-
sitions can be explored and documented later.
The water level of the rivers of the Danube Basin have annual
and seasonal movements. In past years, there used to be an
early spring and an early summer flood, the first event con-
nected to the rapid melting of the ice (in some catastrophic
historical cases blocked at a certain position by ice-barriers
like in 1838, when Pest was partly destroyed) (Fig. 2). The
summer flood is caused by late-spring rain and the melting of
ice in higher mountains. Now in late summer and during win-
ter the water level is low. The difference measured between
the two extremities at Budapest is a surprising 858 cm. The
highest Danube level was measured in 2013, and the smal-
Fig. 2 Ice-flood at Pest in 1838. Budapest, Überschwem- lest in 2018, within 5 years. The frequency and the level of
mungsszene aus 1838. Universitätsbibliothek Salzburg G extreme conditions are evident from observations and could
208 II. © Wikimedia commons.
be connected with climatic events. The historically regular
changing of the water level has become irregular, meaning
The character of river research that the low-water level can occur at any time of the year.
In a typical Hungarian river research, the visibility is reduced These hydrological and climatic changes or irregularities in-
to an average of 40–60 cm due to floating detritus, transport- fluence the protection and the research of underwater cultural
ed sediments, and algae. In optimal conditions: low water lev- heritage. During times of flooding it is not a suitable period
el, winter, sunny weather, this could be extended to 1 metre. for research, due to the strong currents, zero visibility, and
In the case of rising water or flooding, the visibility is zero. large floating objects, but we cannot predict the occurrence
These physical conditions characterise other rivers around of the floods. This means that the planning of large scale, or
the world. The Danube and its tributaries have no dangerous collaborative projects is harder. Low water levels offer more
animals or microbes and toxic pollution is normally absent. visibility, and extremely low water level can dry substantial
The most frequently used method for large-scale area subsea parts of the normally submerged sandbanks, gravel banks,
exploration is the side-scan sonar. The system used for the or shoals. In the case of extreme dry periods, it is possible to
find and document sites partially or completely dry that are The Árpad Museum built a network for the information sharing
normally underwater. This feature could be considered a pos- and research cooperation with other territorial museums, and
itive, however, it is necessary to take into consideration, that some national level institutions, such as the Institute and Mu-
sun, wind, high temperature, and freezing cause significant seum of Military History, Pázmány Péter Catholic University,
damage to organic materials. These sites become accessible since 2015. This network helped us in the local organisation
to unwanted ‘guests’ too, among them looters and vandals. of researches. With the financial support, using the network
and cooperating with volunteers, the plan was to survey 2
The current organisation of the protection of underwater km sections of the Danube and other rivers at 5 locations,
cultural heritage in Hungary and documenting 10 sites which were only recorded as GPS
Hungary ratified the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Pro- coordinates or other type of information.
tection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2014. There is no
national organisation for the protection and research of the
underwater cultural heritage, and there is no ‘underwater ar-
chaeologist’ as an occupational title. Practically, the Árpád
Museum of Ráckeve, a small territorial museum carries out
research in its authorised territory and on the basis of co-
operative agreements within the district boundaries of other
museums, and abroad.
The technical and human resources depend on temporary
grants — the most important partner is the National Cultural
Fund —, and voluntary aid by individual and organised div-
ers — the Argonauta Research Group is the prime partner
supporting organised divers. The Underwater Archaeological
Division of the Hungarian Archaeological and Art-historical
Society plays an important role in public relations and dis-
seminating scientific news and results.
Typical research can be initiated by a scientific hypothesis —
to identify a possible underwater site — or on receipt of civil-
ian information such as from a local fisherperson or a trekker
contacting the museum about a possible site. Small groups of
2–3 volunteers are organised to carry the sonar and the small
Fig. 3 Sonar mosaic presenting a Second World War metal
motorboat of the Argonauta Research Group, and in case of ship fragment, a modern plastic (fibre-glass) boat and an
diving, their own equipment; the travel and transport using early 20th c. wooden ship. © Attila Tóth.
private cars. The group meet and travel in the morning, spend
between 2–4 hours on the water, followed by a common din- The side-scan sonar survey in the Ráckeve-Danube-branch
ner as a ‘social event’. The report and processing of the sonar resulted in dozens of sites, some of them consisting of nu-
data is carried-out the next day. These researches are char- merous features. As a result of diving the sites, it was pos-
acterised by minimal cost and are flexible from the organi- sible to identify WWII metal wrecks, modern metal wrecks,
sational side too. Naturally, only limited areas and minimal wooden and plastic boats as well as historical boats (Fig. 3).
investigations can be made, but as we organise more surveys The majority of the sonar targets still await underwater ar-
in a year, these offer a working possibility for the mapping chaeological control. At some locations a number of modern
Hungary’s underwater archaeological topography. boats forming a ‘boat cemetery’ were found. These sites are
testimony of artificial ‘fish nests’ created by local fisherper-
2018: a year of challenges sons. Metal lockers or construction debris used as ‘fish nests’
In 2018, the National Cultural Fund granted the Árpad Mu- were also found. This habit demonstrates that ‘site formation’
seum 7 million HUF (ca. 24,000 USD) to carry out a nation- is a continuous phenomenon, and local people used the river
al level survey and documentation project of the underwater as a garbage deposit until recently.
cultural heritage. This modest support was by far the greatest The third quarter of 2018 was dry and warm and the water
financial help received in the last 10 years. Unfortunately, this level of the Danube reached the centenary minimum. Large
was only a fraction of the resources required for an extensive, areas of the riverbed became dry, with sand and gravel
high-tech survey. shoals, previously invisible. A number of known or unknown
92 Exploring, Documenting, and Protecting the River Heritage in Hungary
were received by the author, museum, and the Argonauts Re-

search Group. The information in most cases was related to
known and registered sites, but new sites were also found.
Unfortunately, some people went to the river to find and steal
treasures, evidenced by small holes dug in the sediments,
recognised as the result of illegal metal detectors.
Low water levels offered a unique possibility to discover new
sites, but it was a source of danger too. Our resources were
concentrated on surveys in the shallow water environments,
instead of diving. As a result, by the end of 2018, the terrain of
28 settlements and the associated research of 44 areas that
had been visited was achieved (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Places of underwater archaeological research in
2018. © Atilla Tóth.
An example of what was found is the less well-known ar-
chaeological feature, the ship mill. These special mills consis-
ted of two ships, connected by wooden beams, and fixed on
the river by means of an anchor or wooden post. The milling
mechanism was installed on the large ship, and the mill-wheel
was placed between the two ships. These mills were a com-
mon part of the Hungarian river landscape from mediaeval
times until the end of the 19th century, and were also frequent
on other European rivers. Evlia Çelebi, a Turkish traveller,
who visited Hungary in the 1660s mentioned the beautiful
ship mills of the Hungarians on the Danube. While there are
some graphic historical documents related to ship mills from
18th–19th centuries, only the Ráckeve ship mill was documen-
Fig. 5 Photo from a drone of the wreck of a ship mill at Száz-
halombatta. © B. Takács, Arpad Museum. ted, and partly saved by ethnographers. This documentation
was the basis of a re-building project made and financed by
a group of civilians, the Ship Mill Guild of Ráckeve. There
was no data about how the ship mills of Evlia Çelebi looked
like, and there was no basis to reconstruct the history of this
economically important mill type. It is evident, that ship mills
mirror the technologies of local shipbuilders as well.
During the 2018 project, it was possible to identify two ship

mills. The earlier after 1645 at Százhalombatta (Fig. 5), the
later after 1825 at Ordas (Fig. 6); the dating based on den-
drochronology. The most important feature is the existence of
L-shaped monoxyl oak elements at the junction of the side and
Fig. 6 19th century ship mill at Ordas. © Attila Tóth. the bottom of the ship. This is the clear evidence that these
ships belong to the group of flat bottomed extended-monoxyl
constructions. This technology goes back to antiquity (Weerd
sites emerged from the water. These included large Second 1987; Rieth 1981; Ayala 2009) and is widespread during the
World War wrecks or parts of aeroplanes, wooden construc- mediaeval period in rivers (from France, through Germany
tions, historical wrecks and objects, group of objects fallen or to Poland and Hungary), but from the 15th century, the fully
thrown into the river. The media recognised the rare natural plank-built ships changed them (Rieth 1981, Ossowsky
event and the ‘dry Danube bed’ was shown in headlines. A 2000). The existence of extended-monoxyl technology in an
number of people influenced by the media went into the river early-modern and modern context is outstanding, and this
to ‘investigate’ or to ‘discover’ something. Many of them were could be an argument for the continuity of ship(mill)-building
passive observers, posting photos on social media. Emails technology on the Hungarian Danube.
and phone calls regarding sites found by riverbed-visitors
There were some bad practices related to the activity of trea- the wider society and by means of clear, and regular com-
sure hunters and vandals. A ship plank was found lying on a munication, and public awareness can be raised resulting in
dry pebble near Szigetújfalu, South of Budapest. The plank the recruitment of ‘civilian ambassadors’ that can influence
was too long to transport by the car available at the time. The policymakers.
plank was concealed in a neighbouring bush, covered with
leaves. On returning a week later with a larger vehicle the
plank was found partly burned in a fireplace (Fig. 7). At Tököl, 1 Humminbird 987 and 997 between 2008–2019, and upgraded to 1,2 GHz and 360
degrees system of the same company in 2020 with the grant of the National Cultural Fund.
a late 19th-early 20th century oak barrel was destroyed by un-
2 For the processing of mosaics from the data we used SonarTrx software.
wanted visitors, and in the neighbourhood a part of the wing
of a Second World War US B26 bomber that had become
visible had to be excavated with the aid of volunteers to avoid
the interest of the collectors of military relics.
References
Ayala G (2009) Lyon. Les bateaux de Saint-Georges. Lyon, 2009.
Benkő M, Pavel G and Vitkova L (2019) The Unexplored Cultural Heritage. In:
Communities by the Danube. Praha, 2019. http://urb.bme.hu/danurb2019/
DANURB__BOOK.pdf; accessed 30th September 2020.
Beszédes J (1999) Adatok az 1599. évi Tolnai csata lokalizálásához. [German

summary\: Daten zur Lokalisierung der Tolnaer Schlacht aus dem Jah-
re 1599. Wosinsky Mór Múzeum Évkönyve (Szekszárd) (1999), 271-292
https://library.hungaricana.hu/en/view/MEGY_TOLN_Evkonyv21/?que-
ry=SZO%3D(magyarorsz%C3%A1gi%20mikl%C3%B3s)&pg=276&lay-
out=s; accessed 30th September 2020.
Childe V G (1929) The Danube in Prehistory. Oxford, 1929. https://archive.org/

details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283123/mode/2up; accessed 30th September 2020.
Gráfik I (2004) Hajózás És Gabonakereskedelem. Gabonakonjunktúra Vízen.

[Shipping and Corn Trade. Corn-Conjunture On Water] Pécs, 2004.
Fig. 7 Partially burned ship plank, Szigetújfalu. © Attila Tóth.
Lőrincz B (1990) Classis. In: Mócsy A, Fitz J In: Pannonia Régészeti Kéziköny-
ve [Archaeological Handbook of Pannonia] Budapest 1990.
Conclusions Magris C (1986) Danubio. Garzanti Libri, 1986.

There are several dangers related to investigating river her-
Mócsy A (1974) Pannonia and Upper Moesia. London. 1974.
itage. The extremely low water levels, caused by more fre-
Ossowsky W (2000) Mediaeval boats and inland water transport in Poland.
quent droughts, fast floods in connection to rapidly melting ice Schuz des Kulturerbes un Wasser. IKUWA 99. Lübstorf, 2000, 279-287.
from mountains or caused by strong rains are a natural risk,
Pesić M (2011) Suleiman’s Bridge at Darda. In: Submerged Heritage vol. 1
which have occurred more often during the last decade. Hu- (2011), 10-19. https://www.academia.edu/2280409/Sulejmanov_most_u_
Dardi_Suleimans_bridge_at_Darda; accessed 30th September 2020.
man behaviour is a source of dangers too. Water regulation
plans (creating a trans-European water highway) doesn’t take Rieth E (1981) La construction navale a fond plat en Europe de l’ouest. In Eth-
nologie française 11.1 (1981) 47-62.
into account underwater heritage. Treasure hunting and van-
Surić R (2014) Continued Research of Suleiman’s Bridge at Darda. Submerged
dalism is not a large-scale risk, but a few people can cause Heritage 4 (2014), 38-43.
great destruction. It is impossible to place a police-boat on
Szentklárai J (1886) A Dunai Hajóhadak Története. [The History of Danubian
every site and which are often far from frequented places. Fleets] Budapest, 1886.
Therefore, the combination of these natural and human dan- Thorpe N (2014) The Danube – A Journey Upriver from the Black Sea to the
gers makes the protection of river cultural heritage an acute Black Forest. Yale University Press, 2014.
problem, which needs an instant solution, without which there Tóth J A (2006) Drávatamási, Kenderáztató. In: Régészeti Kutatások Mag-
yarországon [Archaeological Researches in Hungary] 2005. Budapest,
will be a loss of a high number of heritage elements. 2006, 228. https://epa.oszk.hu/03400/03447/00009/pdf/EPA03447_re-
geszeti_kutatasok_2005_171-346.pdf; accessed 30th September 2020.
There are good practices too. Community archaeology is a — (2009) The Queen Mary Project – Topographical Survey In The Danube
Band, Hungary. In: Bekić L. (ed): Jurišićev Zbornik. Zbornik Radova U Znak
growing theme in Hungary, initiated by the cooperation of div- Sjećanja Na Marija Jurišića. Zagreb, 2009, 412–418. https://www.academia.
ers and underwater archaeologists, and there are good ex- edu/32788632/Queen_Mary.pdf; accessed 30th September 2020.
amples in the field of museum-friendly (legal) metal detector — (2009b) La Drava (Hongrie), Un Fleuve Inconnu. Dossiers D’archéologie
331/1 (2009), 46–49.
searchers, who could go into the river during times of drought,
and could control the movements of illegal searchers. The Visy Zs (2007) The Ripa Pannonica In Hungary. Budapest, 2007.
interest of traditional media and the solutions of social me- Weerd MD (1987) Sind Keltische Schiffe Römisch? Zur Angeblich Keltischen
Tradition des Schiffstyps Zwammerdam. JRGZM 34 (1987) 387–410.
dia (museum and special pages, as well as blogs) influence
94 Underwater Cultural Heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND:

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Matthew Carter and Kurt Bennett, Aotearoa New Zealand
Introduction derwater cultural heritage sites. Significantly, these archae-

Aotearoa New Zealand is an island nation that, due to its re- ological sites include those of both Māori (Indigenous New
moteness, was one of the last major landmasses in the world Zealanders) and Pākehā (non‐Māori of European origin)
to be settled by humans (Fig. 1). This colonisation occurred provenance. Upon their arrival the Polynesian peoples, who
twice via the sea: firstly by Polynesian peoples around 1250– would later become Māori, rapidly settled throughout much
1300 BC, and then from 1769 onwards by European maritime of the country, exploiting its natural resources and develop-
cultures (Smith 2019). These two groups navigated in and ing a dynamic culture, combining elements from their Pacif-
along the hazardous coastlines leaving behind considerable ic homeland with those of their new circumstances (Smith
material evidence of their seafaring ways. 2019, 20 – 37). Archaeological remains relating to Māori cul-
ture have been recorded both underwater and in the intertidal
zone and have included numerous canoe landings, eel weirs,
fish traps, inundated settlements and sunken canoes (Carter
and Dodd 2015; Johns, Irwin and Sung 2014).
The underwater cultural resources of Pākehā origin cov-
er the period of the maritime exploration and the colonisa-
tion of Aotearoa New Zealand from 1769 onwards, and in-
clude around 1,500 historically documented shipwrecks (of
which only around 10% have been relocated), military sites,
wharves, navigation markers, ballast dumps, slipways, and
debris (Dodd 2003, 151). Like Māori before them, Pākehā ar-
rivals adapted their seafaring ways to the new environment
and resources at their disposal creating new forms of sea-
faring material culture distinct from that of their foreign con-
temporaries (Carter 2019). With the expansion of the British
Empire and mercantile commerce, Aotearoa New Zealand
Fig. 1 Location map showing Aotearoa New Zealand. was drawn into the global capitalist system and as a result,
© Matt Carter and Kurt Bennet. ships from all over the world are represented in the country’s
archaeological record. These cultural resources, both Māori
Despite this wealth of underwater cultural heritage and a and Pākehā, offer significant opportunities for maritime and
strong legislative framework for the protection of archaeolog- underwater archaeology. Further, they have potential for ad-
ical sites , maritime archaeology remains significantly under-
1
vancement of terrestrial archaeology through the provision of
developed in Aotearoa New Zealand. In recent years howev- comparative assemblages and material culture that does not
er, there have been a number of projects that have shown the typically survive in a dry terrestrial environment.
great potential that maritime archaeology has to contribute to
our understanding of Aotearoa New Zealand’s past and the Historical background
opportunities and challenges that exist for the future. Like in most countries, the introduction of SCUBA in Aotearoa
New Zealand in the mid-1950s saw the discovery and sub-
Underwater cultural heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand sequent looting of many underwater cultural heritage sites.
Surrounded by the Pacific Ocean to the East, the Tasman Unfortunately, this form of interaction between divers and
Sea to the West and bisected by estuaries, rivers, lakes and shipwrecks has dominated the majority of diving’s history in
swamps Aotearoa New Zealand has a diverse range of un- Aotearoa New Zealand and it has only in relatively recent
Key words: Māori – Pākehā – Aotearoa – New Zealand – Archaeology

Underwater Cultural Heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand 95
years taken on the preservation ethos more commonly ex- career was abandoned in Facile Harbour, Tamatea Dusky
perienced on terrestrial archaeological sites. Much of the Sound in 1795. Since its abandonment, the hull remains have
credit for promoting the protection of underwater cultural been subjected to fossicking and illegal salvage with an as-
heritage sites in Aotearoa New Zealand is due to the volun- sortment of Endeavour’s timbers having made their way into
teer-led Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand museums around Aotearoa New Zealand. The largest exist-
(MAANZ) established in 1989 (Churchill 1991, 7). Through ing collection of such ship timbers was illegally salvaged in
this association interested members of the recreational diving the 1970s and today is stored at the Southland Museum and
community have surveyed several underwater and maritime Art Gallery Niho o te Taniwha in Invercargill.
Fig. 2 Recording of the interior of Edwin Fox. © Kurt Bennett.
heritage sites, including the Mahanga Bay Wharf (built c. In 2019 these timbers were recorded in detail as part of a wid-
1885), Inconstant project (beached 1849), the shipwreck of er doctoral study investigating ship hulls of English East In-
Hydrabad (1878) and the Armed Constabulary whaleboat diamen (Bennett 2020). In addition to recording timbers from
sunk in Lake Waikaremoana in 1869 to name some of the Endeavour this PhD also investigated Edwin Fox another En-
higher profile projects (Carter and Dodd 2015). glish East Indiamen by design, although of later vintage, hav-
In addition to the work of MAANZ, since 2002 the Australasian ing been built in a shipyard on the River Hooghly, Calcutta in
Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA) has run a number 1853. Over a career spanning three decades Edwin Fox car-
of training courses in Aotearoa New Zealand through their ried troops during the Crimean War, was employed as a mer-
partnership with the Nautical Archaeology Society in the Unit- chant trader between England and India, delivered convicts
ed Kingdom. The AIMA/NAS courses are targeted towards to Western Australia, and transported immigrants to Aotearoa
providing recreational divers with basic information about un- New Zealand where it finally ended its international sailing
derwater archaeology, site recording and conservation. The career in the 1880s. In 1965 enthusiasts took ownership of
courses continue to be held annually with increasing interest. the vessel and preserved it in a drydock as a museum dis-
play. In 2017 and 2018, the hull was recorded in detail (Fig. 2;
Recent successes Bennett 2018) and through this PhD thesis the results will
In recent years, avocational maritime archaeological proj- be compared with the timbers recorded from Endeavour to
ects in Aotearoa New Zealand have been supplemented by understand the construction, repurposing and connection of
a number of academic studies undertaken as part of PhD English East Indiamen during a period of increasingly global-
theses. The first of these involves an investigation of two of ised interactions (Bennett 2020).
Aotearoa New Zealand’s most iconic maritime cultural re-
sources Endeavour (1771–1795), Aotearoa New Zealand’s Deptford shipbuilding yard Horeke
earliest known European shipwreck, and Edwin Fox built in As part of a maritime archaeological investigation of Māori-
1853 and preserved in a purpose built drydock at the top of Pākehā relations in pre-colonial Aotearoa New Zealand for his
the South Island in Picton (Bennett 2020). PhD thesis, Carter (2019) excavated the Deptford shipbuild-
The Endeavour (formerly Lord North) ship, was built for the ing yard which operated from 1826–1831 at Horeke in the
English East India Company in 1771 and after a lengthy Hokianga Harbour. Established by Sydney based merchants
and using timbers indigenous to their new home these Pāke- early colonial New Zealand shipbuilding. At the time of writing,
hā shipwrights built three ships at the site, the schooner En- Daring is kept wet while a final conservation treatment plan
terprise (1827), the brigantine New Zealander (1828), and is prepared. The vessel is lined with lengths of soaking-hoses
the fully‐rigged ship Sir George Murray (1830). Investigation and watered by an automatic timing device, approximately
of the material culture recovered during the excavation re- every 4 hours. This is only to mitigate further deterioration
vealed that the day-to-day lives of these shipwrights were before a more permanent treatment plan is implemented. It is
greatly shaped through their entanglement with local Māori foreseen that once the ship arrives to its final destination for
and significantly this research also found that the Pākehā- display, that full-conservation treatment will begin.
Fig. 3 The remains of Daring prior to removal and transport for conservation. © Kurt Bennett.
built ships were quantifiably different from those of their Challenges

British contemporaries. This research showed that through While in recent years considerable progress has been made in
investigating both the technological and social, maritime ar- the investigation of maritime archaeological sites in Aotearoa
chaeology could reveal the physical manifestations of a new New Zealand several significant challenges have been expe-
culture, that of Pākehā in Aotearoa New Zealand. rienced. These difficulties can mainly be seen as stemming
from discrepancies between the way in which heritage legis-
Schooner Daring lation is applied to terrestrial vs maritime archaeological sites,
In addition to the academic studies described above, one and the failure of heritage authorities in Aotearoa New Zea-
of the most significant maritime archaeological projects in land to incorporate international best practice in their manage-
Aotearoa New Zealand is that of the schooner Daring (Ben- ment of underwater cultural heritage (Carter and Dodd 2015).
nett et al. 2018). Built in Mangawhai north of Auckland in 1863
this small coastal trader became a total loss in 1865 after SS Ventnor
going ashore at the southern end of the Kaipara Harbour (In- In 2014, the wreck of SS Ventnor was found and dived by a
gram 2007, 110). In May 2018 storm action and shifting sands team of technical divers in 147 m of water off the Northland
began to expose the hull remains and by June the contin- Coast. Built in Scotland in 1901, SS Ventnor was on a voyage
ued beach erosion revealed the best-preserved example of from Wellington to Hong Kong in 1902 when it was wrecked
a mid-nineteenth century New Zealand built vessel (Fig. 2). with a cargo that include the remains of 499 Chinese miners
Upon first exposure, the remains of the hull included every- being returned to China for burial. During dives on the ves-
thing except for the two masts, the rudder and the steering sel a number of artefacts were removed and raised including
mechanism. As more of the ship became exposed, top deck- plates, a porthole and a small bell that the team planned to gift
ing, hatch combings, including the inscribed beam with the to the Chinese government (Edwards and Jamieson 2014).
registration number and registered tonnage, and railings In Aotearoa New Zealand the Heritage New Zealand Pouhere
were removed through environmental and cultural processes. Taonga Act (2014) is the primary legislation for heritage man-
Due to this continued loss of archaeological material, support agement. Through this legislation archaeological sites are
to remove and preserve the ship increased. Through the com- defined as any place in Aotearoa New Zealand, that either;
bination of generous private funding and supported by addi- (6a) was associated with human activity that occurred before
tional businesses, government and local groups, Daring was 1900 or is the site of the wreck of any vessel where the wreck
excavated and transported from the beach to a storage yard occurred before 1900. There is also an additional provision
to begin conservation in December 2018. Daring is a ship that (6b) where HNZPT may, on reasonable grounds, declare
is the earliest and best-preserved example for the study of any place of post-1900 activity to be an archaeological site.
Underwater Cultural Heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand 97
Under this legislation archaeological sites are legally protected cargo of gold that it was carrying; it was first dived by techni-
with the provision of criminal conviction and fines for modifying cal divers in 1999 (Gordon 2005).
or destroying an archaeological site (Carter and Dodd 2015). Like SS Ventnor the RMS Niagara having been sunk after
1900 is not automatically afforded the legal protection of a
Significantly, as the Ventnor was wrecked in 1902 it was not pre-1900 archaeological site criteria. While its depth has to-
automatically legally protected as an archaeological site and date restricted the number of divers who visit the wreck site,
the divers were not breaking any laws by removing the ar- the rapid progression of technical diving equipment, personal
tefacts. However, in addition to the Heritage New Zealand ROVs and submarines have made deeper sites, like RMS
Pouhere Taonga Act (2014), another piece of legislation, The Niagara more accessible. Without legal protection and with
Protected Objects Act (1975), regulates the export of protect- increasing visitation, the likelihood of the site being modify or
ed New Zealand objects which are defined as ‘an object form- destroyed appears to be increasingly likely. Additionally, in re-
ing part of the movable cultural heritage of New Zealand that cent years the status of RMS Niagara has been further com-
is of importance to New Zealand, or to a part of New Zealand, plicated through the leaking of its oil fuel into the surrounding
for aesthetic, archaeological, architectural, artistic, cultural, marine ecosystem (Gordon 2005, 198–200). Various groups
historical, literary, scientific, social, spiritual, technological, or claim that considerable volumes of oil still remain within the
traditional reasons’. As such, while the removal of the arte- bunkers of RMS Niagara, however, these are disputed by of-
facts from Ventnor was not illegal, their export to China with- ficials. When releases of oil do occur, they are widely reported
out being granted permission from the Director of the Ministry and criticised by recreational fisherpersons and conservation-
of Culture and Heritage would be (Ingram 2007, 556–557). ists alike. As such, the RMS Niagara shipwreck presents a
Upon hearing of the discovery of the shipwreck of SS Vent- challenge for both heritage and environmental managers that
nor and the removal of the artefacts there was considerable is yet to be addressed.
public outcry. These objections were in relation to the distur-
bance of the resting place of the 499 Chinese miners, and The 2001 UNESCO Convention
also the removal and proposed gifting to a foreign country From the above discussion it is apparent that while there is
part of Aotearoa New Zealand’s underwater cultural heritage. a strong legislative framework for the protection of archae-
In response to these objections and the high levels of sig- ological sites in Aotearoa New Zealand, its application to
nificance of the wreck site Heritage New Zealand Pouhere underwater cultural heritage sites is yet to be enforced in a
Taonga under section 6 (b) formally gazetted the wreck as systematic or comprehensive way consistent with internation-
an archaeological site providing it with the legal protections al best practice (Carter and Dodd 2015; Dodd 2003). This
that it would have automatically had were it to have sunk be- is especially evident in relation to the lack of momentum in
fore 1900 a mere two years earlier (Edwards and Jamieson working towards ratification of the 2001 UNESCO Convention
2014). Additionally, the artefacts that were removed from the on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001
wreck were deemed protected objects under the Protected UNESCO Convention) which does not appear to be a prior-
Objects Act (1975) and could not be removed from Aotearoa ity for Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga. Despite this
New Zealand without an export permit issued by the Minis- lack of action, it is apparent that one of the major stumbling
try of Culture and Heritage. Unfortunately, the discovery and blocks to Aotearoa New Zealand ratifying the Convention is
removal of artefacts from the SS Ventnor shipwreck and the adoption of a rolling date with the year 1900 being the cut-
subsequent legal action has led to considerable acrimony be- off for archaeological sites under the Heritage New Zealand
tween the various parties and future legacy. What could have Pouhere Taonga Act (2014). As in the case of SS Ventnor and
been a pivotal project in the investigation of underwater cul- RMS Niagara this lack of a rolling date for legal protection
tural heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand has instead descend- means that post-1900 shipwrecks, including those related to
ed into mutual distrust between heritage authorities and the the World Wars, are not automatically protected. Therefore,
other various parties. not only is Aotearoa New Zealand lagging behind the coun-
tries who have proactively ratified the 2001 UNESCO Con-
RMS Niagara vention but our precious underwater cultural heritage is being
On 19 June 1940 the RMS Niagara struck a mine laid by the lost because of it.
German auxiliary cruiser Orion off Whangarei while bound
from Auckland to Vancouver. The vessel sank and today sits Future directions
at a depth of 121 m in the shipping channel between the Hen While the protection and investigation of underwater cultural
and Chicken and Mokohinau Islands. The wreck was sal- heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand is critically underdevel-
vaged during the Second World War, to remove the secret oped, there is potential for rapid improvement to this situation
by embracing examples of international best practice. One water cultural heritage around the country that have the po-
such initiative would be for Heritage New Zealand, the nation- tential to capture people’s imagination. Such projects could
al historic heritage agency, to employ one or more suitably also leverage the increasing connectiveness of social media
qualified maritime archaeologists to oversee the manage- to further spread the message of conservation and protection.
ment of underwater cultural heritage sites. This role could act
as a catalyst by not only improving the protection of these Conclusion
sites but also raising awareness of their importance to other Aotearoa New Zealand has a wealth of underwater cultural
staff within the heritage management sector. heritage the study of which has yet to reach its full potential.
Archaeology is taught at a tertiary level at two universities Both volunteer and academic projects have shown the great
in Aotearoa New Zealand, the University of Auckland, and value of this resource in contributing to our understanding of
the University of Otago. Unfortunately, however, within these Aotearoa New Zealand’s past. However, recent challenges
programmes there are no courses dedicated to maritime ar- have also revealed the incompatibility of the management
chaeology with prospective students having to study maritime and protection of underwater cultural heritage in Aotearoa
archaeology through overseas universities. The establish- New Zealand with those of international best practice. As
ment of a tertiary level maritime archaeology programme at such, underwater cultural heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand
either Auckland or Otago University would provide students must be viewed as a field in which both considerable opportu-
with the opportunity to study the unique underwater cultural nities and challenges still exist for the future.
heritage of Aotearoa New Zealand within the same academ-
ic tradition as their terrestrial counterparts. This bringing to-
1 Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act (2014) http://legislation.govt.nz/act/
gether of terrestrial and maritime archaeology would have the public/2014/0026/latest/DLM4005414.html; accessed 30th September 2020. Resour-
ce Management Act 1991 http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1991/0069/latest/
effect of raising awareness about the potential for maritime DLM230265.html; accessed 30th September 2020.
archaeology to contribute to the understanding of Aotearoa
New Zealand’s past and provide opportunities for collabora-
tion between the two fields. References
Another method for promoting the investigation and protec- Bennett K (2018) Laser scanning in the historic Edwin Fox hull for digital pre-
servation, Waitohi/Picton, Aotearoa/New Zealand. In: Australasian Journal
tion of underwater cultural heritage would be the running of of Maritime Archaeology 42(1), 81– 88.
further AIMA/NAS courses for recreational divers. Interna-
— (2020) Shipwright Artistry: Cultural Transmission of English Colonial Ship
tionally, these courses have improved diver appreciation of Design and Construction during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.
PhD Thesis, Manuscript in Preparation, Flinders University, Adelaide.
shipwreck conservation, and may encourage some to seek
further education in maritime archaeology. Such courses are Bennett K, McIvor I and L Paul (2018) Report on the rescue and preservation
of Daring, a mid-19th century schooner built in Aotearoa/New Zealand. In:
also a positive means of promoting a responsible attitude to- Australasian Journal of Maritime Archaeology 42(1), 75 – 80.
wards wreck diving amongst dive clubs and shops who might Carter M (2019) Manufacturing Identity: Pākehā Shipbuilding and the ‘Middle
see value in promoting the conservation of local shipwreck Ground’ in Aotearoa New Zealand. PhD Thesis, La Trobe University, Mel-
bourne.
sites. To date, courses have only been held in a limited num-
Carter M and A Dodd (2015) Maritime Archaeology in New Zealand: Trials, Tri-
ber of locations around the country. By ensuring that courses bulations and Opportunities, in S Tripati (ed), Shipwrecks Around the World;
are spread more evenly around New Zealand, more divers Revelations of the Past, Delta Book World, New Delhi, pp. 511– 525.
will be able to attend and become involved. Churchill D (1991) The Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand
MAANZ (Inc). In: Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeo-
Aotearoa New Zealand has a small but increasing number of logy 15(1), 7–10.
technical divers who regularly dive shipwrecks at depths of
Dodd A (2003) Opportunities for Underwater Archaeology in New Zealand. In:
40 –120 m. Collaboration with these highly skilled and trained Archaeology in New Zealand 46(3), 151–160.
individuals offers the opportunity to investigate shipwrecks Edwards B and B Jamieson (2014) Archaeological Assessment of the SS Vent-
that have only been minimally impacted by the actions of nor Ship Wreck Hokianga Harbour mouth NZAA Site No: O05/350, Heritage
New Zealand Pouhere Taonga, Kerikeri, New Zealand.
divers. Such cooperation has the potential to not only gain
Gordon K (2005) Deep Water Gold: The Story of RMS Niagara: the Quest
valuable information from these archaeological sites but also for New Zealand’s Greatest Shipwreck Treasure, SeaROV Technologies,
to establish a principle of custodianship which would help pro- Whangarei, New Zealand.
tect these wrecks for future archaeological investigation. Ingram CWN (2007) New Zealand shipwrecks: over 200 years of disasters at
sea, (ed). PO Wheatley, et al., Hodder Moa, Auckland, New Zealand.
A further method for promoting the investigation and protec-
tion of underwater cultural heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand Johns D, Irwin G and YK Sung (2014) An early sophisticated East Polynesian
voyaging canoe discovered on New Zealand’s coast, In: Proceedings of the
would be through working with documentary and filmmakers National Academy of Sciences 111(41), 14728–14733.
to raise the profile of the discipline with the general public. Smith I (2019) Pākehā Settlements in a Māori World, Bridget Williams Books
There are numerous shipwrecks and other forms of under- Wellington, New Zealand.
Capturing Cultural Value: Solutions Provided by Economic Concepts 99
CAPTURING CULTURAL VALUE: CAN ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

PROVIDE SOLUTIONS IN PROMOTING THE PRESERVATION OF
UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE?
Introduction on the Goodwins; many the last resting place of their crews.
The preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) con- Although heritage bodies and the local public have vigorous-
tinues to be threatened by natural processes such as climate ly raised their concerns3 about the impact on this heritage,
change which will, in many places, inundate and exacerbate the economic imperative has taken precedent. The govern-
the erosion of in situ UCH. Human activity such as coastal ment’s decision4 to proceed is not in ignorance of UCH, but
development, commercial exploitation, and underwater tour- in absence of more compelling reasoning that challenges the
ism will add to the pressures on this important non-renew- economic benefits derived from the port’s expansion, the ob-
able resource. Heritage managers, often lacking adequate jections have been set aside. Could a more comprehensive
resources, are required to make difficult choices, deciding economic valuation that includes future economic and social
which sites to preserve in situ, those left exposed to facilitate benefits help justify preserving threatened sites in situ until
public access, with many others left for the elements to de- such time as resources are available for their research or
cide their fate. their incorporation in the heritage tourism industry?
With the above as a backdrop, this chapter introduces eco- Such assessments have the benefit of being able to base
nomic concepts that calculate Total Economic Value (TEV). their financial estimates on the expanding number of sites
This comprises social and economic components that could that have been researched or in some cases recovered for
be used to assist cultural heritage managers in making more public display, such as the shipwrecks of the Mary Rose
informed choices about for example which sites should be (1545)5 and the Vasa (1628)6 being among the most notable
preserved in situ, and those that should not. The concepts in Europe, both of which make significant economic contribu-
use familiar language that policy makers, governments, and tions to their respective economies. These models can pro-
the public might find helpful in explaining and supporting the vide valuable data which can inform calculations of economic
application of resources on cultural heritage sites which could and socio-cultural values and allow accurate estimates of the
lay undisturbed for years before being utilised by future gen- associated costs which could help mitigate decisions that are
erations. often based on assumptions rather than a comprehensive
value assessment.
What price heritage
The news item ‘What price heritage’ discussed the econom- Heritage value: the archaeologist’s view
ic value (Firth 2015) of the White Cliffs of Dover, an English Archaeologists and anthropologists have expressed the view
natural and cultural coastal landscape, considered a poignant that ‘some objects are endowed with cultural value that is sym-
symbol of the country’s history (Shukman 2013) The reporter bolic, and that cannot be reduced to monetary or materialistic
asked the representative of the National Trust1 - the manag- worth’ (Scott 2007). The text below might give the impression
ing agency of the Cliffs - ‘at what point would their economic that these words are challenged or even cast aside, but this is
value, in terms of a hypothetical gold resource seriously chal- not meant to be the case. It is hoped that readers will under-
lenge their almost sacred’ status…£1 million, £1 billion, or £1 stand that the suggestions are aimed at providing alternative
trillion pounds?’ At £1 trillion the representative admitted that solutions for placing heritage in a world where value, in its
sum would need to be seriously considered, adding that the broader sense, usually equates to a monetary value. It should
right process should determine the outcome. Although this be noted that the reality is that sacred places have already
example is hypothetical, elsewhere the situation is real and acquired economic value as tourist attractions within an in-
potentially impacts UCH. dustry valued at >10% of global GDP and employing a similar
The dredging of the Goodwin Sands is part of a plan to ex-
2
percentage of the global workforce.7 Might UCH appear more
pand Dover Harbour’s commercial capacity. It threatens the relevant and even more valuable in the contemporary world if
integrity of submerged vessels and aircraft recorded as lost economic terminology and concepts were applied?
Keywords: Cultural Heritage – Cultural Value – Economic Value – Use – Non-use

100 Capturing Cultural Value: Solutions Provided by Economic Concepts
Heritage value: the economist’s view these publications have beneficial ramifications for how UCH
Broadly speaking the value of cultural heritage should be can be presented to the public or stakeholders or government
‘consistent with how we measure value for a private market that makes a better case for protection, preservation, or the
good’ (Ready and Navrud 2002) with value defined as the application of resources for their research. By so doing this
greatest sum of money a consumer is prepared to pay for a would fulfil the three components of the Poznań Cycle shown
good beyond, for example, an admission fee (Holden 2004, in figure 1. The cycle represents comments made during the
31). The principle of ‘willingness to pay’ (WTP) establishes a Fourth Asia-Europe Meeting (Poznań 2010), which stated that
theoretical economic value based on the individual choices ‘the future perspective of a tangible heritage is determined by
of those who would consume the good. It can apply to an political commitment, public awareness, and economic feasi-
item in an existing market or to one that does not current- bility…[that] without public awareness, political commitment
ly exist. In the latter case, ‘willingness to pay’ is the primary will lose its legitimacy and [without] economic feasibility will
evaluation of the social benefit of the item and can be used to lose its sustainability. For that reason, public awareness is of
justify taxation. Consideration should be given to wellbeing, main importance’ (ASEM 2010, 2).
which includes aesthetic value. In standard economic theory
wellbeing is determined by people’s preferences. A benefit is Although it is common to think in terms of how a commodity
defined as anything that increases human wellbeing and a can be utilised with the aim of creating a profit, mechanisms
cost as anything that decreases human wellbeing (Mourato have been developed that allow economic principles to de-
and Mazzanti 2002). termine social values or apply values to non-market goods,
concepts considered ‘outside the traditional purview of her-
itage and conservation professionals’ (De La Torre and Ma-
son 2002, 3). Environmental economists identified challenges
and choices resulting in providing a framework from which
cultural heritage could benefit (Navrud and Ready 2002). This
could be on a large geographic scale such as maritime cul-
tural landscapes valued for their marine assets which could
include cultural heritage assets, as is the case in the Goodwin
Sands mentioned above. It can also be on a micro-scale like
an individual shipwreck such as the London8 that has asso-
ciated historical and archaeological value. Valuations for the
Fig. 1 The Poznań Cycle shows the relationship between utilisation and non-utilisation of a site are essential in explor-
public awareness, political commitment, and economic
feasibility that together help justify application of resources ing the Total Economic Value (TEV) (Table 1) of a heritage
for protecting, preserving or carrying-out research related to site. This is before decisions are made in preference of an-
heritage. © Christopher J. Underwood. other specified asset such as fishing, mineral, hydrocarbons,
coastal development, wind energy, or dredging, that could
Capturing cultural value ultimately lead to a loss of cultural heritage.
These economic concepts emerged in the 1960s, first pro-
posed by Baumol et al, when it was proposed that the ‘arts The models and associated terminology were first applied to
were a case of market failure’ (Throsby 2003). It was identified natural heritage, but are now being used for terrestrial cul-
that there was a need to determine value resulting from the tural heritage with some examples applied to submerged re-
emergence of heritage from its isolated position where pre- sources (Whitehead and Finney 2003), marine sanctuaries
dominantly expert groups decided what constituted heritage, (Arin and Kramer 2002), artificial reefs for diving (Pendleton,
their actions validated by funding bodies. In the early 2000s, 2005a, b), cave diving (Huth and Morgan 2009), a UK pro-
United Kingdom ministers found difficulty in expressing the tected wreck (Beattie-Edwards 2013), and the UK’s proposed
contribution or evaluation of the arts and culture to ‘health, marine protected areas (Kenter et al 2013) and more recently
education, crime reduction, strong communities, and the na- to projects (Evans and Davison 2019). The benefit of social
tion’s wellbeing’, which was felt necessary to justify funding wellbeing derived from enjoying a particular site or sites, with
(Holden 2004). The Getty Conservation Foundation defined concepts such as ‘contingent value’, ‘willingness to pay’, and
cultural value as ‘the importance of a site as determined by ‘use’ and ‘non-use’ options can be achieved. The following
the aggregate of values attributed to it [as expressed] by ex- text describes some of the basic principles, terminology, and
perts, art historians, archaeologists, architects, and others’ applications that offer ‘non-use’ values that could be applied
(De La Torre and Mason 2002, 3). The principles outlined in to preservation in situ as alternative solutions to the market
Total Economic Value

Use value Option value Non-use value
Direct use value Indirect use value Existence values Other non-use values
Direct benefits Indirect benefits Option for future use Intrinsic value = Bequest value =
Income/revenue value supports Preservation in situ Preservation in situ
Museums Sense of place Preservation in situ - Historic Historic legacy options to

Heritage centres Participation Museums Archaeological future generations
Entertainment Wellbeing Heritage centres Artistic
Education Aesthetic quality Entertainment Time period – rarity –
Heritage trails Valorisation / assess- Education group value – survival –
Research ment of existing assets Heritage trails fragility – vulnerability – di-
Exploitation Research versity
Exploitation
Tangibility of value to individuals decreases as distance from a site increases

Table 1 An adapted model based on Allen 2005 that illustrates ‘use’ and ‘non-use’ options applied to cultural heritage.
valuations that are often used to express the ‘use value’ of ing degrees of excludability, using the example of museums
shipwrecks, especially where there are references to pre- as an ‘excludible good’ because the public can be prevent-
cious cargoes. ed from entering the museum, whereas casually walking
Ready and Navrud (2002) remarked that organisations around a historic site in a public place would be considered
tasked with the protection and preservation of cultural heri- ‘non-excludible’ (Ready and Navrud 2002). This is considered
tage will be required to compete for resources and that this an important concept for economists, particularly in capital
competition would extend to choices between ‘preservation markets. If it is realistically impossible to prevent people from
and restoration’. Although these terms are not defined in the accessing a site it is unlikely that the public will voluntarily
publication, they can be interpreted as management choices. pay for it, ultimately leading to no service and only ‘cultural
including preservation in situ. However, Ransley (2007, 221) heritage with a high market value would be protected’ (Ready
points out preservation in situ has led to tensions ‘such as and Navrud 2002).
that between reburial and public and research access to pro-
tected sites’, adding the issue of how to decide what is valu- There are near parallels with the difficulty in regulating access
able and differentiate between one site´s value from another. to most UCH. Are, for example, shipwrecks public goods? Us-
If government and or the public raised concerns about util- ing the criteria above, sites with unrestricted access probably
ising public resources on heritage assets, is it helpful to use are equivalent to walking around a historic site in a public
economic principles to show that there is financial justification place. While for practical reasons it may be difficult to exclude
for preserving UCH for future generations and that applying the public, where there is a pre-requisite to obtain a license
resources can be justified? The rationale is that ultimately to visit some of the UK’s Protected Sites9, they are loose-
there will be a return on the investment in preserving sites ly equivalent to a museum, so theoretically a protected site
that contribute positively to future government economic and might be considered ‘excludable’.
social goals. The second characteristic is that the good has to be ‘non-rival
in consumption’, which translates into two people being able
Cultural Heritage as a Public Good to enjoy the good without affecting the enjoyment of the other
Similar to environmental goods, cultural heritage is normally (Mourato and Mazzanti 2002, 53; Ready and Navrud 2002).
considered a ‘public good’. To qualify, the good needs to pos- If a good is ‘non-rival in consumption’ the same authors state
sess two distinctive properties (Mourato and Mazzanti 2002, that it will ‘always be better for more people to enjoy it than
53; Ready and Navrud 2002; Throsby 2007). First, it should to allow fewer’, with the proviso that where visitation causes
be ‘non-excludible’ which translates into it being ‘technically damage then it could be considered to be a ‘congestible pub-
infeasible’ to prevent other users of the good from enjoying lic good’.
it. The same authors explain that cultural goods have vary-
102 Capturing Cultural Value: Solutions Provided by Economic Concepts
To avoid excess damage a visitor fee can be applied to re- the first column, with the remaining two to the right showing
duce the number of visitors and impact. The fees can be in- ‘non-use values’ that are considered helpful in promoting and
vested in caring for the same heritage or possibly other sites, justifying preservation in situ with ‘bequest value’ being par-
a principle that has been applied in the management of UCH ticularly appropriate in protecting and preserving heritage for
in Croatia, with the additional benefit that fees help to ensure future generations. The arrow from left to right illustrates the
that those who visit will value the opportunity the most. general principle that an individual’s valuation diminishes the
further that person is from a particular site.
Non-use options
‘Non-use’ values are applied to goods that are not traded If such values were calculated and expressed in monetary
in markets where a price cannot easily be applied, Holden terms — and they can and have been — they would count-
(2004) stating that ‘non-use’ values are highly significant for er in similar language to those who use market valuations
the funding of culture, given that so much cultural value rests of UCH to justify the commercial exploitation of a site. Diver
on the preservation of assets, practices, knowledge or loca- trails on designated historic and archaeologically significant
tions through which it can or could be created in the future’ sites have trended upwards in recent years. The local eco-
(Holden 2004, 31-33). Such goods are attached to a socio- nomic value of the UK’s protected wreck site of the Corona-
cultural value ‘because it holds meaning for people or social tion10 (Beattie-Edwards 2013) or the local value of a project,
groups due to its age, beauty, artistry, or association with a such as on the Dutch wreck Rooswijk11 (1740) (Evans and
significant person or event or (otherwise) contributes to pro- Davison 2019, 46) serve as examples. Both reveal contribu-
cesses of cultural affiliation’ (Mason 2002, 11). These can be tions to local economies, not to mention the additional bene-
expressed in economic terms because resources can be ap- fits of wellbeing and education considered central to various
plied for their protection or acquisition, which has applications governments’ policy. Using even the basic models from these
for sites where management has opted for preservation in two sites, if the economic value of visits12 to all of the UK’s
situ rather than excavation and recovery. protected wrecks was calculated it would reveal that UCH,
Three economic ‘non-use’ values are considered useful: ‘ex- considered of national importance, makes a significant contri-
istence value’, ‘option value’ and ‘bequest value’ (Table 1). bution to the national economy. Taking the premise one step
The first, ‘existence value’ is described as protection and further, if all diving activities on submerged cultural heritage
preservation of a site where a site’s existence, even for those was calculated the figure would be many times more and
members of the public who do not visit it and do not personal- would register on government analysis of visitor attractions
ly consume its services, can be valued. It is a useful concept that is often measured in millions for national museums, or
relating to UCH where it is impractical for the majority of the hundreds of thousands rather than thousands; in other words,
public to have direct contact. their aggregated value would become more apparent.
‘Option value’ relates to the value associated to a site which
can be utilised at a future date, interpreted as being in the Final thoughts
short to medium term, while ‘bequest value’ refers to preserv- It is accepted that archaeologists might consider that the eco-
ing a site for future generations (Navrud and Steady 2002; nomics-based perspective explored in this chapter does not
Holden 2004). Both of these terms are useful for heritage sit comfortably with them. Fears could include the possibili-
managers in determining which sites might be initially protect- ty of a blurring of the edges between the application of the
ed leaving the option to use them for research or tourism, with terminology by those seeking to exploit sites and by those
other sites being preserved in situ for a longer period which who wish to promote the social values for the benefit of all
could span generations. society. Looking more positively, the concepts, and termi-
If the public was aware and understood the reasoning for nology could be used by archaeologists to help justify and
preservation in situ which would mean restricted public ac- quantify grant applications, and assist heritage managers in
cess or alternatively those opened with visitor schemes for their decision-making. It might also be an asset for those ar-
nationally protected sites, funds could be more readily pro- chaeologists and educators who are engaged with the public
vided, accepting that government funding is available for both to help explain why some sites are left undisturbed for future
activities in some jurisdictions. generations and some are not. What hasn’t been addressed
Table 1 shows the various ways value can be expressed for here, but is an important related issue, is where sites are left
the different outcomes associated with cultural heritage that undisturbed under the guise of being preserved in situ, when
have been adapted and applied to UCH. Viewing the table the reality is that many sites are merely left to natural and
from left to right: the first two columns identify use values, human impacts to determine their survival. The challenge re-
the middle reserves the right to defer options but replicating mains to develop models based on the financial experiences
that have been accumulated during the evolution of the dis- Holden J [Demos] (2004) Capturing Cultural Value: How culture has become
a tool of government policy. http://www.demos.co.uk/files/CapturingCultural-
cipline that reveal, not only the costs, but also the significant Value.pdf; accessed 30th September 2020.
positive contributions to economic and social development. Huth W and M Ashton (2009) Measuring the Willingness to Pay for Fresh Water
To achieve this, as stated above, there are project examples Cave Diving. In: Marine Resource Economics. 26: 151–166.
which have progressed from search, discovery, excavation, James A (2018) Review of the Virtual Dive Trails Scheme: A big splash or a
damp squib? Historic England. https://historicengland.org.uk/content/docs/
recovery, conservation and display that serve as valuable get-involved/dive-trails-review-pdf/; accessed 30th September 2020.
sources of experience and associated decision making.
Kenter JO, Bryce R, Davies A, Jobstvogt N, Watson V, Ranger S, Solandt JL,
Duncan C, Christie M, Crump H, Irvine, KN, Pinard M, Reed, MS (2013)
The value of potential marine protected areas in the UK to divers and sea
1 The National Trust was created in 1895 to preserve for the nation, in perpetuity, places anglers. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
of historic importance and natural beauty.
Mourato S and M Mazzanti (2002) Economic Valuation of Cultural Heritage:
2 A ten-mile long sandbank located off the south-east coast of England.
Evidence and Prospects In: Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage: Re-
3 BBC (2018). Goodwin Sands dredging plans ‚disgusting‘. BBC online news 26th July search report for the Getty Foundation, The Getty Conservation Institute.
2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-kent-44971642/; accessed 30th September http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/
2020. values_cultural_heritage.html; accessed 30th September 2020.
4 HM Gov. (2020). Dover dredging application decision: The MMO has approved an ap-
plication from Dover Harbour Board for aggregate dredging off the Kent coast. https://www. Navrud S, Ready R C (eds) (2002) Why Value Cultural Heritage Chapter 1
gov.uk/government/news/dover-dredging-application-decision/; accessed 30th September Applying Environmental Valuation Techniques to Historic Buildings, Monu-
2020. ments and Artefacts. In: Valuing Cultural Heritage Edward Elgar Publishing
Ltd., UK, June 2002.
5 The hull of the Mary Rose and almost 20,000 artefacts were recovered and are now
on display in Portsmouth Historic Dockyard. See also Dobbs in this volume and https://
maryrose.org; accessed 24th August 2020. Pendleton L (2005a) Towards A Better Understanding of the Economic Value of
Ships to Reef Scuba Diving in Southern California. https://www.researchga-
6 The almost complete wreck of the Vasa and artefacts were recovered from Stockholm te.net/publication/268336939_Towards_A_Better_Understanding_of_the_
Harbour in 1961, and is Sweden’s most visited museum. See https://www.vasamuseet.se/
en; accessed 30th September 2020.
Economic_Value_of_Ships_to_Reef_Scuba_Diving_in_Southern_Califor-
nia; accessed 30th September 2020.
7 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact (2019). https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/
reports/economic-impact-research/regions-2019/world2019.pdf; accessed 30th September — (2005b) Understanding the Potential Economic Impacts of Sinking Ships
2020. for SCUBA Recreation. In: Marine Technology Society Journal 39(2): 47-
8 The wreck of the London, a 76-gun second-rate English vessel lost in 1665, is located 52. https://dfgsecure.dfg.ca.gov/mlpa/pdfs/binder3diii.pdf; accessed 30th
in the River Thames. September 2020.
9 Sites designated by the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 and the Protection of Military
Remains Act 1986.
Ransley J (2007) Rigorous Reasoning, Reflexive Research, and the Space for
Alternative Archaeologies: Questions for Maritime Archaeological Heritage
10 In Beattie-Edwards’, study through 2012, visitors to the wreck-site contributed £42,000 Management. In: The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. Black-
to the local economy, an average of £60.00 per visit. well. 36.2: 221–237.
11 During 2017, the project contributed a minimum of £46,000 to the local economy 46),
from harbour fees, boat charter, fuel, provision of a conservation facility in the town, mate- Scott-Ireton D A (2007) The Value of Public Education and Interpretation in
rials, supplies and equipment purchased from local shops, food and accommodation and Submerged Cultural Resource Management: In: Out of the Blue: Public In-
other local recreational activities and attractions (Evans & Davison (2019). terpretation of Maritime Cultural Resources, John H. Jameson Jr. and Della
Scott-Ireton (eds) Springer.
12 There were an estimated 10,000 dives on protected wreck sites in 2018 (James 2018).
Throsby D (2003) Determining the Value of Cultural Goods: How Much or How
Little Does Contingent Valuation Tell Us? In: Journal of Cultural Economics
27: 275–285.
— (2007) The Value of Heritage. Heritage Economics Workshop, ANU, 11–12

October (2007) https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/
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104 Caribbean Maritime Archaeology: An Overview
CARIBBEAN MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW OF ITS

DEVELOPMENT FROM THE MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY
Fig. 1 Map of the Caribbean. Illustration by Piotr Bajawoski © Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation, Depart-
ment of Anthropology, Texas A&M University.
Introduction and Definition Historical Background

Maritime archaeology in the Caribbean Sea involves the In the Caribbean region, there are prehistoric and historical
study of past people and cultures through the study of objects heritage sites that reveal a tapestry of intercultural experien-
and features discovered in the underwater and coastal mari- ces (Fig. 1). From the 16th century shifting waves of European
time landscapes of the region. It frequently involves archaeo- explorers, conquerors, and settlers, indigenous and African-
logy practiced in underwater environments, such as oceans, enslaved labourers, passing merchants, and colonial powers
seas, bays, lakes, rivers, springs, marshes, and cenotes. interacted and influenced the development of the rich, multi-
These submerged environments require the use of specia- lingual cultures of today. Among Caribbean maritime heritage
lized tools, although the archaeological research objectives sites are settlements and defensive fortifications, fresh water
remain similar to those used on land (Leshikar-Denton and procurement features, lighthouses and navigational aids, fis-
Luna Erreguerena 2008a, b; Leshikar-Denton 2011; Leshikar- hing areas, anchorages, careening places, ports, harbours,
Denton and Scott Ireton 2013). wharves, bridges, shipbuilding sites, shipwrecks, shipwreck
Keywords: Caribbean – Seafaring – Shipwrecks – Maritime Archaeology – Underwater Cultural Heritage

Caribbean Maritime Archaeology: An Overview 105
salvage sites, and aircraft lost at sea. Sites range from ce- nal UNESCO meetings in 2003 and 2008 to assist and inform
notes and eroded coastal features to remains of catastrophic Eastern Caribbean countries about the benefits of this inter-
shipwrecks and earthquakes, at times with exceptional levels national legal instrument. Success in the area is due in part
of preservation of cultural material.1 to the efforts of the Saint Lucia Archaeological and Historical
The research potential for archaeological sites in the Carib- Society, an organization with a long history of professional-
bean is significant, but their heritage value can be oversha- ly addressing the island’s terrestrial archaeological heritage,
dowed when commercial interests divert attention to the pos- and a leader in advocacy for ethical underwater and maritime
sibility of treasure on historical shipwrecks that they wish to archaeology in the subregion. Since the Convention entered
exploit. The situation poses a constant threat to the archaeo- into force in 2009, there have been seven sessions of the
logical heritage of the Caribbean region, and a challenge to meeting of States Parties in Paris between 2009 and 2019,
its protection and management. and ten meetings of the Scientific and Technical Advisory
Body appointed by the States Parties to assist in the techni-
Key Issues and Current Debates cal guidance.
The Caribbean Sea encompasses English-, Spanish-, Operational Guidelines for implementation of the Convention
French-, and Dutch-speaking countries, some of which are were adopted internationally at UNESCO meetings in 2013
independent while others are in various levels of dependen- and 2015. To ensure proper implementation, States Parties
cy, resulting in cultural, linguistic, and legislative differences are to establish competent authorities, or reinforce existing
among them. Yet, they share elements of a common maritime ones. The UNESCO Secretariat works with a wide network of
heritage. In today’s global world, these Caribbean countries experts and institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean
are uniting and working toward establishing common goals (LAC) and worldwide that assist member states in develop-
in many areas, not the least of which is in attention paid to ment of capacities at regional, national, and local levels. Me-
their underwater and maritime cultural heritage, especially for xico is a leader in this area, and works to provide workshops
the benefit of Caribbean culture, education, and tourism (Les- and training grounds to assist in further capacity building
hikar-Denton 2002, 2011; UNESCO 2004; Leshikar-Denton throughout the LAC region (Leshikar-Denton and Luna Erre-
and Luna Erreguerena 2008a, b; Leshikar-Denton and Scott- guerena 2008a, b).
Ireton 2013). The 2001 UNESCO Convention entered into force on 2nd Ja-
In 1997, Caribbean countries formed a technical commission nuary 2009. At present GRULAC countries represent 20 of
on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) known as the Latin the 66 ratifications on record: Antigua and Barbuda, Argen-
American and Caribbean Group (GRULAC). GRULAC first tina, Barbados, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Grena-
met in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, in 1998 and da, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico,
1999 — with participants present from Argentina, Barbados, Panama, Paraguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint
Columbia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Haiti, Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. The
Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean countries are now discussing the benefit of esta-
and Uruguay with the author sent as a representative from blishing compatible national legislation, and have asked the
UNESCO. The group was formed in preparation for a series ICOMOS International Committee on Underwater Cultural
of expert meetings held by UNESCO in Paris between 1998 Heritage (ICUCH) and UNESCO for guidance. Clearly, the
and 2001. At these Santo Domingo meetings the group was 1996 ICOMOS Charter and the 2001 UNESCO Convention
introduced to and united in support of the principles of the are powerful international instruments that lay the foundation
1996 ICOMOS International Charter on the Protection and for protection and management of the world’s UCH. Their
Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage, a charter de- endorsement by a growing number of Latin American and
fining best professional practice (International Council on Caribbean countries sets a positive example for countries
Monuments and Sites 1996). At the Paris meetings, at which worldwide to take action to identify, protect, and manage it,
GRULAC was influential, 88 countries adopted the 2001 regardless of their political and economic situations.
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater In previous publications referenced below, brief case studies
Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO Convention), which es- highlighting a unified approach, legislation to protect ship-
tablished an international legal framework. Since that time, wrecks, heritage management, research, meaning to de-
worldwide regional UNESCO meetings have encouraged scendent communities, and the future have featured many
countries to ratify the Convention. Jamaica hosted two re- Caribbean islands including the British Overseas Territories
gional meetings in 2002 and 2011, and a capacity building of Anguilla, the Cayman Islands, and the Turks and Caicos
training course in 2012. Saint Lucia was the first Caribbean Islands; the French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe;
nation to ratify the Convention; the country hosted sub-regio- the Dutch islands of Saint Maarten, Saint Eustatius, Saba,
Fig. 2 ‘Molasses Reef Wreck’ plan showing the distribution of ordnance across the site, outline of the ballast mound, hull
remains beneath the ballast, and grooves in the seabed corresponding to frame locations. Illustration by Donald Keith
© Ships of Discovery.
Curacao, and Bonaire; the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, a Emerging Themes

territory affiliated with the United States; independent count- Island nations are working to develop research and preser-
ries in the Greater Antilles, including the Bahamas, Cuba, the vation programmes to protect, manage, and interpret sites
Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Jamaica; and independent and to promote heritage tourism. They are exploring issues
countries in the Lesser Antilles, including Barbados, Domini- of proper uses of heritage and negotiating approaches from
ca, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent commercial salvors. Emerging themes in Caribbean mariti-
and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago (Leshikar-Den- me archaeology include heritage legislation, management,
ton 2002; 2004; 2011; UNESCO 2004; Leshikar-Denton and research, meaning to descendent communities, and interna-
Luna Erreguerena 2008a, b; Leshikar-Denton and Scott-Ire- tional perspectives and future directions. Not all Caribbean
ton 2013). countries have experience in research, interpretation, pro-
tection, and management of UCH, but there is a growing re-
gional concern that commercial exploitation is not beneficial. islands, highlighting a range of themes — for example early
Caribbean people are exploring and adopting principles crea- explorers, maritime place-names, historic anchorages, ship-
tively in managing cultural resources and are cooperating in wrecks, wrecking practices, lighthouses, seaside forts, ship-
sharing knowledge, technical skills, and professional exper- building, turtle-fishing, and hurricanes. Plans are underway
tise. Many recognize the value of asking for and accepting to create shipwreck preserves around the Cayman Islands
professional archaeological assistance from outside of the on robust shipwreck sites. Similar land-based trails primarily
region, but there is a growing understanding that sustainabi- along the coast are being created in Jamaica and Anguilla,
lity must come from within the Caribbean islands themselves the wreck of the SS Mediator is being interpreted in situ in the
(Leshikar-Denton and Luna Erreguerena 2008a, b; Leshikar- harbour and adjacent museum in Curacao, while the Domini-
Denton 2011). can Republic has created underwater museums featuring ar-
tefacts from shipwrecks that were replaced on the seabed and
Heritage Legislation interpreted for divers and snorkelers (Leshikar-Denton 2020).
Among Latin American and Caribbean countries, Mexico, Ar-
gentina, and the Cayman Islands are exemplary in not ha-
ving granted permits to salvors in the past quarter-century.
Argentina has achieved specific national legislation to protect
UCH. In the countries of Bermuda (often grouped with the
Caribbean), the Turks and Caicos Islands, Jamaica, and the
Dominican Republic, where professional archaeological work
has achieved success, the governments have also granted
permits to salvors in the past. Bermuda, however, notably
enacted the Bermuda Historic Wrecks Act (2001), compatible
with the 1996 ICOMOS [Sofia] Charter and 2001 UNESCO
Convention. More and more countries are waking up to the
need of establishing similar compatible national legislation.2
Fig. 3 North Atlantic Basin winds and ocean currents. Illust-
ration by R.L. Craig © Wreck of the Ten Sail Project.
Heritage Management
Political, economic, and social factors in the Caribbean have
meant that heritage management is less than ideal. Caribbe- Archaeological Research
an countries, nonetheless, are using traditional and creative Archaeological research is on-going in island countries bord-
means to achieve progress, whether through governmental ering the Caribbean Sea, as well as in the coastal Caribbean
or private means. In addition to using legislative approaches, countries of Mexico, Central America, and South America.
efforts exist to: Work by regional researchers, as well as teams from over-
seas academic institutions in the United States, Canada, Gre-
• discourage treasure hunting;
at Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Spain, among other
• create site inventories;
countries, is contributing to a growing body of knowledge. The
• mitigate impact to endangered sites;
following summary provides a glimpse into archaeological
• protect and interpret sites in situ as a first option;
work that has been accomplished.3
• excavate when scientific objectives justify it and when there
With the probable exception of the Cayman Islands and Ber-
is adequate funding, professional staff, and provisions for
muda, aceramic and/or ceramic age peoples prehistorically
documentation, conservation, curation and reporting, and
occupied most Caribbean islands. Current archaeological
plans to share results of research with the public through
research is providing theories as to their origins and routes
museum exhibitions, the media, and publications (Leshi-
of migration into the region. By 1492, when Columbus first
kar-Denton and Luna Erreguerena 2008b).
sighted land, the people who came to meet him paddled
In the Caribbean, sustainable economic and tourism objec- out in dugout canoes. These Caribbean seafarers procured
tives go hand-in-hand with the successful aim of promoting, marine resources, as generations had done before them. In
protecting, and managing heritage sites (Leshikar-Denton 1995, at the request of the government of the Bahamas, the
and Luna Erreguerena 2008a, b). In the Cayman Islands, Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University
for example, a maritime heritage partnership launched the of South Carolina recovered a ceremonial Lucayan canoe
land-based Cayman Islands Maritime Heritage Trail in 2003. found in Stargate blue hole (a submerged cenote) off Andros
It consists of 36 sites located around the coastlines of three Island. In 1996, researchers discovered a Lucayan paddle of
at Portobelo, Panama, as well as the caravels Capitana and

Santiago de Palos, both run aground in 1503 in St. Ann’s Bay,
Jamaica. Since the early 1980s, INA has launched surveys
and test-excavations to locate remains of Columbus’ ships in
Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Panama, while Ships of Discovery
has searched for Gallega in Panama. Indiana University and
Pan-American Consultants have worked cooperatively in a
quest for Columbus’ ships off Hispaniola.
In the Caribbean, investigators have discovered the unidenti-

fied remains of early 16th century ships of exploration and dis-
covery. INA teams investigated three wrecks in the 1980s, all
providing clues to a ship-type known as the caravel: the ‘Mo-
lasses Reef Wreck’ in the Turks and Caicos Islands (Fig. 2);
the ‘Highborn Cay Wreck’ in the Bahamas; and cooperatively
with the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia
(INAH), the ‘Bahía Mujeres Wreck’ located off the northeast
coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. The ‘Molasses Reef Wreck’,
dating to the 1520s, is presently the earliest shipwreck disco-
vered in the Western Hemisphere. Archaeologists excavated
the vessel between 1982 and 1985, and initiated conserva-
tion treatments on the artefacts. From 1988 forward, Ships of
Discovery took over conservation treatments and, working in
cooperation with the Turks and Caicos National Museum, pre-
pared an exhibition that today forms the central exhibition of
Fig. 4 Port Royal, Jamaica, Building 4/5 excavation plan, the National Museum. In cooperation with INAH in the 1990s,
showing remains of a ship that crashed into Building 4. they undertook additional excavation on the ‘Bahía Mujeres
© Port Royal Project, Center for Maritime Archaeology and
Conservation, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M Uni- Wreck’ (see Barba-Meinecke in this volume). Meanwhile, ot-
versity. her investigators discovered the 16th century vessel known as
the ‘St. Johns Bahamas Wreck’ on the Little Bahama Bank.
about AD 1100 in North Creek, Grand Turk. They assessed Early colonial shipwrecks are also known to exist in Cuban
its origin to be associated with a nearby outpost of the Taíno waters, such as the ‘Cayo Ines de Soto Site’, thought to have
from Haiti. The Turks and Caicos National Museum displays sunk between 1555 and 1556. Researchers from the above-
this paddle, one of only two such paddles from the Bahamian mentioned institutions have further investigated a number of
Archipelago. In the Dominican Republic, Indiana University the abovementioned sites in recent years.
and Pan-American Consultants investigated a prehistoric pla- 16th century European navigators learned that it was advan-
za and a cenote containing Taíno artefacts at Manantial de la tageous to follow prevailing winds and ocean currents when
Aleta. In 2008, the Puerto Rican Instituto de Investigaciones sailing to and from the New World. Ships entering the Carib-
Costaneras (IIC), the Centre for Maritime Archaeology and bean through the Lesser Antilles could exit through the Wind-
Conservation (CMAC) at TAMU, and the Institute of Nauti- ward, Mona, and Anegada Passages, or maintain a westward
cal Archaeology (INA) surveyed the northern coast of Puerto course to the Leeward Passage, by which ships would exit
Rico between Loíza and San Juan Bay. The multiorganizatio- through the Yucatan Channel, enter the Gulf Stream, and
nal team located early sites underwater in an area where pre- follow the currents through the Straits of Florida out into the
Columbian settlements existed and over 66 ships were lost. Atlantic for the return passage to Europe (Fig. 3). European
During four Spanish voyages between 1492 and 1504, Co- powers soon established colonies and seaborne trade net-
lumbus achieved the earliest recorded European explorations works in the West Indies. Until the later 17th century, Spain
of the Caribbean. He lost ships during these journeys: the claimed a monopoly on all New World territories that were
nao4 Santa María during the first voyage, and the caravels5 sighted during the Spanish voyages. The country depleted
Mariagalante, Gallega, San Juan, and Cardera during the the supply of precious metals in the West Indies, and then
second, all off the north coast of Hispaniola; and during the exploited the gold and silver resources of Mexico, Bolivia, and
fourth voyage, the caravels Gallega at Rio Belén and Vizcaína Peru. Mexico City displaced Santo Domingo on Hispaniola as
Spain’s main administrative centre in 1535, and Spain crea-

ted a second centre in 1544 in Lima, Peru, while Cuba, loca-
ted adjacent to the Leeward Passage and Straits of Florida,
remained strategically valuable.
Single armed merchantmen made the trans-Atlantic passa-
ge, but by 1537, Spain organized a convoy system so that
merchant ships laden with cargos of gold, silver, and pearls
would sail together under the protection of armed vessels to
ensure a safe passage back to Spain. Still, treacherous reefs
and hurricanes claimed many Spanish treasure ships over
the course of three centuries. Archaeologists have investiga-
ted Spanish merchantmen, including ships of the 1554 Fleet
excavated by the Texas Antiquities Committee off Padre Is-
land, Texas, the ‘Cayo Nuevo Wreck’ documented by a joint
INA/INAH project in the Gulf of Mexico, the 1559 Emanuel
Point Shipwreck investigated by the Florida Bureau of Histori-
cal Research, Division of Historical Resources and University
of West Florida off Pensacola (Smith 2018), the 17th century
‘Rincón Astrolabe Wreck’ in Puerto Rico, and the 1766 Nuevo
Constante, investigated offshore by the State of Louisiana,
but the majority of sites found have been salvaged by trea-
sure hunters rather than professional archaeologists. Among
shipwrecks worked in cooperation with salvors are names
such as San Pedro and San Antonio off Bermuda, Nuestra
Señora de Atocha in the Florida Keys, Nuestra Señora de
la Pura y Limpia Concepción (1641) on the Silver Bank of
Hispaniola, and Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe and Conde de
Tolosa (1724) off the northeast coast of Hispaniola.
Although treasure hunters compromised vessels of the 1715
Spanish Plate Fleet, discovered off the east coast of Florida,
archaeologists investigated the Urca de Lima; in 1987, Flori-
da designated the site as Florida’s first Underwater Archaeo-
logical Preserve. Salvors also impacted the remains of the
1733 Spanish Plate Fleet that wrecked in the Florida Keys,
Fig. 5 An encrusted 18th century anchor believed to be
although State of Florida archaeologists are undertaking associated with the Wreck of the Ten Sail lies exposed upon
scientific studies on a number of these vessels. the seabed of the Cayman Islands. Photograph Mike Gude-
rian © Wreck of the Ten Sail Project.
In the Cayman Islands, archaeologists identified a site

thought to be the remains of the inbound San Miguel, lost England, France, and the Netherlands challenged Spain’s
in 1730. In 1996, East Carolina University began a survey monopoly in the 16th and 17th centuries through official and
of the waters of Anguilla which included assessment of two entrepreneurial voyages; the Dutch created a wide commer-
1772 inbound Spanish merchantmen, El Buen Consejo and cial network, while the English and French began to settle the
Jesús, María y José, at the invitation of the Historic Wrecks eastern Caribbean by the early 1600s. Meanwhile, Spanish
Advisory Committee. They produced a map and site analysis colonies illicitly imported European products and African sla-
for the government. In Jamaica, INA assisted the government ves from passing foreign merchant ships. In the Dominican
in the 1980s in surveys on the Pedro Banks for early ship- Republic, the Pan-American Institute of Maritime Archaeolo-
wreck sites. Remoteness, complicated logistics, and nominal gy excavated a 17th century interloper into the Spanish colo-
funding, however, discourage scientific work on these Pedro nies between 1991 and 2005. The investigators believe that
Banks sites. In Puerto Rico, archaeologists documented the the ship, known as the Monti Christi Shipwreck6, was en route
‘Cerro Gordo’ sites in Vega Alta — a Spanish shipyard of the from Europe to North America, via the Caribbean when it wre-
17 to 19 centuries.
th th cked. It appears to be an English-built merchantman carrying
a Dutch cargo of clay tobacco pipes from Amsterdam. It wre- chaeologist, Dorrick Gray, who subsequently served as Tech-
cked between 1652 and 1656, off the north coast of Hispa- nical Director of Archaeology at the JNHT. Much of Port Royal
niola. French Louis XIV-period shipwrecks, lost during a 1677 remains in situ, and as such represents a time-capsule of
battle with the Dutch in the Eastern Caribbean, were discove- 17th century life. The Jamaican government is seeking World
red during harbour-dredging activities in Tobago. In response, Heritage status for Port Royal; it is considering management
Trinidad and Tobago enacted the Protection of Wrecks Act options, and issues of preservation, research, conservation,
(1994), based on the United Kingdom’s Protection of Wrecks and disposition of artefacts.
Act (1973), to safeguard these sites. Britain and France dominated control of the Caribbean during
the 18th century, protecting their colonies and lucrative sugar
England and France established permanent settlements in trade through naval power. They were opponents during a
the western Caribbean during the 17 century. In 1655, Eng-
th
series of wars, with Spain and the Netherlands inconsistent-
land seized Jamaica from Spain, while Spain eventually re- ly allied with one or the other country: the War of Spanish
cognized the English claim in 1670, by the Treaty of Madrid. Succession (1702–1713), the Seven Years War (1756–1763),
In 1655, France took Tortuga and progressively occupied all the American War of Independence (1775–1783), the French
of St. Domingue (the western third of Hispaniola), but it was Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), and the Napoleonic Wars
not until the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick that Spain recognized the (1803–1815). Not surprisingly, a great number of merchant-
French claim. It was an era of pirate and privateer exploits. men and warships were lost in the 18th century Caribbean.
In 1979, INA investigated the Turtle Wreck, an English turt- Archaeologists discovered at least six 18th century merchant
le-fishing vessel likely burned in 1670 by Spanish privateer, ships in St. Ann’s Bay, Jamaica; Greg Cook and a team from
Manuel Rivero Pardal in Little Cayman, and the Duck Pond INA/JNHT investigated one British sloop, the Reader’s Point
Careenage used for overhauling vessels for at least three Wreck, in the 1990s.
centuries in the Cayman Islands. In 2007, pirate Captain Wil-
liam Kidd’s ship Quedagh Merchant was discovered in the The French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe compiled
Dominican Republic by a team from Indiana University; lost an online inventory of at least 73 UCH sites. Among the 19
in 1699, this shipwreck was scientifically investigated under identified sites are Notre Dame De Bonne Espérance (1687),
direction of Frederick H. Hanselmann, and artefacts conser- HMS Raisonable (1762), and Le Cygne (1808). In 2019 Jean-
ved in cooperation with Dominican Republic institutions. The Sébastien Guibert, Max Guérout, Marc Guillarme, and others
site is now interpreted for the diving and snorkelling public, published a very useful summary of colonial period (17th to
with plans underway to create a land-based exhibit (Hansel- 19th century) maritime archaeological projects undertaken in
mann 2019). The Cayman Islands National Museum (CINM) the French Antilles between 1980 and the present (Guilbert et
test excavated a turtle-fishing encampment dating to about al. 2019). Their overview includes coastal plantations, ports,
1700 on the north coast of Grand Cayman, and excavated and micro-islets, as well as shipwrecks related to commer-
an early historic step-well on the island’s western waterfront. cial, naval, and cabotage use. They relate that the nature and
They have found clues to HMS Jamaica, a British sloop on distribution of sites provides information on maritime routes
patrol for pirates when it wrecked in 1715 entering the great and traffic, trade, and conflicts, as well as environmental risks
North Sound. specific to the Antilles in the Colonial period. There is criti-
cal capacity building underway presently in Martinique and
A catastrophic earthquake hit the thriving English colonial city Guadeloupe. In Saint Kitts and Nevis, the Nevis Maritime
of Port Royal, Jamaica, in 1692, causing much of it to sub- Archaeological Group, composed of local and international
side into the liquefied sand of Kingston Harbour. Edwin Link members, began conducting research in 2011 on HMS Sole-
and the National Geographic Society carried out underwa- bay, lost on 25th January 1782 during the Battle of Frigate Bay.
ter excavations in the 1950s, resulting in a pre-1692 map of Established in 1979, the Dominican Republic’s Comisión de
Port Royal, while Robert Marx excavated caches of artefacts Rescate Arqueológico Submarino conducted excavations in
in the 1960s. Philip Mayes began terrestrial excavations in cooperation with commercial interests on the French warship
1969. Texas A&M University and INA, under the direction of Scipión (1782), and the French ships Diómedes and Imperial
Donny Hamilton, and in association with the Jamaica Natio- (1806); the Museo de las Reales Atarazanas, the Museo de
nal Heritage Trust (JNHT) conducted the first scientific under- Arqueología Submarina del Faro a Colón, and the Museo de
water archaeological excavations (Fig. 4). Hamilton led field las Casas Reales display artefacts from these shipwrecks.
schools from 1981 to 1990 in excavations of eight buildings In the 1990s, Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton, working with Te-
and a ship that crashed into one building during the earthqua- xas A&M University (TAMU) and the CINM, investigated the
ke, training at the same time, Jamaica’s first underwater ar- 1794 Wreck of the Ten Sail: HMS Convert and nine ships of
her merchant convoy lost together on the East End reefs of War. In Anguilla, Lillian Azevedo and a team from the Univer-
Grand Cayman during the French Revolutionary Wars (Fig. sity of Southampton have recorded early historic wrecks and
5). The Convert was a captured French-built frigate, formerly a 19th century shipwreck.
called l’Inconstante, which retained her original French ord- Even 20th century wrecks are subjects of research and eco-
nance. The CINM’s special two-hundredth anniversary exhi- tourism in the Caribbean. Bert Ho and a team from Florida
bition commemorated the historical event in 1994, at which State University assisted the CINM in documentation of the
time Queen Elizabeth II visited the exhibition; it is being fea- Norwegian-flagged Glamis, lost in 1913, providing the foun-
tured again in a new publication (Leshikar-Denton 2020). The dation to create a future shipwreck preserve on the robust
Saint Maarten National Heritage Foundation, the Saint Maar- shipwreck site in the Cayman Islands. Glamis had been built
ten Department of Planning and Environment, and Maritime in Dundee, Scotland, in 1876. Geneva Kathleen, a three-mas-
Archaeology and Research investigated HMS Proselyte, the ted schooner wrecked in 1930 loaded with lumber, was docu-
captured Dutch frigate Jason, in 1994 – 95; the ship was lost mented by Ball State University, also in the Cayman Islands.
in 1801. In the 1980s, the Archaeological and Anthropologi- In Puerto Rico, archaeologists have documented World War
cal Institute of the Netherlands Antilles (AAINA) investigated II era vessels, including a PT7 boat in Desecheo Island, and
the Dutch frigate Alphen which exploded and sank in 1778 in two aircraft – a B-298 in Aguadilla and a PBY Catalina flying
Santa Anna Bay, Curacao; AAINA also recorded the SS Me- boat in La Parguera for the US Navy.
diator, lost in 1884 in Willemstad Harbour. In cooperation with
the Maritime Archaeological and Historical Society (MAHS), Meaning to Descendent Communities
AAINA surveyed the historical anchorage adjacent to Fort An important theme in the Caribbean is the meaning of mari-
Orange and Kralendijk, the population centre in Bonaire, and time and underwater cultural heritage to descendant commu-
identified the Dutch warship Sirene, lost in 1831. In Saint nities (Leshikar-Denton and Luna Erreguerena 2008a, b). In
Vincent and the Grenadines, with the cooperation of the Go- the Turks and Caicos Islands, the case study of a descendant
vernment of Saint Vincent and the Organization of American African community whose ancestors escaped intended slave-
States, a joint team of Florida State University and Institute ry in Cuba, through wrecking in the Spanish ship Trouvadore,
of Maritime History researchers and students carried out a is remarkable; it provides the opportunity for people to learn
project in Kingstown Harbour on a late 18th century shipwreck more about themselves, where they came from and how they
in 1997–1998. In Puerto Rico, archaeologists have recorded have survived. Maritime themes like shipwrecks, historical
an 18th century English warship wrecked on the Laurel Reefs shipbuilding of schooners and catboats, place-names, and
of La Parguera, Lajas. hurricane-shelter caves, among other topics, are important to
the people of the Cayman Islands. Thus, involving all levels of
A significant part of Caribbean history is reflected in the society in the Maritime Heritage Trail engages people in their
search for the slave ship Trouvadore, a Spanish ship that was heritage. In every country there are unique examples that can
lost in 1841 with a human cargo of 193 people. Intended for link communities to their heritage – and this communication
slavery in Cuba, the Africans instead found freedom in the provides value and self-esteem to living people.
Turks and Caicos Islands and thereby influenced the cultural
future of that country. In 2008, Ships of Discovery investiga- International Perspectives and Future Directions
ted remains of a vessel believed to be Trouvadore and also Since the mid-20th century, the world’s underwater cultural
located remains of the US Navy brig Chippewa, lost in 1816 heritage has become more and more accessible, and has
while patrolling the Caribbean on a mission to counter the become an easier target for commercial exploitation. At the
African slave trade and piracy. same time, professional underwater and maritime archaeolo-
gical research has experienced a profound period of growth.
The 19th century brought the end of the Age of Sail and the It is also becoming clear that UCH has value not only to scien-
flourishing of the Age of Steam. In Puerto Rico, the Underwa- tific research, but also has a role to play in cultural, educatio-
ter Archaeology Office of the Consejo para la Conservación nal, and economic terms. Countries, including those in the
y Estudio de Sitios y Recursos Arqueológicos Subacuáticos Caribbean, are discovering innovative ways to manage and
(council for the conservation and study of sites and underwa- preserve maritime and underwater cultural heritage sites, and
ter archaeological resources) recorded the Spanish steams- to promote them locally, regionally, and internationally. Today
hips Alicante wrecked in 1881 and Antonio López lost in 1898 is a good day for maritime archaeology in the Caribbean –
during the Spanish-American War. Archaeologists have also today we have tools in our kit that have been created through
assessed Buoy 4 in San Juan to investigate the Manuela and negotiations among countries of the world, including those
Cristobal Colon, also casualties during the Spanish-American from Latin America and the Caribbean.
Using the 1996 ICOMOS Charter and the 2001 UNESCO Hanselmann FH (2019) Captain Kidd’s lost ship. Gainesville: University Press
of Florida.
Convention, we can speak the same language in attributing
Harris EC (2008) Bermuda’s shipwreck heritage. In Underwater and maritime
value to UCH and providing for its protection, management, archaeology in Latin America and the Caribbean, (ed.) M.E. Leshikar-Den-
interpretation, and public access and benefit – these do- ton and P. Luna Erreguerena, 201–207. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
cuments can guide us in ‘best practice’ and in establishing International Council on Monuments and Sites (1996) ICOMOS International
Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Herita-
compatible national legislation. As Ariel Gonzalez, a brilliant ge. Paris: ICOMOS. https://www.icomos.org/en/faq-doccen/179-articles-en-
Argentinian lawyer put it during the Paris negotiations, the francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/161-charter-on-the-protection-
and-management-of-underwater-cultural-heritage; 30th September 2020.
magic word is ‘cooperation’ among stakeholders – and so,
Keegan WF and CL Hofman (2017) The Caribbean before Columbus. New
countries, governments, professionals, and the public who York: Oxford University Press.
communicate and assist one another through local, regional,
Keith DH (2006) The molasses reef wreck. In Underwater cultural heritage at
and international agreements and through sharing technical risk: Managing natural and human impacts, (ed.) R. Grenier, D. Nutley, and
I. Cochran, 82–84. Paris: ICOMOS.
and professional resources can shape a positive future.
Leshikar-Denton ME (2002) Problems and progress in the Caribbean. In Inter-
national handbook of underwater archaeology, (ed.) C. Ruppé and J. Bar-
Acknowledgements stad, 279–298. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
My thanks go to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 for
— (2004) The situation in the Caribbean. In Patrimonio cultural subacuática [un-
their permission to re-publish this article, previously cited as derwater cultural heritage], (ed.) V. Marín, 10–15, 80–5. Havana: UNESCO.
Leshikar-Denton M.E. (2020) Caribbean Maritime Archaeo- — (2011) Caribbean maritime archaeology. In The Oxford handbook of mariti-
me archaeology, (ed.) A. Catsambis, B. Ford, and D.L. Hamilton, 629–659.
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— (2020) Cayman’s 1794 wreck of the ten sail: Peace, war, and peril in the
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1 Smith 2000, 2018; Leshikar-Denton 2002, 2004, 2011, 2020; Echeverria 2004; Pate- maritime archaeology in Latin America and the Caribbean. Walnut Creek:
man 2004; UNESCO 2004; Grenier et al. 2006; Guibert et al. 2019; Keegan and Hofman
Left Coast Press.
2017; Keith 2006; Leshikar-Denton and Luna Erreguerena 2008a, b; Gray 2008; Hamilton
2008; Hanselmann 2019; Harris 2008; Leshikar-Denton and Scott-Ireton 2008, 2013; Nagel-
kerken and Hayes 2008; Nagelkerken et al. 2008; Sadler 2008. — (2008b) The foundations of underwater and maritime archaeology in La-
tin America and the Caribbean. In Underwater and maritime archaeology
2 A more comprehensive overview is available in Leshikar-Denton and Luna Erreguere- in Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. M.E. Leshikar-Denton and P. Luna
na (2008a, b).
Erreguerena, 25–53. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
3 see footnote 1
Leshikar-Denton ME and DA Scott-Ireton (2008) The Cayman Islands’ expe-
4 Naos (or Carrack) are European designed ships from the 14th to 15th centuries. The
rience: Yesterday y, today, and tomorrow. In Underwater and maritime ar-
later ships had three-four masts suitable for ocean navigation. The fore and main were
square rigged, the mizzen a lateen sail. chaeology in Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. M.E. Leshikar- Denton
and P. Luna Erreguerena, 221–244. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
5 Caravels originate from Portugal; developed in the mid-15th century and often related
to oceanic explorations, most notably Columbus. They were lateen rigged, lighter and faster — (2013) Underwater archaeology. In Encyclopaedia of Caribbean archaeolo-
than fully rigged ships faster and being shallow drafted allowed for close to shore navigation.
gy, ed. B.A. Reid and R.G. Gilmore III. Gainsville: University Press of Florida.
6 Also known as the ‘Pipe Wreck’ due to the 10,000 un-broken clay pipes found during
the excavation. Nagelkerken W and R Hayes (2008) The historical anchorage of Kralendijk,
Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. In Underwater and maritime archaeology in
7 Patrol Torpedo Boat.
Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. M.E. Leshikar-Denton and P. Luna
8 Boeing B-29 Superfortress: a four-engine bomber which was in active US service from Erreguerena, 293–301. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
1944–1960.
Nagelkerken W, T. van der Giessen, R Hayes and D Knepper (2008) Develop-
ment of maritime archaeological tourism using the wreck of the English SS
Mediator in Curaçao. In Underwater and maritime archaeology in Latin Ame-
rica and the Caribbean, ed. M.E. Leshikar-Denton and P. Luna Erreguerena,
283–292.Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
References Pateman M (2004) The evolution of the protection of underwater cultural herita-
ge in the Bahamas. In Patrimonio cultural subacuática [underwater cultural
Echeveria J (2004) Cuba: The protection of underwater cultural heritage. In Pa- heritage], ed. V. Marín, 46–47, 112–3. Havana: UNESCO.
trimonio cultural subacuática [underwater cultural heritage], (ed.) V. Marín,
52–55, 118–21. Havana: UNESCO. Sadler N (2008) The sinking of the slave ship Trouvadore: Linking the past
to the present. In Underwater and maritime archaeology in Latin America
Gray DE (2008) The Jamaican version: Public archaeology and the protection and the Caribbean, ed. M.E. Leshikar-Denton and P. Luna Erreguerena,
of underwater cultural heritage. In: Underwater and maritime archaeology in 209–220.Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
Latin America and the Caribbean, (ed.) M.E. Leshikar-Denton and P. Luna
Erreguerena, 245–257. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press. Smith RC (2000) The maritime heritage of the Cayman Islands. Gainesville:
University Press of Florida.
Grenier R, D Nutley and I Cochran (eds) (2006) Underwater cultural heritage at
risk: Managing natural and human impacts. Paris: ICOMOS. Smith RC (ed.) (2018) Florida’s lost galleon: The Emanuel Point Shipwreck.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Guibert JS, M Guérout, M Guillaume et al (2019) An overview of maritime ar-
chaeological research of the colonial period in the French Antilles. In: The UNESCO (2001) Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural
International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 48 (1): 123–150. Heritage Paris 2001. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000126065;
Hamilton DL (2008) Port Royal, Jamaica: Archaeological past, present, and
future. In Underwater and maritime archaeology in Latin America and the — (2004) Patrimonio cultural subacuática [underwater cultural heritage]: Amé-
Caribbean, ed. M.E. Leshikar-Denton and P. Luna Erreguerena, 259–269. rica Latina y el Caribe. Havana: UNESCO.
Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
The Ljubljanica River Phenomenon 113
THE LJUBLJANICA RIVER PHENOMENON: RESCUE RESEARCH,

CONSERVATION, AND PRESENTATION OF THE LATE 2ND/EARLY
1ST CENTURY BC LOGBOAT FROM THE LJUBLJANICA RIVERBED*
Andrej Gaspari and Irena Šinkovec, Slovenia
of Copper Age pile-dwellings across numerous Bronze Age

metalwork and pottery depositions of sacrificial and funeral
character, Late Iron Age Celtic-style weaponry, imported Ital-
ic bronze ware and silver coinage, an abundance of Roman
military equipment. These remains are evidence of the inten-
sive use of the river area in the Mediaeval and early Modern
period, and testify to the special importance of the river for
the local communities. They also bear witness to the univer-
sal value for understanding the multi-facetted interaction be-
tween humans and their natural environment.
The small objects of the material culture are made of metal,
ceramic, and organic materials. They are characterized by
their excellent preservation, unparalleled within the ensem-
bles from dry-land sites, and are presumed to have entered
the water either directly as a result of accidental losses or
Fig. 1 The centre of Vrhnika with Stara pošta and
intentional acts, or were eroded by the stream from primary
the Ljubljanica River in the area of the log-boat‘s site.
© D. Badovinac. contexts in the banks. The functional structure, spatial distri-
bution, and chronological dynamics of the finds reflect char-
acteristics of a broader European phenomenon, pointing to a
Introduction structured deposition of at least some part of the discovered
The 23-km-long stretch of the Ljubljanica riverbed and the objects from the Bronze and Iron Ages, the Roman period
surrounding floodplain of the Ljubljana Marshes between and perhaps also the Early and High Mediaeval period (7th to
Vrhnika and Ljubljana represents one of the most complex 12th century), especially from the perspective of the objective-
archaeological phenomena in the territory of present-day ly low-risk nature of the river, marked by an extremely small
Slovenia. The area comprises individual and collective under- course gradient, a box-shaped channel with depths from 3 to
water finds, lying exposed on the river bottom or embedded 12 m (mostly 4–7 m) and its width, rarely surpassing 25 m.
in sand dunes within the channel or forming a part of river The underwater finds are supplemented by over 60 finds of
bank deposits, as well as the remains of wooden crafts, port simple dugout canoes, paddles/oars, assembled boats, and
infrastructure, water-way regulation interventions, buildings, capable cargo ships from the riverbed and marshy sediments/
and control points along the river. The early recognition of the peat of the surrounding plain. These represent clear evidence
archaeological potential of the riverbed at Vrhnika (ancient of the role of water transportation in the local economy and
Nauportus) led to one of the world’s first research-orientated
1 exploitation of natural resources. They also testify to the ar-
underwater investigations, conducted by the Carniolan Pro- ea’s vitality in acceptance/transfer/innovation of nautical tech-
vincial Museum in Ljubljana with the support of Austro-Hun- nology in late prehistory and the Early Roman period, con-
garian Navy divers in 1884, followed by systematic survey- tinuing in rich shipbuilding traditions of post Mediaeval and
ing, excavations, and integrated research from the 1980s historical periods.
onwards. Although not protected as a whole until 2002, the above-men-
The wealth and diversity of underwater finds, ranging from tioned elements of the Ljubljanica River archaeological com-
traces of the Mesolithic or even late Palaeolithic hunter-gath- plex have been formally protected as archaeological heritage
erer (stone and bone/antler industry) to the eroded remains and State property by the provisions of national laws since
Keywords: Underwater Archaeology – Riverboats – Waterlogged Wood Conservation – Management of Underwater Cultural
Heritage – Slovenia – Ljubljanica River
114 The Ljubljanica River Phenomenon
Fig. 2 Late 2nd/early 1st century BC logboat. © A. Hodalič.
1945. Nevertheless, the relatively easy access to the valuable finds from Ljubljanica for public museums, resulting in a large
finds, together with the suspension of organized archaeolog- exhibition of the National Museum of Slovenia in 2009 enti-
ical fieldwork in the mid-1980s, caused large-scale looting of tled The Ljubljanica – a River and its Past), and a permanent
underwater sites and illicit trade in antiquities reaching the display of the most attractive and informative finds from one
international market in the late 1980s and 1990s, which was of the collections gained in the newly-established Ljubljanica
subsequently reduced by the declaration of the Ljubljanica River Experience and Exhibition Centre at Vrhnika.
as a cultural monument of national importance in 2002, im- General protection of the sites is provided by the signs and
posing controlled, permit-based diving in the protected area information boards, notifying the existence of the archaeo-
and stricter police surveillance, but also the intensification of logical monument and safeguarding measures (prohibition of
awareness-raising initiatives and projects for the local popu- diving with scuba gear without a permit), constant attention
lation. of the local community, especially fisherpersons and hunters,
as well as police surveillance of the areas exposed to looting.
The important development of the management of the river’s
cultural heritage was brought about by the ratification of the The presentation of the project
European Convention for the Protection of the Archaeologi- Following the provisions of national legislation and promoting
cal Heritage (revised), also commonly known as the Valletta the concepts of the Convention on the Protection of the Un-
Treaty or Valletta Convention (1992). In 1999, this resulted in derwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001), a large project
the increase of preventive archaeological research also in the focused on sustainable management, safeguarding and pro-
inland rivers of Ljubljanica, but perhaps even more with the motion of the archaeological heritage of the Ljubljanica River
new national Cultural Heritage Protection Act in 2008. The was envisaged and executed in the 2014–2016 period in the
latter, among other things, provided the so-called abolition partnership with the Museum and Galleries of Ljubljana, the
scheme, which enabled the private keepers of archaeological Municipality of Vrhnika, and the Biotechnical Faculty of Uni-
objects to report the finds in their possession and hand them versity of Ljubljana. It was co-financed by the EAA financial
over in return for financial compensation. Such provision en- mechanism from 2009 to 2014.
sured the acquisition of three large collections of underwater
The Ljubljanica River Experience and Exhibition Site project er Experience and Exhibition Site project was followed by the
was aimed at protecting the most endangered parts of the creation of the research project plan in accordance with the
monument and increasing public accessibility to the heritage. second chapter of the Annex to the UNESCO Convention
The core of the presented efforts is comprised by: on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This
required the selection of a qualified contractor and acquisi-
1. The in situ protection and monitoring of a Roman barge
tion of relevant consents and permits. Commissioned by the
in the riverbed near Sinja Gorica, discovered in 2008 during
MGML as the competent project partner — responsible for
a preventive underwater survey prior to flood-management
the professional coordination of archaeological and conser-
works, and partially researched in 2012 by the Institute for
vation and preservation interventions — and in accordance
the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia.
with the Cultural Protection Consent for Research and Re-
2. The rescue excavation and recovery of an approximately
moval of Archaeological Remains, the underwater excavation
14.3 to 14.5-m-long, up to 1.38-m-wide and 0.78-m-deep
and documentation of the vessel was carried out by the Insti-
oak logboat from the riverbed at Vrhnika by the Institute for
tute for Underwater Archaeology in cooperation with the In-
Underwater Archaeology in Ljubljana and in collaboration
ternational Centre for Underwater Archaeology from Zadar –
with the International Centre for Underwater Archaeology
UNESCO Category II Centre. After the execution of extensive
in Zadar – ICUA,2
preparation work, the remains of the logboat were lifted from
3. establishment and opening of the above-mentioned Cen-
the riverbed and transported to the conservation workshop
tre at Vrhnika with a permanent exhibition on the archaeo-
of the Restoration Centre of the Institute for the Protection of
logy of the Ljubljanica River and the planned logboat show-
Cultural Heritage of Slovenia (ZVKDS RC).
case, enabling the regulation of relative humidity, for the
future display of the logboat.
The decisions related to the protection and preservation of

the logboat situated in the area of a cultural monument of na-
tional importance have been marked by: (a) the progressive
erosion of the right bank directly above the site; (b) the uncer-
tainty with regard to its stability and the related issue of water
management of the riverbed; and (c) the rehabilitation of the
recess in the right bank. In this specific situation, the compre-
hensive research and moving of the logboat — which was
recognized as the only acceptable solution for its permanent
preservation — was both in the public interest of protecting
the cultural heritage and in the interest of protecting people
and property.
In deciding between the possibility of moving the vessel to
a safer place on the Ljubljanica riverbed and the possibility
of lifting, conserving, and presenting the logboat in the pur-
pose-designed Centre for the Promotion of Natural and Cul- Fig. 3 Lift of the logboat’s bow section. © J. Gasparič.
tural Heritage at Vrhnika, there was uncertainty in relation to
the (in)stability of the secondary place of deposition in the
Project timeline
riverbed. Furthermore, the realisation of the second option
Roman barge in the Ljubljanica riverbed near Sinja Gorica
would provide an important contribution to improving heritage
accessibility for all social groups. The development of pub- 1. Impact assessment of the flood-management measures
lic awareness of the significance of archaeological remains, (2011–2012);
which is in accordance with the recommendations of the Ma- 2. Partial excavation and 3D recording (2012);
nual on the Rules Concerning Activities Directed at Underwa- 3. Execution of a protective covering of the exposed part
ter Cultural Heritage from the Annex to the UNESCO Conven- of the barge with sandbags and sediment infill (2012) and
tion on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 4. Monitoring/analysis of biological and chemical mar-
finally prevailed. kers of wood degradation and erosion/sedimentation and
The evaluation of the cultural protection issue of protecting assessment of processes at the site in regular intervals
and preserving the logboat and the decision for its compre- (2013–2019).
hensive research within the framework of the Ljubljanica Riv-
116 The Ljubljanica River Phenomenon
Logboat from the Ljubljanica riverbed at Vrhnika The preparation of new projects is carried out as part of the
1. Impact assessment of the flood-management measures macroregional European Union strategies with the coopera-
(2014); tion of national and local authorities, and of scientific, cultural,
2. Complete excavation, photo 3D documentation and virtu- and development institutions.
al reconstruction, lift, and transport to the restoration centre
in Ljubljana (2015); Measures for enhancement of public awareness, appre-
3. Conservation with the melamine treatment method ciation and protection of the heritage
(2015–2020) and The Ljubljanica River Experience and Exhibition Site Project
4. Exhibition of the logboat at the Ljubljanica Experience represents the first phase of a broader and integrated proj-
centre at Vrhnika (planned 2021). ect of revitalization of the cultural and natural heritage of the
Ljubljanica Basin. Its objective was to protect, preserve, and
present the heritage, but also to provide maximum accessi-
bility, and thereby create long-term sustainable social devel-
opment in the local, national and global context. This includes
quality services for the local residents, as well as domestic
and international visitors.
Through the Ljubljanica River Experience and Exhibition Site
project, its most vulnerable parts were not only protected, but
also expertly preserved and made available to a large audi-
ence. The Ljubljanica River permanent exhibition is placed
right in the centre of Vrhnika, since the monument’s actual
location is less suitable — near the river — within an environ-
mentally protected area, which poses infrastructural issues.
The complex content on the development of the Vrhnika area
from the prospective of the Ljubljanica River is presented in a
multi-level and multi-layered manner, adjusted to various tar-
get groups. Particular emphasis is placed on the dynamics of
the visit (image, sound, timing, interaction, light and water ef-
fects) and modern museum standards. The visitor experience
Fig. 4 The future site of the logboat - the Ljubljanica River
is multi-layered and, in an abstract way, defined by the river
Exhibition. © J. Babnik; archives of MGML.
as the carrier vehicle of the exhibition and framed by three
worlds: the world below (underwater world, Karst underworld,
Management plan underwater archaeology, space dedicated to the unknown);
The Archaeological site is designated as a monument of na- the world on the surface — the level in-between, transition
tional importance under the authority of the Institute for the from one world to another, the plane/flow of the river-flow of
Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia. The Museum and time — ; the world above (world on the river, world of the peo-
Galleries of Ljubljana, together with the Restoration Centre of ple, world of the known).
the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia
and the Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Ljubljana, The interactive experience and exhibition site located in
carry out regular monitoring and analyses of water and sedi- downtown Vrhnika has been designed to encourage the
ment at the in situ location of the Roman ship in Verd near public, including vulnerable groups, to actively participate in
Vrhnika. It also oversees the repository for waterlogged wood strengthening the common responsibility for heritage and for
in the direct vicinity of the monument. the development of tourism, creative industries, and the reviv-
The Ljubljanica River exhibition is managed by the local com- al of old crafts and local traditions. All results of the project are
munity in cooperation with the Museum and Galleries of Lju- aimed at the general public. Raising awareness of the local
bljana. Programmes, which include workshops and events community was one of the fundamental tasks of the project.
for different target audiences, are organised at the exhibition The content and programmes that concern the wider Ljubljan-
area, in public areas, schools, and at the locations of the mon- ica area also created the potential for tourism development
ument itself. Active involvement of the public, cooperation of and the expansion of target audiences. By bringing togeth-
the public and the non-government sector, and programme er experts, integrating the local public and by networking all
integration in the wider region are of the utmost importance. those quality programmes, the exchange of knowledge and
skills, values and attitudes as well as long-term integration effects will be closely monitored. Moreover, a high-resolution
of local, national and international arena is established. By sonar survey of the Ljubljanica riverbed is to be executed as
following various methods of communication (experimen- the basis for the planning of supplemental protective mea-
tal workshops, programmes, events) each age and interest sures.
group is addressed. By using customized programmes and
encouraging active involvement, special attention is paid to
vulnerable groups and visitors with special needs.
* Extract from the official submission for the example of Best practices in Underwater
Cultural Heritage, evaluated and recommended by the Scientific and Technical Advisory
The project’s main results Body (STAB) to the Meeting of States Parties to the Convention on the Protection of the
Underwater Cultural Heritage (Paris, 2018, 9th; document code: UCH/18/9.STAB/10, Reso-
Protected, restored and managed unique quality cultural mo- lution 6).
nument of national importance.

Created a distinctive comprehensive identity of the monu-
ment, which provides guidance on sustainable development 1 As testified by ample ancient literary accounts, the Nauportus was an important Pre-
historic and Early Roman toll and reloading station at the northern foot of the high Dinaric
and enables producing long-term strategies in the field of pro- plateau, dividing North-eastern Italian plain from the central part of the South-eastern pre-
Alpine area. The site is located in the deep hinterland of the Northern Adriatic, some 70
tection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage, as km from the nearest coast, and on the beginning of navigable Ljubljanica discharging into
Sava River that served as major trading route towards the Middle Danubian regions. The
well as their presentation and popularization for the broadest site, originally under control of the Celtic Taurisci (2nd to 1st century BC) and continually
increased presence of merchants from nearby Latin colony of Aquileia, came under Roman
domestic and international audiences. rule around mid-1st century BC and after functioned as an statio and vicus along via publica
Aquileia–Emona (modern Ljubljana). The continuation of the road toward the north traced
Improved access to cultural and natural heritage, potential for the old route known as Amber route, which connected lands on the southern shores of the
Baltic with the Northern Adriatic since deep prehistory (see Šašel Kos 2005).
educational activities, leisure and tourism businesses, deve-
2 The logboat is currently in conservation at the Restoration Centre of the Institute for the
loping creative industries, preserving old crafts and intangible Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia in Ljubljana.
heritage, as well as improving the quality of life in the city and

the wider region with new employments as a result.
Revitalization of a previously deteriorated urban area, ab-
References
andoned and lagging behind due to unfavourable economic
trends. Gaspari A (2003) Archaeology of the Ljubljanica River (Slovenia): early under-
water investigations and some current issues. In: The International Journal
of Nautical Archaeology 32.1, 42–52.
Summary and the future — (2012) Zgodovinski pregled in perspektiva podvodnega arheološkega razis-
The project enabled us to protect the most threatened seg- kovanja v Sloveniji (Summary. Underwater archaeological investigation in
Slovenia, Historical overview and perspectives). In: Andrej Gaspari, Miran
ments of the underwater cultural heritage, avoiding the un- Erič (eds) Potopljena preteklost. Arheologija vodnih okolij in raziskovanje
podvodne kulturne dediščine v Sloveniji (Zbornik ob 128-letnici Dežmanovih
controlled destruction of two ancient watercraft. At the same raziskav Ljubljanice na Vrhniki (1884–2012), Radovljica: Didakta, pp. 13–72.
time, it brought about the consolidation of the collapsing riv-
Gaspari A et al (2017) The Late 2nd century BC Logboat from the Ljubljanica
erbank, limiting the ecological damage and protecting neigh- River at Vrhnika. Study on the Ships and Boats of Preroman and Roman
Nauportus with the Outline of the Navigation on the Ljubljana Marshes be-
bouring real estate. tween Prehistory and the Early Modern Period. Ljubljana: Ljubljana Universi-
The founding of the laboratory for the conservation of wa- ty Press, Faculty of Arts and Museum and Galleries of Ljubljana.
terlogged wood enabled regular microbiological monitoring of Pirkovič J and Gaspari A (2004) The Ljubljanica river phenomenon and its Pro-
tection. In: Fabio Maniscalco (ed) Tutela, conservazione e valorizzazione del
water and sediments. It also established a permanent state patrimonio culturale subacqueo, Mediterraneum 4, Napoli : Massa Editore,
repository for archaeological waterlogged wood and the ex- 2004, 253–260.
ecution of multi-beam sonar survey and modelling of the riv- Turk P, Istenič J, Knific T and Nabergoj T (eds) (2009) Ljubljanica – a River and
its Past. Ljubljana: National Museum of Slovenia.
erbed. These tasks provided the constituent solutions for the
management of the Ljubljanica riverbed monument. Šašel Kos M, (2005) Appian and Illyricum. Situla. Dissertationes Musei Natio-
nalis Sloveniae 43, Ljubljana: National Museum of Slovenia.
Opening of the exhibition centre and quality programme Promotional videos

scheme for different target groups, — apart from aware- Moja Ljubljanica: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC33SQaKR-
zj3J67MS0ElGOQ; accessed 30th September 2020.
ness-raising and education — aimed to establish a perma-
nent and sustainable form of co-management of the monu- Ljubljanica River Exhibition (Museum and Galleries of Ljubljana, Slovenia:
https://www.heritageinmotion.eu/pressrelease/winners-of-the-heritage-
ment with the inclusion of the public. in-motion-awards-2019 -announced; accessed 30th September 2020.
Immediately after the completion of the conservation proce-
dure, projected to be 2021, the logboat will be installed in
a humidity-controlled showcase in the exhibition centre and
the prevised programme scheme will continue. At the location
of the in situ protected Roman barge, the possible adverse
118 Introduction to the Impact of Climate Change on Underwater Cultural Heritage
INTRODUCTION TO THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON UNDER-

WATER CULTURAL HERITAGE AND THE DECADE OF
OCEAN SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2021–2030
Albert Hafner, Switzerland and Christopher J. Underwood, United Kingdom
Fig. 1 Fort Jesus, Mombasa, Kenya. Below these walls lies the well-preserved 17th century wreck of Santo Antonio de
Tanna. © Christopher J. Underwood.
Introduction environment. The causes include, among the possibilities,

At the time of writing, there are important themes that go be- large-scale geographical events such as tsunami or dama-
yond the normal range of concerns expressed by archaeolo- ging weather event such as hurricanes.1 Increasingly, they
gists and cultural heritage managers. Most significantly are are associated with changes in the global climate. In recent
the growing awareness of the impact of climate change and decades increasing public awareness of this existential threat
the sustainability of the world’s oceans. The immediacy and has led to public pressure on domestic governments to take
importance of the threats is acknowledged in SDG 13 Climate action. It has resulted in a positive momentum to mitigate the
Action and SDG 14 Life Below Water, which are two of the accelerating problems at least in some countries.
seventeen United Nations Sustainable Development Goals International concern about climatic changes is reflected
(UN 2020a). This chapter introduces how climatic changes in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
impacts underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and how the Change of 1992, the 1998 Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Ac-
UCH community is responding and supporting the goals of cord of 2015. These documents underpin a global narrative
the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable that highlight the need for a change in human activity aimed
Development 2021–2030 (the Decade) that is providing a fra- at reducing carbon emissions and transitioning to sustaina-
mework for supporting the aims of SDG 14 Life Below Water. ble natural energy resources, such as wind or solar power.
Despite increasing political will to change and improve the
Climate change future environment, the impacts of climate change will remain
It seems almost a daily occurrence that the media reports with us in the longer term. The Intergovernmental Panel on
that somewhere in the world a natural weather event has had Climate Change (IPCC) was established by the United Nati-
a dramatic impact, often on a coastal community or aquatic ons Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteo-
Keywords: Climate Change – Underwater Cultural Heritage – Decade of Ocean Science Sustainable Development Goals
Introduction to the Impact of Climate Change on Underwater Cultural Heritage 119
rological Organization (WMO) in 1988. Since 1990, IPCC has more difficult to access. As the ice-tables have retreated com-
produced numerous assessment reports2 considered among bined with the utilisation of sophisticated equipment such as
the most comprehensive scientific reports on climate change, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) well-funded expedi-
worldwide. While the impact of climate change on human li- tions have begun to search for iconic wrecks such as Shackle-
ves, understandably, make the headlines and is the primary ton’s Endurance lost during the ill-fated Imperial Trans-An-
concern, in parallel there are increasingly frequent reports of tarctic Expedition, 1914 to 1917. An extensive search failed to
changes to the profiles of coastal and inland waters someti- locate the site, but had Endurance been discovered the aims
mes revealing a long-lost shipwreck, coastal settlement, or of the expedition were limited to recording the site and leaving
ancient artefact. it undisturbed. There is, however, a concern that the wreck’s
location would have eventually become public knowledge
Impact of climate change on the marine environment enabling expeditions with less creditable aims to exploit the
It is recognised that the predicted changes in climate weat- site in a zone with limited protective oversight. The melting
her will have a significant impact on coastal and underwater of glaciers in the high alpine zones of the world‘s mountain
cultural heritage, particularly those sites located in shallow ranges will change the water regime of rivers and lakes and
waters. thus influence the cultural heritage of inland waters. A further
UNESCO states that: impact resulting from rising sea temperatures representing a
significant threat to UCH is an increased geographic spread
‘Environmental changes, such as climate change, stronger
of shipworm. The UK has registered the presence of Lyrodus
erosion, and current change can pose a threat to under-
pedicellatus on several wreck sites on the south coast, inclu-
water cultural heritage sites. On the other-hand underwa-
ding in the protected zone of the wreck of the Mary Rose, a
ter cultural heritage can however tell us a lot about historic
species of shipworm that is normally found in warmer sout-
climate change that once impacted the life of our ances-
hern waters (Dunkley 2015, 221).
tors. Today, tsunamis, coastal erosion, and water warming
threaten underwater cultural heritage sites’ (UNESCO
Sea level rise and ocean processes
2020).
The identified impacts relative to rising sea levels in such pla-
In response, governments and their respective heritage ces without tidal protection barriers will lead to the flooding of
agencies have carried out impact assessments and adapta- coastal cultural heritage sites, becoming less accessible to
tion reports (Fluck 2016). The assessments provide guidance archaeologists, tourists, and will, even if practicable, be more
and indicators on adapting to change, mitigation of impact, expensive to maintain, monitor, and protect. It is believed that
resilience, and a drive towards sustainability. As underwater the anticipated increases in sea level could ’by 2100 inundate
cultural heritage is one theme among a broad range of herita- 136 sites considered by UNESCO as cultural and historical
ge categories, it remains important to reinforce efforts to raise treasures’ (Perez 2016). This is a concern, because it is likely
awareness of the values of UCH. This is often synthesised as these important sites, culturally and economically and already
sites in marine and freshwater environments being better pre- inscribed as World Heritage will be prioritised for protection,
served than in a terrestrial environment, less affected by de- therefore attracting the major proportion of available funding
velopment, with potential for sustainability and benefits to all and support, possibly at the expense of other sites conside-
society. A frequently mentioned disadvantage — representing red less important.
a significant challenge — is that UCH is out of sight and out It is expected that there will be an increase in wave strength,
of mind, and as such is physically inaccessible to most of the with stronger currents and storms, with associated flash floo-
population. In the following paragraphs there is a brief iden- ding exacerbating the erosion of coastal environments and
tification of, and introduction to, the predicted environmental increasing turbidity. More intense storm activity will have a
changes and their likely impact on UCH. similar increasing impact on previously relatively immune
shallow water sites. Some jurisdictions including the United
Rising sea temperatures and ice-melt Kingdom (UK) have implemented a programme of shoreline
Rising sea temperatures will cause a thermal expansion of or managed retreat3, which will result in damage or loss of
the ocean and exacerbate ice-melt. It is predicted by the UK’s heritage assets and areas of historic landscape.
Marine Monitoring and Assessment Strategy that there will be The anticipated increasing strength and probable frequency
a rise in sea-level during the 21st century of between 12 to 76 of ocean processes could seriously affect the sustainability
cm (Dunkley 2015, 220). Polar ice-melt will open new zones of coastal cultural heritage such as Fort Jesus, Mombasa,
of exploration leading to the possibility of searching, discover- Kenya; also an important tourist destination. Built by the Por-
ing, and investigating sites previously considered to be much tuguese between 1593 and 1596 the fort is an outstanding
example of Renaissance styled construction inscribed as working on sites and the visualisation of sites for researchers
World Heritage in 2011. It is managed by National Museums and for the public. As mentioned above while the marine en-
of Kenya. A further complication is the Portuguese wreck vironment often receives more media considerations, other
Santo Antonio de Tanna lost in 1697 that lies beneath the aquatic environments are not immune from the impacts of
seaward walls would be under threat if it is necessary to sub- climate change such as inland water bodies described in the
stantially reinforce the fort’s foundations (Fig. 1). following section.
There is a potential positive consequence of climatic chan- Alpine spaces: The impact of climate change on inland
ges in that previously unknown cultural sites could be disco- water bodies
vered. Although the bronze-age timber circle on the Norfolk The insight that climate change not only has an impact on
coast colloquially named ‘Seahenge’ , first seen in 1998, has
4
human societies and biodiversity, but also affects the preser-
not been specifically linked to climate change, its appearan- vation of cultural heritage, has become increasingly accepted
ce in the intertidal zone is attributed to coastal erosion and over the last two decades. This is also expressed by the fact
exemplifies what could be an increasing future trend. In this that in 2016–2019 the Horizon 2020 programme of European
instance the ‘circle’ was recognised as being important, sub- Union funded projects related to the ‘Mitigation of Climate
sequently recovered, conserved, and is now displayed in a Change Impacts and Natural Hazards on Sites, Structures
Norfolk museum. 5
and Artefacts of Cultural Heritage’ (Smith 2014; Lefèvre/
Sabbioni 2018; Marzoli et al. 2019; Cordis EU Research Re-
Ocean acidification sults). The effects of climate change on underwater cultural
There are concerns that ocean acidification will increase the heritage have so far been much less in the public focus. A
rates of corrosion of metal shipwrecks and exacerbate ero- broader treatment — and mostly concentrated on maritime
sion of stone made structures such as submerged ancient environments — has only recently been initiated (Perez-Al-
harbours. A consequential environmental risk is that natural
6
varo 2019).
and cultural heritage will be under increasing risk of pollu- Freshwater environments cover less than one percent of the
tion from the thousands of wrecks from the First and Second earth‘s surface. However, they contain around 10% of all the
World Wars that still contain fuel oil or other toxic cargoes. species described and therefore form biodiversity hotspots
It is estimated that the amount of oil within these vessels is of great importance. They provide numerous ecosystem
in the order of 2.5–20 million tonnes. Acidification combined services such as water supply, transport, and nutrition. They
with other ocean process could exacerbate the erosion of the- have therefore always been points of attraction for human
se ships which will increase the risk of structural failure of populations. Today, their remains from prehistoric to modern
their fuel bunkers; wrecks described as ‘rusting time bombs’ times are submerged settlements, fluvial offering places,
(Hamer 2010). foundation of bridges, fords and watercrafts, and form an
important segment of underwater cultural heritage. Climate
Economic adaptation to low carbon economies change is of particular relevance as it increases the anthro-
In the transformation to low carbon economies, poor consul- pogenic pressure on freshwater ecosystems. It is expected
tation, and weak regulatory frameworks can contribute to the that climate change will influence the physical properties of
‘heritage’ versus ‘climate action’ dynamic. The possible con- the aquatic environment in a multifactorial way: Rising tem-
sequences are inadequate preconstruction desk-based as- peratures and increased precipitation dynamics create poten-
sessments and/or physical inspection of proposed locations tially new environmental conditions and impact processes in
for example offshore green energy constructions or coastal freshwater ecosystems (Goldman et al. 2013; Benateau et al.
protection systems which would threaten the integrity of UCH 2019). Lemmin and Amouroux (2013) state in their study on
sites in the affected areas. the influence of climate change on Lake Geneva: ‘The most
significant features of climate change in the European mid-la-
Practicalities for the work of underwater marine archaeo- titude region are a warming trend in the atmospheric bounda-
logists ry layer and an increasing tendency towards extreme weather
There are practical implications for working in the marine en- events. Continuous warming may increase lake water tempe-
vironment. Stronger water currents and tidal surges combined rature and extreme events may cause strong fluctuations in
with the rise in sea level have the potential to reduce availa- lake water temperature.’
ble work time for archaeologists and possibly the deployment
of remotely-controlled and autonomous vehicles. Increased In the lakes and bogs of Europe’s Alpine Region there are
turbidity will reduce underwater visibility which will impede about 1,000 archaeological settlement remains from the Neo-
lithic and Bronze Age. Archaeological sites in bogs have been stored in the Alps in the form of ice but will melt completely
threatened with drying up since at least 1950. The reasons for in spring and lead to increased flooding events. The higher
this have long been sinking groundwater levels and wetland dynamics of the lake levels will lead to more extreme events
melioration. Climate change will certainly intensify these pro- (floods, low water levels) and it will be associated with increa-
cesses. Archaeological sites in lakes have been exposed to sed erosion of the shallow lakeshore zones, which is precise-
increased erosion of shallow water zones for several decades ly where submerged prehistoric settlements are located.
as well (Fig. 2). The reason for this is anthropogenic impact
in the water bodies, mostly the artificial lowering of lake levels Understanding the complex effects of climate change on
as part of land reclamation or flood protection. Benateau et al. aquatic ecosystems and their function is therefore of great
(2019) claim three main physical impacts of climate change importance for predicting the impact of climate change on un-
on waterbodies in Switzerland: increase of water temperatu- derwater cultural heritage (Fig. 3). In Switzerland for exam-
re, altered evaporation, and altered stratification, inflow and ple, and presumably in all alpine countries, the problem is
mixing regime and reduced freezing. well known, since the larger lakes in the Alpine Region all
serve as drinking water, and their water quality is an issue of
extraordinary importance (Benateau et al. 2019). Currently,
it is difficult to assess the potential consequences of climate
change and active measures of mitigation have so far only
been taken against the erosion of underwater archaeologi-
cal sites in lakes (Hafner 2008, 2012; Hafner/Schlichtherle
2008). Presumably, all measures to stabilise the water qua-
lity and the water cycle of a lake will also help to protect the
submerged archaeological cultural heritage in inland waters.
The second strand of this chapter that relates to the UN’s
SDGs with special relevance to underwater cultural heritage
is SDG 14 Life Below Water and specifically the UN Decade
of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021– 2030
(the Decade). The following text provides a brief introduction
to the Decade and outlines ways in which UCH can contribute
to and support its goals.
The Decade for Ocean Science for Sustainable Develop-

ment 2021–2030
Fig. 2 Diver during underwater drilling at the archaeological The Decade has been created in recognition of the threat
site of Bay of Bones, Lake Ohrid, North Macedonia.
© Corinne Staeheli, EXPLO, University of Bern. to the Ocean’s eco-systems. A key aim is to determine the
‘science we need’ (UNESCO-IOC 2020a, 5) to help reverse
the Ocean’s decline moving from the ‘ocean we have’ to the
How might these factors affect the underwater cultural her- ‘ocean we want’ (UNESCO-IOC 2020a, 6). The coordinating
itage in the long term? Shipwrecks located at great depths organisation is UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic
in lakes are unlikely to be affected to a large extent, but da- Commission (IOC) which was tasked in 2018 with creating
mage to archaeological sites in the shallow water zone, near an Implementation Plan (UNESCO-IOC 2020a) and an Action
the shore is feared (depth < 5 m). It is conceivable that new Plan (UNESCO-IOC 2020b)7 that would serve as a guide to
plant and animal species will settle as the water temperatu- achieving the goal of the Decade to ‘support efforts to reverse
re increases. Already today, crayfish and certain water birds the cycle of decline in ocean health and create improved con-
contribute to the erosion of archaeological sites by building ditions for sustainable development of the ocean, seas, and
tunnels and searching for food. If reeds or future new invasive coasts ’(UNESCO-IOC 2018).
plants spread on a large scale, the rhizomes would destroy
archaeological layers on the lake floor. If the alpine glaciers Statements that support underwater cultural heritage being
continue to melt as is currently observed (and this must be considered as an integral component of the Decade are
assumed), the altered conditions in the catchment area of the found within the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
alpine rivers will also affect the lakes in the alpine foreland. (UNCLOS) includes Article 303(1), which clearly states that
Snow that falls during the winter months will no longer be ‘States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological
Fig. 3 Visual synthesis of the impacts of climate change relevant to aquatic ecosystems. Plus signs (+) indicate increases
of a phenomenon, minus signs (-) indicate decreases of a phenomenon. From: Benateau et al. 2019.
and historical nature found at sea and shall cooperate for this and a focus on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are
purpose’ (UN 1982). also among the priorities.
The preamble to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection Resulting from the peer review of the initial version of the
of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001) expresses the so- Implementation Plan, a seventh societal goal was added to
cial value of underwater cultural heritage: version 2 of the Decade’s Implementation Plan (UNESCO
2020a): ‘an inspiring and engaging ocean where society un-
‘Acknowledging the importance of underwater cultural heritage
derstands and values the ocean in relation to human well-
as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a
being and sustainable development.’ This seventh goal is of
particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations,
particular relevance to the UCH community, especially when
and their relations with each other concerning their common her-
linked to the additional incentive for the need for public enga-
itage’.
gement – during the 1st Planning Meeting, Copenhagen 2019
The Decade’s tag has become ‘the science we need for the a panellist stated that without the support of the public, the
ocean we want’ which emphasises the need for a science- Decade will not be successful.
based approach. The Decade’s Revised Roadmap (IOC-
UNESCO 2018) includes the statement — reiterated in the Ocean literacy
Implementation Plan — that ‘ocean science should be inter- The broader text of the seventh goal (see below) outlines the
preted broadly as encompassing social sciences and human need for a change in the public’s relationship with the oce-
dimensions…’. an. To achieve this, it is necessary to develop ocean litera-
The Roadmap outlined six societal goals: ‘a clean ocean, a cy programmes, a theme that many organizations within the
healthy and resilient ocean, a predicted ocean, a safe ocean, UCH community, including a number of UNESCO’s accredi-
a sustainably harvested and productive ocean, and a trans- ted NGOs, are very well equipped to develop. There are va-
parent and accessible ocean’ (IOC 2018, 7–9). The major an- rious channels by which the UCH community can contribute
ticipated outcomes are to expand knowledge of the oceans to improving ocean literacy among the public through existing
by increasing the seabed mapping the ocean, creating an in- educational programmes and projects, the high level of pub-
ventory of the ocean’s ecosystems, providing open access to lic interest in underwater archaeology and history reflected in
data and information — which are of particular relevance to the media, and maritime museums (Fig. 4).
cultural heritage – and expanding ocean observing systems. ‘In order to incite behaviour change and ensure the effective-
Capacity building, citizen science, improving ocean literacy, ness of solutions developed under the Decade there needs to
Fig. 4 The graphic illustrates the links between recreational diving including citizen scientists, heritage bodies, museums
and the media have a role in increasing the public’s awareness of the need to sustainably manage the world’s oceans.
Design Underwood 2020.
be a step change in society’s relationship with the ocean. This marine engineering, fishing industry and other relevant mari-
can be achieved through ocean literacy approaches, formal ne stakeholders in helping to address the potential pollutant
and informal educational and awareness raising tools, and threat from historic shipwrecks. In addition, it is also useful
through measures to ensure equitable physical access to the to consider how studies of submerged cultural heritage can
ocean. Together these approaches will build a significantly contribute to understanding environmental changes such as
broader understanding of the economic, social, and cultural erosion and scour, as well as the study of and changes to the
values of the ocean by society and the plurality of roles that it biological species that often proliferate on UCH.
plays to underpin health, wellbeing and sustainable develop-
ment. This outcome will highlight the ocean as a place of won- Citizen science
der and inspiration, thus also influencing the next generation The Decade planning meetings have emphasised the need
of scientists, policy makers, government officials, managers for and input from citizen scientists to supplement professio-
and innovators (IOC 2020, 9). nal scientific research. On-going marine litter clean-up pro-
jects such as the Ghost Net and MareLitt projects8 are ideally
Environmental concerns: ‘a clean ocean’ suited to recreational divers who are already contributing to
A central theme of this is to reduce pollution, which comes in the societal outcome of ‘a clean ocean’. However, some of
various forms. In the text above featuring the impact of clima- the methods used to recover ‘ghost nets’ can damage the
te change, it was mentioned that many 20th century wartime structures to which they are attached. Many of these struc-
wrecks containing hydro-carbon fuel-oils or other toxic cargo- tures are likely to be shipwrecks. Some may be historically
es are potential pollutants. Other sources can be added such significant and previously unknown.9 If archaeologists worked
as mining waste and other land-based sources that drain into with these diving groups, the selection of techniques applied
rivers, seas, and oceans (Trakadas et al 2019). in the recovery process would take into consideration protec-
The cultural heritage community can and has partnered with ting the integrity of both cultural and natural sites, as far as is
marine stakeholders to improve the understanding of the ex- reasonably possible. This would extend preservation of sites,
tent and character of the associated risks of these sites, help and potentially lead to new information on known sites, or
identify them through historic and archaeological sources, the discovery of new ones, thereby fulfilling SDG Target 11.4
monitor them, and contribute to the development of mitiga- which aims to ‘strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the
tion strategies. Cultural heritage scientists are monitoring world’s cultural and natural heritage’ (UN SDGs).
sites (Fig. 5) and developing corrosion studies to better in- Citizen science programmes can supplement professional
form the management of underwater cultural heritage sites, a site monitoring projects10 (Fig. 4), while contributing useful
central theme of the collaborative trans-disciplinary European data about the condition of sites which would be helpful to
SASMAP project (Gregory and Manders 2016, 75). These natural and cultural heritage managers. Projects such as the
actions can inform government agencies, marine sciences, Nautical Archaeology Society’s ‘Adopt a Wreck’11 scheme and
It is important that archaeologists and heritage managers

involved with underwater cultural heritage recognise the va-
lue of integrating or adapting their programmes or policies to
align themselves, where appropriate, with the aims the Deca-
de. An important outcome would be a much closer relation-
ship with environmental sciences where collaboration is the
norm, which is enshrined in the trans-disciplinary ethos of the
SASMAP project mentioned above.
Summary
This chapter has provided a very brief introduction to the im-
Fig. 5 A diver with a data-logger. This equipment measures
pacts of climate change. It is clear that in all aquatic envi-
parameters such as conductivity (salinity), dissolved oxy-
gen, and current strength. Diver or remote sensing can also ronments there are challenges that must be recognised and
monitor physical changes to sites which can be applied to where possible, mitigated. It is also clear that in some cases
natural environmental and cultural purposes. It can help us
heritage will be lost and that the protection of sites inscribed
to see the changes in the site and detect or predict threats.
Photo: BZN 10 wreck - the Netherlands. © RCE. as World Heritage will most likely take precedent, creating
fundraising and resourcing challenges for those heritage ma-
the Australian programme ‘GIRT’12 are well suited to being nagers responsible for other sites under threat.
utilised as frameworks for citizen science projects. They can The other theme of this chapter is the Decade of Ocean Sci-
be utlised to monitor UCH sites that include both natural and ence for Sustainable Development 2021–2030 which has
cultural perspectives, treating individual sites as micro-eco- been described as representing a once-in-a-generation op-
systems. Site specific projects could be linked to national portunity to identify synergies between the underwater ar-
studies and feed into broader repositories of environmental chaeological and other marine science communities with the
information, which in turn can assist in the development of aim, where appropriate, of working in unison in developing an
management strategies. eco-system approach to the study and sustainable manage-
ment of the oceans of which UCH is a fundamental part.
Supporting the Decade
It has been proposed that application for project endorsement
of ‘Decade Actions’ at programme and project level will be
requested during ‘Calls for Action’ focusing on topics and geo- 1 Tropical cyclones are termed hurricane or typhoon depending on their location. For
example cyclones in the North Atlantic, central and eastern North Pacific are tagged as a
graphic areas of priority linked to ‘Ocean Decade Challenges’ hurricane, whereas a cyclone in the Northwest Pacific is classified as a typhoon.
(UNSCO-IOC 2020, 15). A Decade activity is a more concise 2 See Intergovernmental Reports https://www.ipcc.ch/reports/; accessed 30th Septem-
ber 2020.
event that supports a Decade outcome that can be initiated at
3 The first ‘managed retreat’ project in the UK was the flooding of an area of 8,000
any time and submitted for endorsement through a web-ba- square metres of Northey Island, Essex — a county in the south-east of the UK — in 1991
http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/62067 2020; accessed 30th September
sed platform, as can a Decade contribution. IOC has establis- 2020.
hed a framework for supporting the Decade which enables 4 The Holme 1 Timber Circle colloquially known as ‘Seahenge’ was discovered in 1998,
its oak timbers dating (Grove 2002) to the ‘spring or early summer 2049 BC’ – early Bronze
several levels of commitment: Age – with a second ‘Seahenge’ from the same period found nearby in 2014 (Tyres 2014).
5 Kings Lynn https://www.museums.norfolk.gov.uk/lynn-museum/whats-here/seahenge;

1. A Decade Programme is expected to be: interdisciplina- accessed 30th September 2020.
ry, multi-year, global or regional in scale, contributing to a 6 IPCC reported in 2013 that in the industrial era pH has decreased by 0.1.
minimum Ocean Decade Challenge. 7 The Action Pan will develop as a series of calls for action. The first ‘Call for Decade
Action 01/2020’ is available at: https://oceandecade.org/news/75/Call-for-Decade-Actions-
2. A Decade Project is a smaller study on a regional, natio- No-012020-; accessed 14th October 2020.
nal or sub-national basis contributing to a recognised De- 8 See https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/new-proposal-will-tackle-marine-litter-and-“ghost-

fishing”_en
cade programme. Ghost net project: https://www.aqua.dtu.dk/english/news/2019/08/mapping-of-
3. A Decade Activity could be single event activity such as ghostnets?id=92579b39-1301-4634-be62-08555e1d0126; https://www.marelittbaltic.eu;
accessed 29th August 2020.
raising awareness, workshop, or capacity building aimed 9 An example of this is the discovery of Invincible 1758 in the 1980s. The site located off
at enabling a Decade Programme, Project or support and Portsmouth UK was subsequently designated as a protected wreck.
10 See the pan-European Wreck Protect Project http://wreckprotect.org/index.

Ocean Decade Challenge, and php?id=12658; Accessed 29th August 2020.
4. A Decade Contribution is the supply of a resource in 11 NAS’ ‘Adopt a wreck scheme. See: https://www.nauticalarchaeologysociety.org/adopt-
a-wreck; accessed 29th August 2020.
support of a Decade Action or financial requirement of the
12 The project ‘Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT) Scientific
Decade. Divers is a conservation focused no-impact citizen-science project’. See: http://www.girtsd.
org/about; accessed 29th August 2020.
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Further reading
at Holme-next-the-Sea, Norfolk. English Heritage Centre for Archaeology
Benateau S, Gaudard A, Stamm C & Altermatt F (2019) Climate change and
Report. 6/2002.
freshwater ecosystems: Impacts on water quality and ecological status.
Hydro-CH2018 Project. Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN), Bern,
Gregory D and M Manders (eds) (2016) Best practices for locating, survey-
Switzerland. 110 pp. Doi: 10.5167/uzh-169641
ing, assessing, monitoring and preserving underwater archaeological sites.
SASMAP Guideline Manual 2, p.75. http://sasmap.eu/fileadmin/user_
Goldman C R, Kumagai M, Robarts R D (2013) (Eds). Climatic Change and
upload/temasites/sas_map/pdf/SASMAP_guideline_02_LR.pdf; accessed
Global Warming of Inland Waters: Impacts and Mitigation for Ecosystems
and Societies. Wiley-Blackwell. 496 Pages.
Hamer M (2010) Why wartime wrecks are slicking time bombs. In: New Scien-
Hafner A (2008) In situ preservation of submerged prehistoric settlements in
tist, Magazine issue 2776, published 4 September 2010. https://www.new-
lakes of the Alpine Region. Anti-erosion measures at sites in Lake Bien-
scientist.com/article/mg20727761-600-why-wartime-wrecks-are-slicking-ti-
ne, Switzerland. In: H. Kars and R. M. van Heeringen, eds. Preserving Ar-
me-bombs/; accessed 29th August 2020.
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Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 245–51.
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Policy & Practice, 8:2, 89-100. Doi: 10.1080/17567505.2017.1317071
2012 Sutz-Lattrigen, Lake Biel, Switzerland. Twenty years of rescue excava-
tions and in situ conservation. In: Henderson, J (ed.) Beyond Boundaries.
ICOMOS Climate Change and Cultural Heritage Working Group (2019) The
Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Underwater Archaeology.
Future of Our Pasts: Engaging Cultural Heritage in Climate Action, August
Kolloquien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte: Vol. 17. Bonn: Habelt, pp. 337-344.
1, 2019. Paris: ICOMOS.
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126
Covering the site of Rapperswil-Jona, Technikum, at Lake

Zurich, Switzerland, with geotextile and gravel.
© Archaeological Service of the Canton of St. Gallen.
127
SECTION 3
IN SITU PRESERVATION
128 In Situ Preservation of Sites as an Important Part of UCH Management
IN SITU PRESERVATION OF SITES AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT
ple human factors may all occur (Fig. 1). However, it is pos-
sible to mitigate these threats, as part of a responsible man-
agement strategy. In recent years, it has become increasingly
common practice to manage UCH more holistically, for ex-
ample, by treating the resource as a whole, with a view to the
future, and in a proactive way, keeping in mind the different
values that a site may have for various stakeholders.
Current international standards state that in situ preservation
should, when managing a site, be considered as the first op-
tion, but what is the reason for this? Why not consider exca-
vation first and foremost? Before we attempt to answer this
question from a cultural heritage management perspective,
we must ask ourselves what ‘in situ preservation’ means. Is it
– as is often said – brushing sites under the carpet (of sand)?
Or does it serve a higher goal? Can we really physically pro-
Fig. 1 In saline water the attack of Teredo navalis (ship- tect underwater sites from identified threats?
worm) is an enormous threat to shipwrecks and other In archaeology, in situ means the original place of deposition.
wooden structures. Here we can see the devastating effect However, there are no defined rules about how ‘original’ this
the shipworm has on historical shipwrecks. The wood has
crumbled and almost disappeared. © Paul Voorthuis, High deposition should be. Is it the first deposition, or a deposi-
Zone Photography. tion (with subsequent related processes) at a later date? As
Schiffer (1985) asked: Is it a primary, secondary or de facto
Introduction refuse? A ‘primary refuse’ may, for example, have led to reuse
It is often said that archaeological sites remain in remarkable or redepositioning. After deposition, post-depositional pro-
condition when situated underwater. Indeed, this is often cesses (de facto refuse) alter the place and the objects in it. It
true. However, there are many organisms and processes that is extremely rare to find a terrestrial archaeological site which
threaten this rich archaeological resource. As part of the man- a community suddenly ceased to inhabit at one point in time,
agement options we can preserve sites in situ, do nothing, or and impossible to find one that has not been altered through
excavate and even remove sites from their environment. If we post-depositional processes. This is no different for underwa-
preserve a site in situ, this often means an active approach. Is ter sites. While following the definition of in situ as the ‘original
it worth managing sites in situ? Yes, there are many reasons place of deposition’ may give us some headaches in deter-
why we should; each of them requiring a different approach mining whether originality is primary, secondary or de facto;
relating to the values we attach to underwater archaeolog- here, in situ will simply be defined as the place where we
ical sites. This chapter explores the management rationale discover the cultural material in or on the seabed.
behind in situ preservation, the reasoning and the need to
choose and how sites should be prioritised. What do we need to preserve?
Questions such as, what should be preserved and protect-
What do we mean by the in situ preservation of a site? ed and what should not be preserved are difficult to answer
Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) is constantly threatened, from more encompassing geographical and temporal per-
for example, by strong currents and tides that may be more spectives. Are we focusing on the well-preserved heritage of
hostile to some UCH than others. Seabed erosion, abrasion, a specific period or are we interested in the long sequence of
biological attack by shipworm, fungi and bacteria, and multi- use, with its subsequent changes and landscape transforma-
Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage Management – In Situ – Protection – Value, Enjoyment

In Situ Preservation of Sites as an Important Part of UCH Management 129
tions – a layered heritage? In other words, what belongs to

the narratives we want to investigate and/or keep and what
does not?
Such questions form the basis of significance assessments,
which determine selection and deselection and are an import-
ant tool in overall heritage management. In practice, however,
not many underwater sites have been explicitly deselected.
Primarily, this is because few underwater sites have under-
gone the extensive research required for such an archaeo-
logical significance assessment. Implicitly, sites are often not
further investigated by the cultural heritage officers responsi-
ble due to the expected low archaeological value. Thus, there
might be a lot to gain by making these implicit choices more
explicit. The practice of deselecting is consequentially more
common in terrestrial archaeology, and means that no further
protection or action is undertaken by the authorities. Howev-
er, this may offer opportunities for others to become involved Fig. 2 Sports divers are an important stakeholder group. We
in on-site archaeological research. What these others (other often refer to them as the eyes and ears for the archaeolo-
than archaeologists and cultural heritage managers) would gists. A primary aim for them to dive on shipwrecks is enjoy-
ment. Here, divers prepare to dive on one of the many histo-
like to do with a site depends on the value they attach to the ric shipwrecks in the Oostvoornsemeer. © M. R. Manders.
site or the area.
What archaeologists, cultural heritage managers, or other
stakeholders involved would like to investigate, preserve or ers, in situ preservation and protection may even be synon-
use in another way, ultimately depends on which value pre- ymous with not having to deal physically with sites at all, or
vails for the specific stakeholder group. It is not a given, but stated more positively, entailing considerably lower costs than
determined by those who wish to ‘use’ it. This also implies opting for excavation. As Willems (2012) stated, the in situ
that one site may have various values, promoted by different dogma is led by bureaucratization and commercialization.
stakeholders. Money, time, and responsibility seem to be the driving factors.
Since the signing of the Valletta Treaty,1 many European
Why do we need to preserve in situ? countries have been frenetically holding on to an in situ policy,
A good starting point for all stakeholders is the question: Why which now has a firm basis in the management of archaeo-
do we want to preserve sites in situ? The answer may be very logical, including underwater heritage. It has gone so far that
different depending on the individual stakeholder. The choice the doctrine of in situ is the first option to consider has, for
of in situ preservation may be based on different cultural her- many, become ‘the preferred option’ which fits perfectly in the
itage values, which include scientific, aesthetic, enjoyment or minds of those for whom in situ preservation has become a
commemoration and the economic dimension should not be goal in itself. How can we say that in situ is the preferred op-
overlooked; the aim being to strike a balance between these tion in any general sense, without considering the individual
values. situation of each site? Should such assessments not be part
However, values are subjective. Therefore, it is important of the mitigation process? Considering in situ preservation
to consider who is determining this value and who has the (and active in situ protection) as the first option is thus differ-
right to do so. We also have to keep in mind that the level on ent from it being the preferred option. This is the starting point
which one operates may make a difference to how sites are from which we should all at least begin, and after thoughtful
assessed. For example, a site which is not rated as of high consideration and for the right reasons, we might depart in
cultural heritage value at a national level may be high at the various directions.
regional level and vice versa. Ultimately, archaeologists want to learn from the past and
In situ protection should also be based on the assessment of pass this knowledge on to society, so others may also un-
threats and should consist of mitigation against these threats, derstand their past, present, and future. Curiosity is thus an
noting the perspectives of the different stakeholders regard- important asset to have. However, it will not be satisfied by
ing the physical protection of a site. in situ preservation of sites alone. Intrusive research may be
Differences may arise in relation to how long in situ protection necessary for this. Those seeking enjoyment – the incentive
should be applied; short or long term? For some stakehold- for sports diving communities – may profit from an in situ pol-
icy and management as well. However, this will depend on

the way we protect sites and present them in situ. Therefore,
although this stakeholder group might in the first instance be
reluctant to support in situ preservation and protection, they
may easily become the biggest supporter depending on the
way it is executed (Fig. 2).
First and foremost, archaeologists consider that the intrinsic
value of a particular site should primarily determine the re-
sponse to the question of why it should be protected and not
another. The archaeological value of an individual site is not
easy to determine, quantify, or qualify.
There are also other reasons for preserving culturally signif-
icant sites in situ. In recent years, the issue of in situ preser-
vation has been widely debated in the field of archaeology,
which has led to confusion within and outside the archaeo-
logical community. An often-cited reason for in situ protection
is that we should preserve some material for future gener-
ations. This notion alone has little or no value, and has the Fig. 3 Before an excavation can be executed in a proper
capacity to fuel critics who believe that in situ preservation is way, many things have to be taken into consideration. This
has also been described in the Annex or Code of Good
equivalent to out-of-sight and therefore out-of-mind. It is im-
Practice of the UNESCO convention for the Protection of
possible to predict and therefore to decide what values future the Underwater Cultural Heritage (Paris, 2001). © M. R.
generations will hold, because we cannot know what they will Manders.
consider to be their heritage. It may be better to preserve the
past for ourselves based on what we consider important to Today, we know that protection in situ can slow the process
preserve for the short and long-term future, and on what we of degradation but it is impossible to completely stop it. If we
want to tell future generations — starting with our children — want it to be effective, in situ preservation often means active
about us and our past. In the first instance, this may sound involvement, with the awareness that all efforts are tempo-
like a minor rewording of the same idea, but there is a crucial rary. It is, therefore, important to have some idea about how
difference: we will decide for ourselves what to give; we will long certain measures can protect an underwater site. The
decide from our own perspective what is important or not and protective measures should be selected based on their ca-
will not dictate it to others — the future generation. pacity to minimize deterioration of a site but also allow access
to the site in the future for archaeological purposes, for other
For future enjoyment and research scientific research and sometimes even for the sake of their
It is commonly held that we must not only aim to preserve a enjoyment.
representative part of the maritime past for scientific research, It is not only important to save a cross-section of maritime
but also for future enjoyment and research. We should, how- history for future research — when we might have a different
ever, keep in mind that the selection of what to preserve is view on our past and different questions to ask —; the choices
our choice, as part of contemporary society, with our own un- must also be acceptable to the general public.
derstanding and set of values. Thus, we are passing on what The aspect of enjoyment, in addition to research, should not
we think is worth keeping for future generations. Moreover, solely be focused on future generations. In fact, making sure
it is only possible to make a selection of what to preserve that the current generation has the opportunity to enjoy its
because the number of submerged sites of potential archaeo- heritage, including UCH, is extremely important. Through this,
logical interest is immense. Before we make such a decision, understanding or awareness can be created, which again is
therefore, it is important to know the extent of the archaeolog- essential for the effective protection and management of the
ical resource. We also have to investigate the likely meaning underwater cultural resource (Fig. 3).
(significance) of the individual sites for maritime archaeology
and for the reconstruction of our past. This can be achieved A time-gap
by assessing each site individually and the archaeological re- Another reason for in situ preservation, including mitigato-
source in general. ry protection methods, is the fact that there is often a major
In the past, in situ preservation was carried out with the in- time gap between discovery and a planned excavation. This
tention of leaving archaeological sites for future generations. means that many sites that have been located, and are await-
Fig. 4 The Burgzand Noord 10 wreck (BZN10), one of the many 17th century shipwrecks in the former Texel Roads. This
whole area is a national monument, consisting of numerous known, but almost certainly many unknown sites. The BZN 10
site has been used as a test case for different protection and monitoring measurements, from the installation of data log-
gers and wood samples, to the physical protection of sites with polypropylene nets and artificial seagrass. © RCE.
ing investigation, may require protection in the interim in or- servation treatment has recently been questioned because
der to maintain the quality of the archaeological information. of problems with increased sulphur and iron concentration,
Decisions about how to manage a single site must be made which have been identified in timbers of various wrecks, in-
in relation to other sites. Thus, we aim to develop objective cluding Vasa in Sweden and Mary Rose in the UK.
criteria on which to base our decisions regarding whether a
site can or should be protected in situ. While this takes time, a Current experience and enjoyment
lack of capacity and financial resources, and the necessity of Information from archaeological excavations will flow into the
political commitment, heavily influence these decisions. education system, and museums filled with objects produced
The following activities or elements, which sometimes de- by such an approach. All of this is valuable, but what is the
mand considerable time, must be carried out or established role of the public and its experience of the past? Museums
before excavation can start: non-intrusive assessment, where make an enormous effort to give the public such an experi-
possible, project design, advance funding for the whole proj- ence. However, this is different from the experiences and the
ect, timetable, research objectives: where details of the meth- enjoyment we have while diving on a real wreck site. Ship-
odology and techniques to be employed are defined in the wrecks preserved in situ may well be used as places to gain
project design, a competent, suitable and qualified investigat- this experience and enjoyment. Sites that are fully protect-
ing team must be established, any political or legal issues ed in situ and thus covered, may not offer much excitement,
must be resolved, including ownership of e.g. a shipwreck. while other wrecks that do not need physical protection prob-
It is essential to establish the research objectives of an ex- ably will. This may be an important future selection criterion
cavation. Once an object or site has been excavated it will for in situ preservation.
never be the same. In this sense, excavation is destructive
and therefore requires strict regulation. Different values of preservation
Shipwrecks have many different values. They are looked at
Difficulties of conservation from different angles and by different people, and are thus
Another reason to promote in situ preservation of shipwrecks also significant for a number of reasons and for a number of
is to keep them in safe underwater storage in their ‘natural’ different stakeholders. A site may be under threat not only
environment until new and better conservation methods are from the perspective of underwater archaeologists, but also
developed (Fig. 4). Traditional polyethylene glycol (PEG) con- from that of ecologists, sports divers, and even fisherpersons.
Quite a few of the identified threats to shipwrecks have nega- There are several overarching reasons why we preserve sites
tive effects for a number of stakeholders. Shipwrecks contain in situ: it may be for future research and enjoyment, show-
vital information about our past, that is true, but they are also ing that we are serious about our responsibility and have a
important for biodiversity and are great places for sport diving. commitment; there is an enormous number of underwater
There are mitigation strategies for all these threats; obvious sites and many more are being discovered annually; under-
and more creative ones. They range from in situ protection water research is expensive and there is usually a time gap
methods to keep the soil environment waterlogged and ox- between discovery and investigation of a site. In the mean-
ygen free, to the setting up of cooperation agreements be- time, it needs to be cared for and there may be conservation
tween different users (stakeholders). The mitigation strategies difficulties that force us to maintain a site in an environment
must therefore be adapted and accepted by a larger group of that ensures it remains in relatively good condition for many
stakeholders than archaeologists or cultural heritage man- years, rather than changing the environment by removing it,
agers alone. Managing a wreck or the underwater resource with all the conservation problems that arise as a result. We
in general becomes a task that is not only focused on the may also decide to keep a site preserved in situ for other
cultural value but also on a careful consideration of various reasons, such as the wish and the need to experience and
values and the creation of support. This becomes especially enjoy a site underwater now, or perhaps another value that
important in countries where cultural heritage management has been attached to the site by another stakeholder.
has been decentralized, as a result of which, even more peo- Once we know why we want to protect an underwater site,
ple are becoming directly involved and different values have we can start to think of how to do so. The way we protect a
to be balanced and protected. site has implications for how we will use it, now and in the
near future. This decision should reflect why we, as a society,
Arguments against in situ preservation wish to preserve the sites and therefore what values prevail
Although there are many reasons to preserve UCH in situ in relation to them. The different views on in situ preservation
there are also reasons not to. Obviously, if a site is not con- reveal the need to talk among stakeholder groups, even be-
sidered to be of high archaeological value, there is no reason fore actively working together in underwater cultural heritage
to protect it for that particular reason. Moreover, sites may management, with the aim of creating a more balanced in
be sacrificed in the process of mitigating the effect of works situ policy.
on the broader environment, or other values of a certain lo-
cation or site will prevail and the archaeological information
1 The European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (Revised).
will be sacrificed. There are, however, other downsides to this
concept of in situ preservation that are related specifically to
cultural heritage management issues. There are also more References and further reading
fundamental reasons: if left in situ it will not be included in
Manders M R (2008) In situ Preservation: The Preferred Option. In: Museum
regional or national identity, there will be no methodological International, 240:31–41.
development and capacity building, the sites will continue to — (2012) Unit 3. Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage. In: Manders M
R and Underwood C J (eds) Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation
deteriorate and there will still be long-term financial conse-
Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage
quences. in Asia and the Pacific, UNESCO Bangkok.
— (2012) Unit 9. In situ Preservation. In: Manders M R and Underwood C

J (eds) Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Pro-
Conclusion
tection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the
In situ means ‘original place of deposition’. This definition is Pacific, UNESCO Bangkok.
not straightforward and may lead to discussion about what — (2015) My Heritage, Your Heritage, Our Heritage? The Growing Awareness
of Local Communities and Consequent Bottom up approaches in Maritime
‘original’ means and what belongs to a site. In relation to ship-
Cultural Heritage Management. In: M Di Stefano (ed.) ICOMOS 18th Gene-
wrecks, it is often clearer what belongs to the site and what is ral Assembly. Heritage and Landscape as Human Values Conference Pro-
ceedings, pp. 451–454.
not: a disaster occurred and the ship sank with everything it
had on board. Everything on the ship at that specific moment — (2017) Preserving a layered history of the Western Wadden Sea: mana-
ging an underwater cultural heritage resource. Doctoral thesis, University
and connected to the event, therefore, belongs to the site. of Leiden.
Post-depositional processes may also form part of the site, Schiffer M B (1985) Is there a ‘Pompeii Premise’ in archaeology? Journal of
at least insofar as they may disturb the view we have of the Anthropological Research 41:18–41.
past. This, however, needs to be acknowledged to begin with, Willems WJH (2012) The problems with preservation in situ. In: Bakels C and H
Kamermans (eds) In: Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 43/44, 1–8.
and the distinction of what is contemporary and what is not
should be made. What we consider to belong to the site in situ
determines what we preserve and why.
IN SITU PRESERVATION OF SITES AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDIES
Fig. 1 The Wadden Sea is, although a World Heritage Area, actively used by for example by fisherpersons and for mussel
farming. © Martijn R. Manders.
Introduction West Indies, warships, merchant ships heading to and from

There are many reasons why underwater sites can be under the Baltic, etc., from at least the 16th to the 20th century.
threat. In situ preservation is a way to mitigate against it. But The Wadden Sea is an area influenced by tidal movements of
in situ preservation may be used for other reasons as well, as the sea, in the south-eastern part of the North Sea. It stretch-
was explained in the previous chapter. Below, you will find ex- es out from the northern Netherlands coast to Germany and
amples of two areas in the Netherlands, with multiple under- the western part of Denmark consisting of a shallow body
water archaeological sites that have been protected against of water with tidal flats and wetlands. The Wadden Sea is
the main degrading factors in these areas. separated from the North Sea by a series of barrier islands
with tidal inlets in-between. It is also a UNESCO World Her-
Case Study 1: The Western Wadden Sea and the Texel itage Site. The Dutch and German territories were inscribed
Roads in 2009, and extended in 2014 to include the Danish territory.
The western part of the Dutch Wadden Sea (Fig. 1) is the In several areas, the Dutch part of seabed of the Wadden
former location of the Texel Roads. Historically, this is where Sea is very dynamic. Processes of sedimentation and ero-
ships were loaded with export goods and unloaded with im- sion alternate with one another at different rates. The gullies
ports, primarily bound for the Amsterdam market. Intensive can move or change directions over time influenced by tidal
archaeological research has been done there, mainly by gov- currents. These channels leave traces in the landscape down
ernmental archaeologists of the Cultural Heritage Agency of to the Pleistocene sub-strata. In some places, Pleistocene
the Netherlands (RCE) and its predecessors, who focussed sediments are exposed on the seabed surface, but in oth-
on many well-preserved shipwrecks that were discovered ers the Pleistocene strata have disappeared and eroded by
over the decades. Special attention has been paid by histori- channels or covered with a layer of Holocene sand, several
ans to the role of this area in the 17th century — often referred metres thick.
to as the Dutch Golden Age — and the Dutch East India Com- Besides natural causes, human activity has caused many ef-
pany (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC). Howev- fects on the seabed as well. A good example of direct and
er, the importance of the area as a crossroads has been much heavy effects of human activities impacting the seabed was the
greater and longer. It was used by ships going to the East and construction of the Afsluitdijk in 1932 between the provinces
Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage Management – In Situ – Degradation – Wadden Sea – Oostvoornsemeer – The
Netherlands
of Noord-Holland and Friesland. The construction blocked the In recent years these local interferences and influences in
dominant currents, which rapidly changed the pattern of the UCH management have been scaled up to a more regional
channels. The dynamics of the mobile Holocene top strata and even national level partly due to the Netherlands’ decen-
largely determine whether any heritage has been preserved in tralisation of cultural heritage management to municipality
the sediments, as well as the condition of that heritage at any level, and partly due to the fact that the Wadden Sea has
moment. Erosion determines vulnerability to various degrada- been granted World Heritage status. For management, many
tion processes, biological, chemical, mechanical, and human. decisions had to be made at a national level on allowing and
closing of specific maritime activities in the area. These deci-
sions required input from the local community.
The aim for many of those who focus on the cultural im-
portance of the area is to preserve archaeological remains
against the violent natural environment. The way people want
to take care of a site differs from person to person and from
stakeholder group to stakeholder group. Some prefer to re-
cover all the objects before they deteriorate too much or even
disappear, some prefer preservation in situ. The latter, espe-
cially, has gained ground among archaeologists and cultural
heritage managers. Professionally for them in situ preserva-
tion is the first option to consider and this applies to wrecks
discovered in the western Wadden Sea. The centre of the for-
mer Texel Roads is called the Burgzand area, an area of only
Fig. 2 Shipwrecks in the Wadden Sea have been physically
protected by covering them with polypropylene nets to pre- 1,200 by 600 metres, containing fifteen known 17th and 18th
vent erosion on site; here an example as executed during a century shipwrecks and has become a national monument.
UNESCO fieldschool in Thailand. © Martjin R. Manders. The process of protection started in 1988 with the BZN3 wreck
(all wrecks start with the prefix BZN) and that registration was
It is therefore important to gain an insight into the condition of completed in 1991. In 2013, the National Monument area was
the sediments, as well as their mobility. For this reason, the extended to include more known wrecks. It is unknown how
Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE) invested many others there are, still protected under a layer of sand,
in sediment-erosion modelling of the area that revealed how but with the constant movement of the upper Holocene sand
the area has evolved throughout the centuries and can pre- layer eventually more and more wrecks will be discovered.
dict where wrecks can probably be found. It is a good thing that we have mapped the seabed and pre-
Human and natural processes in the sea and on the land ad- dicted its potential for cultural heritage. With the base-line in-
jacent to it play an important role in the decision on what and formation we have developed better ways of managing the
how to manage and when to preserve sites in situ. People ef- area. However, to stay on top of the management we need
fect management, land effects water, a site is influenced by its to keep monitoring the area. Tidal movements and existing
context and vice versa. Making predictive models therefore is currents move sediments and keep uncovering and covering
a complex matter. It is also not just the truth but an educated sites. The ones that are in danger need to be monitored more
guess of the potential of an area. frequently than others; active protection sometimes needs to
The huge potential of shipwrecks and their exposure due to be put in place. This can involve installing a protective layer
erosion of the seabed since long ago has attracted adven- of polypropylene mesh that catches sand suspended in the
turous divers, many from the islands and adjacent mainland. water column and that basically reburies the site (Fig. 2).
The involvement of local stakeholders is very high because This is what has been executed on most of the high value
the history of the maritime world and the heritage of maritime wrecks on the Burgzand. This active physical protection in re-
ways of life are an integral part of the identity of local commu- turn needs to be monitored, the frequency depending on the
nities. Everyone is strongly connected to the sea, a connec- (natural) environment and activities happening in the area.
tion often going back many generations. Early divers from the All these elements: monitoring, assessing, protecting, moni-
islands discovered numerous shipwrecks in the 1970s and toring again and perhaps excavating need to be included in
1980s that formed the basis of the Netherlands’ first ship- a management plan. Unfortunately, it does not happen too
wreck inventory. Many artefacts have been recovered from often that a management plan is made for a wreck site, let
these wrecks and now form an important part of local muse- alone for a whole area. And that is actually exactly what we
um collections. should do in order to find the best way to protect our UCH.
Case Study 2: The Oostvoornsemeer brackish environment. In order to lower the salt-level again
In the 1960s the Oostvoornsemeer (lake) in the Netherlands in the harbour, it was necessary to consult the province of
was formed by closing off of the Brielse Maas — a former sea Zuid-Holland (South-Holland), the municipality of Westvoorne
arm and entrance to the harbour of Rotterdam — from the in which the lake is situated and other organisations. This is,
North Sea (Fig. 3). After that it was used for sand extraction unfortunately, a painstakingly slow process which may mean
for the extension of the harbour, Maasvlakte 1. The lake has the loss of a number of wrecks before anything happens to
been deepened varying from 20 to 45 metres. During these remediate the situation. Cultural heritage management re-
dredging activities several historical shipwrecks emerged, mains difficult. Underwater areas contain so many different
having remained in a very good condition due to the fact that values: economic, natural, cultural, recreational, on national,
the original saltwater area was desalinized. This is making the and regional level. All are important, but how to choose what
Oostvoornsemeer unique and a popular dive spot too. will prevail? There is no easy answer to this. The different
In 2008, it was decided to reverse this process again in order values need to be kept under consideration and the choices
to improve the water quality and to make the area a unique made transparent. Maybe it will be necessary to sacrifice a
brackish water lake. This meant salinizing the lake. Advice few wrecks in order to preserve others. Who knows? The sto-
received from the RCE was to keep the salinity lower than 8 ry continues during the coming years.
ppt (parts per trillion). Unfortunately — probably due to a mis-
communication — the salinity was finally set to a Chloride lev-
el of 8 ppt. This, however, resulted in a salinity level of 14 ppt
(parts per thousand), significantly above the recommended
minimum levels. As a result, archaeological research execut-
ed in 2012 showed attack by shipworm. This was the start of
intensive research to investigate the presence of shipworm,
its distribution, and influences on the shipwrecks in this area.
In July 2014, wood samples taken from 7 sites indicated that
6 of them had been attacked by the shipworm Teredo na-
valis. Only at the deepest site, 35 to 40 metres deep and 80
C, no living Teredo navalis was found. Investigation of the
environment showed that here temperature and depth are
the limiting factors. Shipworm is probably the most degrading
sea organism on wooden shipwrecks and other submerged
wooden structures. A single Teredo navalis can consume a
20 cm piece of wood in a year. The continuous damage in the Fig. 3 The Oostvoornsemeer was an inlet of the North Sea.
Now, since it was closed off on four sides, the water is calm,
past but also nowadays is enormous and the costs to repair
has good visibility and consists of multiple well-preserved
or replace harbour structures are high. shipwrecks. It is one of the most popular dive spots in the
The RCE has mapped the entire lake and investigated sever- Netherlands. © Martijn R. Manders.
al 16th and 17th century shipwrecks. Clearly, quite a few sites
remain hidden under the sand and potentially could reveal No inclusion in regional identity building
very well-preserved shipwrecks. The deepest wreck not at- Through archaeological excavations we can learn more about
tacked (by Teredo) is possibly that of a whaling ship. Even our past. This understanding helps us to build our current
the ropes of the rigging are preserved. Other wrecks were identity. Deciding not to excavate means limiting the amount
semi-exposed in the 70s when sand was extracted from the of information we can extract from a site and therefore limits
seabed, and are now lying on top of each other. the amount of information which would potentially rebuild or
reshape our identity. A cultural assessment is the next best
The heritage potential of the area is thus very high, however, thing, ignoring the site the worst. Out-of-sight may mean out-
the threats due to the high salinity also remains (Fig. 4). With- of-mind and this may entail less information with which to
out doing something about it, all wooden wrecks will soon build collective memory. In addition, learning less about the
disappear. The problem however, is that the salinity level was past may mean that the social role of archaeology — and,
raised because the water had become of poor quality and the in fact, cultural heritage management in general — will be
lake also had to be used as a compensation for nature due diminished, not to mention the negative economic impact, be-
to yet another extension of Rotterdam harbour (Maasvlakte cause ‘in situ management’ will still be costly but nothing will
2). Biologists had concluded that the area had to become a be gained in terms of knowledge.
Fig. 4 Quite a few shipwrecks in the Oostvoornsemeer are very well preserved. They only appeared from the seabed after
the inlet became a lake and thus became brackish. Now, due to salinity changes these wrecks are under heavy threat.
Photo © RCE.
Ongoing degradation agement of in situ preserved sites requires long-term budgets

Although we can mitigate against the negative effects of nat- to ensure continuity. These budgets will need to grow as more
ural and anthropological interventions with in situ protection sites are preserved and protected in situ.
and conservation, we must realize that the process of degra- If we decide to preserve in situ for the purpose of investigat-
dation continues. We may be able to slow down the degrada- ing them at a later date, can we find a middle ground? We
tion process and even counter some threats, but others will could start by officially including partial excavation as a form
continue at a slower rate. For example, if we remove oxygen of archaeological heritage management. These excavations
from a site, most biological attack will cease, but erosion bac- could be used (carefully) to answer a few obviously significant
teria are still able to survive in anoxic environments. questions, while the rest of the site is either preserved in situ
or deselected altogether. This seems to be more in line with
The long-term financial consequences the essence of archaeology, which is guided by a curiosity to
It is often said that in situ preservation is a cheaper option learn about the past.
than excavation. This may be true for the initial stage; how- The option of only doing partial excavation and preserving
ever, when considering long-term management, this may be the other part in situ or deselecting is often still difficult to do
somewhat different. This, of course, depends on how the explicitly. Implicitly, it has been done often enough. Some-
concepts of responsible heritage and in situ management are times the choice may have been triggered by a lack of money
understood in practice. In situ preservation requires active in- (in the long term), sometimes there was a desire to continue
volvement, at least in terms of monitoring and the mitigation but the political support was lacking, or there was a shift in
of negative effects on site, such as repair and maintenance. priorities.
Why, other than for budgetary reasons, would we proclaim
preservation and protection as a policy otherwise? It seems Conclusion
logical that when a site has been determined to be of archae- There are some visible changes of approach in cultural her-
ological value it will — with the prevailing in situ policy — be itage management: from the almost blind sense of urgency
preserved in situ and measures will be taken to ensure its not to excavate to a more pragmatic approach to how best to
value is determined over time. This involvement in the man- excavate within the context of cultural heritage management.
Moreover, boundaries are being explored and some rules and ated on land or under water — such that it leads to a certain
regulations are being re-evaluated. For example, does cultural kind of protection or not. Moreover, it would also suggest, as
heritage management benefit from the exclusive involvement a consequence, that archaeological sites are being designat-
of highly educated professionals, or should it be more open? ed as significant based on an arbitrary and possible personal
Fortunately, there already seems to be wider involvement of interest. At the moment protected cultural heritage in general
professionals other than archaeological stakeholders. At least suggests that the current society believes that the past was
this shows a wider interest and commitment. More people are formed on land and that water only played a minor role in the
becoming involved in the study of the past. However, could development of (past-) societies. This cannot be true, but this
they also be more involved in the preservation of this past in image can only change if we come to all-inclusive selection
situ? This depends on the approach. Basically, people want criteria of what tangible heritage represents our past. This
to learn, people are curious. Increasing involvement may also should be the basis of what we as a society want to preserve
be a good response to critics who claim that in situ policy and pass to following generations.
brushes sites under the carpet. Proof of a neglect of sites in The amount of UCH recognized in each country or even
situ, it is argued, can be found in the fact that active in situ worldwide, is certainly not sufficient to consider these to be
preservation activities and the essential monitoring and follow representative of the role water has played in the past. Na-
up are in many countries not budgeted structurally over time. tionally and internationally we therefore should strive to enlist
This means that in practice they do not form part of the task or more of these sites to become stepping stones of our com-
daily undertaking of cultural heritage management. This lack mon maritime heritage: sites that are windows to the past,
of management results in well-known sites falling apart under iconic places, physical leftovers through which we can tell the
the eyes of those stakeholders who should be partners in the story about the relationship between humanity and water.
management exercise, but who can see that the government
is failing in its responsibilities.
If in situ preservation is taken seriously, would it not be more
1 Also known as the European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Her-
logical to have an adequate permanent budget available to itage (Revised).
allow for effective actions to preserve, protect and conserve

sites to be taken?
References and further reading
Björdal C and G Nilsson T (2008) Reburial of shipwrecks in marine sediments.
Considerations A long-term study on wood degradation. In: Journal of Archaeological Sci-
The Valletta Treaty (1992)1 has, at the time of writing, been ence 35: 862–872.
implemented in most European countries and many other Gregory D and Manders M R (eds) (2016) Best practices for locating, survey-
ing, assessing, monitoring and preserving underwater archaeological sites.
countries have similar legislation. The Valletta Treaty stipu- In: SASMAP Guideline Manual 2.
lates that the disturber pays for direct disturbance. However,
Grenier R, D Nutley and I Cochran (eds) (2006) Heritage at Risk – Special
long-term management has never been taken into consider- Edition – Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk. ICOMOS, Paris.
ation. Therefore, it is ultimately not the problem of the disturb- Manders M R (2017) Preserving a layered history of the Western Wadden Sea:
er if a site is merely left in situ, insofar as the responsibility managing an underwater cultural heritage resource. Doctoral thesis, Uni-
versity of Leiden.
for any long-term action is not theirs and will not lead to them
— (2015) My Heritage, Your Heritage, Our Heritage? The Growing Awareness
incur costs. In the end this means that the management reof Local Communities and Consequent Bottom up approaches in Maritime
sponsibilities come down to the land-owner (often the gov- Cultural Heritage Management. In: Maurizio Di Stefano (ed) ICOMOS 18th
General Assembly. Heritage and Landscape as Human Values Conference
ernment) or will not be taken into consideration by anybody, Proceedings: pp. 451–454.
which potentially leads to the neglect of sites. Manders M R and D Gregory (eds) (2016) Guidelines to the process of under-
Why are there so few nationally and internationally (World or water archaeological research. SASMAP Guideline Manual 1. Amersfoort:
SASMAP project.
European Heritage) labelled as protected underwater archae-
ological sites in comparison with those on land? Is it because
they are less important? Is it because the sites do not need
protection? Is there only a limited number of sites underwa-
ter? Is it because the process of registration is too complicat-
ed and time consuming? Or is there merely a lack of interest?
Although the latter would be a logical explanation, it would be
the most devastating and negatively charged. It would sug-
gest, first of all, that there is no universal objective way to
evaluate an archaeological site — regardless of whether situ-
138 The Question of In Situ Preservation. Shipwrecks and Submerged Sites Protection Methods
THE QUESTION OF IN SITU PRESERVATION. SHIPWRECKS AND

SUBMERGED SITES PROTECTION METHODS
Fig. 1 A wooden ship’s hull washed ashore near Klaipėda (Lithuania) during a storm in 2014 dendrochronologically dated
to between 1838–1839; the origin of the wood origin identified as the Gdansk region in Poland (Pukienė 2018). © Rokas
Kraniauskas.
Introduction As time goes by wrecks are continuously exposed to the forc-

The aim of the discussion in the text below is to address the es of the sea (Fig. 1). Shipwrecks lying in less than 15 m
question of how to protect underwater finds: ships sunken water depth have been brought closer to shores, meanwhile
during different historical periods and are now submerged those located in the accumulative coastal and littoral zones
prehistoric and historic archaeological sites. According to are being increasingly covered with sand. At the same time
current data around 100,000 well-preserved shipwrecks are those in shallow waters are affected by the strong winds and
known to lie on the Baltic seabed, however it is acknowledged the sea. In contrast, at greater depths where a wreck’s hull
that not all of the wrecks have yet been discovered. Coastal may not have suffered significant deterioration, deposits of
cliffs during storms are disastrous for ships; it is a matter of detached ship parts can still be found scattered around the
fact that according to historical sources the majority of an- largely integral hull. Although these sites are not as exposed
cient ship accidents have been the result of ships crashing to natural forces, they are vulnerable to human activities at
into shores. sea and the irresponsible behaviour of divers.
Between 1857 and 1864, some 384 ships suffered accidents
in the area between Stralsund (Germany) and Šventoji (Lith- Preservation of shipwrecks in the littoral zone
uania). Out of these, 284 ships were cast ashore, 145 ships In the search for, and in the course of registration and stu-
were broken up, and the rest were lost at sea (Karte 1865). dies of sunken and wrecked ancient wooden ships, we can-
In addition to this, 100 sailing vessels were beached on the not evade the issue of preservation of their remains. On the
shores of Cape Kolka, Gulf of Riga (Latvia) in the period be- one hand, the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection
tween 1812 and 1856 (Šuvcāne 2010, 19). This situation is of the Underwater Cultural Heritage insistently recommends
typical of all seas with shallow coastal waters where shipping protecting underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in situ. Indeed,
was intense in ancient times. wrecks at greater depths are the best protected.
Keywords: In Situ – Preservation – Underwater Cultural Heritage – Lithuania – Baltic

The Question of In Situ Preservation. Shipwrecks and Submerged Sites Protection Methods 139
On the other hand, shipwreck preservation can also occur

through exploration and investigation, by salvaging the re-
mains and conserving them in museums. The conservation
and display of wooden ship hulls are highly complicated un-
dertakings, and costly. UCH is under real threat until legislati-
ve protection is applied. But before this protection is applied,
the wreck may lose many authentic details. In practice, only
intact wrecks receive any significant research and preserva-
tion efforts, and only a small number of beached hulls and
those lying in shallow waters can be housed in museums. As
a consequence, a significant number of shipwrecks will be
destroyed by human activities and the pounding of the waves
and harsh weather conditions.
The dilemma raises two questions, firstly what is the value of
the hulls of the ancient ships lying in shallow waters? In this
Fig. 2 A pine stump at a depth of 24,5 m, age 9445–9502
author’s opinion, the significance of shipwrecks as heritage
cal. BP. © Vladas Žulkus.
has not yet been fully appreciated and the value of histori-
cal understanding of the nautical past will only unfold in the
future. Secondly, what approach should be taken not only to
protect shipwrecks in the littoral zone, but also how to make
them attractive objects for underwater tourism?
This author is of the opinion that the ship’s hulls stranded on
shoals, currently being slowly taken apart by the forces in
shallow coastal waters, and the wrecks cast ashore could be
preserved and displayed in deeper water. Wreck relocation to
a single location would simultaneously help protect the hulls
from further destruction, enable further conservation efforts
and create an underwater site for further research and un-
derwater tourism (Žulkus 2010, 43–44). The reasons wooden
structures are so well preserved on the Baltic seabed are a
lower salt content, cold water, and a lack of shipworm.1 These
conditions enable better preservation of wrecks under water
and help protect these cultural assets for the benefit of re- Fig. 3 Sawn-off pine tree trunk at a depth of 25 m, age
searchers, tourists, and historians alike. 10590 –10170 cal. BP. © Vladas Žulkus.
Practically, the hulls of shipwrecks can be transported up to
15–18 m deep and exhibited on the seabed. At such depths
there is already an absence of stronger currents carrying
sand, impact of waves, and the water is clearer than in shal- Submerged prehistoric landscapes and archaeological
low coastal waters. Furthermore, this depth would be acces- sites
sible for amateur divers of all categories. Submerged prehistoric archaeological sites and finds are
In essence, what is suggested is the establishment of an unknown in all European seas: from the Baltic to the Black sea.
derwater museum on the Baltic Sea bottom, a type of ‘skan- Around 2,600 prehistoric sites have been found in Europe
sen’. This could be a place, where wooden wrecks can be (Flemming et al. 2017). Identification of areas for seabed
protected, exhibited in natural conditions, and investigated in landscapes and prehistoric sites often does not suffice for
the future. This place would be a good training site for stu- traditional seabed research methods (Missiaen et al. 2017).
dents and amateur divers. This maritime archaeological site Research of the submerged landscapes and prehistoric sites
could be accessible to non-divers through technology which must be multidisciplinary and coordinated.
would allow them to visualise the sites on a screen on the Despite extensive information collected from the western and
shore and in museum exhibitions. To further increase public southwestern parts of the Baltic Sea, for a long time, nobo-
awareness of underwater heritage inter-active websites using dy assumed that remains of prehistoric settlements might be
3D technology could be developed. preserved on the seabed in the eastern part of the Baltic Sea
140 The Question of In Situ Preservation. Shipwrecks and Submerged Sites Protection Methods
basin. In recent years, exploration has been concentrated on tentially suitable for the human occupation in the Mesolithic.
localisation of the former Early Holocene (Yoldia Sea, An- There is no doubt that underwater finds are already very va-
cylus Lake and Early Litorina Sea) coasts, their underwater luable, and that their value will increase in the future. Trea-
landscape reconstruction and potential development of Me- sure‐hunting under water does not damage prehistoric sites.
solithic‒Early Neolithic settlements along the Lithuanian seas- However, other human activities at sea can have major im-
hore. The Institute of Baltic Sea Region History and Archaeo- pacts on natural and archaeological heritage, and can cause
logy (Klaipėda University, Lithuania) has been exploring the damage to prehistoric sites underwater and shipwrecks (Fig.
Baltic Sea bottom using remote sensing and direct research 5). These activities are wide ranging and include offshore
methods (Girininkas and Žulkus 2017). infrastructure developments, oil and gas drilling operations,
In 2018, the project Man and Baltic Sea in the Meso–Neolit- marine aggregate dredging, or sand extraction for the re-
hic: Relict Coasts and Settlements Below and Above Present plenishment of eroding beaches, fishing with trawl nets, etc.
Sea Level — ReCoasts and People2 — commenced with the Protection of submerged landscapes, underwater Stone Age
purpose of exploring the habitats of the early Mesolithic and sites, and management of their uses require harmonisation of
early Neolithic peoples, and the reconstruction of the natural- national and international rights.
cultural landscapes of the early Holocene with respect to the
present as well as the flooded Baltic Sea coastlines.
The project also seeks to develop an original research metho-
dology that would enable identification of people’s habitation
sites, and the peculiarities of the climatic vegetation and fauna
of the explored period in search of traces of human activities
on the current-day seabed. The seabed of the Baltic Sea will
be explored with special instruments and through methods
of underwater archaeology. Furthermore, archaeological ex-
cavations will be conducted on the present coast. The sam-
ples will be dated through radiocarbon dating, investigated Fig. 4 3D Photomosaic of the RF-I-B-1 tree trunk. © Janusz
by biogeochemical, palaeobotanical, dendrochronological, Różycki & Krzysztof Kurzyk, National Maritime Museum in
Gdansk, Poland.
tree DNA, palaeozoological, traseological, and experimental
archaeological studies.
During the exploration of the Baltic Sea, ancient coasts in the

Yoldia Sea and Ancylus Lake phases, stumps and trunks da-
ting to 11410 – 10170 cal. BP, relict pine forests growing on the
ancient (later submerged) coast, were discovered at a depth
of 24–30 m (Figs. 2 – 4). The seabed in this area contains
relict coast formations and remnants of relict small lagoons
and lakes with peat formation (Žulkus and Girininkas 2020).
The ancient Yoldia Sea natural coastal landscape and climate

conditions in the transitional time span between Pre-Boreal Fig. 5 German First World War cruiser Friedrich Carl, ship‘s
side lamp © Sabine Kerkau.
and Boreal periods offered favourable living conditions for
Early Mesolithic communities. The remnants of a fishing weir
were found near Klaipeda port (Lithuania) which were dated One of the long-term European Union strategies is ‘Blue
to 7584 –7474 cal. BC (Girininkas and Žulkus 2017). Simi- Growth’, which ensures harmonious and sustainable de-
lar fishing weirs occur in Western Europe, and in Germany velopment of maritime sectors. One of the strategic objecti-
on the Baltic coast (Brinkhuizen 1983; Jöns et al. 2007). Ar- ves of ‘Blue Growth’ is the creation of synergistic existence
chaeological finds, as such, provide opportunities for: (a) the between different activities and integration of nature, culture,
reconstruction of the palaeogeographical situation including and other scientific research with the aim of avoiding conflicts
the identification of Baltic Sea coastal changes during the between sectors. The key task is to achieve a balance bet-
Early Holocene; (b) the evaluation of the ecological situation ween underwater natural and cultural heritage preservation
in the investigated sedimentation bodies; (c) the reconstructi- and the needs of other maritime sectors.
on of vegetation regime and (d) the identification of areas po-
The Question of In Situ Preservation. Shipwrecks and Submerged Sites Protection Methods 141
If UCH sites are to be protected effectively, marine research References

must be coordinated and multidisciplinary, while underwater Anonymous (1923) Karte der Strandungen und Schiffbrüche an der
heritage is to be respected, addressed in all documents and Preuβischen Ostseeküste in den Jahren 1857–1864. Auf Veranlassung
des Vereins zur Rettung Schiffbrüchiger entworfen und zusammen-
strategies related to usage of the marine resources. In ad- gestellt v. F. Mieske (Stettin 1865). In: Daheim: Ein deutsches Fami-
lienblatt mit Illustrationen No. 35, 1865, 517. https://www.google.com/
dition to this, UCH sites must be accessible to society and search?client=safari&rls=en&q=Ein+deutsches+Familienblatt+mit+Illustra-
sustainable underwater tourism concepts and principles must tionen+No.+35&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8; accessed 30th September 2020.
also to be developed. Legal as well as operational protec- Brinkhuizen DC (1983) Some notes on recent and pre- and protohistoric fishing
gear from North-western Europe. In: Palaeohistory, T. 25, 7–53. Bamberg.
tion is needed, because whichever means of conservation is
chosen, UCH objects require periodic monitoring, competent Flemming NC, Harff J, Moura D, Burgess A and GN Bailey (2017) Introduction:
Prehistoric Remains on the Continental Shelf – Why do Sites and Landsca-
human researchers, and physical resources. pes Survive Inundation? In: Flemming NC, Harff J, Moura D, Burgess A,
Bailey GN (eds) Submerged Landscapes of the European Continental Shelf.
Quaternary Paleoenvironments, 1–10. Wiley Blackwell.
Girininkas A and V Žulkus (2017) Baltijos jūros krantai ir žmonės ankstyvajame

1 Teredo navalis: a marine mollusc. holocene. In: Jūros ir krantų tyrimai 2017. Konferencijos medžiaga, 69–72.
2 This research was funded by the European Social Fund, grant no. 09.3.3-LMT- KU l-kla, Klaipėda.
K-712-01-0171 from the Research Council of Lithuania.
Jöns H, Lübke H, Lüth F and T Terberger (2007) Prehistoric settlements and
development of the regional economic area. Archaeological investigations
along the Northeast-German Baltic Sea coast. In: SINCOS I – Sinking Co-
asts. Geosphere, Ecosphere and Anthroposphere of the Holocene Southern
Baltic Sea, 149–188. Sonderdruck aus Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen
Kommission 88. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein.
Missiaen T, Sakellariou D and NC Flemming (2017) Survey Strategies and

Techniques in Underwater Geoarchaeological Research: An Overview with
Emphasis on Prehistoric Sites. In: Bailey GN, Harff J and D Sakellariou
(eds) Under the Sea: Archaeology and Palaeolandscapes of the Continental
Shelf, Springer, pp. 21–37.
Pukienė R (2018) Melnragės burlaivio liekanų datavimas dendrochronologiniu

metodu. In Po muziejaus burėmis. Muziejininkų darbai ir įvykių kronika 5, pp.
88–89. Lietuvos jūrų muziejus, Klaipėda.
Šuvcāne B (2010) Senais lībiešu ciems Kolka, 19. Rīga: Jumava.
Žulkus V (2010) Shipwrecks off the Coast of Lithuania. In: Archaeologia Baltica
14. Underwater Archaeology in the Baltic Region. Klaipėda University press,
Klaipėda, 28–46.
Žulkus V and A Girininkas (2020) The eastern shores of the Baltic Sea in the
Early Holocene according to natural and cultural relict data. In: Geo: Geogra-
phy and Environment 7(1), e00087. https://doi.org/10.1002/geo2.87
142 In Situ Protection and Monitoring of Underwater Prehistoric Settlement Remains
IN SITU PROTECTION AND MONITORING OF UNDERWATER PRE-

HISTORIC SETTLEMENT REMAINS: EXAMPLES OF THE PRACTICAL
IMPLEMENTATION IN SWITZERLAND
following measures have to be provided. First, the acquisition

or protection of land to create archaeological reserves and
second, to preserve and care for the archaeological heritage,
primarily in its original location. In Switzerland, the awareness
of preserving archaeological sites in situ has been increased
by the European Convention for the Protection of the Ar-
chaeological Heritage of 1992. This is certainly related to the
fact that the protection of archaeological sources in general
is increasingly taken into greater consideration. In the same
period, the term ‘monitoring’ appeared in the terminology of
archaeological heritage management. Monitoring, in general,
means to describe the systematic recording, observation, or
follow-up of an event or process with the aid of technical aids
or systems. The central element is a periodic execution in
order to draw conclusions on the basis of data comparisons.
With regard to underwater archaeology, monitoring activities
Fig. 1 Covering the archaeological site of Rapperswil-Jona, are all efforts to ensure the long-term physical preservation
Technikum, in the shallow water zone of Lake Zurich, of underwater archaeological sites. Regular observation may
Switzerland, with geotextile and gravel. Use of a gravel alert cultural heritage management authorities. The know-
barge and a crane with jib. © Archaeological Service of the
Canton of St. Gallen, Simon Vogt, 2011. ledge of the origin and the reasons behind problems of con-
servation may lead to active protection measures such as
covering with geotextile1 and gravel (Fig. 1). These activities
Introduction need a long-term follow-up to assess the effectiveness of the
Nothing lasts forever. Archaeologists who are confronted with protection measures carried out. Observations by divers and
the fact that archaeological sites are destroyed in one way data acquisition may lead to feedback and necessary adjust-
or another know this best. Archaeological sites on land are ments of the protection processes.
erased from the cities and landscapes through construction
work. The loss of archaeological sites caused by agriculture Active protective measures applied to extensive prehistoric
are considerable when ploughing extends into archaeological settlement areas were first implemented in Switzerland in the
strata. Underwater, destruction of the archaeological material 1990s. A certain self-generated pressure weighed on the ac-
and substrates by erosion of the lake bottom is even less per- tors involved, since the damage caused by erosion in Neo-
ceptible, as damage can only be detected when looking under lithic and Bronze Age lakeside settlements (5000–500 BC)
water. In addition, rare and fragile organic objects are usually of extraordinary scientific value had been evident for some
preserved in underwater sites. Observations must therefore considerable time (Hafner and Schlichtherle 2008). Within a
be particularly meticulous in order to be able to detect the small group of alerted experts, decisions were taken to try to
changes to submerged archaeological sites at all. stop this gradual destruction. The aim was to focus on partic-
The 1992 European Convention for the Protection of the Ar- ularly endangered sites and to reduce or eliminate the erosion
chaeological Heritage (also known as the Valletta Conven- of archaeological layers containing organic finds. It became
tion) requires in one of its first articles that each State Party increasingly obvious that erosion would lead to the destruc-
undertakes measures for the physical protection of the ar- tion of important archaeological sites. With the support of hy-
chaeological heritage. Depending on the circumstances the dro-engineers and various authorities and institutions inter-
Keywords: In Situ Protection – Monitoring – Pile Dwellings – Erosion

In Situ Protection and Monitoring of Underwater Prehistoric Settlement Remains 143
ested in shoreline protection, the first measures were taken in

Switzerland in Lake Biel at the end of the 1990s. Around the
year 2000, the idea emerged to nominate the pile dwellings of
the Alpine region as UNESCO World Heritage Site. This idea
also arose with the ulterior motive of raising public awareness
of the value of these unique sites and creating political pres-
sure to provide more public funds for protective measures.
The Sutz-Lattrigen site of Lake Biel in Switzerland is, since

2011, part of the serial UNESCO World Heritage property
‘Prehistoric Lake Dwellings around the Alps’. Here, a cluster
of Neolithic settlements dating to around 2800 BC has been
known since pile-dwelling research began in 1854. In order
to protect the cultural layers from further destruction, a 150 m
long breakwater (Fig. 2) made of wood mesh was erected in
1998 (Hafner 2008). This measure was intended as a short-
term and inexpensive protection and initially proved its worth.
After about 10 years, however, the maintenance work was
extremely time-consuming and the breakwater was finally
dismantled again. Parallel to the construction of the breakwa-
ter, erosion markers were fixed to the bottom of the lake. Solid
plastic pipes were driven into the ground for this purpose (Fig.
3). Their position and elevation value are precisely recorded,
and in subsequent years the lake bottom erosion relative to the
upper edge of the plastic pipes was measured. It is a simple
Fig. 2 Sutz-Lattrigen, Lake Biel, Switzerland. Aerial view of
and efficient method for long-term tracking of erosion at the the eroded field of piles and a breakwater to protect the
lake bottom. In Sutz-Lattrigen markers showed that between intact cultural layers of Neolithic settlements from around
1998 and 2005 up to 35 cm of lake bottom had been removed 2700 BC, which are located landwards. © Archaeological
Service of the Canton of Bern, diving team, 1998.
by erosion, and in the years 2005 to 2010 up to 20 cm.
In Sutz-Lattrigen large-scale rescue excavations of the var-

ious Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements dating between
3800 und 1600 BC were carried out between 1988 and 2003
in the already eroded settlement areas (Hafner 2012; Stap-
fer, Hafner and Francuz 2019). Structural parts of houses,
path-ways and palisades, in particular thousands of wooden
piles, have still been preserved. However, hard finds such as
ceramics and stone tools survive the erosion, but in the long
term they are also gradually destroyed at the bottom of the
lake. The first protective measures and coverings with geo-
textile and gravel were implemented between 2000 and 2004
(Hafner 2008). A total of 6,000 m2 of lake bottom and cultural
layers were protected in this way. The work was largely pio-
neering and the long-term effect was desired and hoped for,
but not proven. It was also clear that only field trials could
bring further progress and experience with active erosion
control measures. At that time, two different methods were
used. First, thin geotextiles were designed, reinforced and Fig. 3 Diver placing an erosion marker at Thun, Schadau,
Lake Thun. It is a cost-effective and efficient method to
weighted with rebar (metal rods) grids. The grids originated
measure the erosion rate of the lake bed over the long term
from the construction industry. Based on experience with © Archaeological Service of the Canton of Bern, Carlos
this method, new methods were sought. With the use of a Pinto, 2016.
144 In Situ Protection and Monitoring of Underwater Prehistoric Settlement Remains
Fig. 4 Spreading of heavy geotextile mats with a sand inlay of 5 m width and 30 m length, which are normally used in road
construction. The special ship of the Archaeological Service of the Canton of Bern in an operation on Lake Biel.
© Archaeological Service of the Canton of Bern, diving team.
In both cases, an approximately 20 cm thick gravel layer was

poured over the geotextile mats on the lake bottom (Fig. 5).
After washing out the sand fraction of the natural gravel, this
layer should still be slightly more than half the original thick-
ness. The laying of geotextile and gravel fills in Lake Biel
was approved as part of regular building applications, but the
builder — in this case the Canton of Bern — is obliged, as
with any other building, to maintain it. For this reason, too,
a more detailed inspection of the protective measures was
necessary after ten years.
The areas covered by the geotextile mats and gravel fills in

Sutz-Lattrigen were regularly inspected by divers of the Can-
tonal Archaeological Service diving team and documented
with photo series and videos (Fig. 6). Up to now, it seems
Fig. 5 Dumping of gravel over the laid-out geotextile mats at
the site of Sutz-Lattrigen, Hauptstation, Lake Biel. With the that the protection measures work: the gravel layers applied
help of a special ship equipped with an opening bottom, a between 2000 and 2004 cover the entire area, are well com-
thin even layer can be spread, which protects the archaeo-
pacted and covered by vegetation. The edges of the mats are
logical cultural layers without creating too much load on
them. © Archaeological Service of the Canton of Bern, well protected by the gravel. Movements of the gravel layer
diving team, 2004. due to currents at the bottom of the lake cannot be observed.
In summary, it can be said that the gravel cover in Sutz-Lat-
specially constructed catamaran type platform, it was possi- trigen is stable and that the protective measures have had
ble from 2003 onwards to lay heavy, self-sinking geotextiles the intended effect and protect the archaeological layers from
weighing almost 1 tonne (Fig. 4). A metal reinforcing bar grid destructive erosion.
was no longer necessary.
In Situ Protection and Monitoring of Underwater Prehistoric Settlement Remains 145
In the meantime, other archaeological heritage management

authorities in Switzerland have also begun to take protec-
tive measures against the erosion of prehistoric underwater
settlement areas and an international research project was
carried out between 2008 and 2011. A group of archaeolo-
gists and limnologists came together to investigate the caus-
es of the erosion processes more closely, to test ecologically
compatible erosion control measures, and to prepare better
long-term monitoring of the cultural heritage under water. The
project ‘Erosion and monument protection at Lake Constance
and Lake Zurich’ within the framework of Interreg IV ‘Alpen-
rhein - Bodensee - Hochrhein’ (ABH) provided the necessary
financial support, which was also granted by the European
Union, the participating Swiss cantons, and the International
Lake Constance Conference (Heumüller 2012; Brem 2013; Fig. 6 Long-term monitoring of the protective measures is
crucial in order to detect and react to negative changes. For
Leuzinger, Sidell and Williams 2016). The most important re- the geotextile mats laid in 2000 at the site of Sutz-Lattrigen,
sult of this project is a certain standardisation of protection Hauptstation, Lake Biel, the gravel layer was removed and
measures against erosion and joint monitoring concept to the geotextile mats were cut open to check the condition of
the underlying archaeological layers. The protective measu-
help identify the gradual processes of erosion. The project res were effective and the position of mats and gravel had
has laid important foundations for the cooperation of limnol- not changed. In the best case, these measures will last for a
ogists and monument conservators, and has shown future 100 years. © Archaeological Service of the Canton of Bern,
Daniel Steffen, 2014.
perspectives for further cooperation.
In the future, climate change may lead to new threats for

prehistoric settlements: warming of water bodies, lowering of
water tables and increased precipitation seem set to be new References
alarming factors. In the Alpine region, glaciers retain a large Brem H (ed.) (2013) Erosion und Denkmalschutz am Bodensee und Zürichsee.
Ein internationales Projekt im Rahmen des Interreg IV-Programms ‘Alpen-
proportion of winter precipitation, and glacier-fed tributaries rhein-Bodensee-Hochrhein’ zur Entwicklung von Handlungsoptionen zum
flow into the large lakes in the Alpine foothills —Lake Con- Schutz des Kulturgutes unter Wasser. Band 1. Vorarlberg Museum Schrif-
ten. Bregenz.
stance and Lake Geneva in particular — at a seasonal pace.
Hafner A (2008) In situ preservation of submerged prehistoric settlements in
Which consequences will the complete melting of the glaciers lakes of the Alpine Region. Anti-erosion measures at sites in Lake Bienne,
have on the water systems by the end of the 21st century? Will Switzerland. In: H. Kars and R. M. van Heeringen, eds. Preserving Archaeo-
logical Remains In Situ (PARIS3). Proceedings of the 3rd Conference 7–9
the increase in temperature lead to greater evaporation and December 2006, Geoarchaeological and Bioarchaeological Studies.
contribute to a marked drop in lake levels? It is to be feared — (2012) Sutz-Lattrigen, Lake Biel, Switzerland. Twenty years of rescue ex-
that low water levels will lead to even more erosion of shallow cavations and in situ conservation. In: Henderson, Jon (ed.) Beyond Boun-
daries. Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Underwater Ar-
water areas? The problems associated with global climate chaeology. Kolloquien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte: Vol. 17. Bonn: Habelt,
pp. 337–344.
change will pose enormous challenges for the societies of the
future. Lake-shore settlements are vulnerable archaeological Hafner A, Schlichtherle H (2008) Neolithic and Bronze Age lakeside settle-
ments in the Alpine region. Threatened archaeological heritage under water
sources and the substantial threats to them are likely to in- and possible protection measures – Examples from Switzerland and Sout-
hern Germany. Heritage at Risk. ICOMOS World Report 2006/2007 on mo-
crease in the future. It is to be hoped that archaeological sites numents and sites in danger, pp. 175–180.
that have survived more than 5,000 years and many human
Heumüller M (2012) Erosion and Archaeological Heritage Protection in Lake
crises will also survive the climate crisis of the 21st century Constance and Lake Zurich: The Interreg IV Project ‘Erosion und Denkmal-
schutz am Bodensee und Zürichsee’, Conservation and Management of Ar-
unscathed. chaeological Sites, 14:1–4, 48–59. DOI: 10.1179/1350503312Z.0000000005
Leuzinger U, Sidell J and Williams T (2016) The 5th International Conference

on Preserving Archaeological Remains In Situ (PARIS5): 12–17 April 2015,
1 Permeable fabric, which, when used in association with soil, has the ability to separate, Kreuzlingen (Switzerland), Conservation and Management of Archaeologi-
filter, reinforce, protect, or drain. In archaeological settings, it is often used to protect and cal Sites, 18:1–3, 1–7. DOI: 10.1080/13505033.2016.1182748
stabilize the archaeological layers, including pile dwelling fields or shipwrecks.
Stapfer R, Hafner A, Francuz J (2019) Struktur und Dynamik neolithischer
Seeufersiedlungen. Beispiele aus Sutz-Lattrigen (Bielersee, Kanton Bern,
Schweiz) zwischen 3900 und 3400 v. Chr. In: O’Neill, Anneli; Pyzel, Joanna
(eds) Siedlungsstrukturen im Neolithikum – Zwischen Regel und Ausnahme.
Fokus Jungsteinzeit. Berichte der AG Neolithikum: Vol. 7. Kerpen-Loogh:
Welt und Erde Verlag, pp. 131–153.
146
The Ljubljanica River Exhibition and the future exhibition place

of the logboat. © J. Babnik; archives of MGML.
147
SECTION 4
PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT
148 Increasing Public Involvement in Safeguarding UCH in Argentina
NOT JUST DIVERS AND FISHERMEN: INCREASING THE PUBLIC IN-

VOLVEMENT IN THE SAFEGUARDING OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL
HERITAGE IN TIERRA DEL FUEGO, ARGENTINA
Introduction
Underwater archaeologists often acknowledge the important
role played by other people who are in direct contact with wa-
ter, such as fisherpersons and divers, in many aspects relat-
ed to underwater cultural heritage. As it is known, submerged
sites are quite frequently even discovered by them. In recent
years, actors who are less ‘obvious’ than the ones mentioned
above have also emerged to become stakeholders when
dealing with underwater cultural heritage. For example, there
are now many metal detecting aficionados who spend a good
deal of time combing intertidal zones in search of finds which
frequently have historical significance.
This chapter presents examples of positive experiences re-
garding the involvement of all-terrain vehicle (ATV) and horse-
back riders in the coastal heritage of Tierra del Fuego, south-
ern Argentina. It is expected that the gradual and non-linear
processes leading to good results can be inspiring in compa-
rable situations in other parts of the world.
Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago located in the southern-
most part of the Americas, some 1,000 kilometres north of
Antarctica, and it is politically divided into a portion in Chile to
the west and Argentina to the east (Fig. 1). The region has a
subpolar oceanic climate, with general environmental condi-
tions characterized by a humid cold climate, average annual
temperatures below 7°C, and precipitations ranging from 400
mm to more than 3,000 mm per year. Fig. 1 Location of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina and of Donata
Until the mid-19th century the region was only inhabited Beach in the eastern portion (in the box). © Geomatics
division, Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento
permanently by various native groups1 and the European
Latinoamericano.
presence since that time first consisted of small missionary
colonies and later of different settlements associated with Well before those times, however, the native population of
the respective new Republics. The Chilean locality of Punta the archipelago already had direct and indirect contact with
Arenas, on the continental shore of the Strait of Magellan, Europeans (see, for example, Saletta 2017). Because of the
was founded in 1848 as a penal colony, while in 1884 a coast- geographical location of Tierra del Fuego, vessels connecting
guard office was established in Ushuaia, positioned on the the South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans have sailed past
Argentine side of the Beagle Channel on main island of Tierra it continuously since the 16th century, and both the treach-
del Fuego. A penal colony was also established by Argentina erous Cape Horn and the Magellan passages caused many
that same year on Staten Island, across the Strait of Le Maire. human and material losses. Adventurous sealers and whalers
In subsequent years the Chilean and Argentine populations in also visited the area periodically, and the few lighthouses built
the region increased to some degree, supplemented by Eu- in the region were insufficient. The main change took place
ropean immigrants who contributed to the colonies and the with the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 which led to a
‘civilization’ process. significant reduction in nautical passages around Cape Horn.
Keywords: Archaeological Heritage – Public Engagement – Peninsula Mitre – Tierra del Fuego – Argentina
Increasing Public Involvement in Safeguarding UCH in Argentina 149
The case presented in this text is a marine archaeological severely disturbed not just by the removal of artefacts but be-
site located on Peninsula Mitre, the easternmost part of the cause of the displacement and damage done to less attrac-
main island of Tierra del Fuego. This is a portion of land of tive pieces such as the baskets themselves. Shortly thereaf-
over 3,000 km2 (approximately 160,000 m2) surrounded by ter some members of the expedition uploaded comments and
the Atlantic Ocean, the Strait of Le Maire, and the Beagle photographs of the event on social media networks.
Channel.
This remote portion of the island remains extremely isolated,
even nowadays. Until the first decades of the 20th century
the main — and almost only — economic activity here were a
few sheep farming estancias (ranches), but they were gradu-
ally abandoned due to the competition with other international
and domestic producers followed by the decrease in the price
of the wool, factors which no longer justified the investment
and hardships involved.
At present two unpaved roads approach the Peninsula from
the West, but except for a few kilometres along the northern
route which allows the circulation of regular vehicles, almost
the entire peninsula is only accessible by horse, foot, all-ter-
rain vehicle (ATV) or helicopter. As for ships or any form of Fig. 2a Basket containing whiteware chamber pots – Playa
watercraft, the only ones which go to Peninsula Mitre are sup- Donata. © Dirección de Patrimonio de la Provincia de Tierra
ply vessels from the Argentine Navy which occasionally stop del Fuego (provincial heritage agency).
in a natural harbour called Buen Suceso, by the Strait of Le
Maire, on their route to Isla de los Estados (Staten Island) or
Antarctica.
The point to stress is the remoteness and wilderness of this
region, and it is precisely this characteristic which is nowa-
days attracting an increasing number of visitors. Some are
nature-oriented hikers or horseback riders but the vast major-
ity are groups of people who use ATVs to carry out extreme,
adventurous expeditions, without speed limits or any other
form of control over their activity.
In 2016, during one of these ATV expeditions to Peninsula
Mitre, a significant and unusual archaeological discovery took
place in Playa Donata, a 2,5 kilometre sandy beach on the
Atlantic coast of the peninsula (Fig. 1).
What the group of ATV riders spotted in the intertidal zone
consisted of a series of wooden baskets containing large
quantities of historic pottery, predominantly whiteware cups
and plates (Figs. 2a, b). It is worth noting that this beach had
been surveyed on many occasions by different archaeologi-
cal teams, the last ones conducted by the underwater archae- Fig. 2b Excavation and recording of one of the containers.
ology unit of the National Institute of Anthropology between © Christopher J. Underwood.
2010 and 2014 (Vázquez et al. 2010, 2013; Elkin et al. 2017),
and these type of remains had never been seen before. The Archaeological heritage in Argentina is protected by law at
baskets were obviously buried during these previous surveys, various levels. National law 25.743 defines it as cultural ele-
then over time the overlying sediment had been naturally ments over 100 years of age which are in an archaeological
eroded, and the artefacts had become exposed at the time context on land or underwater (Law 25.743/2003). The prov-
the ATV group passed along the beach. ince of Tierra del Fuego has a similar legal framework (Law
The finders collected some material - probably as much as Nr. 370) with an additional Decree which protects all historic
they could - and apparently left some accumulated together shipwrecks lying within their jurisdictional waters (Decree Nr.
to be collected later. Clearly, the archaeological context was 858/98). Finally, since 2010 Argentina is a State Party to the
150 Increasing Public Involvement in Safeguarding UCH in Argentina
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater 3. Producing a documentary film on the rescue archaeo-
Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001). Nonetheless, and despite logy work conducted on Playa Donata, with support of
the efforts to create public awareness on the subject and dis- the Culture Secretary of the province. It has already been
seminate information on such regulations (Murray et al. 2016) shown in many venues and is now available on the internet
many citizens continue to behave as finders-keepers, partic- (Fernandez Arroyo 2017).
ularly with respect to historical material. Shipwreck remains 4. Giving periodical public talks and mass media interviews
and their cargoes are probably the most vulnerable elements in Ushuaia and Rio Grande with an update on the research
in that sense. and conservation. People related to the fields of tourism,
Whether the quad-bikers knew or did not know that they were education, diving, fishing, horseback riding, ATV expediti-
acting in an illicit manner, representatives of the Secretary ons, science, media, police and military forces, NGOs, rural
of Culture of Tierra del Fuego started a legal process shortly management, and of course cultural heritage, are regularly
after finding out about what had happened, which resulted in invited to the talks. These also provide an opportunity for
the confiscation of the materials and their (reluctant) restitu- questions and interaction with the public.
tion to the provincial public domain. Even since, there was 5. More recently, making a special approach to the people
a clear confrontation between the heritage authorities, along who go to Peninsula Mitre through clubs and other asso-
with several archaeologists, and the loose category of ‘the ciations of ATVs and motorbikes. The first amicable dialo-
quad-bikers’ which more or less encompassed any owner of gues with individual people who practice these activities
this type of vehicle going to Peninsula Mitre and who was are already yielding positive results in terms of reporting ar-
regarded as a potential destroyer of not only cultural heritage chaeological finds to the specialists or the authorities (Fig.
but also the delicate natural environment of the area. 3). There is a major difference between this attitude versus
In the course of the following months, rescue archaeologi- removing or disturbing them, generating legal confrontati-
cal fieldwork was conducted on the site with the support of ons, or simply not bothering to notify anyone.
the provincial authorities on archaeological heritage and the
A round-table meeting is planned, with one of the main pro-
Museo del Fin del Mundo in Ushuaia, revealing that the col-
posals to discuss will be the possibility of their actual involve-
lection consisted of 19th Century British pottery and glass-
ment in archaeological projects in the form of logistical sup-
ware. The baskets were interpreted as part of the cargo of
port and/or citizen science.
a vessel heading to the Pacific Ocean along the Cape Horn
route; however, there is no wreck site in the vicinity which can
be associated with the baskets, and the process of trying to
identify the circumstances by which they were deposited in
the Donata beach is still ongoing (Elkin 2019).
In parallel to the archaeological research and the conserva-
tion of the materials that has been conducted since 2016 (El-
kin 2019; Pousa et al. 2018), it was considered appropriate
to implement a series of awareness raising initiatives for Pen-
insula Mitre in a holistic manner, attempting to reach as many
stakeholders as possible. So far, the actions have consisted
of the following:
1. Placing permanent informative panels and distributing

leaflets at the entrance to the Peninsula with regard to its
cultural and natural heritage and the legal framework which
protects archaeological remains in the province. The leaf-
lets also indicate the procedure to be followed in case of
archaeological discoveries.
2. Setting up museum exhibits with the materials recovered
from Playa Donata at the two main cities in the province:
Ushuaia and Rio Grande. The exhibits include information
on archaeological methodology, the legislation which pro-
Fig. 3 Image of a ship’s timber, probably part of a keel
tects such heritage, the importance of preserving the con- structure, sent by Mr. Gabriel Muñoz, who passed through
text, and other relevant awareness raising points. Playa Donata on his ATV. © G. Muñoz, 2018.
Increasing Public Involvement in Safeguarding UCH in Argentina 151
Aside from this change in behaviour of at least some of the References

ATV expeditioners, other people who have reported archae- Elkin D (2019) Arqueología histórica del litoral atlántico fueguino: [In Spanish]
ological material in the area are hikers, tourism helicopter pi- El cargamento de vajilla de Playa Donata 3. En: Arqueología de la Pata-
gonia: el pasado en las arenas (2019) J. Gómez, Otero, A. Svoboda y A.
lots, law enforcement officers, former ranch owners and the Banegas (eds) Puerto Madryn, Instituto de Diversidad y Evolución Austral,
pp. 373–384.
leaders of horseback expeditions. The Ushuaia horse riding
club has even put signs referring to the historical, archaeolog- Elkin D, C Murray and M Grosso (2017) Arqueología de naufragios históricos
en la costa atlántica fueguina. [In Spanish] In: M. Vázquez, D. Elkin y J. Oría,
ical, and natural resources of the area, encouraging people to (eds) Patrimonio a orillas del mar: Arqueología del litoral atlántico de Tierra
del Fuego: Editora Cultural de Tierra del Fuego, Ushuaia, pp. 207–237.
respect them. One of the signs is about one of the most em-
blematic shipwrecks in the area, the British merchant sailing Fernandez Arroyo M (2017) Trailer of the documentary film Patrimonio fue-
guino. [In Spanish] Rescate en Playa Donata. http://cultura.tierradelfue-
ship Duchess of Albany, stranded on the coast in 1893 (Elkin go.gov.ar/?p=2365; accessed 30th September 2020 and https://vimeo.
com/212121804; accessed 30th September 2020.
et al. 2017).
There is also a public initiative to create a protected area in Murray C, Grosso M and Elkin D (2016) Conocer y proteger el Patrimonio Ar-
queológico Subacuático de Argentina, para disfrutarlo ahora, y en el futuro
Peninsula Mitre and the surrounding marine territory. This is también. Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamerica-
no, Buenos Aires. https://inapl.cultura.gob.ar/media/uploads/site-27/multi-
led by conservationist organizations and already has consid- media/inapl_2016_conocer_y_proteger_el_patrimonio_arqueologico_sub-
erable political support. If this is achieved, the natural and acuatico.pdf; accessed 12th November 2020.
cultural resources in Peninsula Mitre will have an effective Pousa, M, Elkin D and S Tale (2018) La necesaria alianza entre arqueología y
conservación – El rescate de Playa Donata (Tierra del Fuego, Argentina). [In
protection system, with regulations on the different degrees of Spanish] Paper presented at the VII Congreso Nacional de Arqueometría.
accessibility, including special layouts of tracks for the usual Tucuman, Argentina, April 2018.
visitors: horseback riders, hikers and ATV riders. Helicopters Saletta MJ (2017) Los Selkńam y los Haush de Tierra del Fuego. [In Spanish]
In: M Vázquez, D Elkin y J Oría, (eds) Patrimonio a orillas del mar: Arque-
will probably be allowed to land only in selected places, and ología del litoral atlántico de Tierra del Fuego: Editora Cultural de Tierra del
a respectful behaviour will be ensured for visitors in general. Fuego, Ushuaia, pp. 103–118.
At present there are no recreational diving or fishing activities Scott Ireton D (ed.) (2014) Between the devil and the Deep. Meeting challenges
in the public interpretation of maritime cultural heritage. Springer. Pensacola.
in Peninsula Mitre, but it is not inconceivable that it will start
taking place in the future. If and when that happens, the un- UNESCO (2001) UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater
Cultural Heritage, Paris 2001.
derwater cultural heritage of this marvellous part of the world
Vázquez M, Álvarez M, Barberena R, Borrazzo K, Borrero LA, Elkin, D, Grosso
will hopefully have more allies in its protection. M, Murray C, Oría J, Salemme M and Santiago F (2010) Programa arque-
ológico Costa Atlántica: hacia la preservación del patrimonio arqueológico
costero en Tierra del Fuego. [In Spanish] En Arqueología en el Bicentenario
Summary de la Revolución de Mayo. XVII Congreso Nacional de Arqueología Argenti-
na, editado por R. Bárcena y H. Chiavazza, Tomo II, pp. 557–562. Universi-
In summary, and with the risk of stating the obvious, our expe- dad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza.
rience revealed that the more stakeholders are involved in ac-
Vázquez M, Borrero L, Elkin D, Grosso M, Murray C, Oría J, Salemme M and
tivities directed at underwater cultural heritage the greater the Santiago F (2013) Nuevos resultados sobre la localización de sitios en la
costa atlántica fueguina: Programa Arqueológico Costa Atlántica (PACA).
chances of successful outcomes. This is something already [In Spanish] En Tendencias teórico-metodológicas y casos de estudio en la
noted by other authors based on their experiences in different arqueología de la Patagonia, compiled by Zangrando AF, Barberena R, Gil
A, Neme G, Giardina M, Luna L, Otaola C, Paulides S, Salgán L y Tivoli A.
parts of the world revealing that multivocality, participation, Museo de Historia Natural de San Rafael, Mendoza, pp. 609–616.
and empowerment is the way to move forward (see Scott Ire-
ton 2014). Cultural heritage will only be properly valued and
protected when it is clear that it belongs to us all.
Acknowledgements
To all the members of the archaeological and conservation
team who worked in the field and the laboratory in relation to
the archaeological materials from Playa Donata, to the collea-
gues from other disciplines who contributed to the research,
to the government and heritage authorities of Tierra del Fue-
go, to the Museo del Fin del Mundo, and to the local people
who are helping in the protection of the underwater cultural
heritage in Peninsula Mitre: Sergio Bilbao, Ines Menendez
Behety, Raul Ranzani, Ruben Pira, Adolfo Imbert, Laura Mui-
ños, Agustin Szchepañski, Carlos Mella, and Gabriel Muñoz.
1 These were the Selkńam, the Haush, the Yaghan and the Alakaluf.
152 Public Engagement, Community Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management
PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT, COMMUNITY ARCHAEOLOGY AND UNDER-

WATER CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT: AN AUSTRALIAN
CASE STUDY
Introduction created to be the vehicle for coordinating national collabora-

Australia has a rich history of public engagement in maritime tive administration of the HS Act.
archaeology starting in the 1960s in Western Australia and
continuing through to present day. This paper outlines the Some of the HSP’s broader objectives include:
range and diversity of activities by many people within Austra-
• Support of an informed public for historic shipwrecks
lia who have actively worked to create a more informed and
as a cultural resource.
engaged public, who in turn, have become empowered to ar-
• Undertake fieldwork including shipwreck survey,
ticulate their desire to be more engaged in their own heritage.
excavation, and monitoring and community engagement.
On 24th August 2018 Australia replaced the 42-year-old His-
toric Shipwrecks Act 1976 (HS Act) with the Underwater Cul- In Australia, divers are encouraged and can use underwater
tural Heritage Act 2018 (UCH Act), which came into force on cultural heritage sites for recreational purposes, but the phys-
1st July 2019.1 On this occasion, the HSP was renamed the ical fabric of the wreck must not be disturbed, and artefacts
national Underwater Cultural Heritage Program (UCHP). The must not be removed from the site without a permit.
UCH Act is aligned with the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the
Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (the Conven- Managing Australia’s shipwreck heritage
tion) and like the Convention and associated Annex Rules, Due to the small number of maritime archaeologists work-
supports the inclusion of the public in underwater cultural her- ing as underwater cultural heritage managers and the vast
itage activities. As such Australia legislated ‘to promote public amount of coastal waters around Australia (≈34,000 km or
awareness, understanding, appreciation and appropriate use 21,126 miles), it has always been obvious that little can be
of Australia’s underwater cultural heritage’ (UCH Act s.3(c)). done by these maritime archaeologists singularly. A core re-
This legislated policy position is also a direct outcome of sub- ality of underwater cultural heritage management in Austra-
missions to the 2009 public review of the HS Act, the ultimate lia is that community support and community participation in
recognition of the importance of public engagement and com- the monitoring or discovery of vessels is critical to achieving
munity archaeology. the objectives of protecting underwater cultural heritage. To
achieve this, a strong community-based programme that im-
Background proves the public’s access to, knowledge and enjoyment of
Australia employs a range of legislative, policy, practical and their underwater heritage is vital.
social approaches to manage and preserve historic ship- In 1994, the HSP published The Guidelines for the Man-
wrecks from negative cultural interaction. Of Australia’s ap- agement of Australia’s Shipwrecks (Henderson 1994) and
proximately 7,500 protected historic shipwrecks, 28 lie within in 1996 the Historic Shipwrecks Public Access Guidelines
protected or ‘no-entry zones without permit’.2 The remaining (Australian Government 1996). A key component of the 1994
sites can be dived without permit as long as that activity does Guidelines, now largely superseded, was in Part 2 – Imple-
not cause damage, disturbance, or removal of material from mentation s.3.4, which outlined how to establish a shipwreck
the site. Management of shipwrecks, submerged aircraft, and programme. This stated that: ‘Responsible community partic-
other underwater cultural heritage in Australia balances pro- ipation should be encouraged’. This was further elaborated
tecting sites with maintaining public access for recreational, in s.10 Public Access, s.11 Volunteer Programmes and in the
scientific, and educational purposes. However, this was not separate publication Public Access Guidelines.
always so. Upon the introduction of the HS Act the role of the Management agencies around Australia have developed a
public was silent. In Australia it took until 1983 for the role of range of different communication and engagement strategies
the public to be included as an administered objective of the to facilitate open access and inform the public of their under-
national Historic Shipwrecks Programme (HSP), which was water heritage.
Keywords: Australia – Public Archaeology – Community Engagement – Cultural Heritage Management

Public Engagement, Community Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management 153
These strategies include: in training in maritime archaeology. This extended to private

and public groups and institutions including local historical
• Online databases with detail on the history, location
and archaeological societies, regional community museums
and diving conditions of each site;
and affiliated groups under the direction of a person qualified
• Websites, brochures, posters and books.
in maritime archaeology (Australian Government 1996).
• Accurate historical and site data provided to commercial
In Australia permits for the recovery of relics are not issued
dive charter industries.
to individuals or groups without research plans, conservation,
• Community based interactive programmes.
and collection management resources. As such, many mariti-
• The development of dive trails.
me archaeological associations focus on activities that do not
A fundamental element in the strategy of promoting commu- require a permit such as searching for shipwrecks or survey
nity participation is the development and support for avocatio- of known wrecks.
nal maritime archaeology groups.
Fig. 1a MAAV 2018 Safety Beach Excavation, Victoria. Fig. 2 MAAWA 2014 - members surveying the twin-screw
© Maritime Archaeological Association of Victoria. steamer Omeo (1905) wreck site, South Fremantle, Western
Australia. © Ian McCann.
Over time, many of these maritime archaeological associati-

ons not only planned and undertook their own research, but
also became the backbone of their state or territory’s field-
work programme, supplying divers with: practical, historical
and nautical knowledge; a vast depth of diving experience;
boat handling skills; medical and safety skills; and training in
archaeological methodology.
Notable amongst these groups is the Maritime Archaeological
Association of Victoria3 (Fig. 1) and the Maritime Archaeolo-
gical Association of Western Australia4 (Fig. 2). Other groups
existed in Tasmania, such as the Maritime Archaeological As-
sociation of Tasmania (no longer in existence); Queensland,
Fig. 1b MAAV 2018 Safety Beach Excavation, Victoria. Maritime Archaeological Association of Queensland (no lon-
© Maritime Archaeological Association of Victoria. ger in existence); South Australia, South Australia Archaeolo-
gical Society (formerly known as the Society for Underwater
Avocational maritime archaeology groups Historical Research); and most recently the Norfolk Island
Australian management agencies initially put significant time Maritime Archaeological Association (no longer in existence).
and resources into fostering the establishment of ‘volunteer While not all maritime archaeological associations have been
programmes’— effectively creating local maritime archaeo- continuously active, without this voluntary pool of labour nu-
logical associations. In the 1996 Public Access Guidelines, merous famous underwater excavations conducted in Aus-
it is specifically stated that community groups can underta- tralia during the 1960s and 1970s would never have been
ke disturbance activities subject to meeting specific criteria completed (Graeme Henderson 2018 pers. comm.). The rela-
tionship between management agency and community group (NAS) course, for Australia, in 1997 (Moran and Staniforth
remains so symbiotic, that the strength of a jurisdiction’s ma- 1998). Today, AIMA members deliver this internationally rec-
nagement capacity can be indicated by the activity of the local ognized AIMA/NAS 4-part course on maritime archaeology
community group (McCarthy and Garratt 1998; Viduka 2012). throughout Australia and New Zealand. The course aims to
Over the years avocational groups have been instrumental in introduce the methodologies used in maritime archaeology as
discovering, documenting, and protecting shipwrecks around well as create a broader and more informed understanding,
the country. A feature of the last decade or so is that these particularly regarding shipwreck preservation. Participants re-
groups have also produced splinter groups who have a spe- ceive internationally recognised certificates on completion of
cific area of research interest and are keen technical divers. each of the courses.
Southern Ocean Exploration5 and the Sydney Project6 are no-
table examples of groups who like both technical diving and Other public engagement strategies
discovering shipwrecks. Other groups such as Wreck Check Another key public engagement strategy of several Aus-
Incorporated are interested in searching for, locating, and
7
tralian state-based management agencies, most notably
documenting underwater cultural heritage related to or sha- Queensland, has been support for the dive tourism industry.
red with Australia wherever it is (Fig. 3a and 3b). By providing these businesses with better information about
Fig. 3a Photogrammetry of the engines of JX435. © Wreck Check Inc.
shipwrecks, supplying site plans and historical information,

the businesses are, in turn, better placed to inform the public
and to promote the protection of the shipwreck sites as an
extension of their business interest (Viduka 2008). Supporting
this engagement strategy is research that has been conduct-
ed into diver attitudes to protected shipwrecks (Jewell 2002),
and into the effectiveness of recreational training for the pro-
tection of underwater cultural heritage (Edney 2011).
Where there are several shipwrecks in near proximity to each
other, shipwreck trails have been created so that members
of the diving public can discover the stories about the local
underwater maritime heritage and be informed about condi-
tions, visibility, biology and their responsibility as a diver on
Fig. 3b Wreck Check Inc member James Parkinson docu-
menting Catalina JX 435 Cocos Atoll, Indian Ocean Territo- shipwreck sites. Regular diving of the sites by the public also
ries. © Wreck Check Inc. greatly facilitates monitoring leading to both better preserva-
tion outcomes and a more informed public. In some cases,
Overarching many of these avocational groups is the Aus- shipwreck trails include instructions on appropriate ways to
tralasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA). AIMA is
8
moor up near a site and on other restrictions if they exist,
Australia’s pre-eminent non-government organisation for an- such as fishing near a site. Shipwreck trails exist in most
yone interested in maritime archaeology. AIMA’s focus is to states. Interpretation material about near-shore sites is often
promote the protection and research of underwater cultural placed close to the wreck site on the shore or underwater
heritage. near to the site (Philippou and Staniforth 2003).
AIMA members Mark Staniforth and Viv Moran adapted The installation of moorings near popularly dived shipwreck
the United Kingdom-based Nautical Archaeological Society sites not only helps prevent physical damage from poor an-
heritage tourism, and diver education (Viduka and Raupp

2008). In this model, maritime archaeologists and dive char-
ter operators combine to develop a dive trip that achieves
research and or site management and tourism objectives,
which is then sold commercially. Participants on the dive trip
are given the opportunity to learn from an expert about the
shipwreck sites being inspected. Participants can receive
training developed for vocational archaeologists such as the
AIMA/NAS course9 or for participation in an underwater cul-
tural heritage-based citizen science programme. Divers are
encouraged to help, where possible, in the given research
programme of documentation and/or condition reporting of
wreck sites. Aspects of the ‘expert participant’ model are also
used in compliance and enforcement monitoring of charter
tourism companies on water behaviour, work practices and
appropriate communications to divers.
Public archaeology programmes

A community programme not limited to divers but inclusive
of anybody interested in maritime heritage was developed in
New South Wales (NSW). This volunteer programme called
Wreck Spotters10 has been functioning for over 10 years and
has multiple objectives. Its primary role is to ‘establish an ex-
Fig. 4 Article from DIVELOG Magazine June 2018 on GIRT panded body of shipwreck enthusiasts to provide first-hand
Citizen Science Project. © A. Viduka. advice on local discoveries and the condition of visible sites’.
The programme also strives to improve the management
choring practices, it also helps protect the site in other ways, agency knowledge of historic shipwrecks that are uncovered
such as easy compliance monitoring, while supporting cultu- by seasonal weather events or other conditions on known
ral tourism (Nutley 2006). One of Australia’s most popularly sites. Members are encouraged to be involved in the assess-
dived shipwreck sites is the SS Yongala (1911). This ship- ment and interpretation of reported sites.
wreck is in a Protected Zone that is subject to access by per- Queensland is the second largest state in Australia with a
mit only. A condition of the permit is no penetration diving of coastline that extends for nearly 7,000 kilometres [≈ 4,350
the wreck that sits proud of the seabed and is structurally miles] and is Australia’s most popular dive destination with
intact. To facilitate charter boats mooring near the site without 1,310 shipwrecks around its coast. In 2014, Queensland an-
their anchor damaging the wreck site or the associated coral, nounced a new programme to encourage the public to report
moorings infrastructure was installed around the wreck and discovery of sites – The Queensland Historic Shipwreck Sur-
diver access points placed near the bow and stern circa 2005. vey.11 This programme is an ongoing effort, but its success
Charter boat operators taking recreational divers to the site will be directly proportional to its ability to engage Queens-
and the underwater cultural heritage managers, both want land boating and diving public.
to protect the wreck from damage. Due to this alignment of
interests, this site is now very effectively monitored for infrin- Balancing public engagement and site management
gements of the UCH Act by recreational divers. Divers are To manage a cultural heritage site, an agency must:
briefed, either onshore or on the boat prior to diving, of their
• Know where the site is.
obligations under the Act. Charter operators will report a bre-
• Have documentation of the site, mapping the
ach that is observed, which has resulted in several successful
site and its condition (baseline survey).
prosecutions and fines for the perpetrators. The protection of
• Monitor the site consistently as part of a planned
the Yongala site has been a significant and positive outcome
longitudinal programme.
and is an exemplar of the vested interest model of site ma-
• Manage cultural interactions with the site and
nagement (Viduka 2008).
mitigate effects, where possible, of cultural and natural
Another type of public engagement model which produces
events that would cause deterioration.
positive site management outcomes is a blend of research,
Site monitoring and compliance enforcement is the necessary • Vergulde Draeck (1656) Western Australia
counterbalance to a policy of open public access. The man- • Clarence (1850) Victoria
agement of cultural interactions, as framed by legislation and • William Salthouse (1841) Victoria
policy, is achieved in Australia through a tiered compliance • Sydney Cove (1791) Tasmania
and monitoring programme. The first tier is remote monitoring
If these significant sites are not regularly monitored, what
of identified key sites by flyover. This is leveraged off capac-
hope of monitoring is there for the other approximately 7,500
ities within Australia’s customs and border protection agen-
shipwrecks that are within our coastal waters?
cies. To support these officers near shore, the UCH Act, as
with the old HS Act, makes provision for the appointment of
Today there is some hope for monitoring these other ship-
Inspectors. Inspectors are appointed from state government
wrecks beyond existing programmes such as NSW’ Wreck-
officers, typically engaged in compliance and enforcement
spotters or the Queensland Historic Shipwreck Survey. In July
roles such as marine, fisheries, or parks roles. A key criterion
2018, a new public archaeology/citizen science project called
is that their activities require them to work operationally on the
Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT)
water daily. Underwater Cultural Heritage Inspectors are the
Scientific Divers was launched in Australia.12 GIRT is a nation-
eyes and ears of everyday compliance monitoring. Next there
wide conservation focussed citizen science project that en-
is monitoring of public compliance by the relevant jurisdic-
courages interested individuals to ‘adopt-a-wreck’ and com-
tional management agency. The final tier of Australia’s com-
mit to annually monitor the site using the GIRT methodology,
pliance monitoring pyramid and the largest is the informed
which is based on the principle of no-impact documentation.
public including tourism operators who hold a vested interest
Citizens are stimulated to attach the acquired information to
(Viduka 2012).
the GIRT website (http://www.girtsd.org) as well as potentially
to the site’s permanent record in the Australasian Underwater
Deep water shipwrecks
Cultural Heritage Database. Overtime and if successful, this
Over the last two decades there has been increasing in-
process will build a longitudinal understanding of the chan-
terest and capacity to discover and document deep-water
ging conditions on adopted sites and an understanding of the
shipwreck sites. Technical divers now go far deeper than
threat level to those sites from human activity or changing
the 30-metre workplace depth limit for most state-employed
environmental conditions. GIRT members record observable
maritime archaeologists. It has long been recognised that the
and measurable details in the open water environment and
HSP requires capacity to document sites between 30 – 200
support these data with scaled condition photos of up to ten
metres to keep pace with technical divers and other technol-
specific features, a video transect and photogrammetry. A
ogies (Smith 2006; Viduka 2012). For the moment there is a
key focus of the research behind GIRT is to test the ques-
reliance on members of the public who are technical divers to
tion discussed in this chapter: ‘Can public archaeology inform
report on deep water shipwrecks.
science based underwater cultural heritage management?’
From this research, the value or not of a prioritised public
Site monitoring with the public
good conservation approach for underwater cultural heritage
To effectively manage sites regular systematic monitoring
management may be demonstrated.
must occur. In Australia, even for famous sites that were sub-
ject to major excavations, many of these sites are not an-
Conclusion
nually monitored by management agencies due to resource
This paper set out to show the rich and diverse history of pub-
restraints:
lic engagement and community underwater archaeology in
• Batavia (1629) Western Australia Australia. From the examples shown it has been demonstrat-
• Rapid (1811) Western Australia ed that the activity of maritime archaeologists and conser-
• Xantho (1872) Western Australia vators since the 1960s has supported Australian community
• Zuytdorp (1712) Western Australia based maritime archaeology and directly led to a larger group
• City of Launceston (1865) Victoria of vocal and informed public who desire to be more engaged
• HMS Pandora (1791) Queensland in their own heritage.
• HMS Sirius (1790) Norfolk Island
• James Matthews (1841) Western Australia The paper also endeavoured to demonstrate that this group
• Lively (1811) Western Australia are skilled, capable, willing, and have time to be meaningfully
engaged in documenting and protecting underwater cultural
heritage. With the appropriate framework and active ongoing
engagement by heritage managers, the valuable contribu- References

tions of these informed community archaeologists can greatly Australian Government (1996) Historic Shipwrecks Public Access Guidelines,
assist underwater cultural heritage managers in their roles to Commonwealth of Australia.
the benefit of future generations. Indeed, the potential of com- Edney J (2011) A review of recreational wreck diver training programmes in
Australia. In: Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology,
munity archaeologists to supply robust and meaningful data (ed) Jeremy Green and Myra Stanbury, 26: 1– 8.
has increased with the availability of new technologies such
Henderson G (ed) (1994) Guidelines for the management of Australia’s ship-
as photogrammetry. wrecks, Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology and the Australian Cul-
tural Development Office, Canberra.
With the introduction of the UCH Act the public now have the
legislated right to continue to meaningfully contribute to Aus- Jewell B (2002) The effectiveness of Interpretation on diver attitudes and awa-
reness of underwater shipwreck values: the SS Yongala – A case study,
tralian maritime archaeology. submitted for thesis (Bachelor of Administration (Tourism) (Hons), James
Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia.
Acknowledgements McCarthy M and D Garratt (1998) Western Australian Maritime Museum wreck
access and outreach program. In: Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for
I would like to dedicate this paper to a friend Michael (Mack) Maritime Archaeology, (eds) Jeremy Green and Myra Stanbury, 22: 127–
132.
McCarthy, ex-Senior Curator Maritime Archaeology at the
Western Australian Museum. Mack is one of Australia’s earli- Moran V and M Staniforth (1998) The AIMA/NAS Part I Training Program. In:
Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, (eds) Jeremy
est proponents of public underwater archaeology and played Green and Myra Stanbury, 22: 137–138.
a significant role in shaping the Historic Shipwrecks Program Nutley D (2006) Protected Zones and Partnerships: Their Application and Im-
inclusion of community-based outcomes. The HSP is now portance to Underwater Cultural Heritage Management Underwater Cultu-
ral heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts Special Edition
known as the National Underwater Cultural Heritage Pro- edited by ICOMOS 2006 (eds) Grenier, R., Nutley, D. and Cochran, I. pp.
32–34.
gram. I would also like to acknowledge Dr Chris Underwood
as the creator of the ‘adopt-a-wreck’ concept which I refer- Philippou C and M Staniforth (2003) Maritime heritage trails in Australia: An
overview and critique of the interpretive programs. In: Spirek J & Scott–Ire-
ence in this paper. ton DA (eds) Submerged cultural resource management: Preserving and
interpreting our maritime heritage New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Pu-
This research is supported by an Australian Government Re- blishers, pp. 135–149.
search Training Program (RTP) Scholarship.
Smith T (2006) Deep wreck technical diving: the new management frontier. In:
Green and Myra Stanbury, 30: 14–24.
1 Underwater Cultural Heritage Act 2018https://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/un-

Viduka A (2008) SS Yongala- a vested interest commercial utilisation model of
derwater-heritage/underwater-cultural-heritage-act; accessed 30th September 2020. site management, unpublished thesis submitted on 12 December 2008, in
partial fulfilment for the Masters of Maritime Archaeology, Faculty of Edu-
2 Underwater Cultural Heritage Protected Zones, https://www.environment.gov.au/her- cation, Humanities, Law and Theology, Archaeology Department, Flinders
itage/underwater-heritage/protected-zones; accessed 30th September 2020.
University.
3 Maritime Archaeological Association of Victoria. http://home.vicnet.net.au/~maav/;ac-
cessed 30th September 2020. — (2012) 1976 and beyond – managing Australia’s underwater cultural her-
itage, presented at IKUWA 4 Managing the Underwater Cultural Heritage,
4 Maritime Archaeological Association of Western Australia. http://www.maawa.net;ac-
University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia from 29 September to 2 October 2011. In:
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shipwrecks/; accessed 30th September 2020.
12 GIRT Scientific Divers. http://www.girtsd.org/; accessed 30th September 2020.

158 Ancient Shipwrecks in Cyprus: Reaching Out to the Public
ANCIENT SHIPWRECKS IN CYPRUS: REACHING OUT TO

THE PUBLIC
Stella Demesticha and Anna Demetriou, Cyprus
The archaeological record

The Kyrenia shipwreck excavation commenced in 1967, by
the University Museum of Pennsylvania, under the direction
of Michael Katzev (Swiny and Katzev 1973). It marked a turn-
ing point in the history of the field as it brought to light a late
4th to early 3rd century BC ship and her cargo in a very good
state of preservation. Retaining approximately 75% of its orig-
inal structure, the hull of the ship was lifted, conserved, and
reconstructed. The project was very successful and by 1973
Cyprus had obtained a significant position within the field of
underwater archaeology (Harpster 2015). The Kyrenia ship
itself gained an exceptional ranking within the field of nautical
archaeology in particular (Steffy 1994), a position she holds
up to date.
More than ten scattered shipwreck sites have been located
in Cyprus since 1974, dating from the Hellenistic to the Byz-
antine periods (for an overview see Demesticha 2018). None
was excavated or even remotely approached an impact simi-
lar to the Kyrenia (see below), and their survey was restricted
to their report, inspection, and photographic documentation.
The year 2007, however, marked a turning point in the history
of shipwreck archaeology on the island. The establishment of
a Chair of Maritime Archaeology in the Department of History
and Archaeology at the University of Cyprus (UCy) as well
Fig. 1 Kyrenia-Liberty visited the Mazotos shipwreck
excavation in 2011, during one of its educational trips with as the report to the Authorities of a new, well-preserved, 4th
undergraduate archaeology students of the University of century BC shipwreck, off Mazotos village, on the south coast
Cyprus. © Cl. Lozano, MARELab, University of Cyprus. of the island, were the springboard for the development of the
field (Demesticha 2011).
Introduction Reaching out to the public

Among testimonies of seaborne trade activities, on land and The first contact of the Cypriot society with shipwreck archae-
under the sea, ancient shipwreck sites are the most typical ology, was done through the Kyrenia shipwreck project, and
ones (Gibbins and Adams 2001). At the same time, as ship- it was very successful and influential. As recreational and
wrecks are connected to the established ‘idea of the sea’ professional diving was at a very early stage during the late
(Mack 2011, 25) and, hence, to the notions of adventure and 1960s, the Kyrenia shipwreck project introduced Cypriots to
discovery (Brown and Humberstone 2016, 22), they trigger an unknown aspect of the sea. Additionally, the monumen-
imagination, generating a significant impact among the pub- tality of the site, as well as the national and international
lic. This paper discusses two underwater excavations in Cy- interest it attracted, instantly engaged the public. This was
prus, at the Kyrenia and the Mazotos shipwrecks, that have further enhanced by the combined attempts of the Kyrenia
played an intrinsic role in the current conception of ancient Shipwreck Project team and the Department of Antiquities to
shipwrecks and underwater archaeology on the island. communicate the results of the project to the local community.
Keywords: Cyprus – Shipwreck Archaeology – Kyrenia Shipwreck – Mazotos Shipwreck – Public Outreach
Ancient Shipwrecks in Cyprus: Reaching Out to the Public 159
Fig. 2 The Maritime Archaeological Bus in Cyprus. © MARELab, University of Cyprus, 2017.
A temporary exhibition of the shipwreck finds was organized of the Kyrenia ship through the construction of her two rep-
at the Kyrenia Castle (Katzev 1970, 13) and public lectures licas, Kyrenia II in 1985 and Kyrenia-Liberty in 2003, gener-
were held, achieving ‘unprecedented attendance for cultural ated new channels of communication between the ship and
events’. The response of the public is also evident in num-
1
the public. In 2005, thirty years after her launch, Kyrenia II
bers; the Kyrenia Castle, where the shipwreck was exhibited, was granted to the Thalassa Museum (Agia Napa, Cyprus)
gradually became the second most popular historic monu- where she has been exhibited ever since. Furthermore, over
ment on the island, after the Roman city of Salamis (Harpster the years, members of the Kyrenia-Liberty crew have been
2015). engaged in teaching ancient sailing techniques (Fig. 1), as
Since the Turkish military invasion in 1974 and the dire po- well as in organising educational programmes in schools
litical situation that followed it at the northern part of Cyprus, around Cyprus.
the archaeological activities of the Kyrenia Shipwreck Proj- These activities formed the public’s conception of underwater
ect team came to a standstill. As the exhibition of the ancient archaeology and asserted the position of Kyrenia ship within
ship was not accessible to the Greek Cypriot community after contemporary society, as the only shipwreck site excavated
1974, it ceased to be part of the island’s archaeological prac- on the island. The initiation of the Mazotos shipwreck project
tice (Demesticha 2018, 67). However, the re-materialization in 2007 changed the established situation. First, the excava-
tion of the Mazotos shipwreck, with qualified human resourc- Approaching community groups engaged with ship-
es and the necessary equipment, marked the first underwater wreck sites
archaeological project on the island undertaken by Cypriot Ancient shipwreck sites are fused into a multifaceted con-
institutions. Moreover, it provided additional evidence, enrich- temporary social landscape, comprised not of just one abs-
ing the archaeological material used in public outreach ac- tract group associated to antiquities, but of several groups
tivities, such as lectures, articles in the press, and interviews of people that develop distinct engagements with the sites.
on radio and television. The public was very receptive and, Such processes have diverse contexts, as: local communities
following the Kyrenia legacy, embraced the new project very engage from a distance, fisherpersons do so from the sea
quickly (Demesticha 2018). surface, and the divers from its depths. For this reason, an
effort was made to go beyond the pre-fixed attempts in pub-
lic archaeological programmes and approach diverse social
groups that interact with ancient shipwreck sites distinctively.
The objective was to identify the multiple relationships and
meanings developed around them, as well as to establish
channels of communication between archaeologists and non-
professionals.
The first steps towards this direction were made with the ini-
tiation of the Mazotos shipwreck project. Stemming from the
necessity to create a Cyprus-based team that would be able
to support archaeologists and undertake the technical aspect
of an underwater field project, the participation of local divers
was encouraged since the beginning of the project (Fig. 3).
Thus, the collaboration between archaeologists and divers
transformed the Mazotos shipwreck into a shared space of
interaction among the official and non-official approaches, as
far as ancient shipwreck sites were concerned. On one hand,
divers had the opportunity to be actively involved in the ar-
chaeological procedures and understand the scientific signifi-
Fig. 3 Cypriot volunteers are setting up the airlift, during the cance of the site. The archaeologists, on the other hand, had
2018 excavation season at the Mazotos shipwreck. © S.
the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the feelings and
Demesticha, MARELab, University of Cyprus, 2018.
meanings that ancient shipwreck sites create among divers.
More importantly, with the establishment of maritime archae- The incentive to approach the diving community of the is-
ology in the academic sector of Cyprus, a new dimension land was mainly the attraction of volunteers. In this respect,
was added to the public aspect of shipwreck archaeology that MARELab people organised presentations to diving associa-
went beyond the specific site presentations. Capitalising on tions around Cyprus, focusing on the maritime cultural heri-
this momentum, the Maritime Research Archaeological Lab- tage and the significance of its protection. Following the same
oratory (MARELab) of the UCy, in collaboration with the Mar- line of activities, on several occasions, divers that were not
itime Archaeology Trust2 and with full support from the Honor members of the excavation team, were hosted on the Mazo-
Frost Foundation3, organized a tour of the ‘Maritime Archae- tos shipwreck project’s research boat and were able to wit-
ology Bus: Cyprus’ exhibition, in the summer of 2017, built ness the archaeological procedures on board. All the above
on the successful application of the idea in the UK (Satchell activities, although engaging, were confined to a distant inter-
2017) (Fig. 2). Focusing on the maritime cultural heritage of action with the site. Aiming to add another experiential dimen-
Cyprus and the important antiquities brought to light by the sion to these endeavours, during the 2019 field season divers
surveys and excavations undertaken on the island, the exhi- from around Cyprus were invited to dive at the Mazotos ship-
bition set maritime archaeology in Cyprus in context for the wreck. In total, 28 visitors had the opportunity to develop an
first time in a public event. Hosted in a specially designed embodied interaction with the site and meet the wreck within
and equipped vehicle, the mobile exhibition toured the island, its contemporary surroundings, both as regards to the people
visited not only cities but also remote villages, reaching com- working on the site, but also the several procedures taking
munity groups that rarely had the opportunity to engage in place during excavation on board as well as underwater. This
similar cultural events before. initiative was carried out in collaboration with the Nautical
Ancient Shipwrecks in Cyprus: Reaching Out to the Public 161
Fig. 4 The Mazotos shipwreck as depicted by seven 3rd Grade pupils of the Mazotos Primary School: © Angela Kaimaklio-
tou, Mazotos School Master.
Archaeological Society (NAS), UK, and was fully funded by used the children’s paintings as a theme for the village’s 2019
the Honor Frost Foundation (HFF). printed calendar (Fig. 4). Another outcome of the public out-
MARELab’s activities were also directed towards the com- reach initiatives, was the gradual strengthening of the bonds
munity of the Mazotos village. Although related to the site between the team and the village. For example, during the
spatially, locals did not immediately develop any networks of event that marked the end of the 2019 field-season, members
interaction with the shipwreck. Since 2015, school presenta- of the MARELab team worked in close collaboration with the
tions have been organized, which included activities in the school teachers and students to present the different roles
classrooms and visits at the project’s camp. The children that the sea played in the local history, through the years. The
were informed about the documentation procedures followed event concluded with a communal fish-soup preparation, a
during the shipwreck excavation, and they were also given revival of an old custom, recorded during the ethnographic
the opportunity to see the finds lifted from the site. Further- survey.
more, at the end of each field season, illustrated presenta-
tions were organized in collaboration with the Mazotos Com- Lessons learnt and future plans
munity Council. In parallel, an ethnographic survey began at Cyprus has only recently established the grounds for the in-
the village, aiming to locate the contemporary social contexts stitutional development of shipwreck archaeology. Nonethe-
of the Mazotos shipwreck (Demetriou 2019). Focusing on less and despite the limited extent of research undertaken
identifying the locals’ associations with the sea and the site in the field, the experience gained through the excavation of
itself, the survey brought to the fore the multiple and complex two well-preserved shipwreck sites highlights the grounds on
meanings developed locally, around the Mazotos shipwreck. which public outreach programmes should develop.
As a result of the community-based activities, the shipwreck Ancient shipwreck sites have an unquestionable strong im-
became widely known, and meanings and significations start- pact on society. However, the public is not a homogeneous
ed to develop around it. For example, the local schoolmaster group of people; it is composed of separate communi-
initiated a very successful artwork project, and the community ty groups whose distinct social and/or spatial background
as well as their separate encounters with the sea accords References

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plan outreach activities that would respond to their respective liminary report. In: The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 40(1),
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Ho-
nor Frost Foundation (HFF), for its generous support to the Further reading
Mazotos Shipwreck project and the public outreach activities Dimitriou A (2016) Managing Ancient Shipwreck Sites in Cyprus: A Challenge to
Take On. In: R Maguire and J Chick (eds) Approaching Cyprus: Proceedings
discussed in this paper. Special thanks are also owed to the of the Post-Graduate Conference of Cypriot Archaeology (POCA). University
rest of the Mazotos Shipwreck Project sponsors, and especi- of East Anglia, Norwich, 1st–3rd November 2013. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 78–97.
ally CYTAVISION, Petrolina (Holdings) Public Ltd, Mazotos
Harpster M (2008) Maritime Archaeology and Maritime Heritage in Disputed
Community Council and Archirodon. Last but far from least, Territory of Northern Cyprus. In: Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 3, 3–13.
we cannot thank enough the volunteers, from Cyprus and ab-
Katzev SW (2005) Resurrecting an Ancient Greek Ship: Kyrenia Cyprus. In:
road, as well as the University of Cyprus students that have Bass GF (ed.) Beneath the Seven Seas: adventures with the Institute of
Nautical Archaeology. First. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd, pp. 72–79.
participated in the MARELab projects since 2007; without
them, underwater archaeology in Cyprus would still be an un- Katzev SW (2008) The Kyrenia Shipwreck: her recent journey, In: Near Eastern
Archaeology, 71(1–2), 76–81.
realistic dream.
Steffy R J (1985) The Kyrenia Ship: An interim report of its hull construction. In
American Journal of Archaeology, 89(1), 71–101.
Tzallas H (2007) The Kyrenia II: an attempt in experimental archaeology. I:

1 Quote from Eleftheria Newspaper (1968) ‘Αναχωρεί σήμερον ο αρχηγός Petrakos, V. (ed.) Great moments in marine archaeology. J. Paul Getty Mu-
αρχαιολογικής αποστολής εις Κυρήνειαν [Today the director of the archaeological expe- seum, pp. 300–305.
dition at Kyrenia today]’, 28th August, p. 1.
2 The Maritime Archaeology Trust is a UK based charity, which focuses on developing

research and public outreach programmes around maritime cultural heritage https://www.
maritimearchaeologytrust.org/; accessed 30th September 2020.
3 The UK based Honor Frost Foundation, focuses on research, promotion and advance-
ment of maritime archaeology with particular but not exclusive focus on the eastern Mediter-
ranean https://honorfrostfoundation.org/; accessed 30th September 2020.
Treasure Hunting and Looting: Issues of Public Engagement in Vietnam 163
TREASURE HUNTING AND LOOTING:

ISSUES OF PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT IN VIETNAM
Introduction Chinese products, but mainly those that originated from Viet-
It is apparent to the author that hunting for and looting anti- nam, datable from the Ly-Tran period (11th to 14th century) to
quities or ancient remains is not a longstanding Vietnamese much later periods (17th to 19th century).2 Their specific places
tradition, but nonetheless the practices do constitute a signi- of manufacture are not yet defined clearly, although kiln sites
ficant contemporary threat to Vietnam’s cultural heritage. By have been found in several areas in northern Vietnam.
talking and interviewing people from several sites in Vietnam,
I have tried to understand the situation and suggest ways to
limit the looting of cultural heritage treasures. Generally, peo-
ple respect their history and what is left behind by their an-
cestors. However, the lack of awareness about the historical
value of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and the uncon-
trolled development of antique dealers has created opportu-
nities for the treasure hunters and looters. Public education
aimed at raising awareness of the social values of UCH and
engaging people in the protection and conservation of under-
water sites and artefacts will be a good way to limit looting. It
is also clear that the role of the government is important, and
the efforts of researchers is also necessary.
Treasure hunting and looting, particularly on shipwreck sites
has become a serious situation in recent years in Vietnam.
Serious conflicts have happened linked to the Binh Chau
shipwreck site (Quang Ngai province).1 As a researcher wor-
king in many archaeological sites in Vietnam, I have tried to Fig. 1 Conglomerates containing metal and ceramic
understand what the people know about the archaeological shards are respected in Mr. Lam Du Xenh’s House.
© Le Thi Lien.
sites and cultural heritage, and how they evaluate ancestral
remains. This chapter represents the results of talking with
and interviewing people linked to various sites in Vietnam. Many beautiful blue and white ceramics have been found in
While trying to understand how looting happens, I have also the fishing nets of the Hoi An people when they are working
tried to know what the people expect and what the resear- in the seas around Cham Island (named as Dai Chiem Hai
chers and government can do to limit looting activity, and in khau – Great Cham Estuary, Quang Nam province). They
particular to let the people engage in the protection and ma- originated mainly from China and Vietnam and have a wide
nagement of underwater cultural heritage sites and artefacts. chronological range. Those dating from the 15th to 16th centu-
ry, such as from the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck, were manufac-
Who first found underwater cultural heritage in Vietnam? tured in the Chu Dau kilns situated in northern Vietnam.3 The
The first local people to find underwater artefacts in Vietnam Management Board of the World Biosphere Reserve of Cu
were fishermen. For example, the Quan Lan people (in Van Loa Cham – Hoi An is responsible for the protection and con-
Don ancient port, Quang Ninh province) discovered a stone servation of natural resources. At the same time, the Hoi An
tool and a bronze sword in the waters of the Mang river. Eve- Centre for Cultural Heritage Management and Conservation
ry day, when they step on the river’s shore, they are likely is responsible for the cultural heritage in Hoi An and Cham
to find many ceramics including pieces of stoneware scatte- Island. However, due to the lack of human resources and ca-
red along the river banks. These surface finds include some pacity, it is difficult for them to manage their UCH. The lack
Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage – Cultural Value – Looting – Public Engagement – Government Legislation
164 Treasure Hunting and Looting: Issues of Public Engagement in Vietnam
of legislation also makes it difficult for them to work together. ponds. For example, the Gian Gua people (Kien Giang pro-
Recently, international underwater archaeology projects have vince) found wood timbers of a lashed-lug ship from the 8th
created the first opportunities for these institutions4 to coope- to the 9th century representing the Southeast Asian ship style
rate (Looram et al. 2015; Le and Bui 2019). while digging a canal in a rice field.6 Many wooden stakes
of the Bach Dang Naval battle field (believed to have been
placed there in 1288 to fight and repel the invading Mongoli-
an navy) were found by the Quang Yen people (Quang Ninh
province) while digging fish ponds and building the dykes in
the Bach Dang river, etc.7 In these ways, a very rich variety of
underwater cultural heritage has been discovered in the sea,
canals, rivers, and fish ponds of Vietnam.
How are the finds treated by the finders?

Usually, fishermen and farmers consider potsherds, coins,
and wood timbers as things discarded by people who belie-
ve them to have no value, and they throw away the ceramic
shards. Metal artefacts from shipwrecks such as cannons,
Fig. 2 Ceramics in the collection of Mr. Le Ba Nhu, metal anchors, hull plates, and machinery are sold to dealers
Quang Ngai province. © Le Thi Lien, 2019. of scrap-metal. The timbers can often be re-used for building
their houses (in Bach Dang), or for the construction of river
watering places (in Gian Gua). Other examples included a
stone axe found from Quan Lan being used by local people
as a grinder, with water, to make medicines.8 Some people
have preserved extraordinary things, such as colourful beads
and have also kept beautiful ceramics in their houses for their
personal enjoyment. Others who have knowledge of their lo-
cal history and who are proud of their homeland will respect
and preserve things in their houses as remembrances of their
ancestors. In general, the local people have no or very limited
knowledge of the cultural value of the artefacts, with their un-
derstanding being limited only to their local history.
While diving for lobster Mr. Xa found in the seas around
Cham Island several artefacts from shipwrecks. The metal
objects were sold, while a stone anchor and several bricks
were left intact in situ in the sea, as they believe these items
have no value.9 Mr. Nguyen The Yen in Quan Lan island has
kept many things in his house that he and other people found
from foreshore landing places. Like many Quan Lan people,
he is very proud of living in the area that had been a part of
the ancient Van Don international port.10
Fig. 3 Nam Tran – 124 Tran Cao Van, one of the shops that
sell the Chu Dau pottery from the Hoi An wreck. © Mark Mr. Nguyen The Yen commented ‘If we have a display room on
Staniforth.
[the] Van Don ancient port in my commune, I will donate these
artefacts.’
The Hue people (in Thuan An ancient port) recently found
cannons under water and a wooden anchor not far from the In some cases, the knowledgeable and affluent people collect
coast. Four cannons were recovered, taken back and pre- and exchange artefacts for enlarging their personal collec-
served in Thua Thien-Hue Revolution Museum. The cannons tions and try to interpret them. One of them is Mr. Lam Du
represent the technique and form of the Netherlands style, Xenh in Chau O town (Quang Ngai province). In his house,
with several decorated motifs from the Vietnamese tradition. he keeps hundreds of boxes of ceramics from the Chau Tan
The wood anchor is of typical Asian style. Artefacts were also
5
shipwreck and others, dating from the 8th to the 9th century
found under water by farmers when they dug canals or fish to 17th to the 18th century.11 Anchors, ship’s timbers, bronze
coins, a book in very poor condition12, conglomerates contai- auctions in the international markets. Economically, it is said
ning metal and ceramic shards etc. are respected and stored that in theory, overseas auctions of Vietnam’s cultural herita-
in his buildings and garden (Fig. 1). ge are successful but actually the result is the opposite. Cul-
turally, it should be considered as a failure when hundreds of
Mr. Lam Du Xenh commented ‘I have not enough money to buy
fishermen rushed to salvage antiques of a shipwreck in Chau
the valuable things, which are always sold to the collectors [who]
Thuan Bien hamlet (Binh Chau commune, Binh Son district,
come from Ho Chi Minh city or other areas. Therefore, I buy
Quang Ngai province). They even obstructed the authori-
what other collectors did not like. Local people also give me the
ties from exploring the wreck, preferring to consider ancient
broken ones…The local people [are] very poor. I help them by
wrecks that contain antiquities as the ‘fortune’ from the sea.15
paying money for what they [have] found from the sea’.13
However, their activities have also benefited people who look

for antiquities to sell.
‘I sell the ceramics found from the sea and I can pay school
fees, books, foods etc. for my children’, a fisher–person from
Binh Chau commented’ (Quang Ngai province).
How local people who seek underwater cultural heritage

became looters?
Until the 1980s, gold hunting and looting activities happened
in many sites in southern Vietnam. Gold and beautiful beads
were sold, mainly to the jewellery shops, without recording
their location, form, or meaning. In northern Vietnam, bronze
drums which were looted are liked as antiques and sold for
a high price. By comparison, not much attention was paid to
most underwater artefacts, except for some beautiful Chinese
ceramics, such as the Tang sancai ceramic (7th–9th centuries),
Ding ware (11th–14th centuries), Longquan celadons (10th–
13th centuries), blue and white ceramics (14th–17th centuries)
(Fig. 2).
Whenever the ceramic found by Hoi An or Binh Chau fisher- Fig. 4 Mr. Pham Thanh a former diver in Sa Ky, Quang Ngai
men, the broken ones are thrown away, the complete ones province. © Le Thi Lien, 2018.
are kept in their houses for enjoyment or sold to antique-lo-
ving collectors in the town. They did not think these actions What can be done to limit looting, raise responsibility
were illegal. Since the 1990s together with the development and respect for the social value of underwater cultural
of tourism, many antique shops were opened in Hoi An and heritage?
Ho Chi Minh city (Fig. 3). Underwater artefacts, mainly cera-
‘Some people come by car and ask me to sell the wood stakes,
mics are sold at a high price.
1 million Vietnam Dong (app. $40 US Dollars) for one. I refused
‘During the 1990s, the people found things in the sea and can and said that these stakes are vestiges of Tran Hung Dao Gene-
sell at high price. Therefore, we also went there [the shipwre- ral. They have been studied by the archaeologists from Hanoi.’
ck[s] in Cham Island area] to find the windfall. It is more than 50
It is the story of the land owner of Dong Ma Ngua’s ‘stake
metres deep. Each dive we can get a pile of celadon dishes or
yard’ (an archaeological site of Bach Dang Naval Battle field,
bowls14. We earn about 400 million Vietnam Dong (app. $1,700
Quang Yen town, Quang Ninh province). He has a small
US Dollars) for that‘ Mr. Pham Thanh (Binh Chau commune,
house and a fish pond, where many wood stakes were found.
Quang Ngai province) said (Fig. 4).
For him, remains of the majestic history of the ancestors are
During this period, several shipwrecks have been found, more valuable than selling for money.
mainly by fishermen and have been continually looted. Six
‘If I know the meaning of the symbols on the gold sheets that are
shipwrecks have been salvaged and excavated by the Viet-
found in my field, I will not sell them, even [if] at that time I was
namese government in cooperation with private companies.
very poor’ Anon.
The artefacts, mainly ceramics, are divided to be preserved in
provincial and national museums. A part of them were sold by
166 Treasure Hunting and Looting: Issues of Public Engagement in Vietnam
Fig. 5 The ship timbers in Lam Du Xenh’s Collection are cleaned for 3D recording by the VMAP Team in 2015.
© Le Thi Lien.
One farmer from Go Hang site (Long An province) said, after ter cultural heritage in particular. The artefacts are generally
listening to our explanation on the historical meaning of ar- evaluated by a price offered by the antique dealers. We, the
chaeological artefacts. archaeologists and other cultural heritage managers, should
let people know their value by telling the stories related to
‘I build this house to preserve the shipwreck’s wood timbers and
artefacts.
ceramics found from Chau Tan shipwreck…’. Mr. Lam Du Xenh.
At the sites where we conducted our fieldwork, people were
‘But they will disappear after sometime. You’d better protect and shown what kind of cultural heritage they have, and it was
conserve them in the sea’, we explained. explained what they (or local cultural managers) can do. A
simple exhibition room in a specific site will be attractive for
Our conversation with Mr. Lam Du Xenh who does not have people, such as the Museum of Trading Ceramics in the an-
enough knowledge to undertake conservation, leads to ques- cient town of Hoi An. An exhibition room is also eagerly wan-
tions about how we can help him and other true collectors. ted and requested by the people in Quan Lan Island and also
Many other questions on how to protect underwater cultural in many other sites.
heritage in Vietnam are raised, where there may be thou-
sands of shipwrecks, many ancient ports and other types of How to run and manage an on-site exhibition, and provide
submerged or intertidal sites. In recent years, underwater something for private collections, is another question. Public
archaeologists of the Vietnam Maritime Archaeology Project engagement with people knowledgeable of conservation and
(VMAP) continue to work on several underwater sites in Viet- interpretation is necessary. The role of government at differ-
nam. They also try to take opportunities to help local govern- ent levels is needed, both in term of management, legislation,
ment and local collectors of cultural heritage to record and and technical support.
conserve what has been discovered (Fig. 5). The story associated to a site is attractive in several ways:
orally as stories and memories handed down among local
Summary people, the involvement of social networks, which have be-
It is obvious that hunting for and looting of antiquities or an- come very powerful nowadays, and other media such as
cestral remains is not a Vietnamese tradition. While talking newspapers etc. To provide correct information and scientific
with local people, we understand that most of them are proud interpretation, we need to have proper publications, TV doc-
of their homeland and culture. However, not many people un- umentaries, video programmes, and firstly on-site explana-
derstand the value of archaeological artefacts, and underwa- tions for local people and younger generations. This work has
been successfully done in some areas but will need greater References
and more sustained efforts from all stakeholders and govern- Guy J (2001) Vietnamese Ceramics from the Hoi An Excavation: The Cu Lao
ment institutions. Once the people understood and love the Cham [Fifteenth-century] Ship Cargo. In: Orientations (September 2001):
pp. 125–128.
history of their homeland, they will protect their cultural trea-
Kimura J (2011) Report: archaeological surveying and excavation at Dong Ma
sures from looting. Ngua, Vietnam 2010. In: The INA Annual 2011.
Lê LT (ed) (2017) Báo cáo Khai quật khảo cổ di tích Bến Cống Cái - Sơn Hào,
Acknowledgements xã Quan Lạn, huyện Vân Đồn, tỉnh Quảng Ninh [Report on the Archaeolog-
ical Excavation at Cong Cai-Son Hao port site, Quan Lan commune, Van
I would like to thank Prof. Mark Staniforth for his help and Don district, Quang Ninh province] Document of Institute of Archaeology [In
encouragement to work in the field of underwater archaeolo- Vietnamese].
gy. His experiences, knowledge, and skills have contributed Lê LT, Bùi HV (2019) Cù Lao Chàm và sự khởi đầu của khảo cổ học dưới nước
ở Việt Nam [Cham Island and the beginning of Underwater Archaeology
greatly to the development of underwater archaeology in Viet- in Vietnam], In: The Scientific Symposium Proceedings, Cù Lao Chàm: Đa
nam. My acknowledgements are also extended to Mr. Nguy- dạng tài nguyên thiên nhiên – văn hóa và phát triển bền vững [Cham Island
– Natural-Cultural Diversified Resources and Sustainable Development].
en The Yen (Quang Ninh prov.), Mr. Lam Du Xenh, Mr. Pham Hội An 6 September 2019, pp. 174–184.
Thanh and Mr. Nguyen Ba Nhu (Quang Ngai prov.) for their Lê LT, Staniforth M, Manders M, Kimura J (2015) Brief Evaluation of Underwa-
information, sharing their thinking and allowing me to publish ter Artefacts Recently Found in Hue and Exhibited in Thua Thien-Hue Rev-
olution Museum, Document sent to Thua Thien-Hue Revolution Museum.
the content of their conversations. My thanks are conveyed to [In Vietnamese].
all VMAP Team members for their hard work and contribution Lê LT, Staniforth M, Kimura J (2018) Vai trò của các bãi cọc ở chiến trường
to the researches in Vietnam. Bạch Đằng – Nhận thức mới từ các kết quả khảo cổ học gần đây [Role
of the Stake Yards in Bach Dang Battlefield – New Learning from Recent
Results of Archaeological Researches]. In: The International Conference
Proceedings Bach Dang and the Tran Dynasty in the 13th century Global
Context, pp. 358–381.
Lê LT, Nguyễn TMH, Pham C, Staniforth M, Delgado J P, Kimura J and Sasaki

R (2011) Understanding the Bạch Đằng battlefield from recent research re-
sults, in M. Staniforth et al. (eds) Proceedings on the Asia–Pacific Regional
Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila, pp. 77–90.
1 Vietnamnet (10 September 2012). Quang Ngai: Hundreds of fishermen collect ship-
wreck antiques, https://english.vietnamnet.vn; accessed 30th September 2020; Vietnam- Looram C, E Boszormenyi and M Staniforth (2015) Report of the 2015 Vietnam
net (15th October 2012). People stone policemen to prevent exploration of ancient wreck, Underwater Archaeology Training (VUAT).
https://english.vietnamnet.vn; accessed 30th September 2020.
2 Results of the Vietnam Maritime Archaeology Project (VMAP) surveys during 2012– Staniforth M, Kimura J, Le LT (2014) Defeating the fleet of Kublai Khan: the
2014. The excavation in this area in 2016 uncovered a large number of artefacts and vesti- Bach Dang River and Van Don battlefields research project. In: Archaeologia
ges of constructions (Le 2017) Postmedievale, 18, 2014, pp. 29–44.
3 Guy 2001
Noriko N, Aoyama T, Kimura J, Nogami T and Le LT (2017) Nishimura Ma-
4 By organising field work and NAS training in Vietnam, Prof. Mark Staniforth and other sanari’s Study of the Earliest Known Shipwreck Found in Vietnam. In: Asian
VMAP core members also created opportunities, including the MaP Fund, for many inter- Review of World Histories 5 (2017), 106–122.
national young students to be trained and develop their careers.
5 According to Dr Martijn Manders, the cannons could be locally manufactured following Sasaki R and Kimura J (2010) The Bạch Đằng Battle Site Survey Project 2009.
Netherlands 1660’s style or are copies of Netherlands style in a later period. Dr Jun Kimura In: The INA Annual 2010, 14–24.
has dated the wood anchor from the middle of the 18th to the early 19th century (Le et. al.
2015). Vietnamnet. Quang Ngai (2012) Hundreds of fishermen collect shipwreck an-
6 Personal survey in 2014. tiques, https://english.vietnamnet.vn; accessed 30th September 2020.
7 Information provided by the people made it possible for researchers to discover and Vietnamnet. People stone policemen to prevent exploration of ancient wreck,
study at least three stake yard sites in Quang Yen, Quang Ninh province. Particularly, the
https://english.vietnamnet.vn; accessed 30th September 2020.
international researchers lead by Prof. Mark Staniforth (ICUCH member) conducted exten-
sive field works, researches and trainings during 2009–2014 (Staniforth et. al. 2014; Sasaki
and Kimura 2010; Le et al. 2011, 2018; Kimura 2011; Kimura et. al. 2013). These are the
pioneer steps for developing the underwater archaeology in Vietnam and the setting up of
the Vietnam Maritime Archaeology Project (VMAP) which is remains in operation every year
in various underwater and terrestrial sites of Vietnam.
8 Local people believe that grinding the stone axe with water and drying it, will prevent
decease.
9 Interview of the VMAP Team with Mr. Xa in Cham Island during 2015 survey.
10 Van Don international port was established by King Ly Anh Tong in 1149 for controlling
maritime trading in Hai Dong (Tongkin Bay). Historical documents record the ships of several
Southeast Asian countries coming to trade. Archaeological remains have been discovered in
several islands in a large area of about 200 km2, including Quan Lan Island. Pottery, stone
ware and ceramics, particularly the exported varieties are the main archaeological finds.
11 Artefacts from Chau Tan shipwreck have been studied firstly by Nishimura Mashanari
and followed by others (Noriko et. al 2017).
12 No letters from the book can be recognised. The book has been sent to the Nara
Institute to attempt to recover the letters, but this has not been successful (personal commu-
nication with Mr. Lam Du Xenh).
13 Personal communication with Mr. Lam Du Xenh in 2015.
14 According to Mr. Thanh’s description, these can be the Chinese Longquan celadons,
datable to 14th to 17th century.
15 Vietnamnet (11th September 2012; 15th October 2012).

168
Presentation of the Mary Rose wreck at

the Mary Rose Museum in Portsmouth, United Kingdom.
© Hufton + Crow and Mary Rose Trust
169
SECTION 5
CAPACITY BUILDING
170 Standardizing Capacity Development in Underwater Archaeology
STANDARDIZING CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN UNDERWATER

ARCHAEOLOGY: A STRATEGY FOR THE CENTRAL ASIAN AND
CASPIAN SEA REGION
Introduction to enhance the protection of their UCH, notably in interior wa-

In May 2019, UNESCO organized the first Regional Meeting ters, in accordance with the provisions of the 2001 UNESCO
on the Protection and Management of the Underwater Cul- Convention ‘as well as to encourage their respective author-
tural Heritage for the Central Asian and Caspian Sea regions ities to study and consider the ratification of the 2001 UNES-
(Regional Meeting 2019) in Almaty, Kazakhstan. The meeting CO Convention’. State representatives and participants also
came in response to the absence of any provision related to requested UNESCO to design a capacity building strategy to
the Caspian Sea’s underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the provide the basic necessary tools and knowledge to identify,
recent Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea study, manage and protect UCH.
(Kadir 2019), adopted on 12 August 2018 and signed by the
five coastal states.1 At the same time, the region’s UCH, the As a response, a strategy was designed where three key pri-
potential of which was already highlighted during the Soviet ority areas were identified: Technical capacities in the identi-
period2, had not been taken into consideration when design- fication, research, evaluation and management of UCH; legal
ing relevant national laws. Their nature, as mainly landlocked advice and guidelines for the adaptation of National Laws
countries, prevented the region’s member states from con- to the international principles set out by the 2001 UNESCO
sidering ratifying the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Pro- Convention; and raising public awareness for the protection
tection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO of UCH. The strategy was structured following the United
Convention). Nations Development Programme (UNDP) guidelines for ca-
pacity development processes and based on previous train-
ing experiences coordinated by UNESCO. The main target
groups were archaeologists and cultural heritage managers
working within competent authorities, in addition to academ-
ics and university students, as well as the general public.
This chapter presents the framework of this strategy for the
Central Asian and Caspian Sea region with the aim of serving
as a model to standardise future capacity development initia-
tives carried out in the international context.
Capacity development in underwater archaeology.

A United Nations approach
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop-
ment (OECD) defines capacity development as ‘the process
whereby people, organizations and society as a whole un-
leash, strengthen, create, adapt and maintain capacity over
time’ (OECD 2006) whereas the UNDP defines it as ‘the abil-
ity of individuals, institutions and societies to perform func-
Fig. 1 The UNDP capacity development process.
© UNDP 2008, 8. tions, solve problems and set and achieve objectives in a sus-
tainable manner’ (UNDP 2006). Here ‘capacity’ is understood
as ‘the ability of people, organizations and society as a whole
The meeting’s participants encouraged states ‘to consider to manage their affairs successfully’. Therefore, capacity de-
taking all necessary measures to adopt or integrate into their velopment is a process that allows for an individual, institu-
national legislation specific definitions, terms and regulations tion, or communities to participate in the sharing or transfer of
Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage – Central Asia – Caspian Sea – Capacity Building – UNESCO
Standardizing Capacity Development in Underwater Archaeology 171
knowledge and capabilities in order to more effectively carry The capacity development framework establishes a five-
out work and projects (Recinos and Blue 2019). step process that can be adapted for UCH (Fig. 1). The first
Capacity building is a process linked to capacity development step requires the involvement of all stakeholders concerned
‘that supports only the initial stages of building or creating with the awareness, research and protection of UCH. This
capacities and alludes to an assumption that there are no ex- would be followed by an assessment of pre-existing capac-
isting capacities to start from’ (UNDP 2008). A capacity build- ities through engagement with stakeholders. Once the need
ing strategy should be framed in a wider development con- for capacity has been identified, a capacity building response
text. Training and workshops aimed at developing individual, must be defined and agreed among all stakeholders and then
social, and institutional capacities should be part of a bigger implemented. Effective implementation involves coordination
development strategy that seeks to improve the framework of local, national and regional partners, and requires con-
conditions of specific local, national or regional systems. As tinuous reassessment of the strategy. The final step is the
several authors have already pointed out, although capacity evaluation of its results and the measurement of the change
development theoretical frameworks have been extensive- occurred in the institutions performance (UNDP 2008). In the
ly used in cultural heritage management, rarely do we find case of UCH, change will happen if the competent authorities
them linked to maritime or UCH (Recinos and Blue 2019). are able to identify, study, evaluate, protect, and manage their
The study by Demesticha, Semaan and Morsy on how the own submerged archaeological sites, assuring long-term
development of maritime archaeology practice in the Eastern sustainability, at the three interconnected levels underlined
Mediterranean would have had benefitted from applying this above.
approach is an illustrative example (Demesticha et al. 2019).
The previous UNESCO initiatives aimed at building capaci-
ty in the protection of UCH were delivered in the framework
of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. They were not part of a
strategy or a larger capacity development framework. The
2001 UNESCO Convention explicitly mandates that all State
Parties develop capacity building opportunities in the field of
underwater archaeology (Article 21) as well as information
sharing (Article 19) and raising public awareness (Article 20).
Individuals, organizations, and societies increase their capa-
bilities, or reinforce their existing ones, achieving their own
development objectives by a capacity development process.
It is about transforming the current situation at different levels
to bring change, improving ways of living and sustainability.
Following UNDP’s guidelines, there are three interconnected

levels of capacity development. First, we have the ‘enabling Fig. 2 Participants of the UNESCO Regional Meeting on the
Protection of the Maritime, Coastal and Underwater Cultu-
environment’, which is the set of regulations and relations ral Heritage of Central Asia, held in Almaty, Kazakhstan,
that make the environment where individuals, institutions, between 21–23 May 2019. © UNESCO Almaty.
and government function. Then, there is the ‘organization
level’, which refers to how different actors, aligned within the Engagement with stakeholders for capacity development
internal structure of an organization, act in an effective way The Regional Meeting organized by UNESCO in Almaty in
to increase the potential for capacity development within a May 2019 gathered all stakeholders and administrations, po-
given environment. Finally, there is the ‘individual level’ where tentially involved with UCH protection, to highlight the need for
all the knowledge that allows each person to take action is change and capacity development (Fig. 2). The participants
embedded. highlighted the ‘importance of the research and preservation
of UCH […] as sources for knowledge, international cooper-
‘Access to resources and experiences that can develop individu-
ation, consolidation of our historical identities and as a driver
al capacity are largely shaped by the organizational and environ-
for sustainable development, regional cohesion and building
mental factors described above, which in turn are influenced by
of peace’, and recognized the capital contribution of UCH to
the degree of capacity development in each individual’ (UNDP
the United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda 2030,
2009).
notably through ‘the development of sustainable tourism and
economic growth’. The interrelationship of UCH with its intan-
Fig. 3 Map of the Region showing the main bodies of water, notably the Caspian Sea and Issyk Kul Lake, where underwater
archaeological explorations have taken place. Google Map data: US Dept. of State Geographer © 2020 Google & Image
Landsat / Copernicus. © 2020 Basarsoft.
gible traces was also mentioned as crucial for strengthening out investigations on the coast of the Caspian Sea, in the
local identities, regional cohesion, and intercultural dialogue. Gilan Province, which identified tangible and intangible traces
The need for building capacity was frequently mentioned of the maritime culture shores-line dwellings, from Astara to
throughout the discussions. The participants agreed to ‘con- Rudsar.5 The project also recorded traditional watercraft and
tinue working and mobilizing national and regional efforts to- boatyards, fishing traditions and archaeological remains of
wards the creation of capacities and infrastructures’, as well several shipwrecks (Hossien and Adibi 2017).6
as to encourage partners to look for funding possibilities to Concerning Issyk Kul lake, Kirgizstan, it has been an impor-
allow students from the region to take specialized academic tant geographic location for all nomadic traffic between East
training in universities from the UNESCO UniTwin Network of and West since prehistoric times, notably for traders and
Underwater Archaeology. caravans of the Silk Road7. The archaeological sites found
around its shores — from petroglyphs and 3,000-year-old no-
Underwater archaeology in Central Asia and the Caspian madic burial mounds (kurgans) to Christian monasteries and
Sea mediaeval cities — have been studied since the end of the
Although the region has several important bodies of water3, 19th century. The lake, currently an important touristic destina-
the most illustrative cases concerning previous UCH studies tion, saw the beginnings of underwater exploration in the re-
— without counting the archaeological sites found in the de- gion since the 1860s with the studies of the palace built by the
siccated bottom of the Aral Sea — are the Caspian Sea and Mongol leader Tamerlane (15th century AD) by the Russian
the Issyk Kul Lake (Fig. 3). historian G.A. Kolpakosky. The existence of such an impor-
Despite the historical importance of the Caspian Sea in the tant building influenced the development of several research
trade routes of the Silk Road, the UCH of the region is large- initiatives.
ly unknown (Kvachidze and Anichenko 2008). Along with the
Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran, Azerbai- From the early 20th century, when the historian V.V. Bartold
jan is the only other country bordering the Caspian Sea that linked the site to the mediaeval records of the Arab historian
was engaged in UCH exploration between 1968 to 1986 by Ibn Arab Sheikh, to the underwater mapping of P.P. Ivanoc
Viktor Kvachidze and the National Museum of History (Figs. in 1926 –27, published in 1957, and the systematic survey
4 and 5). The fact that no research continued after the fall of carried out by the Kyrgyz Institute of History and Professor
the Soviet Union emphasises the urgency to develop capac- Dmittri Vinnick in 1959, the great importance of UCH in the
ity building opportunities (Kvachidze 1989; Anichenko 2006; lake was already underlined. The large water-level fluctua-
Kvachidze and Anichenko 2008).4 tions of the lake have caused, as in the Caspian Sea, the sub-
In Iran, a State Party to the 2001 UNESCO Convention since mersion of several settlements and cities established around
2009, the Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research carried its shorelines. Research could not continue until 1985, when
Fig. 4 Underwater Explorations carried out by the National Museum of History of Azerbaijan. © Archives of S.M. Fazlullin.
a team from the Kyrgyz Academy of Science lead by Vladimir underwater cultural heritage, the effective protection, con-
Ploskikh8 conducted underwater surveys and excavations. In servation, presentation and management of underwater cul-
2007, divers from Tomks State University identified a Saka tural heritage, as well as research and education’ (UNESCO
settlement dated to 2,500 years before present, as well as 2001). These obligations require the mastery of skills and a
Scythian burials mounds and pottery fragments with Arme- holistic knowledge typical of a range of disciplines varying
nian and Syrian scripts which points to the existence of an from maritime and underwater archaeology to conservation
Armenian monastery at Issyk Kul Lake. In 2010 and 2012, a
9
and heritage management. Whereas most of the culture ad-
team from National Geographic joined Professor Ploskikh to ministrations in the region have specialists in terrestrial ar-
explore the so-called palace of Tamerlane, conducting visual chaeology, history, cultural heritage management, and con-
and remote sensing surveys.10 Although they could not find servation, they lack experience and capabilities to deal with
evidence to link the site to the Mongol Tamerlane, numerous the sites associated with underwater contexts. From diving
archaeological sites were explored.11 Most of the sites have and identifying UCH to registering the nautical architecture of
not been fully inventoried and only some have been surveyed shipwreck remains, interpreting submerged prehistoric land-
and studied. scapes or applying preservation techniques on in situ archae-
ological contexts, the variety of skills needed to successfully
Needs assessment manage underwater cultural heritage requires several years
During the meeting a Needs Assessment Review took place of academic training and working experience.
which helped to analyse the desired capacities against the
existing ones, generating an understanding of assets and Other duties that are entrusted to the national competent
needs that served as an input to a questionnaire sent to ex- authorities and also require specific competences are the
perts and competent authorities, formulating the Strategy. prevention of the illicit trafficking and pillaging of underwater
According to Article 22 of the 2001 UNESCO Convention, archaeological sites (Articles 14 to 17). This implies that law
the national competent authorities shall provide for ‘the es- enforcement bodies, including national police, customs, and
tablishment, maintenance and updating of an inventory of coast guards, are familiar with the regulations that safeguard
UCH and pursue any criminal action that endangers its pres- A second phase foresaw conducting a Regional Foundation
ervation. Course for competent culture authorities or candidates se-
To complement existing mechanisms outlined in the 1970 lected according to preestablished criteria. The Foundation
Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Courses were designed and established as a response to the
Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural recommendations of the first UNESCO Regional Workshop
Property or the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on the Stolen or for the Asia-Pacific, held in Hong Kong in 2003. Subsequent
Illegally Imported Cultural Objects, the 2001 UNESCO Con- courses helped to build capacities as well as identified site
vention sets out a series of provisions that reinforce the work managers and national experts that formed the basis of the
of states in the protection of their cultural heritage, in coop- present day regional network (Favis 2011). The programme
eration with other organizations like INTERPOL or the World also published a specific Training Manual for the UNESCO
Customs Organisation. Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of the
Looting, industrial activities, urban development — notably Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2012) that has been
around the shores of lakes — and the lack of adequate study adapted for the Latin American and Caribbean region (UNE-
and governing frameworks are seen as the major threats SCO in press), and is anticipated that it will be translated into
for UCH according to the Needs Assessment exercise. The Spanish.
shortage of funding for cultural heritage protection was also
highlighted as well as the need to strengthen regional coop-
eration in this regard. Capacities to deal with underwater ar-
chaeological sites are very rare or practically non-existent in
the region. Currently, only the Kyrgyz Academy of Science
undertakes underwater archaeological field campaigns each
summer in Issyk Kul Lake.
Formulating a response
The capacity building strategy shall be implemented through
concerted efforts at all levels, and across different administra-
tions. It is of ultimate importance that collaborative measures
among all stakeholders involved can lead towards an integrat-
ed and coherent approach to supporting the capacity building
Fig. 5 Team from the Underwater Archaeology Unit from Na-
phases within a major development process in each of the tional Museum of History of Azerbaijan inspecting archaeo-
Member States. A Steering Committee, formed by UNESCO logical finds on the surface. © Kvachidze 1989.
and key specialists, would guide and promote its implemen-
tation, as well as oversee and ensure its effective application The main goals of this Foundation Course are to provide her-
while monitoring and evaluating its results, reporting back to itage managers and cultural authorities with the necessary
Member States and suggesting changes when needed. skills to identify, evaluate, and register underwater archae-
ological sites as well as to develop management plans. In
Technical Capacities in Underwater Archaeology this case, special focus should be given to the archaeology
Due to the different technical specificities and concepts in- of river and lake areas. The Foundation Course can help par-
volved with the understanding of UCH and the implemen- ticipants to develop new sustainable tourism strategies where
tation of the 2001 UNESCO Convention, it is important to underwater and coastal cultural heritage is presented to the
identify in the first phase all relevant actors and stakeholders public. The course can also contribute to fostering peace and
in each country in order to establish the basis for a national cohesion by enhancing international cooperation and estab-
coordination team. This first engagement with national stake- lishing a regional network of experts that share knowledge,
holders should have as a priority, the understanding of what experiences, and best practices (Favis 2011). The minimum
UCH is, what its study and protection entails and how it can duration for this training would be two weeks, although four to
be achieved, as well as what are the main epistemological six weeks is recommended to allow sufficient time to include
frameworks and recording methods utilised in the discipline of theory and practice.
underwater archaeology. The knowledge of the international As it has been presented by its main designers (Underwood
scientific standards, as well as the understanding of the differ- and Manders 2019) the usual layout of the Foundation Course
ent provisions set by the international agreements will be one is divided into three different phases: pre-fieldwork modules,
of the main focuses of this first phase. 12
underwater or coastal heritage fieldwork, and post-fieldwork
modules (see Van Tilburg in this volume). Participants are more profoundly with the issues identified by government ex-
tasked to design a management plan for the specific site used perts and UNESCO in desk-based assessments. An ‘Action
during the course, including its registration, and in situ eval- Plan’ is usually adopted with UNESCO remaining ready to
uation. It is important to highlight the need to introduce mod- assist the Member State and monitor its implementation.
ules taught by local experts on the potential of the UCH of the For instance, Small Islands Developing States of the Carib-
region as well as on significant historical background and the bean (SIDS) approved, in a legal focused meeting, a model
use of its diverse waterways (e.g. trade routes of the Caspian of a National Act for the Protection of Cultural Heritage where
Sea, the Silk Road Influence, previous research campaigns UCH was included, for all SIDS countries of the region to
in the Caspian Sea and Issyk Kul Lake, etc.). An important have as a reference when revising their national legal frame-
component is the engagement with the local community by works (UNESCO 2013).
gathering their views, values and information concerning their The concern relating to the looting of cultural heritage was of-
maritime and UCH through a series of interviews. The assis- ten brought up as one of the major threats to its preservation.
tance of local culture authorities, as well as the support of The UNESCO 2001 Convention gives very clear provisions
local diving operators is crucial for logistics, safety, and com- and obligations in this regard. International cooperation and
munity engagement, and can help determine the selection of information sharing are pillars in the development of success-
an appropriate training venue. ful mechanisms to protect cultural heritage. It is important that
After competent authorities and local experts have gained national laws and penal code are adapted to integrate crimes
knowledge and experience, it is very important that they against cultural heritage, where this takes into account also
can apply them in the context of their national inventories. UCH.
Development will be sustainable once change has come to
the institutional framework dealing with the protection of the Awareness raising and social involvement
cultural heritage — so UCH is included — as well as to the Whereas the public in the region is highly concerned with the
individuals and experts acting for its safeguarding. The com- preservation of their cultural heritage, people are mostly una-
petent authorities and decision makers have to make all the ware of the existence of UCH or its potential. Very often, the
necessary institutional arrangements, within the extent of research of archaeological remains found submerged in in-
their possibilities, so their personnel can start the inventory land waters allow for the development of new narratives in the
of their UCH. This is where monitoring and evaluating be- archaeology science, increasing current society’s identity and
come essential while measuring change in the UCH situation. links to those of the ancient dwellers. Explanatory brochures,
Gaps in knowledge and experience will need to be addressed travelling photo-exhibitions or promotional videos and media
through specific advanced courses in areas not extensively articles can help to raise public awareness, as happens in
covered during the Foundation Course. other landlocked countries that have ratified the 2001 UNES-
It is of paramount importance to translate the relevant existing CO Convention (i.e. Bolivia, Paraguay or Switzerland).
publications and training manuals into Russian and national UNESCO and its partners have already developed several
languages. This will facilitate the establishment of future na- educative initiatives which can be perfectly adapted to the
tional training initiatives that will self-sustain the development Central Asian and Caspian Sea region. This ranges from a
of underwater archaeology and related disciplines. The en- cartoon series for children and a digital App to a Manual for
couragement to publish and to establish a specific academic Teachers based on the UCH from the First World War and
journal dealing with the UCH of the region was highlighted in its potential for promoting peace and reconciliation (Timmer-
the preparation of the strategy. mans, Guérin and Rey da Silva 2015). The UNESCO Asso-
ciated School Network (ASpNet) has proven to be a useful
Legal advice and law enforcement platform for the distribution of some of these initiatives, and to
Member States also identified the harmonization of their na- measure their impact.
tional laws in-line with the provisions of the 2001 UNESCO
Convention as one of the main issues to allow for its ratifi- Synergies and partners
cation and its implementation. UNESCO has a long history One of the biggest challenges is the need to understand UCH
of cooperation with Member States in advising how best to as an integral part of cultural heritage in general. UNESCO
adapt their national laws in order to better protect their cultur- Field Offices, as well as competent cultural authorities, do not
al and natural heritage. normally have enough financial and human resources to de-
Whereas ‘Law Adaptation’ can be a specific session within vote a specific action line to the promotion of the 2001 UNES-
the short national trainings, a dedicated workshop or national CO Convention. It is, therefore, important to identify common
(or regional) consultation is considered more useful to deal goals that can be achieved when implementing other critical
programmes like World Heritage, the fight against illicit traf- Conclusion
ficking, the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage, the A successful strategy to develop capacity in the research and
success of the SDGs, the UN Decade of Ocean Science for protection of UCH should be adapted to the specificities of
Sustainable Development, the IOC programme on Marine each State’s framework conditions and contexts (Mackin-
Spatial Planning and Ocean Literacy, etc. tosh 2019). The initiatives and proposals briefly presented
For the strategy implementation phase, UNESCO and Mem- respond to the need to have a strategic document to start cre-
bers States count also on the support of the UniTwin Net- ating capacities in the field of UCH in the Central Asian and
work of Underwater Archaeology, the UNESCO Chairs on Caspian Sea region. This came as a request from State rep-
UCH and the Accredited NGOs. These could facilitate, for resentatives during the Almaty Regional Meeting of May 2019
instance, the exchange of students and researchers, joint re- to initiate a comprehensive capacity building programme to
search programmes as well as the organization of specialised allow national competent authorities to look into their cultural
seminars. The ICOMOS International Scientific Committee on heritage as a whole, wherever the heritage is found.
Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH) has had a pivotal role A capacity building strategy should not be understood as a
in the establishment of international standards in underwater static and inflexible document. On the contrary, although the
archaeology and the development of training manuals and in implementation of the activities should follow a logical pro-
the delivery of previous UNESCO courses. cess, their duration and their contents can be adapted to the
different geographical, political and social circumstances at
Evaluation and monitoring any given moment, as well as to the funding available for its
Measurement of the success is key to see how Member implementation. Its major focus is the provision of technical
States are developing the necessary skills to protect their skills in the identification, research and management of the
UCH. Monitoring and evaluating during and after each pro- UCH. It also serves as a model of action to orientate stake-
posed phase are capital for the effective application of the holders to establish complementary capacity building actions.
strategy. It is hoped this can contribute to establish an international
Indicators to measure the scale of implementation could take standardised development-based framework process to build
into account the outputs of the strategy as for instance the capacities in underwater cultural heritage.
amount of funds disbursed to the research and protection of
UCH, the number of workshops organized or the number of Acknowledgements
people trained, number of national initiatives towards the in- I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the UNESCO
ventorying of underwater archaeological sites, number of rat- Secretariat for the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protec-
ifications of the 2001 UNESCO Convention, etc. Change has tion of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and to the UNESCO
to come across different levels of governance when imple- Office in Almaty for entrusting me with the development of this
menting the strategy. However, success should not be based capacity building strategy, engaging in so doing with the study
only in measuring the number of students or training activities and protection of the region’s underwater cultural heritage.
accomplished, which only gives an indication that the strategy My gratitude goes also to Christopher Underwood, President
is being followed, but not if it is being successful. of ICUCH, for his continuous support and eventual invitation
More difficult to measure are the outcomes of the impact to take part in this special publication.
caused by the capacity building strategy. Progress and effec-
tive results in the protection of UCH are reflected by changes
in the performance at institutional and individual level. This
can be measured in terms of efficiency and effectiveness, and
on how the knowledge and skills provided are used to achieve
change so cultural heritage is fully studied and protected by
the country, complying with their international standards and
commitments. Tools like questionnaires to participants and
competent authorities, evaluation forms during the execution
of the activities, and interviews between UNESCO and Na-
tional Commissions could help to analyse transformation over
time, adapting the steps accordingly to the implementation
results (UNDP 2009).
1 Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. References

2 1922–1991
Anichenko Z (2006) Underwater Archaeology in the Caspian: Past, Present
3 Apart from the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea or Issyk Kul Lake, other lakes like Sa- and Hopefully Future. In: Azerbaijan International 14(4), 54–57. https://www.
rygamysh Lake, between Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, Aydar Lake in Uzbekistan, Lake
azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai144_folder/144_articles/144_zhe-
Balkhash and Lake Alaqol in Kazakhstan or Karakul Lake in Tajikistan, among other smaller
ones and river courses, may provide important archaeological evidence. nya.html; accessed 30th September 2020.
4 In 1998 the National Museum of History of Azerbaijan sponsored the 30th anniversary Demesticha S, Semaan L and Z Morsy (2019). Capacity Building in Maritime
of Maritime Explorations of the Caspian Sea (Kvachidze, 2006), which was an occasion to Archaeology: The Case of the Eastern Mediterranean (Cyprus, Lebanon
reflect on what had been achieved during the period in which the underwater archaeology
and Egypt). Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 14(3), 369–389. Doi: 10.1007/
unit was active.
s11457-019-09243-y.
5 In the Persian Gulf, Iran carried out research from the 1990s, starting underwater
surveys around the port of Siraf in 2000, continuing to sites from ‘Shushtar’s Band-e Mizan’ Favis R L (2011) UNESCO Regional Capacity Building Programme on Safegu-
(Shushtar barrier), ‘Takht-e Suleiman’ Lake, and the Amir Abad and ‘Zaghmarz’ shipwrecks; arding the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Asia and the Pacific. In: The 2011
the ‘Tammīsheh and Gorgān’ Underwater Walls, and the ‘Ghorogh’ and ‘Rudsar’ shipwrecks.
http://www.themua.org/collections/collections/show/45; accessed 30th September 2020.
Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Procee-
dings. http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/575b7af1c2ad8d-
6 In 2016, UNESCO organized a national training workshop in Teheran while another 9be6523cf922087a48.pdf; accessed 30th September 2020.
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7 Issyk Kul Lake, a name that means ‘warm water’, is one of the deepest (averaging 278 Hossien T and R Adibi (2017) Boat and ship Archaeology in Gilan Province
metres) and largest (178 km long and 60 km wide) lakes in Central Asia. (Iran). In: The MUA Collection. http://www.themua.org/collections/items/
show/1807; accessed 30th September 2020.
8 http://siberiantimes.com/science/casestudy/features/f0147-one-more-ancient-civi-
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ried/; accessed 30th September 2020.
Kadir RA (2019) Introductory Note to Convention on the Legal Status of the Ca-
spian Sea. In: The American Society of International Law, 58(2), 399–413,
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10 https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2012/09/06/2012-issyk-kul-expedition-search-for-
a-sunken-palace/; accessed 30th September 2020. Kvachidze V (1989) Archaeological Finds on the Caspian Coast. In: Azizbe-
kova, P. A. (ed) Monuments of Material Culture of Azerbaijan. Academy of
11 The Kyrgyz authorities even submitted the Lake to the World Heritage List in 2004 Sciences of Azerbaijan SSR.
based on its natural Outstanding Universal Values (OUV). The candidature was eventually
withdrawn by the State Party after the recommendations of the advisory bodies to be reform-
ulated and to present it as a cultural landscape rather than a natural landscape. A profound
— (2006) Under the Sea - Hidden Treasures - First Expeditions Beneath the
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2020. html; accessed 30th September 2020.
12 This first phase can be executed in the form of a series of national workshops, where
practical and theoretical sessions guide participants to the achievement of the foreseen Kvachidze V and R Anichenko Z (2008) Submerged Cultural Heritage of the
goals. Caspian Sea, Mains’l Haul. In: A Journal of Pacific Maritime History, 44(3
& 4), 40–51.
Mackintosh R (2019) Capacity in Maritime Archaeology: A Framework for Ana-

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178 Capacity Building: the UNESCO Underwater Cultural Heritage Foundation Course
CAPACITY BUILDING: THE UNESCO UNDERWATER CULTURAL

HERITAGE FOUNDATION COURSE
Fig. 1 Chanthaburi’s Regional Maritime Archaeology Training Centre. © H Van Tilburg.
Introduction Convention) that entered into force in 2009 represents years

The adoption of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of collaborative work in refining policy and practice, all aimed
of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2001 highlighted the at the protective management of the UCH, a worthy accom-
need for increased capacity in site survey and assessment plishment. Nevertheless, something was still missing. As
and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) resource manage- early as the 2003 Asia-Pacific Regional Workshop in Hong
ment among member states. An international collaborative Kong, delegates recognized the need for a capacity building
effort was organized to design a comprehensive curriculum programme for the effective implementation of the Conven-
and training programme featuring both classroom and in-wa- tion. Now that states were actively ratifying the finalized 2001
ter practical experience. This collaboration produced the Convention, how were they to be expected to carry out its
Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the mandates? How would regional and global capacity in UCH
Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage, management and protection actually be built?
suitable for adaptation by different regions, and supported a
series of foundation training courses across the world. The The initial UCH foundation course training series
UNESCO capacity building programme is continuing to grow, To meet this need, UNESCO formed a programme steering
and has had a positive influence on non-UNESCO pro- committee and collaborated with experts from both ICO-
grammes and academic institutions as well. This collabora- MOS-International Committee on Underwater Cultural Her-
tive effort by a broad array of international professionals has itage (ICUCH) and from the Nautical Archaeology Society
become an international standard, a very positive note in the (NAS) to assist in designing the initial curriculum for the first
field of resource preservation and UCH. regional UCH Foundation course series. Training for prospec-
tive trainers in the Asia-Pacific region was initiated in Sri Lan-
The need for capacity building ka in 2008. With the completion of the regional training centre
The final draft of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Pro- in Chanthaburi (Fig. 1), delivery of the initial courses shifted to
tection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 UNESCO Thailand. UNESCO Bangkok implemented ‘Safeguarding the
Keywords: 2001 UNESCO Convention – Capacity Building – Training – Foundation Course

Capacity Building: the UNESCO Underwater Cultural Heritage Foundation Course 179
Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific’, funded Thailand. This facility is centrally located in the Asia-Pacific
by the UNESCO-Norway Funds-in-Trust Cooperation. As de- region, and benefits from the shared capacity of Thailand’s
signed, the programme focused on a broad holistic approach Underwater Archaeology Department. The nearby Mannok
to the protection and management of UCH, archaeological wreck site provided the in-water training location. The second
methods being one tool or choice among others, to be em- planned UCH Foundation Courses was held at Thailand’s re-
ployed by site managers. This would require both classroom gional training centre (February–March 2010), with a third be-
and in-water hands-on practical training. Seventeen inter- ing added by popular demand (February–March 2011). Par-
national trainers (many from ICUCH) who could contribute ticipants were asked to nominate topics beyond the scope of
broad expertise and additional perspectives and knowledge the basic curriculum, and subsequently UNESCO supported
were contacted to assist in drafting the Foundation Course two advanced Foundation UCH courses as well: the Applica-
manual’s chapters and conducting the courses. tion of GIS (Geographic Information System) in UCH Man-
agement (September 2010), and In Situ Preservation of UCH
Foundation course trainer criteria (19–26 October 2011). The regional training centre, develop-
ment of the manual, and first UCH Foundation training series
• The trainer must be an established specialist in the assig-
was generously supported by the Government of Norway.
ned topic(s).
Following each course, feedback from organizers, trainers
• The trainer must have extensive experience in the protec-
and students was elicited and the curriculum continued to be
tion and management of UCH, in accordance with the prin-
refined and revised. Trainers brought their own particular ex-
ciples of the 2001 Convention and the Rules of its Annex.
pertise into the defined elements of the course, revised initial
• The trainer must possess excellent communication, writing,
drafts and added a broader range of notes and references
and comprehension skills in the languages of the course.
and images throughout each course. Following the conclu-
• The trainer must have prior teaching experience and the
sion of this first series, the revised Training Manual for the
ability to deliver their training units in ways that are easily
UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Manage-
understood by the target students.
ment of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific
Course applicants were drawn from archaeologists in sci- was compiled, published in 2012, and made available free
entific institutions, site managers, conservators or other online1.
specialists with specific UCH interests, or those authorized
by their ministries to play a lead role in the management of Units and appendices of the Asia-Pacific UCH foundation
UCH. Basic open-water diving skills were required prior to the course manual
course. The training format initially provided for a six-week
• The 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater
programme: four weeks for the classroom and theoretical
Cultural Heritage.
aspects, and two weeks for the practical diving survey exer-
• Back to Basics: Introduction to the Principles and Practice
cise, simulating as closely as possible the challenges of full
of Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology.
maritime archaeology/resource management projects. Given
• Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage.
the range of familiarity among course applicants, NAS intro-
• Underwater Archaeological Resources.
ductory-level courses were featured during the initial week to
• Desk-based Assessment.
establish a common level of understanding of fundamental
• Significance Assessment.
archaeological concepts and methodology.
• Data Management in Maritime and Underwater Archaeo-
logy.
UCH foundation manual chapter/unit organization
• Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in Underwater Ar-
• Title/Author chaeology.
• Core Knowledge/Learning Objective Statement. • In Situ Preservation.
• Introduction to the Unit. • Intrusive Techniques in Underwater Archaeology.
• Unit Contents. • Conservation and Finds Handling.
• Unit Summary. • Practical Dive Session of the Foundation Course: The Man-
• Suggested Timetable. nok Shipwreck Site, Gulf of Thailand.
• Teaching Suggestions. • Asian Ceramics.
• Suggested Reading List. • Asian Shipbuilding Technology
The first UCH Foundation Course was held October-De- • Material Culture Analysis.
cember 2009 at the regional training centre in Chanthaburi, • Museology.
Fig. 2 UNESCO Africa Regional Training Programme in Kemer (2015) Akdeniz University. © Hakan Öniz.
• Public Archaeology, Raising Awareness and Public Partici- chaeologists, heritage experts, historians, marine biologists
pation Projects in Underwater and Maritime Archaeology. or conservationists working in governmental institutions)
• Archaeological Publication. from 14 countries (Cuba, Chile, Colombia, Argentina, Méxi-
• Appendix A: Ethnographic Boat Recording Practicum. co, Ecuador, Guatemala, Paraguay, Perú, Uruguay, Panamá,
• Appendix B: Basic Terminology of Shipbuilding. Nicaragua, Dominican Republic, and El Salvador). The two-
• Appendix C: Introduction to Metal Shipbuilding Technology. week-long course took place after a Regional Meeting on the
• Appendix D: How to Use Site Recorder. Convention in Cozumel.
• Appendix E: Management Plan. Kingston, Jamaica (November-December 2012): orga-
• Appendix F: Suggested Timetable for the Foundation nized by UNESCO in collaboration with the Maritime Pro-
Course. gramme of Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands
(RCE), AECID, and the Jamaican National Heritage Trust
Dissemination of the UCH foundation course (JNHT). Twenty participants from 15 different Latin Ameri-
UNESCO regional meetings and workshops focusing on the can and Caribbean countries (Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados,
2001 Convention and on UCH capacity building have been Belize, Caymans, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada,
conducted in numerous locations since 2001 (Figs. 1-3). Guyana, Jamaica, Saba, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St.
These contributed towards completion of the full UCH Foun- Vincent and the Grenadines, and Tobago and Trinidad), en-
dation Course format and curriculum. The initial UCH Foun- gaged in coursework featuring Jamaica’s maritime heritage
dation series (Chanthaburi, Thailand 2009–2011) trained a to- and the diving survey and management potential for Jamai-
tal of 70 candidates from 15 different countries (Bangladesh, ca’s most famous underwater site, Port Royal, the colonial
Brunei, Cambodia, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, city devastated by a massive earthquake in 1692 (Fig. 3).
Laos, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Guanabo, Cuba (2012): Funding from Spain’s AECID and
and Vietnam). This represented a tangible and significant the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands, RCE fa-
boost in UCH management for the Asia-Pacific region and a cilitated an advanced foundation training course on survey
proof-of-concept for the capacity building programme. Other and registration techniques of UCH. Trainers from Argentina,
state members and institutions were quick to adopt the more Cuba, UNESCO HQ, and the Regional Office for Culture for
extensive UNESCO UCH Foundation Course format: Latin America and the Caribbean (Havana) were joined by 20
Campeche, Mexico (2010): organized by UNESCO in co- students from various Latin American states including Cuba,
operation with the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Antropolo- Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala
gia e Historia (INAH) and supported by the Spanish Agency and the Dominican Republic. That same year the UNESCO
for International Cooperation and Development (AECID)2, Havana Office hosted a photo exhibition on global UCH at
the first regional training course included 25 participants (ar- world heritage sites in Havana and Santiago de Cuba.
Agency of the Netherlands (RCE). Twenty students from 6

countries (Vietnam, Japan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Australia
and Philippines) took part in the management, research and
protection of the underwater heritage training.
Cartegena de Indias, Colombia (2015): organized by UN-
ESCO, the Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History
(ICANH) and the Terra Firme Foundation, with the support of
the Ministry of Culture, the General Maritime Department, the
Colombian Ocean Commission and the Externado University
of Colombia. Some 20 professionals, students of archaeolo-
gy from Colombia, cultural and heritage managers, as well
as personnel from the Oceanographic and Hydrographic Re-
Fig. 3 Students at Port Royal returning to the dive boat, UCH search Centre of the Caribbean (CIOH), participated in the
Foundation Course 2012. © H Van Tilburg.
course.
Mombasa, Kenya (December 2015): organized by UNES-
Buenos Aires, Argentina (November-December 2013): or- CO, together in partnership with the National Museum of Ken-
ganized by UNESCO with the support of Instituto Nacional ya. Cultural officials and experts from Kenya, Madagascar,
de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano, Secretaría Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, and South Africa
de la Cultura de la Nación (PROAS-INAPL) and funded by took part in the training, following the format of the UNESCO
Spain. The first Foundation course to be held in South Ameri- Foundation Course Manual on the Protection and Manage-
ca, the programme supported ten students from Brazil, Chile, ment of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the UNESCO
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina. Manual for Activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage.
St Eustatius, Netherlands (November-December 2014): Salary Bay, Tulear, Madagascar (October 2016): orga-
organized by UNESCO in collaboration with the Maritime nized by UNESCO with the support of the Ministry of Culture
Programme of the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Nether- of Madagascar. The course was addressed to the Malagasy
lands (RCE), Leiden University, and the Netherlands Nation- Ministry of Culture responsible for heritage protection. The
al Commission, and hosted by the Centre for Archaeological national training programme followed aspects of the UNES-
Research on the Island of St Eustatius. The 16 participants CO training manual for the management of UCH, adapted to
represented Belize, Bonaire, Curacao, Cuba, Dominican Re- the specific needs of participants. The training was attended
public, Haiti, Netherlands, Saba, St Eustatius, Surinam, Ven- by 8 participants from the Ministry of Culture and the Handy
ezuela, and South Africa. Crafts and university students. It focused on underwater ar-
Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia (September-Octo- chaeological sites in the Bay of Salary, notably the wrecks of
ber 2014): organized by UNESCO with the Indonesian Di- Winterton (1792), Nossa Senhora do Monte do Carmo (1774)
rectorate of Cultural Properties and Museums, Directorate and Surprise (1885).
General of Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture. The Campeche, Mexico (July 2019): organized by UNESCO
participants included 19 Indonesian nationals and 8 ASEAN and the Mexican National Institute of Anthropology and Histo-
participants from Cambodia, the Philippines, Laos and Thai- ry (INAH) and its Subdirectorate for Underwater Archaeology
land. (SAS). The course was supported by the Spanish Agency for
Kemer, Turkey (May 2015): Following up on recommenda- International Cooperation and Development (AECID). Train-
tions from the First African Regional Meeting on the Protec- ers came from UNESCO, Mexico and from Spain (the Uni-
tion of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Nigeria 2013), an in- versity of Cádiz and the National Museum of Underwater Ar-
tensive 15-day training course was organized by UNESCO chaeology ARQVA). There were 19 participants from 15 Latin
and Selҫuk University under the framework of the UniTwin American and Caribbean countries.
network. Although it was inside the framework of the UNES-
CO Foundation course it was extended beyond its course syl- The UNESCO UCH Foundation Course may also have influ-
labus. The 15 international participants came from Namibia, enced a number of non-UNESCO training initiatives hosted
Nigeria, Madagascar, the Algeria, Egypt, Libya and Morocco by independent institutions. In 2017, the Confédération Mon-
(Arab Magreb Union), South Africa, and from Turkey (Fig. 2). diale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) conducted week-
Hoi An, Vietnam (June-July 2015): organized by UNESCO long UCH training courses in both Pozzouli and Calabria,
with the Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Archaeology Italy. The Maritime Archaeology Sea Trust (MAST) has sup-
and Fine Arts (SEAMEO-SPAFA) and the Cultural Heritage ported UCH diving courses in the United Kingdom, including
Fig. 4 The 654-page Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwa-
ter Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002172/217234e.pdf/; accessed 30th
September 2020.
PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) special- tablishment of a clear international training standard, created
ty certifications. Academic programmes, like the University by a broad array of international professionals in the field of
of Hawaii’s Maritime Archaeology Survey Techniques course maritime archaeology and heritage preservation, is a remark-
(also MAST) and the University of Guam’s Maritime Archae- able achievement. UNESCO’s UCH Foundation Course cur-
ology Program have benefitted directly from the consolidation riculum has become a standard for maritime archaeology and
of information provided by the free online UCH Foundation for resource management courses throughout the world.
curriculum.
Sometimes these independent UCH capacity building efforts Acknowledgements
closely mirror the Foundation Course organization and con- I would like to acknowledge and thank the ICOMOS/ICUCH
tent. In 2017, Chinese Taipei’s Bureau of Cultural Heritage team whom have written extensively on the history of the
(BOCH) supported an intensive four-week UCH Founda- UNESCO UCH Foundation course and played such an im-
tion-style workshop in the small fishing village of Badouzi, portant role in the development of this curriculum: Christo-
near Keelung. The course was hosted by Chinese Taipei’s pher J. Underwood, Martijn R. Manders, Tatiana Villegas, and
National Museum of Marine Science and Technology. Nine- Arturo Rey da Silva, among others.
teen candidates from Chinese Taipei participated in the
classroom and in-water skills training taught by international
instructors. Substantial portions of the course manual were
also translated into Mandarin. 1 The UNESCO Foundation Course manual can be downloaded from: https://unesdoc.
unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000217234; accessed 30th September 2020.
The UNESCO training course in Jamaica 2012 was the first to
2 Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo.
use the Foundation manual developed from the Asia-Pacific
region (Fig. 4), revising and adapting content specifically for
UCH capacity building in the Caribbean. In the subsequent References
cases above, course presentations were all tailored or modi-
Favis R L, Manders M R and C J Underwood (2012) Introduction: Develop-
fied to better represent different locations by trainers engaged ment of the Regional Capacity Building Programme on Underwater Cultu-
ral Heritage. In: Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on
from those regions. The formal revision and translation of the the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia
Asia-Pacific manual for the Latin American and Caribbean and the Pacific, M Manders and C Underwood editors. Bangkok, Thailand:
UNESCO.
(LAC) region is currently underway, to be published first in En-
Manders M R (2012) Regional Capacity Building in Asia and the Pacific: The
glish and, subject to available funds translated into Spanish. Key to the Effective Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural
Heritage. Presentation materials: UNESCO Asia-Pacific Meeting on the Pro-
tection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Koh Kong, Cambodia, 14–15 May
Future 2012.
The development and implementation of the UCH Founda- Prott L V (ed) (2006) Finishing the Interrupted Voyage: Papers of the UNESCO
tion capacity building programme is not without challenges. Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Un-
derwater Cultural Heritage. Leicester: UNESCO Bangkok Institute of Art and
Funding for courses is neither permanent nor sustainable, Law.
but is often on an ‘as-available’ basis. Basic diving instruction Underwood C J, Manders M R, Villegas T and A Rey da Silva (2020) Introduc-
(as opposed to UCH survey methods instruction) remains the tion: The UNESCO Training Programme for the Protection of the Underwater
Cultural Heritage in Latin America and the Caribbean. In: Training Manual
responsibility of the host institutions, and course candidates for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of
Underwater Cultural Heritage in Latin America and the Caribbean (publica-
are often new to the underwater world. Some programmes tion pending).
have raised the issue of how to credit the training certificate
at the conclusion of the intensive course, relative to their own
academic degrees or skills assessments, but so far this level
of accreditation has not been achieved.
The capacity building programme has, nonetheless, been
successfully established and is continuing to grow. There
are other reference works on maritime archaeology and site
management, and UCH curricula and training programmes
available at different levels, but none have been specifical-
ly designed for global audiences at an international level, or
dedicated to regional translation and adaptation.
In the context of the relatively new field of maritime archae-
ology, one for which the management and protection of gen-
erally unseen resources has proven so challenging, the es-
184 Capacity Building Models and Initiatives in Regions with Limited Resources: the Case of Lebanon
CAPACITY BUILDING MODELS AND INITIATIVES

IN REGIONS WITH LIMITED CULTURAL HERITAGE RESOURCES:
THE CASE OF LEBANON
Introduction: The Nature and Scope of Maritime Archae- submerged sites date back to the 17th century.2 Important fig-
ology and Research in Lebanon ures that significantly contributed to the field include French
Popularly known as the homeland of the Phoenicians, Leba- Jesuit Father Antoine Poidebard who applied aerial photogra-
non’s intrinsic relationship with the Mediterranean Sea testi- phy to the study of submerged structures in the 1930s, and
fies to its rich maritime archaeological and cultural heritage. British pioneer of underwater archaeology Honor Frost who
The wide range of sites includes coastal, urban and rural set- worked intermittently in Lebanon from the 1950s through to
tlements; infilled and submerged harbour structures; maritime the early 2000s (Semaan 2018a, 84–93). More recently, the
quarry sites; riverbeds and mouths with archaeological poten- discipline has started to shift from a reactive and harbour-cen-
tial; as well as shipwrecks. 1
tred practice to a more proactive approach with an increasing
Maritime archaeology is a nascent discipline in Lebanon, de- number of local specialised researchers (Harpster 2018, 60).
spite that preliminary interests and research in coastal and Research and in-house capacity building initiatives have also
gained momentum in the past six years with the advent of the
Honor Frost Foundation (HFF)3 and its support for developing
the field in the country. Indeed, the HFF established a team in
Lebanon in 2019, in response to the recent growing coastal
development which is threatening the maritime archaeologi-
cal and cultural resource of the country.4
Challenges to and legal frameworks of UCH

The rich maritime archaeological and cultural heritage of Leb-
anon faces, however, substantial challenges that range be-
tween an extensive coastal urbanisation, land reclamation,
wanton destruction, fishing and diving practices, looting and
pillaging, the absence of strategic planning, and the general
indifference of the population towards their underwater cultur-
al heritage to name a few.5 Mitigating these threats through
legal courses of action does not suffer from a lack of national
or international instruments but from the failure of implement-
ing such laws. Indeed, Lebanon became a signatory of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
in 1984, and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of
the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001) in 2007.6
Capacity building initiatives to date

In the face of the many challenges threatening the preserva-
tion and conservation of the maritime cultural heritage of Leb-
anon a sustainable and staged approach for capacity building
is in dire need in order to develop the archaeological skill base
and raise awareness of the significance of Lebanon’s under-
Fig. 1 The poster advertising the lecture tour undertaken
water cultural heritage (UCH). This would be a multi-faceted
at several Lebanese University (UL) campuses. © Wissam
Khalil. approach involving the education of the different stakehold-
Keywords: Capacity Building – Maritime Archaeology – Eastern Mediterranean – Lebanon

Capacity Building Models and Initiatives in Regions with Limited Resources: the Case of Lebanon 185
ers; encouraging and developing research; documenting and years (2015–2018) (Semaan 2018b). The main research
inventorying existing sites to determine the nature, breadth theme of this postdoc considers the seascape of the site of
and scope of the resource; as well as public archaeology. Anfeh, North Lebanon8 and results are expected to be pub-
The following will discuss a few of the initiatives undertaken lished in a future monograph.
in recent years that aim at building capacity among Lebanese In order for local undergraduate students in archaeology to
professional archaeologists, students of archaeology, mem- grasp a sense of maritime archaeology, a lecture tour was un-
bers of relevant authorities, and the wider population. dertaken at three branches of the Lebanese University by the
author with Dr Lucy Blue from the University of Southampton
Education at university level and the Maritime Archaeological Director of HFF in April 2017
Higher education in maritime archaeology is absent from uni- titled: Maritime Archaeology and the role of the Honor Frost
versities’ curricula in the country. There are no related cours- Foundation (HFF) in Lebanon: ‘New Horizons and Opportuni-
es in undergraduate programmes, neither are there special- ties’ (Fig. 1). These university campuses are located in three
ised master’s programmes. Lebanese students who have coastal sites Tripoli, Beirut, and Sidon with enduring maritime
an interest in the field are obliged to attend courses abroad. communities. Students were introduced to the scope, ap-
Moreover, local universities that offer courses in mainstream proaches, and broader understanding of maritime archaeolo-
archaeology have seen their registered student numbers de- gy, the nature of the resource, the early developments of the
crease and some departments were forced to shut down their field in Lebanon, the range of local maritime sites, and the
programmes (Abdul Massih 2010, 71). This is the result of a scope of research thus far in the field in the country. They also
general lack of interest in archaeology and a great gap in fund- learnt about the Foundation’s activities in terms of research,
ing opportunities and job offers (Demesticha et al. 2019, 281). education and training, capacity building, management and
Such a trend discourages still-running departments to ven- protection of maritime sites and culture, as well as dissemina-
ture into establishing MA programmes in maritime archaeol- tion and publication. Finally, students were introduced to the
ogy. A timid attempt to mitigate such a lack was undertaken modalities of applying to the MA/PHD scholarships schemes
by the History and Archaeology Department at the American offered by HFF.
University of Beirut (AUB) when it granted the Whittlesey
Chair Visiting Assistant Professor to nautical archaeologist Dr Research, documentation, and inventorying
Ralph Pedersen who taught relevant courses for two years in In 2015, HFF granted the author a one-year bursary to under-
2007 and 2008. Such courses were offered to archaeology take the compilation of a desk-based assessment (DBA) for
students, as well as being elective courses in other majors. maritime archaeology in the country that will be made avail-
A more recent initiative is the establishment, in the fall of 2019, able for interested students and researchers alike. The field
of a Minor in Marine Sciences and Culture at the AUB with the still lacked, thus far, a nation-wide DBA that would provide
support of the HFF. It is an interdisciplinary course that draws the proper scientific and archaeological context for ongoing
on maritime archaeology, geology, and marine geophysics. and future work. The DBA accounted for ongoing research
It is being taught by professors from several departments at projects and archaeological potential at a number of coastal
AUB, in collaboration with visiting lecturers from the Univer- and underwater sites in Lebanon. This inventory constitutes
sity of Patras, Greece, the HFF, as well as international ex- a base-line of knowledge and informed assessment on which
perts. The course culminates with a practical field school that we can base further strategies. In doing so, targeted areas
offers students hands-on experience and practical application would be identified for further surveying and prioritising in re-
of the theories and methods learnt. 7
lation to their preservation status, that is, if these sites are
Otherwise archaeology students have the ability to apply to directly affected by urban and offshore development and oth-
scholarship schemes offered by HFF and the Said Founda- er threats. The DBA essentially aimed at gauging the mari-
tion: The Said Foundation, through the British Council offered time archaeological potential of sites in Lebanon in order to
the first full scholarship to the author in 2006 for her to attend study them, protect them, think of and develop management
the MA programme in maritime archaeology at the Universi- strategies and raise awareness about the maritime cultural
ty of Southampton. HFF funded four Lebanese archaeology heritage of the country. The DBA included researching pub-
students since 2013 to complete their MA and/or PhD in mar- lished archaeological books and articles; unpublished the-
itime archaeology at the University of Southampton. ses, dissertations, and reports; archaeological databases;
In terms of early career research, HFF helped establish and historical documents; cartographic and pictorial documents;
majorly fund the first postdoctoral fellowship in maritime ar- aerial photographs; geotechnical information; as well as in-
chaeology in Lebanon at the Department of Archaeology and formal communication with fisherpersons and sports divers.9
Museology at the University of Balamand for a period of three Since its creation in 2011, HFF has also supported a sub-
stantial number of research projects throughout the country ronments. In the light of recent developments in maritime ar-
as part of its mission to develop the field in Lebanon and ad- chaeology and more specifically the impetus that underwater
vance research. Projects include the areas in Northern Leb- surveys and excavations have been gaining in the last few
anon, Batroun, Byblos, Beirut, Sidon, Kharayeb, and Tyre.10 years in Lebanon, more artefacts are being retrieved from the
Such projects are either directed by local archaeologists or seabed for research purposes. However, local archaeologists
in collaboration with foreign missions. They constitute an im- struggle at times to find available and specialised experts that
portant opportunity for Lebanese and regional students of ar- would provide the necessary conservation treatments for un-
chaeology to gain hands-on fieldwork experience in the field. derwater cultural material. Indeed, there is a lack of national
expertise in handling and preserving such artefacts, and a
dire absence of an infrastructure dedicated to such a purpose.
Hence, a first-aid conservation lab would be a first step to-
wards mitigating these shortcomings, as it will be specializa-
tion-oriented, accessible to all teams operating locally should
they need to, and in accordance with the General Directorate
of Antiquities rules and regulations. In the meantime, a couple
of modest initiatives help in mitigating this issue.
In 2015, the author attended the training seminar entitled
‘Introductory Courses on Conservation and Restoration of
Archaeological Finds’ in Zadar, Croatia. It was organized by
the International Centre for Underwater Archaeology (ICUA),
Zadar13, with the support of the UNESCO Regional Bureau for
Science and Culture in Europe, Venice (Italy).
Fig. 2 The author lecturing participants during the NAS field Moreover, two Lebanese practising conservators were invited
school at Anfeh, Lebanon. © Malvern Archaeological Diving to attend a one-week workshop on the Conservation of Un-
Unit.
derwater Finds, which took place in December 2018 at the
Laboratory for the Conservation of Underwater Finds, of the
Training courses, workshops, field schools Cypriot Department of Antiquities in Larnaca. The workshop
Training courses and other theoretical and practical sessions was organised by the Department of Antiquities Cyprus, in
have proven to be an essential component of building capac- collaboration with the HFF. They joined other attendees from
ity worldwide (See other chapters in this book). These events the region mainly Egypt and Cyprus and were funded by the
are still modest in Lebanon but they are paving the way for HFF.
more future endeavours of this type.
Governmental workshops
NAS training In Lebanon, the General Directorate of Antiquities (DGA) is
Two NAS field schools were recently funded by HFF in Sep-
11
the governmental authority responsible for archaeology and
tember 2017 and 2018 at two archaeological sites in Leba- heritage in Lebanon under the authority of the Ministry of Cul-
non: Anfeh in the north and Sidon in the south. They were
12
ture. Currently, none of its employees are maritime archaeol-
organized respectively by the University of Balamand and ogists by trade but some have a broad understanding of the
the Lebanese University-Sidon Branch (Fig. 2). A total of 17 field and participate in related informative or training sessions.
Lebanese, Syrian, and Palestinian participants, including ar- As such and in collaboration with UNESCO, Lebanese mar-
chaeologists, students of archaeology, divers, and employees itime archaeologist Dr Ibrahim Noureddine delivered a short
from the antiquity department underwent training in surveying introductory course on maritime archaeology in May 2012 to
and recording methods underwater. The participants with no a number of DGA employees joined by professional archae-
prior dive experience were granted further financial support ologists. The two-day course focused on the general devel-
to obtain their Open Water diving licence and all participants opment of the discipline along with theoretical techniques on
were offered the possibility to undertake several refresher how to conduct a survey underwater, document and excavate
dives ahead of the field schools. an underwater site. Six of the participants were divers and
could apply the acquired knowledge in underwater surveying.
Conservation training In addition, the DGA participates in several workshops related
To date, Lebanon suffers from a lack of conservation facilities to maritime archaeology in Lebanon and abroad.
and destined for artefacts retrieved from underwater envi-
Capacity Building Models and Initiatives in Regions with Limited Resources: the Case of Lebanon 187
Fig. 3 Participants of the field school interviewing retired fisherpersons in Anfeh. © Julian Jansen van Rensburg.
Targeted field schools mented at the two legally declared marine protected areas in
In 2014, a maritime ethnography field school was organized Tyre in South Lebanon in 2015 and Tripoli in North Lebanon
by the UOB, supported by HFF, and led by maritime archaeo- in 2016. Such trails can be implemented at different coastal
logist Dr Julian Jansen van Rensburg. The aims of this project archaeological sites with UCH potential, as well as on modern
were to conduct a maritime ethnography workshop to train and historical wrecks in collaboration with dive centres and
Lebanese participants in the methods of maritime ethnogra- fishermen familiar with the area. An added value and good
phic recording and to document the tangible and intangible way to increase access can be the use of glass-bottom boats
maritime heritage of the Anfeh seafaring community. The free for the non-diving/snorkelling tourists, as is common practice
two-day workshop was attended by 25 participants coming worldwide.15 Public access to underwater archaeology, in the
from four different institutions in Lebanon (Fig. 2). This was form of museums or dive trails, ensures the protection and
followed by a three-week practical that aimed at gathering preservation of the underwater cultural heritage concerned,
information about the maritime traditions of the fishermen of while promising a lasting financial return.
Anfeh with over 20 fishermen having been interviewed (Jan-
sen Van Rensburg 2014, 7). The importance of the fishing Such initiatives would enrich the discipline and contribute to
traditions in Anfeh had also attracted the interest of a small the protection and conservation of sites. They also allow to
group of dedicated volunteers from a local NGO ‘The Anfeh evaluate and quantify the local socio-economic benefits of
and Neighbourhood Heritage Committee’. This NGO works UCH. Indeed, they would promote diving tourism economies
on the preservation of many aspects of Anfeh’s heritage and that ensure responsible and controlled access to sites (Rey
they were keen on having the maritime traditions of the An- da Silva 2014, 751– 52, 755). They would also build a marine
feh fishermen recorded. Indeed, members of this committee
14
and maritime cultural heritage community that can collabora-
played an essential role throughout the fieldwork practical, te with policy makers and heritage practitioners to enhance
enabling access to members of the fishing community, in- such benefits and enable a heritage of this nature to contribu-
cluding members of their own family (Jansen Van Rensburg te to sustainable growth.
2014, 7). As Marriner and Morhange state (2008, 434) ‘Not only does
this have direct cumulative ramifications for the local econo-
Public archaeology my, but it would also be an effective means of policing the
In his book on the social and economic benefits of marine area and generating funds for future research’.
and maritime cultural heritage Anthony Firth argues that A final example of public archaeology are two short educa-
building capacity in a sustainable manner can be achieved tional documentaries funded by HFF that exemplify good
through promoting and implementing ways in which maritime practice at the two archaeological sites of Anfeh and Ain el
cultural heritage actively generates socio-economic and en- Mreisseh-Beirut. 16 In the course of 10 minutes, these docu-
vironmental benefits (Firth 2015, 10). A way to achieve this mentaries presented to the public a pedagogic approach when
is through investing in eco-tourism or cultural tourism exem- studying an underwater site in order to grasp the significance
plified by guided underwater cultural trails that were imple- and benefits of underwater and wider maritime archaeology
for the country. They aimed at breaching the gap between 10 https://honorfrostfoundation.org/lebanon-projects/; accessed 30th September 2020.
11 The Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) is a UK based charity committed to the re-
both the academic and non-specialist worlds, and tackle the search, conservation and preservation of maritime cultural heritage. https://www.nauticalar-
lack of public awareness and education vis-a-vis of the field. chaeologysociety.org/; accessed 30th September 2020.
12 https://www.nauticalarchaeologysociety.org/lebanon-training/; accessed 30th Septem-

By exposing the scientific approach of maritime archaeolo- ber 2020.
gists towards the coastal and submerged national cultural 13 ICUA was founded in 2007 in the frame of the Croatian Conservation Institute. It beca-
me an independent public institution and gained the status of a UNESCO Category II centre
heritage, these documentaries challenged the perception of in 2009. See https://icua.hr/en/ ; accessed 30th September 2020.
archaeological artefacts, which is always exaggerated, such 14 See https://honorfrostfoundation.org/anfeh-recording-the-tangible-and-intangible-ma-
ritime-heritage-of-the-anfeh-seafaring-community-j-jansen-van-rensburg/; accessed 30th
as stories related to gold and treasures. They are a positive September 2020.
step towards raising awareness and better target information 15 More information on dive trails and dry-access tourism can be found at http://www.
unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/UNESCO_UCH_Development_Study.
dissemination about maritime archaeology in Lebanon. pdf/; accessed 30th September 2020.
In conclusion, building capacity in a staged approach and 16 To view these documentaries, see https://honorfrostfoundation.org/?s=documentary/;
from the ground up contribute towards mitigating the se-
vere challenges that the UCH is facing in Lebanon. By ed-
ucating and training the different stakeholders, whether ar-
chaeologists themselves, concerned officials, fisherpersons
References
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Abdul Massih J (2010). The archaeological heritage of Lebanon. Near Eastern
and breaching the gap between academics and the different Archaeology, 73(2/3), 68–72.
communities we could reach a better understanding of the
Demesticha S, Semaan L and Z Morsy (2019) Capacity Building in Maritime
resources and ensure its preservation for future generations. Archaeology: The Case of the Eastern Mediterranean (Cyprus, Lebanon and
Egypt). In: Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 14(3), 369–389. Doi: 10.1007/
s11457-019-09243-y.
Acknowledgements
Firth A (2015) The social and economic benefits of marine and maritime cultur-
I would like to thank the General Directorate of Antiquities of al heritage: towards greater accessibility and effective management. Fjor-
dr Limited for Honor Frost Foundation. http://honorfrostfoundation.org/wp/
Lebanon for encouraging and supporting the development of wp-content/uploads/2015/09/HFF_Report_2015_web-4.pdf/; accessed 30th
maritime archaeological projects in the country; as well as September 2020.
the Honor Frost Foundation for championing and fostering lo- Haddad Z (2010) The state of underwater archaeology in Lebanon. Near East-
ern Archaeology, 73(2/3), 170–175.
cal capacity building initiatives. I am also grateful to Wissam
Khalil, Ian Cundy (MADU), and Julian Jansen van Rensburg Harpster M (2018) Maritime Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean: Ap-
proaches, Perspectives, and Histories. In: Journal of Eastern Mediterranean
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Jansen Van Rensburg J (2014) Recording the Tangible and Intangible Maritime
Heritage of the Anfeh Seafaring Community, Lebanon – 2014. http://hon-
orfrostfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Recording-the-tan-
gible-and-intangible-maritime-heritage-of-the-Anfe-seafaring-community_
Project-Report.pdf/; accessed 30th September 2020.
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Ocean & Coastal Management, 51, 430–441.
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naires des travaux de prospection et de fouille 2011 – 2015. In: Bulletin
d’archéologie et d’architecture Libanaises, 16, 255–294.
Rey da Silva A (2014) The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of

the Underwater Cultural Heritage. In: S. Tripati (ed.) Shipwrecks around the
World. The Revelation of the Past New Delhi, pp. 749–782.
1 These sites were studied in a desk-based assessment put together by the author and Semaan L (2016) Surveying the waters of Anfeh: preliminary results. In: Skyllis
funded by the Honor Frost Foundation. 16(1), 54-67
2 For the diachronic development of the field in Lebanon see Semaan (2018a) and
— (2018a) Maritime archaeology in the developing world. The case of Leba-
Haddad (2010).
non. In: Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Stud-
3 The Honor Frost Foundation is a UK registered charity dedicated to promoting the ies, 6(1–2), 79–98.
advancement, research, and publication of maritime archaeology in the Eastern Mediterra-
nean. See https://honorfrostfoundation.org/; accessed 30th September 2020. — (2018b) Report on the three-year postdoctoral fellowship of Lucy Se-
4 https://honorfrostfoundation.org/grants-awarded/small-grants/lebanon/hff-lebanon-te- maan. Balamand. https://honorfrostfoundation.org/wp-content/up-
am/; accessed 30th September 2020. loads/2019/06/20181217-LS-_PDF-Triannial-report-2.pdf/; accessed 30th
September 2020.
5 These were detailed elsewhere, see Semaan (2020).
6 For details on national and international legal frameworks directing the UCL in Leba- — (2020) Maritime Archaeology in post-war Lebanon: The trade, challenges,
non see Semaan (2020). and future prospects. In: Rodrigues, J. and Traviglia, A. (eds) IKUWA6.
Shared Heritage: Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress for Un-
7 https://www.aub.edu.lb/fas/Documents/Minor%20in%20Marine%20Sciences%20
and%20Culture%20-%20Leaflet.pdf; accessed 30th September 2020. derwater Archaeology 28 November–2 December 2016, Western Australian
Maritime Museum Fremantle, Western Australia. Oxford: Archaeopress Pu-
8 Anfeh is a coastal town located in North Lebanon some 70km north of Beirut. For the blishing Ltd, pp. 172–185.
site see Panayot-Haroun et al. 2016 and Semaan 2016.
9 The publication of this DBA is under consideration by the HFF.

189
Diving in the Bay of Bones, Lake Ohrid

(North Macedonia), with the pile-dwelling reconstructions in
the background. The diver is setting up the excavation grid.
© Marco Hostettler, EXPLO, University of Bern.
190
APPENDICES
Appendix I 191
APPENDIX I: ICOMOS CHARTER ON THE PROTECTION

AND MANAGEMENT OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE
(SOFIA 1996)
ICOMOS
Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwa- identity and can be important to people‘s sense of community.
ter Cultural Heritage (ratified by the 11th ICOMOS Ge- If managed sensitively, underwater cultural heritage can play
neral Assembly, held in Sofia, Bulgaria, from 5th to 9th a positive role in the promotion of recreation and tourism.
October 1996) Archaeology is driven by research; it adds to knowledge of
the diversity of human culture through the ages and it provi-
This Charter is intended to encourage the protection and ma- des new and challenging ideas about life in the past.
nagement of underwater cultural heritage in inland and insho- Such knowledge and ideas contribute to understanding life
re waters, in shallow seas and in the deep oceans. today and, thereby, to anticipating future challenges.
It focuses on the specific attributes and circumstances of cul- Many marine activities, which are themselves beneficial and
tural heritage under water and should be understood as a desirable, can have unfortunate consequences for underwa-
supplement to the ICOMOS Charter for the Protection and ter cultural heritage if their effects are not foreseen.
Management of Archaeological Heritage, 1990. The 1990 Underwater cultural heritage may be threatened by construc-
Charter defines the ‘archaeological heritage’ as that part of tion work that alters the shore and seabed or alters the flow of
the material heritage in respect of which archaeological met- current, sediment and pollutants. Underwater cultural herita-
hods provide primary information, comprising all vestiges ge may also be threatened by insensitive exploitation of living
of human existence and consisting of places relating to all and non-living resources. Furthermore, inappropriate forms
manifestations of human activity, abandoned structures, and of access and the incremental impact of removing ‘souvenirs
remains of all kinds, together with all the portable cultural ma- can have a deleterious effect.
terial associated with them. For the purposes of this Charter Many of these threats can be removed or substantially redu-
underwater cultural heritage is understood to mean the ar- ced by early consultation with archaeologists and by imple-
chaeological heritage which is in, or has been removed from, menting mitigatory projects. This Charter is intended to assist
an underwater environment. It includes submerged sites and in bringing a high standard of archaeological expertise to bear
structures, wreck sites and wreckage and their archaeologi- on such threats to underwater cultural heritage in a prompt
cal and natural context. and efficient manner.
By its very character the underwater cultural heritage is an Underwater cultural heritage is also threatened by activities
international resource. A large part of the underwater cultu- that are wholly undesirable because they are intended to pro-
ral heritage is located in an international setting and derives fit few at the expense of many. Commercial exploitation of
from international trade and communication in which ships underwater cultural heritage for trade or speculation is fun-
and their contents are lost at a distance from their origin or damentally incompatible with the protection and management
destination. of the heritage. This Charter is intended to ensure that all in-
Archaeology is concerned with environmental conservation; vestigations are explicit in their aims, methodology and anti-
in the language of resource management, underwater cultu- cipated results so that the intention of each project is trans-
ral heritage is both finite and non-renewable. If underwater parent to all.
cultural heritage is to contribute to our appreciation of the en-
vironment in the future, then we have to take individual and Article 1 - Fundamental Principles
collective responsibility in the present for ensuring its conti- The preservation of underwater cultural heritage in situ should
nued survival. be considered as a first option.
Archaeology is a public activity; everybody is entitled to draw Public access should be encouraged.
upon the past in informing their own lives, and every effort to Non-destructive techniques, non-intrusive survey and sam-
curtail knowledge of the past is an infringement of personal pling should be encouraged in preference to excavation.
autonomy. Investigation must not adversely impact the underwater cul-
Underwater cultural heritage contributes to the formation of tural heritage more than is necessary for the mitigatory or
192 Appendix I
research objectives of the project. ensure conservation of underwater cultural heritage and
Investigation must avoid unnecessary disturbance of human supporting documentation in the event of any interruption
remains or venerated sites. in anticipated timings.
Investigation must be accompanied by adequate documen-
tation. Article 5 - Research objectives, methodology,
and techniques
Article 2 - Project Design Research objectives and the details of the methodology
Prior to investigation a project must be prepared, taking into and techniques to be employed must be set down in the
account: project design. The methodology should accord with the
research objectives of the investigation and the techniques
• the mitigatory or research objectives of the project;
employed must be as unintrusive as possible.
• the methodology to be used and the techniques to be
Post-fieldwork analysis of artefacts and documentation is
employed;
integral to all investigation; adequate provision for this ana-
• anticipated funding;
lysis must be made in the project design.
• the time-table for completing the project;
• the composition, qualifications, responsibility and
Article 6 - Qualifications, responsibility and experience
experience of the investigating team;
All persons on the investigating team must be suitably qua-
• material conservation;
lified and experienced for their project roles. They must be
• site management and maintenance;
fully briefed and understand the work required.
• arrangements for collaboration with museums and other
All intrusive investigations of underwater cultural heritage
institutions;
will only be undertaken under the direction and control of a
• documentation;
named underwater archaeologist with recognised qualifica-
• health and safety;
tions and experience appropriate to the investigation.
• report preparation;
• deposition of archives, including underwater cultural
Article 7 - Preliminary investigation
heritage removed during investigation and
All intrusive investigations of underwater cultural heritage
• dissemination, including public participation.
must be preceded and informed by a site assessment that
• The project design should be revised and amended
evaluates the vulnerability, significance and potential of the
as necessary.
site.
• Investigation must be carried out in accordance
The site assessment must encompass background studies
with the project design. The project design should be
of available historical and archaeological evidence, the ar-
made available to the archaeological community.
chaeological and environmental characteristics of the site
Article 3 - Funding and the consequences of the intrusion for the long-term
Adequate funds must be assured in advance of investiga- stability of the area affected by investigations.
tion to complete all stages of the project design including
conservation, report preparation and dissemination. The Article 8 - Documentation
project design should include contingency plans that will All investigation must be thoroughly documented in accor-
ensure conservation of underwater cultural heritage and dance with current professional standards of archaeologi-
supporting documentation in the event of any interruption cal documentation.
in anticipated funding. Documentation must provide a comprehensive record of
Project funding must not require the sale of underwater the site, which includes the provenance of underwater cul-
cultural heritage or the use of any strategy that will cause tural heritage moved or removed in the course of investi-
underwater cultural heritage and supporting documentation gation, field notes, plans and drawings, photographs and
to be irretrievably dispersed. records in other media.
Article 4 - Time-table Article 9 - Material conservation

Adequate time must be assured in advance of investiga- The material conservation programme must provide for
tion to complete all stages of the project design including treatment of archaeological remains during investigation, in
conservation, report preparation and dissemination. The transit and in the long term.
project design should include contingency plans that will Material conservation must be carried out in accordance
with current professional standards.
Appendix I 193
Article 10 - Site management and maintenance Co-operation with local communities and groups is to be
A programme of site management must be prepared, de- encouraged, as is co-operation with communities and
tailing measures for protecting and managing in situ under- groups that are particularly associated with the underwater
water cultural heritage in the course of an upon termination cultural heritage concerned. It is desirable that investiga-
of fieldwork. The programme should include public informa- tions proceed with the consent and endorsement of such
tion, reasonable provision for site stabilisation, monitoring communities and groups.
and protection against interference. Public access to in situ The investigation team will seek to involve communities
underwater cultural heritage should be promoted, except and interest groups in investigations to the extent that such
where access is incompatible with protection and manage- involvement is compatible with protection and manage-
ment. ment. Where practical, the investigation team should pro-
vide opportunities for the public to develop archaeological
Article 11 - Health and safety skills through training and education.
The health and safety of the investigating team and third Collaboration with museums and other institutions is to be
parties is paramount. All persons on the investigating team encouraged. Provision for visits, research and reports by
must work according to a safety policy that satisfies rele- collaborating institutions should be made in advance of in-
vant statutory and professional requirements and is set out vestigation.
in the project design. A final synthesis of the investigation must be made availa-
ble as soon as possible, having regard to the complexity of
Article 12 - Reporting the research, and deposited in relevant public records.
Interim reports should be made available according to a
time-table set out in the project design, and deposited in Article 15 - International co-operation
relevant public records. International co-operation is essential for protection and
Reports should include: management of underwater cultural heritage and should be
an account of the objectives; promoted in the interests of high standards of investigation
an account of the methodology and techniques employed; and research. International co-operation should be encou-
an account of the results achieved; raged in order to make effective use of archaeologists and
recommendations concerning future research, site ma- other professionals who are specialised in investigations of
nagement and curation of underwater cultural heritage re- underwater cultural heritage. Programmes for exchange of
moved during the investigation. professionals should be considered as a means of dissemi-
nating best practice.
Article 13 - Curation
The project archive, which includes underwater cultural
heritage removed during investigation and a copy of all
supporting documentation, must be deposited in an ins-
titution that can provide for public access and permanent
curation of the archive. Arrangements for deposition of the
archive should be agreed before investigation commences,
and should be set out in the project design. The archive
should be prepared in accordance with current professional
standards.
The scientific integrity of the project archive must be assu-
red; deposition in a number of institutions must not preclude
reassembly to allow further research. Underwater cultural
heritage is not to be traded as items of commercial value.
Article 14 - Dissemination
Public awareness of the results of investigations and the
significance of underwater cultural heritage should be pro-
moted through popular presentation in a range of media.
Access to such presentations by a wide audience should
not be prejudiced by high charges.
194 Appendix II
APPENDIX II: UNESCO CONVENTION ON THE PROTECTION OF THE

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE (PARIS 2001)
UNESCO
The General Conference of the United Nations Educatio- Believing that cooperation among States, international orga-
nal, Scientific and Cultural Organization, meeting in Paris nizations, scientific institutions, professional organizations,
from 15 October to 3 November 2001, at its 31st session, archaeologists, divers, other interested parties and the public
at large is essential for the protection of underwater cultural
Acknowledging the importance of underwater cultural her- heritage,
itage as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity
and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, Considering that survey, excavation and protection of under-
nations, and their relations with each other concerning their water cultural heritage necessitate the availability and appli-
common heritage, cation of special scientific methods and the use of suitable
techniques and equipment as well as a high degree of profes-
Realizing the importance of protecting and preserving the sional specialization, all of which indicate a need for uniform
underwater cultural heritage and that responsibility therefor governing criteria,
rests with all States,
Realizing the need to codify and progressively develop ru-
Noting growing public interest in and public appreciation of les relating to the protection and preservation of underwater
underwater cultural heritage, cultural heritage in conformity with international law and prac-
tice, including the UNESCO Convention on the Means of Pro-
Convinced of the importance of research, information and hibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer
education to the protection and preservation of underwater of Ownership of Cultural Property of 14 November 1970, the
cultural heritage, UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural
and Natural Heritage of 16 November 1972 and the United
Convinced of the public’s right to enjoy the educational and Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December
recreational benefits of responsible non-intrusive access to 1982,
in situ underwater cultural heritage, and of the value of public
education to contribute to awareness, appreciation and pro- Committed to improving the effectiveness of measures at in-
tection of that heritage, ternational, regional and national levels for the preservation in
situ or, if necessary, for scientific or protective purposes, the
Aware of the fact that underwater cultural heritage is threate- careful recovery of underwater cultural heritage,
ned by unauthorized activities directed at it, and of the need
for stronger measures to prevent such activities, Having decided at its twenty-ninth session that this question
should be made the subject of an international convention,
Conscious of the need to respond appropriately to the possi-
ble negative impact on underwater cultural heritage of legiti- Adopts this second day of November 2001 this Convention.
mate activities that may incidentally affect it,
Article 1 – Definitions
Deeply concerned by the increasing commercial exploitation For the purposes of this Convention:
of underwater cultural heritage, and in particular by certain
1. (a)‘Underwater cultural heritage’ means all traces of human
activities aimed at the sale, acquisition or barter of underwa-
existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological
ter cultural heritage,
character which have been partially or totally under water,
periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years such as:
Aware of the availability of advanced technology that enhan-
ces discovery of and access to underwater cultural heritage,
Appendix II 195
(i) sites, structures, buildings, artefacts and human remains, take all appropriate measures in conformity with this Con-
together with their archaeological and natural context; vention and with international law that are necessary to pro-
(ii) vessels, aircraft, other vehicles or any part thereof, their tect underwater cultural heritage, using for this purpose the
cargo or other contents, together with their archaeologi- best practicable means at their disposal and in accordance
cal and natural context; and with their capabilities.
(iii) objects of prehistoric character. 5. The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage
(b) Pipelines and cables placed on the seabed shall not be shall be considered as the first option before allowing or
considered as underwater cultural heritage. engaging in any activities directed at this heritage.
(c) Installations other than pipelines and cables, placed on 6. Recovered underwater cultural heritage shall be deposited,
the seabed and still in use, shall not be considered as un- conserved and managed in a manner that ensures its long-
derwater cultural heritage. term preservation.
2. (a) ‘States Parties’ means States which have consented to 7. Underwater cultural heritage shall not be commercially ex-
be bound by this Convention and for which this Convention ploited.
is in force. 8. Consistent with State practice and international law, inclu-
(b) This Convention applies mutatis mutandis to those terri- ding the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,
tories referred to in Article 26, paragraph 2(b), which beco- nothing in this Convention shall be interpreted as modifying
me Parties to this Convention in accordance with the con- the rules of international law and State practice pertaining
ditions set out in that paragraph, and to that extent ‘States to sovereign immunities, nor any State’s rights with respect
Parties’ refers to those territories. to its State vessels and aircraft.
3. ‘UNESCO’ means the United Nations Educational, Scienti- 9. States Parties shall ensure that proper respect is given to
fic and Cultural Organization. all human remains located in maritime waters.
4. ‘Director-General’ means the Director-General of UNESCO. 10. Responsible non-intrusive access to observe or document
5. ‘Area’ means the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil the- in situ underwater cultural heritage shall be encouraged to
reof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. create public awareness, appreciation, and protection of
6. ‘Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage’ means the heritage except where such access is incompatible with
activities having underwater cultural heritage as their pri- its protection and management.
mary object and which may, directly or indirectly, physically 11. No act or activity undertaken on the basis of this Con-
disturb or otherwise damage underwater cultural heritage. vention shall constitute grounds for claiming, contending or
7. ‘Activities incidentally affecting underwater cultural herita- disputing any claim to national sovereignty or jurisdiction.
ge’ means activities which, despite not having underwater
cultural heritage as their primary object or one of their ob-
Article 3 – Relationship between this Convention and
jects, may physically disturb or otherwise damage under-
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
water cultural heritage.
8. ‘State vessels and aircraft’ means warships, and other ves- Nothing in this Convention shall prejudice the rights, juris-
sels or aircraft that were owned or operated by a State and diction and duties of States under international law, inclu-
used, at the time of sinking, only for government non-com- ding the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
mercial purposes, that are identified as such and that meet This Convention shall be interpreted and applied in the con-
the definition of underwater cultural heritage. text of and in a manner consistent with international law,
9. ‘Rules’ means the Rules concerning activities directed at including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
underwater cultural heritage, as referred to in Article 33 of Sea.
this Convention.
Article 4 – Relationship to law of salvage and law of
Article 2 – Objectives and general principles finds
1. This Convention aims to ensure and strengthen the protec-
Any activity relating to underwater cultural heritage to which
tion of underwater cultural heritage.
this Convention applies shall not be subject to the law of
2. States Parties shall cooperate in the protection of underwa-
salvage or law of finds, unless it:
ter cultural heritage.
(a) is authorized by the competent authorities, and
3. States Parties shall preserve underwater cultural heritage
(b) is in full conformity with this Convention, and
for the benefit of humanity in conformity with the provisions
(c) ensures that any recovery of the underwater cultural
of this Convention.
heritage achieves its maximum protection.
4. States Parties shall, individually or jointly as appropriate,
196 Appendix II
Article 5 – Activities incidentally affecting underwater Article 8 – Underwater cultural heritage in the contigu-
cultural heritage ous zone
Each State Party shall use the best practicable means at Without prejudice to and in addition to Articles 9 and 10,
its disposal to prevent or mitigate any adverse effects that and in accordance with Article 303, paragraph 2, of the
might arise from activities under its jurisdiction incidentally United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, States
affecting underwater cultural heritage. Parties may regulate and authorize activities directed at un-
derwater cultural heritage within their contiguous zone. In
so doing, they shall require that the Rules be applied.
Article 6 – Bilateral, regional or other multilateral agree-
ments
Article 9 – Reporting and notification in the exclusive
1. States Parties are encouraged to enter into bilateral, re-
economic zone and on the continental shelf
gional or other multilateral agreements or develop existing
agreements, for the preservation of underwater cultural 1. All States Parties have a responsibility to protect under-
heritage. All such agreements shall be in full conformity water cultural heritage in the exclusive economic zone and
with the provisions of this Convention and shall not dilute its on the continental shelf in conformity with this Convention.
universal character. States may, in such agreements, adopt Accordingly:
rules and regulations which would ensure better protection (a) a State Party shall require that when its national, or a
of underwater cultural heritage than those adopted in this vessel flying its flag, discovers or intends to engage in ac-
Convention. tivities directed at underwater cultural heritage located in
2. The Parties to such bilateral, regional or other multilateral its exclusive economic zone or on its continental shelf, the
agreements may invite States with a verifiable link, especi- national or the master of the vessel shall report such disco-
ally a cultural, historical or archaeological link, to the under- very or activity to it;
water cultural heritage concerned to join such agreements. (b) in the exclusive economic zone or on the continental
3. This Convention shall not alter the rights and obligations of shelf of another State Party:
States Parties regarding the protection of sunken vessels, (i) States Parties shall require the national or the master of
arising from other bilateral, regional or other multilateral ag- the vessel to report such discovery or activity to them and
reements concluded before its adoption, and, in particular, to that other State Party;
those that are in conformity with the purposes of this Con- (ii) alternatively, a State Party shall require the national or
vention. master of the vessel to report such discovery or activity
to it and shall ensure the rapid and effective transmission
of such reports to all other States Parties.
Article 7 – Underwater cultural heritage in internal wa-
2-3. On depositing its instrument of ratification, acceptance,
ters, archipelagic waters and territorial sea
approval or accession, a State Party shall declare the man-
1. States Parties, in the exercise of their sovereignty, have the ner in which reports will be transmitted under paragraph
exclusive right to regulate and authorize activities directed at 1(b) of this Article.
underwater cultural heritage in their internal waters, archip- 3. A State Party shall notify the Director-General of discover-
elagic waters and territorial sea. ies or activities reported to it under paragraph 1 of this Ar-
2. Without prejudice to other international agreements and ticle.
rules of international law regarding the protection of under- 4. The Director-General shall promptly make available to all
water cultural heritage, States Parties shall require that the States Parties any information notified to him under para-
Rules be applied to activities directed at underwater cultural graph 3 of this Article.
heritage in their internal waters, archipelagic waters and ter- 5. Any State Party may declare to the State Party in whose
ritorial sea. exclusive economic zone or on whose continental shelf the
3. Within their archipelagic waters and territorial sea, in the underwater cultural heritage is located its interest in being
exercise of their sovereignty and in recognition of general consulted on how to ensure the effective protection of that
practice among States, States Parties, with a view to coope- underwater cultural heritage. Such declaration shall be
rating on the best methods of protecting State vessels and based on a verifiable link, especially a cultural, historical
aircraft, should inform the flag State Party to this Convention or archaeological link, to the underwater cultural heritage
and, if applicable, other States with a verifiable link, especi- concerned.
ally a cultural, historical or archaeological link, with respect to
the discovery of such identifiable State vessels and aircraft.
Appendix II 197
Article 10 – Protection of underwater cultural heritage authorizations therefor, and shall promptly inform the Di-
in the exclusive economic zone and on the continental rector-General of the results, who in turn will make such
shelf information promptly available to other States Parties.
6. In coordinating consultations, taking measures, conducting
1. No authorization shall be granted for an activity directed at
preliminary research and/or issuing authorizations pursu-
underwater cultural heritage located in the exclusive eco-
ant to this Article, the Coordinating State shall act on behalf
nomic zone or on the continental shelf except in conformity
of the States Parties as a whole and not in its own interest.
with the provisions of this Article.
Any such action shall not in itself constitute a basis for the
2. A State Party in whose exclusive economic zone or on who-
assertion of any preferential or jurisdictional rights not pro-
se continental shelf underwater cultural heritage is located
vided for in international law, including the United Nations
has the right to prohibit or authorize any activity directed
Convention on the Law of the Sea.
at such heritage to prevent interference with its sovereign
7. Subject to the provisions of paragraphs 2 and 4 of this Ar-
rights or jurisdiction as provided for by international law in-
ticle, no activity directed at State vessels and aircraft shall
cluding the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
be conducted without the agreement of the flag State and
Sea.
the collaboration of the Coordinating State.
3. Where there is a discovery of underwater cultural heritage
or it is intended that activity shall be directed at underwater
cultural heritage in a State Party’s exclusive economic zone Article 11 – Reporting and notification in the Area
or on its continental shelf, that State Party shall:
1. States Parties have a responsibility to protect underwater
(a) consult all other States Parties which have declared an
cultural heritage in the Area in conformity with this Conven-
interest under Article 9, paragraph 5, on how best to protect
tion and Article 149 of the United Nations Convention on
the underwater cultural heritage;
the Law of the Sea. Accordingly, when a national, or a ves-
(b) coordinate such consultations as ‘Coordinating State’,
sel flying the flag of a State Party, discovers or intends to
unless it expressly declares that it does not wish to do so,
engage in activities directed at underwater cultural heritage
in which case the States Parties which have declared an
located in the Area, that State Party shall require its natio-
interest under Article 9, paragraph 5, shall appoint a Coor-
nal, or the master of the vessel, to report such discovery or
dinating State.
activity to it.
4. Without prejudice to the duty of all States Parties to pro-
2. States Parties shall notify the Director-General and the
tect underwater cultural heritage by way of all practicable
Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority of
measures taken in accordance with international law to
such discoveries or activities reported to them.
prevent immediate danger to the underwater cultural her-
3. The Director-General shall promptly make available to all
itage, including looting, the Coordinating State may take all
States Parties any such information supplied by States Par-
practicable measures, and/or issue any necessary authori-
ties.
zations in conformity with this Convention and, if necessa-
4. Any State Party may declare to the Director-General its
ry prior to consultations, to prevent any immediate danger
interest in being consulted on how to ensure the effective
to the underwater cultural heritage, whether arising from
protection of that underwater cultural heritage. Such decla-
human activities or any other cause, including looting. In
ration shall be based on a verifiable link to the underwater
taking such measures assistance may be requested from
cultural heritage concerned, particular regard being paid to
other States Parties.
the preferential rights of States of cultural, historical or ar-
5. The Coordinating State:
chaeological origin.
(a) shall implement measures of protection which have
been agreed by the consulting States, which include the
Coordinating State, unless the consulting States, which in- Article 12 – Protection of underwater cultural heritage in
clude the Coordinating State, agree that another State Par- the Area
ty shall implement those measures; 1. No authorization shall be granted for any activity directed
(b) shall issue all necessary authorizations for such agreed at underwater cultural heritage located in the Area except in
measures in conformity with the Rules, unless the consul- conformity with the provisions of this Article.
ting States, which include the Coordinating State, agree 2. The Director-General shall invite all States Parties which
that another State Party shall issue those authorizations; have declared an interest under Article 11, paragraph 4,
(c) may conduct any necessary preliminary research on the to consult on how best to protect the underwater cultural
underwater cultural heritage and shall issue all necessary heritage, and to appoint a State Party to coordinate such
198 Appendix II
consultations as the ‘Coordinating State’. The Director-Ge- Article 14 – Control of entry into the territory, dealing and
neral shall also invite the International Seabed Authority to possession
participate in such consultations.
States Parties shall take measures to prevent the entry into
3. All States Parties may take all practicable measures in con-
their territory, the dealing in, or the possession of, under-
formity with this Convention, if necessary, prior to consulta-
water cultural heritage illicitly exported and/or recovered,
tions, to prevent any immediate danger to the underwater
where recovery was contrary to this Convention.
cultural heritage, whether arising from human activity or
any other cause including looting.
4. The Coordinating State shall: Article 15 – Non-use of areas under the jurisdiction of
(a) implement measures of protection which have been States Parties
agreed by the consulting States, which include the Coor- States Parties shall take measures to prohibit the use of
dinating State, unless the consulting States, which include their territory, including their maritime ports, as well as arti-
the Coordinating State, agree that another State Party shall ficial islands, installations and structures under their exclu-
implement those measures; and sive jurisdiction or control, in support of any activity directed
(b) issue all necessary authorizations for such agreed mea- at underwater cultural heritage which is not in conformity
sures, in conformity with this Convention, unless the con- with this Convention.
sulting States, which include the Coordinating State, agree
that another State Party shall issue those authorizations.
Article 16 – Measures relating to nationals and vessels
5. The Coordinating State may conduct any necessary pre-
liminary research on the underwater cultural heritage and States Parties shall take all practicable measures to ensure
shall issue all necessary authorizations therefor, and shall that their nationals and vessels flying their flag do not enga-
promptly inform the Director-General of the results, who in ge in any activity directed at underwater cultural heritage in
turn shall make such information available to other States a manner not in conformity with this Convention.
Parties.
6. In coordinating consultations, taking measures, conducting
Article 17 – Sanctions
preliminary research, and/or issuing authorizations pursu-
ant to this Article, the Coordinating State shall act for the 1. Each State Party shall impose sanctions for violations of
benefit of humanity as a whole, on behalf of all States Par- measures it has taken to implement this Convention.
ties. Particular regard shall be paid to the preferential rights 2. Sanctions applicable in respect of violations shall be ade-
of States of cultural, historical or archaeological origin in quate in severity to be effective in securing compliance with
respect of the underwater cultural heritage concerned. this Convention and to discourage violations wherever they
7. No State Party shall undertake or authorize activities di- occur and shall deprive offenders of the benefit deriving
rected at State vessels and aircraft in the Area without the from their illegal activities.
consent of the flag State. 3. States Parties shall cooperate to ensure enforcement of
sanctions imposed under this Article.
Article 13 – Sovereign immunity

Article 18 – Seizure and disposition of underwater cultu-
Warships and other government ships or military aircraft
ral heritage
with sovereign immunity, operated for non-commercial pur-
poses, undertaking their normal mode of operations, and 1. Each State Party shall take measures providing for the
not engaged in activities directed at underwater cultural seizure of underwater cultural heritage in its territory that
heritage, shall not be obliged to report discoveries of un- has been recovered in a manner not in conformity with this
derwater cultural heritage under Articles 9, 10, 11 and 12 Convention.
of this Convention. However States Parties shall ensure, 2. Each State Party shall record, protect and take all reaso-
by the adoption of appropriate measures not impairing the nable measures to stabilize underwater cultural heritage
operations or operational capabilities of their warships or seized under this Convention.
other government ships or military aircraft with sovereign 3. Each State Party shall notify the Director-General and
immunity operated for non-commercial purposes, that they any other State with a verifiable link, especially a cultural,
comply, as far as is reasonable and practicable, with Artic- historical or archaeological link, to the underwater cultural
les 9, 10, 11 and 12 of this Convention. heritage concerned of any seizure of underwater cultural
heritage that it has made under this Convention.
Appendix II 199
4. A State Party which has seized underwater cultural herita- Article 22 – Competent authorities
ge shall ensure that its disposition be for the public benefit,
1. In order to ensure the proper implementation of this Con-
taking into account the need for conservation and research;
vention, States Parties shall establish competent authori-
the need for reassembly of a dispersed collection; the need
ties or reinforce the existing ones where appropriate, with
for public access, exhibition and education; and the inter-
the aim of providing for the establishment, maintenance
ests of any State with a verifiable link, especially a cultural,
and updating of an inventory of underwater cultural herita-
historical or archaeological link, in respect of the underwa-
ge, the effective protection, conservation, presentation and
ter cultural heritage concerned.
management of underwater cultural heritage, as well as re-
search and education.
Article 19 – Cooperation and information-sharing 2. States Parties shall communicate to the Director-General
the names and addresses of their competent authorities re-
1. States Parties shall cooperate and assist each other in the
lating to underwater cultural heritage.
protection and management of underwater cultural heritage
under this Convention, including, where practicable, colla-
borating in the investigation, excavation, documentation, Article 23 – Meetings of States Parties
conservation, study and presentation of such heritage.
1. The Director-General shall convene a Meeting of States
2. To the extent compatible with the purposes of this Conven-
Parties within one year of the entry into force of this Con-
tion, each State Party undertakes to share information with
vention and thereafter at least once every two years. At the
other States Parties concerning underwater cultural her-
request of a majority of States Parties, the Director-General
itage, including discovery of heritage, location of heritage,
shall convene an Extraordinary Meeting of States Parties.
heritage excavated or recovered contrary to this Conven-
2. The Meeting of States Parties shall decide on its functions
tion or otherwise in violation of international law, pertinent
and responsibilities.
scientific methodology and technology, and legal develop-
3. The Meeting of States Parties shall adopt its own Rules of
ments relating to such heritage.
Procedure.
3. Information shared between States Parties, or between
4. The Meeting of States Parties may establish a Scientific
UNESCO and States Parties, regarding the discovery or
and Technical Advisory Body composed of experts nomina-
location of underwater cultural heritage shall, to the extent
ted by the States Parties with due regard to the principle of
compatible with their national legislation, be kept confiden-
equitable geographical distribution and the desirability of a
tial and reserved to competent authorities of States Parties
gender balance.
as long as the disclosure of such information might endan-
5. The Scientific and Technical Advisory Body shall appropria-
ger or otherwise put at risk the preservation of such under-
tely assist the Meeting of States Parties in questions of a
water cultural heritage.
scientific or technical nature regarding the implementation
4. Each State Party shall take all practicable measures to
of the Rules.
disseminate information, including where feasible through
appropriate international databases, about underwater cul-
tural heritage excavated or recovered contrary to this Con- Article 24 – Secretariat for this Convention
vention or otherwise in violation of international law. 1. The Director-General shall be responsible for the functions
of the Secretariat for this Convention.
Article 20 – Public awareness 2. The duties of the Secretariat shall include:
(a) organizing Meetings of States Parties as provided for in
Each State Party shall take all practicable measures to rai-
Article 23, paragraph 1; and
se public awareness regarding the value and significance
(b) assisting States Parties in implementing the decisions
of underwater cultural heritage and the importance of pro-
of the Meetings of States Parties.
tecting it under this Convention.
Article 25 – Peaceful settlement of disputes

Article 21 – Training in underwater archaeology
1. Any dispute between two or more States Parties concer-
States Parties shall cooperate in the provision of training in
ning the interpretation or application of this Convention
underwater archaeology, in techniques for the conservation
shall be subject to negotiations in good faith or other pea-
of underwater cultural heritage and, on agreed terms, in the
ceful means of settlement of their own choice.
transfer of technology relating to underwater cultural heritage.
200 Appendix II
2. If those negotiations do not settle the dispute within a rea- recognized as such by the United Nations, but have not
sonable period of time, it may be submitted to UNESCO attained full independence in accordance with General As-
for mediation, by agreement between the States Parties sembly resolution 1514 (XV) and which have competence
concerned. over the matters governed by this Convention, including
3. If mediation is not undertaken or if there is no settlement by the competence to enter into treaties in respect of those
mediation, the provisions relating to the settlement of dis- matters.
putes set out in Part XV of the United Nations Convention 3. The instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or ac-
on the Law of the Sea apply mutatis mutandis to any dis- cession shall be deposited with the Director-General.
pute between States Parties to this Convention concerning
the interpretation or application of this Convention, whether
Article 27 – Entry into force
or not they are also Parties to the United Nations Conven-
tion on the Law of the Sea. This Convention shall enter into force three months after
4. Any procedure chosen by a State Party to this Convention the date of the deposit of the twentieth instrument referred
and to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the to in Article 26, but solely with respect to the twenty States
Sea pursuant to Article 287 of the latter shall apply to the or territories that have so deposited their instruments. It
settlement of disputes under this Article, unless that State shall enter into force for each other State or territory three
Party, when ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to months after the date on which that State or territory has
this Convention, or at any time thereafter, chooses another deposited its instrument.
procedure pursuant to Article 287 for the purpose of the
settlement of disputes arising out of this Convention. Article 28 – Declaration as to inland waters
5. A State Party to this Convention which is not a Party to the
When ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to this
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, when ra-
Convention or at any time thereafter, any State or territory
tifying, accepting, approving or acceding to this Convention
may declare that the Rules shall apply to inland waters not
or at any time thereafter shall be free to choose, by means
of a maritime character.
of a written declaration, one or more of the means set out
in Article 287, paragraph 1, of the United Nations Conven-
tion on the Law of the Sea for the purpose of settlement of Article 29 – Limitations to geographical scope
disputes under this Article. Article 287 shall apply to such a
At the time of ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding
declaration, as well as to any dispute to which such State is
to this Convention, a State or territory may make a decla-
party, which is not covered by a declaration in force. For the
ration to the depositary that this Convention shall not be
purpose of conciliation and arbitration, in accordance with
applicable to specific parts of its territory, internal waters,
Annexes V and VII of the United Nations Convention on the
archipelagic waters or territorial sea, and shall identify the-
Law of the Sea, such State shall be entitled to nominate
rein the reasons for such declaration. Such State shall, to
conciliators and arbitrators to be included in the lists refer-
the extent practicable and as quickly as possible, promo-
red to in Annex V, Article 2, and Annex VII, Article 2, for the
te conditions under which this Convention will apply to the
settlement of disputes arising out of this Convention.
areas specified in its declaration, and to that end shall also
withdraw its declaration in whole or in part as soon as that
Article 26 – Ratification, acceptance, approval or acces- has been achieved.
sion
1. This Convention shall be subject to ratification, acceptance Article 30 – Reservations

or approval by Member States of UNESCO.
With the exception of Article 29, no reservations may be
2. This Convention shall be subject to accession:
made to this Convention.
(a) by States that are not members of UNESCO but are
members of the United Nations or of a specialized agen-
cy within the United Nations system or of the International Article 31 – Amendments
Atomic Energy Agency, as well as by States Parties to the 1. A State Party may, by written communication addressed
Statute of the International Court of Justice and any other to the Director-General, propose amendments to this Con-
State invited to accede to this Convention by the General vention. The Director-General shall circulate such commu-
Conference of UNESCO; nication to all States Parties. If, within six months from the
(b) by territories which enjoy full internal self-government, date of the circulation of the communication, not less than
Appendix II 201
one half of the States Parties reply favourably to the re- Article 35 – Authoritative texts
quest, the Director-General shall present such proposal to
This Convention has been drawn up in Arabic, Chinese,
the next Meeting of States Parties for discussion and pos-
English, French, Russian and Spanish, the six texts being
sible adoption.
equally authoritative.
2. Amendments shall be adopted by a two-thirds majority of
States Parties present and voting.
3. Once adopted, amendments to this Convention shall be Annex
subject to ratification, acceptance, approval or accession Rules concerning activities directed at underwater cultural
by the States Parties. heritage
4. Amendments shall enter into force, but solely with respect
to the States Parties that have ratified, accepted, approved I. General principles
or acceded to them, three months after the deposit of the Rule 1. The protection of underwater cultural heritage through
instruments referred to in paragraph 3 of this Article by two in situ preservation shall be considered as the first option.
thirds of the States Parties. Thereafter, for each State or Accordingly, activities directed at underwater cultural her-
territory that ratifies, accepts, approves or accedes to it, the itage shall be authorized in a manner consistent with the
amendment shall enter into force three months after the protection of that heritage, and subject to that requirement
date of deposit by that Party of its instrument of ratification, may be authorized for the purpose of making a significant
acceptance, approval or accession. contribution to protection or knowledge or enhancement of
5. A State or territory which becomes a Party to this Conven- underwater cultural heritage.
tion after the entry into force of amendments in conformity Rule 2. The commercial exploitation of underwater cultural
with paragraph 4 of this Article shall, failing an expression of heritage for trade or speculation or its irretrievable disper-
different intention by that State or territory, be considered: sal is fundamentally incompatible with the protection and
(a) as a Party to this Convention as so amended; and proper management of underwater cultural heritage. Un-
(b) as a Party to the unamended Convention in relation to derwater cultural heritage shall not be traded, sold, bought
any State Party not bound by the amendment. or bartered as commercial goods.
This Rule cannot be interpreted as preventing:
Article 32 – Denunciation (a) the provision of professional archaeological services or
necessary services incidental thereto whose nature and
1. A State Party may, by written notification addressed to the
purpose are in full conformity with this Convention and are
Director-General, denounce this Convention.
subject to the authorization of the competent authorities;
2. The denunciation shall take effect twelve months after the
(b) the deposition of underwater cultural heritage, recove-
date of receipt of the notification, unless the notification
red in the course of a research project in conformity with
specifies a later date.
this Convention, provided such deposition does not preju-
3. The denunciation shall not in any way affect the duty of any
dice the scientific or cultural interest or integrity of the re-
State Party to fulfil any obligation embodied in this Con-
covered material or result in its irretrievable dispersal; is in
vention to which it would be subject under international law
accordance with the provisions of Rules 33 and 34; and is
independently of this Convention.
subject to the authorization of the competent authorities.
Rule 3. Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage shall
Article 33 – The Rules not adversely affect the underwater cultural heritage more
than is necessary for the objectives of the project.
The Rules annexed to this Convention form an integral part
Rule 4. Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage
of it and, unless expressly provided otherwise, a reference
must use non-destructive techniques and survey methods
to this Convention includes a reference to the Rules.
in preference to recovery of objects. If excavation or reco-
very is necessary for the purpose of scientific studies or for
Article 34 – Registration with the United Nations the ultimate protection of the underwater cultural heritage,
In conformity with Article 102 of the Charter of the United the methods and techniques used must be as non-destruc-
Nations, this Convention shall be registered with the Secre- tive as possible and contribute to the preservation of the
tariat of the United Nations at the request of the Director- remains.
General.
202 Appendix II
Rule 5. Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage shall duration, in particular site stabilization, may be authorized
avoid the unnecessary disturbance of human remains or in the absence of a project design in order to protect the
venerated sites. underwater cultural heritage.
Rule 6. Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage shall
be strictly regulated to ensure proper recording of cultural, III. Preliminary work
historical and archaeological information. Rule 14. The preliminary work referred to in Rule 10 (a) shall
Rule 7. Public access to in situ underwater cultural heritage include an assessment that evaluates the significance and
shall be promoted, except where such access is incompati- vulnerability of the underwater cultural heritage and the sur-
ble with protection and management. rounding natural environment to damage by the proposed
Rule 8. International cooperation in the conduct of activities project, and the potential to obtain data that would meet the
directed at underwater cultural heritage shall be encoura- project objectives.
ged in order to further the effective exchange or use of ar- Rule 15. The assessment shall also include background stu-
chaeologists and other relevant professionals. dies of available historical and archaeological evidence,
the archaeological and environmental characteristics of the
II. Project design site, and the consequences of any potential intrusion for
Rule 9. Prior to any activity directed at underwater cultural the long-term stability of the underwater cultural heritage
heritage, a project design for the activity shall be developed affected by the activities.
and submitted to the competent authorities for authoriza-
tion and appropriate peer review. IV. Project objective, methodology and techniques
Rule 10. The project design shall include: Rule 16. The methodology shall comply with the project ob-
(a) an evaluation of previous or preliminary studies; jectives, and the techniques employed shall be as non-int-
(b) the project statement and objectives; rusive as possible.
(c) the methodology to be used and the techniques to be
employed; V. Funding
(d) the anticipated funding; Rule 17. Except in cases of emergency to protect underwater
(e) an expected timetable for completion of the project; cultural heritage, an adequate funding base shall be as-
(f) the composition of the team and the qualifications, re- sured in advance of any activity, sufficient to complete all
sponsibilities and experience of each team member; stages of the project design, including conservation, docu-
(g) plans for post-fieldwork analysis and other activities; mentation and curation of recovered artefacts, and report
(h) a conservation programme for artefacts and the site in preparation and dissemination.
close cooperation with the competent authorities; Rule 18. The project design shall demonstrate an ability, such
(i) a site management and maintenance policy for the whole as by securing a bond, to fund the project through to com-
duration of the project; pletion.
(j) a documentation programme; Rule 19. The project design shall include a contingency plan
(k) a safety policy that will ensure conservation of underwater cultural herita-
(l) an environmental policy; ge and supporting documentation in the event of any inter-
(m) arrangements for collaboration with museums and ot- ruption of anticipated funding.
her institutions, in particular scientific institutions;
(n) report preparation; VI. Project duration - timetable
(o) deposition of archives, including underwater cultural Rule 20. An adequate timetable shall be developed to assure
heritage removed; and in advance of any activity directed at underwater cultural
(p) a programme for publication. heritage the completion of all stages of the project design,
Rule 11. Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage including conservation, documentation and curation of re-
shall be carried out in accordance with the project design covered underwater cultural heritage, as well as report pre-
approved by the competent authorities paration and dissemination.
Rule 12. Where unexpected discoveries are made or circums- Rule 21. The project design shall include a contingency plan
tances change, the project design shall be reviewed and that will ensure conservation of underwater cultural herita-
amended with the approval of the competent authorities. ge and supporting documentation in the event of any inter-
Rule 13. In cases of urgency or chance discoveries, activi- ruption or termination of the project.
ties directed at the underwater cultural heritage, including
conservation measures or activities for a period of short
Appendix II 203
VII. Competence and qualifications Rule 31. Reports shall include:

Rule 22. Activities directed at underwater cultural heritage (a) an account of the objectives;
shall only be undertaken under the direction and control (b) an account of the methods and techniques employed;
of, and in the regular presence of, a qualified underwater (c) an account of the results achieved;
archaeologist with scientific competence appropriate to the (d) basic graphic and photographic documentation on all
project. phases of the activity;
Rule 23. All persons on the project team shall be qualified and (e) recommendations concerning conservation and curation
have demonstrated competence appropriate to their roles of the site and of any underwater cultural heritage removed;
in the project. and
(f) recommendations for future activities.
VIII. Conservation and site management
Rule 24. The conservation programme shall provide for the XIII. Curation of project archives
treatment of the archaeological remains during the activi- Rule 32. Arrangements for curation of the project archives
ties directed at underwater cultural heritage, during transit shall be agreed to before any activity commences, and
and in the long term. Conservation shall be carried out in shall be set out in the project design.
accordance with current professional standards. Rule 33. The project archives, including any underwater cul-
Rule 25. The site management programme shall provide tural heritage removed and a copy of all supporting docu-
for the protection and management in situ of underwater mentation shall, as far as possible, be kept together and
cultural heritage, in the course of and upon termination of intact as a collection in a manner that is available for pro-
fieldwork. The programme shall include public information, fessional and public access as well as for the curation of
reasonable provision for site stabilization, monitoring, and the archives. This should be done as rapidly as possible
protection against interference. and, in any case, not later than ten years from the com-
pletion of the project, in so far as may be compatible with
IX. Documentation conservation of the underwater cultural heritage.
Rule 26. The documentation programme shall set out tho- Rule 34. The project archives shall be managed according
rough documentation including a progress report of activi- to international professional standards, and subject to the
ties directed at underwater cultural heritage, in accordance authorization of the competent authorities.
with current professional standards of archaeological do-
cumentation. XIV. Dissemination
Rule 27. Documentation shall include, at a minimum, a com- Rule 35. Projects shall provide for public education and po-
prehensive record of the site, including the provenance pular presentation of the project results where appropriate.
of underwater cultural heritage moved or removed in the Rule 36. A final synthesis of a project shall be:
course of the activities directed at underwater cultural her- (a) made public as soon as possible, having regard to the
itage, field notes, plans, drawings, sections, and photo- complexity of the project and the confidential or sensitive
graphs or recording in other media. nature of the information; and
(b) deposited in relevant public record
X. Safety
Rule 28. A safety policy shall be prepared that is adequate to
ensure the safety and health of the project team and third
parties and that is in conformity with any applicable statut-
ory and professional requirements.
XI. Environment
Rule 29. An environmental policy shall be prepared that is
adequate to ensure that the seabed and marine life are not
unduly disturbed.
XII. Reporting
Rule 30. Interim and final reports shall be made available ac-
cording to the timetable set out in the project design, and
deposited in relevant public records.
204 Appendix II
The foregoing is the authentic text of the Convention duly ad- Le texte qui précède est le texte authentique de la Convention
opted by the General Conference of the United Nations Edu- dûment adoptée par la Conférence générale de l‘Organisati-
cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization during its thirty- on des Nations Unies pour l‘éducation, la science et la culture
first session, which was held in Paris and declared closed the à sa trente‑et-unième session, qui s‘est tenue à Paris et qui a
third day of November 2001. été déclarée close le troisième jour de novembre 2001.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF we have appended our signatures EN FOI DE QUOI ont apposé leur signature, ce 6ème jour de
this 6th day of November 2001. novembre 2001.
Done in Paris this 6th day of November 2001 in two authentic Fait à Paris ce sixième jour de novembre 2001, en deux
copies bearing the signature of the President of the thirty-first exemplaires authentiques portant la signature du Président
session of the General Conference and of the Director-Gene- de la Conférence générale réunie en sa trente-et-unième
ral of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural session, et du Directeur général de l‘Organisation des Na-
Organization, which shall be deposited in the archives of the tions Unies pour l‘éducation, la science et la culture, qui se-
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza- ront déposés dans les archives de l‘Organisation des Nations
tion and certified true copies of which shall be delivered to all Unies pour l‘éducation, la science et la culture, et dont les
the States and territories referred to in Article 26 as well as to copies certifiées conformes seront remises à tous les États
the United Nations. et territoires visés à l‘article 26 ainsi qu‘à l‘Organisation des
Nations Unies.
~
~
Lo anterior es el texto auténtico de la Convención aprobada
en buena y debida forma por la Conferencia General de la
Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la
Ciencia y la Cultura, en su trigésimo primera reunión, cele-
brada en París y terminada el tres de noviembre de 2001.
EN FE DE LO CUAL estampan sus firmas, en este día 6 de
noviembre de 2001.
Hecho en París en este día seis de noviembre de 2001, en
dos ejemplares auténticos que llevan la firma del Presidente
de la Conferencia General, en su trigésimo primera reunión,
y del Director General de la Organización de las Naciones
Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura, ejemplares
que se depositarán en los archivos de esta Organización, y
cuyas copias certificadas conformes se remitirán a todos los
Estados y territorios a que se refiere el Artículo 26, así como
a las Naciones Unidas.
Appendix III 205
APPENDIX III: AUTHORS‘ BIOGRAPHIES AND CONTACT EMAILS

Mariano J. Aznar is Professor of Public International Law at the University
Jaume I. His interest in UCH began when Spain faced the first internatio-
nal judicial cases against treasure hunters, which coincided with negotiati-
ons leading to the adoption of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection
of the Underwear Cultural Heritage in 2001. He has advocated and coun-
selled Spain before the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in the
M/V Louisa case; published and lectured widely aimed at improving legal
and policy frameworks; represented Spain during UNESCO Meetings of
States Parties; participated in UNESCO meetings and missions and co-
authored the 2001 Convention’s Operational Guidelines and the Green
Book for the Protection of Spanish Underwater Cultural Heritage. He is
also a Patron of the Spanish National Museum of Underwater Cultural
Heritage and member of ICOMOS/ICUCH.
Contact e-mail: maznar[at]uji.es
Helena Barba Meinecke, Mexico

Helena Barba Meinecke is a Mexican archaeologist who graduated from
the National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH) of the National
Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). She has a Master‘s Degree
in Nautical and Underwater Archaeology from the International School
for the Doctorate in Sea Studies (EIDEMAR), University of Cadiz (UCA),
Spain. She is a researcher at the Sub-direction of Underwater Archaeo-
logy, responsible for the Yucatan Peninsula office (SAS-INAH); Mexico
representative to the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the
Underwater Cultural Heritage; a member of its Scientific and Technical
Advisory Board (STAB), having previously been its president. She is also
a member of the Bureau of the International Committee on the Underwa-
ter Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS-ICUCH) and coordinator of the Scientific
Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Mexican ICOMOS A.C.
Contact e-mail: helena_barba[at]inah.gob.mx
206 Appendix III
Kurt Bennett, New Zealand

Kurt Bennett holds an MA in maritime archaeology and is a PhD candidate
at Flinders University, South Australia. He has wide ranging experience
working in the Australasian region, both in consulting and academic re-
search, and has collaborated on several different international maritime
projects. Kurt is an active member of the archaeological community in
Australasia, serving as a council member for the Australasian Institute for
Maritime Archaeology as well as a previous council member for the New
Zealand Archaeological Association. Kurt’s research more generally focu-
ses on watercraft from the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries, with specific
interests in shipwright behaviour, technology, hull assembly, vessel de-
velopment and abandonment studies.
Contact e-mail: kurt.bennett[at]flinders.edu.au
Matthew Carter, New Zealand

Matthew Carter is a marine archaeologist and holds a PhD, MA and BA in
archaeology. He is the Research Director for the Major Projects Founda-
tion, a Vice-President of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeo-
logy and an Honorary Associate of the Department of Archaeology and
History at La Trobe University. Matt is also an International Fellow of the
Explorers Club and has worked on commercial and academic archaeo-
logical projects in 12 different countries around the world. Today Matt’s
work sees him combining his archaeological training and commercial and
technical diving qualifications to protect marine ecosystems threatened by
legacy shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean. He is also an Associate member
of ICOMOS-ICUCH and represents ICUCH on ICOMOS’ Emerging Pro-
fessionals Working Group.
Contact e-mail: matt.carter[at]majorprojects.org.au
Christophe Delaere, Belgium

Christophe Delaere is a researcher with a PhD in Archaeology from the
Université libre de Bruxelles - ULB. He is currently a Junior Research Fel-
low at the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology (OCMA) of the Univer-
sity of Oxford and a research associate at the Centre de Recherches en
Archéologie et Ratrimoine (CReA). Since 2007 he has been conducting
research in the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes where from 2012 has been
the Principal Investigator leading an underwater archaeological excava-
tion project at Lake Titicaca. He also specializes in the archaeology of
inland waters — lakes and rivers — and collaborates in coastal and inland
water archaeology programmes in different cultural contexts.
Contact e-mail: cdelaere[at]ulb.ac.be
Appendix III 207
Stella Demesticha, Cyprus

Stella Demesticha is an Associate Professor of Maritime Archaeology at
the Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus. She
specializes in maritime archaeology, with a focus on shipwrecks, maritime
transport containers, ancient seaborne trade routes and economy in the
eastern Mediterranean. In 2011 she created the Maritime Archaeological
Research Laboratory (MARELab) at the Archaeological Research Unit of
the University of Cyprus, through which she conducts her fieldwork. She
has worked for more than 20 years in Greece and Cyprus where she has
directed many underwater field projects. She is Cyprus’s representative in
ICOMOS/ICUCH.
Contact e-mail: demesticha[at]ucy.ac.cy
Anna Demetriou, Cyprus

Anna Demetriou is a Research Fellow at the Maritime Research Labora-
tory (MARELab) of the University of Cyprus. She holds a BA in Archaeo-
logy, a MA in Management of Archaeological Sites, and a PhD in Maritime
Archaeology. She has participated in terrestrial archaeological projects in
Cyprus and Greece, and has undertaken the preparation of museum ex-
hibitions in Cyprus and the United Kingdom. Since 2008, she has been
involved in different aspects of maritime cultural heritage through her en-
gagement in several underwater archaeological projects in Cyprus, and
the development and implementation of a number of educational and
community programmes. Her particular research interests focus on the
examination of ancient shipwreck sites as places of interaction and enga-
gements in contemporary society.
Contact e-mail: ademet18[at]ucy.ac.cy

After University (1955), a career in the Sri Lanka Navy and in mercantile
service Somasiri Devendra introduced maritime archaeology to Sri Lanka,
serving as National Team leader in every activity in the country. He was
appointed to ICUCH, and participated in drafting the ICOMOS Charter and
the UNESCO Convention, conducting international workshops and served
on UNESCO and ICUCH activities internationally. He was Archaeologist
on Feasibility and Environmental Impact Studies into all major port de-
velopment and also researched vernacular watercraft. He was awarded
the title of “Guardian of the Heritage” by the Ministry of National Heritage
(2014) and the inaugural “Roland Silva Memorial Medal” for his contribu-
tion to the Cultural Heritage by ICOMOS Sri Lanka (2020).
Contact e-mail: somasiridevendra1[at]gmail.com
208 Appendix III

Christopher Dobbs started his career in 1978 on the Kennemerland and
Salcombe sites, moving to the Mary Rose in 1979 where he was one of
the main archaeological supervisors. He transferred to the Salvage Diving
Team in 1982 to carry out the raising, successfully achieved in 1982. For
the last 15 years he has been working on the re-opening museum as Head
of Interpretation and Maritime Archaeology at the Mary Rose Trust.
He has been lecturing on Museology for over 20 years, both at universities
and for UNESCO workshops including in China, Chinese Taipei, Egypt
Cambodia and Peru. He was instrumental to the expansion of the NAS
Training Scheme in the early years. He is the UK representative on ICUCH
and a Vice-President of the NAS.
Contact e-mail: chrisdobbs[at]talktalk.net

Dolores Elkin is an Argentinean archaeologist and a professional scienti-
fic diver who holds a research position at the country’s national research
agency (CONICET). She graduated with a doctoral degree from the Uni-
versity of Buenos Aires in 1996, and since then has developed the first
underwater archaeology programme in the country, based at the National
Institute of Anthropology and Latin American Thought (INAPL). She is a
professor at the University of Buenos Aires where she teaches a Seminar
on Costal and Underwater Archaeology. She is a member of ICUCH as
well as the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body to the UNESCO 2001
Convention.
Contact e-mail: lolielkin[at]hotmail.com

Albert Hafner is Professor for Prehistoric Archaeology at the Institute of
Archaeological Sciences of the University of Bern. He holds a PhD in pre-
historic archaeology of the University of Freiburg, Germany, and a habili-
tation from the University of Zurich, Switzerland. Between 1988 and 2011,
he was member of the diving team of the Archaeological Service of the
Canton of Bern. He led numerous large-scale rescue excavations and in-
situ protective measures in threatened lakeshore settlements of the Neo-
lithic and Bronze Age in lakes of the Swiss Plateau. In 2011, he played a
leading role in the successful submission of the UNESCO World Heritage
candidacy „Prehistoric Pile Dwellings around the Alps“. In recent years,
Albert Hafner carried out several third-party funded (SNSF, ERC) research
projects in the field of underwater and wetland archaeology as well as
dendrochronology, in cooperation with institutions from Russia, Ukraine,
Greece, Albania and North Macedonia. He is the ICUCH representative of
ICOMOS Switzerland.
Contact e-mail: albert.hafner[at]iaw.unibe.ch
Appendix III 209
Andrej Gaspari, Slovenia

Andrej Gaspari is a PhD in archaeological sciences. As an experienced
archaeologist-diver and the head of the expert Underwater archaeology
workgroup at the Institute for the protection of Cultural Heritage of Slo-
venia, he intensively engaged in the research and management of un-
derwater sites in continental water and maritime domain. Currently holds
a position as an associate professor for the Roman Archaeology at the
Department of Archaeology at the University of Ljubljana. His tasks during
previous employment at the Ministry of Culture included the assessment
of challenges in the field of preventive archaeology and the development
of the sectoral policies. His bibliography counts over 180 scientific and
professional publications and public lectures from different fields, including
the ancient Mediterranean and continental shipbuilding traditions, Late
Prehistoric and Roman votive practices, and management of (underwater)
archaeological heritage. From 2007 he is a slovenian representative in the
ICOMOS/ICUCH.
Contact e-mail: andrej.gaspari[at]ff.uni-lj.si

Akifumi Iwabuchi is professor of maritime anthropology and archaeology
at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology in Japan, which is
a member institution of the UNESCO UNITWIN Network for Underwater
Archaeology. He holds a PhD from the University of Oxford, U.K. He is the
ICOMOS/ICUCH national representative for Japan, officially acknowled-
ged by ICOMOS Japan. He is also the vice-president of the Japan Society
for Nautical Research, a director of the Asian Research Institute of Under-
water Archaeology, or a director of the Japan Maritime Promotion Forum.
He has published numerous books and papers upon cultural heritage in
English, in Bahasa Indonesia, and in Japanese, including the first intro-
ductory book to the 2001 UNESCO Convention in his native language.
Contact e-mail: iwabuchi[at]kaiyodai.ac.jp
Jun Kimura, Japan

Dr. Jun Kimura is a maritime archaeologist and a member of the faculty of
the Dept. of Maritime Civilizations at Tokai University; Research Fellow of
the Asia Research Centre at Murdoch University, 2012 -2014 and of the
Field Museum, Chicago, 2014-2015. He is a member of Japan’s national
advisory committee for the investigation and protection of underwater ar-
chaeological sites. His extensive field experience includes naval battle-
fields related to the Kublai Khan’s 13th century invasions of Japan and
Vietnam. His current research interests include the shipwreck archaeology
of the Maritime Silk Routes and leading a project about the San Francisco,
a Manila Galleon sunken in Japanese waters. Kimura’s major publications
are Naval Battlefield Archaeology of the Lost Kublai Khan Fleets and Ar-
chaeology of East Asian Shipbuilding Tradition.
Contact e-mail: junkimura[at]tsc.u-tokai.ac.jp
210 Appendix III

Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton is Director of the Cayman Islands National
Museum. She holds a BFA, an MA, and a PhD in anthropology (nautical
archaeology). She is past chair of the SHA UNESCO Committee, and a re-
search associate with Ships of Discovery and INA. She serves on ICOMOS
ICUCH (former Secretary) and as emeritus ACUA member. Margaret ser-
ved on the ICOMOS delegation during development of the 2001 UNESCO
Convention. She co-edited Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in Latin
America and the Caribbean (WAC 2008) and contributed to the Oxford
Handbook of Underwater Archaeology (2011), Caribbean Heritage (UWI
2012), and Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology (UPF 2014). Her most
recent book is Cayman’s 1794 Wreck of the Ten Sail: Peace, War, and
Peril in the Caribbean (UAP 2020).
Contact e-mail: leshikar[at]candw.ky

Le Thi Lien, holding a MA in Indian Archaeology and ancient history, and
PhD in Vietnamese archaeology, worked in the Institute of Archaeology
(VASS) from 1985 to 2017. She is now scientific advisor for IA and execu-
tive member of VAA. As Cultural Officer of UNESCO Office Hanoi (2008),
founding head of Underwater Archaeology Department of IA (2013),
executive member of IPPA (2009-2018) and ICUCH-ICOMOS, editing
board member of SPAFA Journal and member of VMAP, she contributes
great efforts in collaboration with international institutions and researchers
to organize research, training, conference and publication activities on
underwater archaeology and maritime cultural heritage in Vietnam and
Southeast Asia. Her publications focused mainly on Buddhist and Hindu
art, early state formation and maritime archaeology in Vietnam.
Contact e-mail: lelienthi10[at]gmail.com

Dr Martijn R. Manders is a maritime archaeologist and heritage manager
for the Dutch government as well as an associate professor at the Uni-
versity of Leiden in the Netherlands. He is involved in the protection and
management of the underwater cultural heritage for 30 years. Lately, a
lot of his time is spent in the discussions about the commercial salvaging
and looting of Second World War shipwrecks and the sovereignty of state-
owned shipwrecks. As head of the maritime programme, he is leading a
team of specialists that coordinate almost 1,600 shipwrecks outside of the
Netherlands territory.
Contact e-mail: M.Manders[at]cultureelerfgoed.nl
Appendix III 211
Hakan Öniz, Turkey

Associate Professor Dr. Hakan Öniz graduated from the Department of Art
History and Archaeology of the Eastern Mediterranean University, comple-
ting his Masters and PhD on Underwater Archaeology at Selcuk University
of Konya-Turkey. He is a founder member and the first coordinator of the
UNESCO UNITWIN Underwater Archaeology Network between 2012 and
2015. He is the head of the Mediterranean Underwater Cultural Herita-
ge Division in the Mediterranean Civilizations Research Institute; head of
the Department of Restoration and Conservation of Cultural Heritage and
Director of the Underwater Archaeology Research Centre in Akdeniz Uni-
versity of Turkey. He is also secretary and bureau member of ICOMOS-
ICUCH, nominated member of ICOMOS Turkey; a member of UNESCO-
Turkey National Observation Committee on Underwater Archaeology and
a member of CMAS’ Scientific Committee.
Contact e-mail: hakan.oniz[at]gmail.com
Marnix Pieters, Belgium

Flanders Marnix Pieters, archaeologist and soil scientist, is currently research di-
Heritage rector of archaeology at the Flanders Heritage Agency (Agentschap On-
Agency roerend Erfgoed based in Brussels). He obtained his PhD at the Free
University of Brussels (VUB) in 2002 with a dissertation on the material
aspects of life in late medieval fishing communities in the southern part
of the North Sea. From 2002 onwards a large part of his further scientific
work is devoted to maritime archaeology in and along the Belgian part of
the North Sea. Since 2013, he is Guest Professor at the Free University of
Brussels with a master course on ‘archaeology of coast and sea’. Member
of ICUCH since 2007.
Contact e-mail: marnix.pieters[at]vlaanderen.be

James Reap holds a JD degree and is currently Professor and Coordinator
of the Historic Preservation Program at the University of Georgia. He has
served as both President and Secretary General of the ICOMOS Inter-
national Committee on Legal, Administrative, and Financial issues and as
an Officer of the ICOMOS Scientific Council. He is a board member of the
U.S. Committee of the Blue Shield and past Board member of the Lawyers’
Committee on Cultural Heritage Preservation, and the National Alliance
of Preservation Commissions. He was a Fulbright Scholar in Jordan. His
research interests include the legal, administrative and financial aspects
of heritage conservation and he has conducted research in Central Asia,
Africa, the Middle East and Southern Europe.
Contact e-mail: jreap[at]uga.edu
212 Appendix III

Lucy Semaan is a maritime archaeologist in Lebanon. Involved in ar-
chaeology since 1996, Lucy was introduced to maritime archaeology pri-
marily through the work and research of Honor Frost. She has been col-
laborating with the Honor Frost Foundation (HFF) in its capacity building
initiatives, combining efforts with the Directorate of Antiquities, Ministry of
Culture, Lebanon in order to contribute to the study, inventory, protection,
conservation, and management of the country’s maritime heritage. Over
two decades, Lucy has participated in and run archaeological projects in
Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Cyprus, and Saudi Arabia. She also taught and
lectured in maritime archaeology in Lebanon and abroad.
In 2015, Lucy was awarded a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of
Balamand, Lebanon. Her post-doctoral research analysed the develop-
ment and significance of the seascape of the ancient site of Anfeh, in North
Lebanon. In 2017, she helped organise, set up, and teach in the first Nau-
tical Archaeology Society (NAS) fieldschool held in Lebanon.
She holds a Bachelor’s degree in Arts and Archaeology from the Lebanese
University, a Master’s degree in Maritime Archaeology from the University
of Southampton (2007) and a PhD in Arab and Islamic studies with a fo-
cus on maritime archaeology from the University of Exeter (2014). She is
currently a member of the bureau of the International Committee on the
Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH-ICOMOS).
Contact e-mail: lucysemaan[at]gmail.com

Arturo Rey da Silva is an international expert in management and protec-
tion of cultural heritage specialized in Maritime and Underwater Archeo-
logy at the University of Southampton (United Kingdom). Since 2011 he
has worked for UNESCO either for the Secretariat of the 2001 Conven-
tion on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Paris (France),
or for several UNESCO Field Offices (notably in Africa, the Arab region,
Central Asia and Latin America) giving technical assistance to Member
States as well as coordinating regional workshops, and capacity-building
activities in maritime and underwater cultural heritage research, manage-
ment and protection. A. Rey da Silva is also a guest lecturer in several
University programmes and is involved in several international projects
focusing on the importance of maritime and underwater cultural heritage
in the establishment of sustainable development policies and regional ca-
pacity development processes. Currently, he combines this teaching and
technical assistance work, with doctoral research at the University of Paris
I Panthéon-Sorbonne (France), carrying out a research fellowship at the
Spanish School for History and Archaeology in Rome (Italy).
Contact e-mail: a.reydasilva[at]gmail.com
Appendix III 213
Irena Šinkovec, Slovenia

Irena Šinkovec is an archaeologist and a curator at the Museum and Gal-
leries of Ljubljana and the head of the Ljubljanica River project, which was
co-financed by the EEA Grants (Vrhnika, 2015-2016). Her special topics
are the pre-urban settlement of the Ljubljana basin, the pile dwellings from
the Ljubljana Marshes, the underwater heritage of the Ljubljanica River and
the museum underwater collections. Her work is marked by more complex
projects of cultural heritage presentation, especially in connecting cultural
and natural heritage with sustainable development, active involvement of
civil society and environmental protection. Among exhibition projects stand
out Slovenian history at Ljubljana Castle (2010), The wheel/5.200 years
(2013) and Voda/Water (2015) in City museum of Ljubljana and The Lju-
bljanica River at Vrhnika (2016).
Contact e-mail: irena.sinkovec[at]mgml.si

Hans Van Tilburg is the maritime heritage coordinator for NOAA’s Marine
Sanctuary Office in the Pacific Islands region, as well as a NOAA unit di-
ving supervisor. He has served as principal investigator for over 30 UCH
site projects throughout the Hawaiian archipelago, American Samoa and
Alaska, including diving, ROV and manned submersible operations. Hans
Van Tilburg has a BA in geography, MA in Maritime History and Nautical
Archaeology, and PhD in history (Asia-Pacific region), and ran the gradua-
te certificate program in maritime archaeology at the University of Hawaii
for six years. Internationally, he has served as a co-instructor for UNESCO
UCH Foundation courses and co-chairs the Asia Pacific Regional Con-
ference on Underwater Cultural Heritage series. He is a member of US
ICOMOS/ICUCH.
Contact e-mail: hans.vantilburg[at]noaa.gov
214 Appendix III

Attila Tóth is an archaeologist of the Árpád Museum of Ráckeve and vi-
siting lecturer at the Peter Pázmány Catholic University. He holds a PhD
in archaeology and has experiences in the field of inland water archaeo-
logy (rivers and lakes). He coordinates activities of civilian organisations
through community archaeology, public meetings, festivals through the
Hungarian Archaeological and Art Historical Society, the Argonauts Re-
search Group and the ICOMOS Hungarian National Commission. His pri-
me field of interest is the research of rivers under the water and in a wi-
der river environment, study of river islands, shipmills, traces of river (and
lake) environmental changes and their relation to local communities. Attila
is also an expert member of ICUCH.
Contact e-mail: roncsok[at]yahoo.com

Prof. Alok Tripathi is a distinguished archaeologist and pioneer underwater
archaeologist in India. He founded the Underwater Archaeology Wing in
the Archaeological Survey of India and has directed several underwater
archaeological excavations in the Arabian Sea as well as in the Bay of
Bengal. The most experienced underwater archaeologist in the country, he
has worked as resource person in UNESCO Asia-Pacific field schools for
Assam University
Silchar (India) underwater archaeology in Sri Lanka. He holds equal authority in museo-
logy, art-history, heritage management, art and architecture, remote sen-
sing, and laws, and is the only social-scientist, listed among the ten bright-
est young scientists in the country. Since 2009, he is a Professor at Assam
University, Silchar and presently the Director at Centre for Archaeology
and Museology. Since 2003, he is representing India in ICOMOS/ICUCH.
Contact e-mail: alok.asi[at]gmail.com
Appendix III 215

Dr Chris Underwood is a maritime archaeologist and member of Argenti-
na’s National Institute of Anthropology’s underwater archaeology research
team. His current interests are focused on projects in Tierra del Fuego,
southern Argentina; in particular the search for and identification of the
wreck site of the Spanish vessel Purisima Concepción lost in 1765. Chris
is also consultant to the Center for Ocean and Undersea Technology Re-
search, Tamkang University, Chinese Taipei providing advice on the de-
velopment of underwater archaeology capacity building programmes; cur-
rently President of ICOMOS’ International Committee on the Underwater
Cultural Heritage (ICUCH); visiting lecturer at the University of Buenos
Aires; member of the editorial board of the peer reviewed Journal of Ma-
ritime Archaeology, and is a Fellow of the Nautical Archaeology Society.
Contact e-mail: cju[at]hotmail.co.uk

Andrew Viduka is a maritime archaeologist and archaeological objects
conservator who is a PhD candidate at the University of New England
and a Research Associate of Flinders University. He is employed by the
Australian Government as the Assistant Director Maritime and Common-
wealth Heritage and co-drafted the Australian Government’s Underwater
Cultural Heritage Act 2018 and leads Australia’s consideration of ratifica-
tion of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater
Cultural Heritage. As the Australian Government senior maritime heritage
manager, Andrew leads Australia‘s national underwater cultural heritage
program which protects approximately 8000 sites in Australian waters.
Andrew‘s research interest revolves around linking community outcomes
with the discovery and protection of underwater cultural heritage. In 2018,
he founded the citizen science project Gathering Information via Recrea-
tional and Technical (GIRT) Scientific Divers. Andrew is a keen diver, an
ICOMOS – ICUCH member, and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.
Contact e-mail: aviduka[at]myune.edu.au

Vladas Žulkus is an underwater archaeologist, the principal research fel-
low and professor at the Institute of Baltic Region History and Archaeology
of Klaipėda University. He was a member of the Scientific and Techni-
cal Advisory Body of the 2001 Convention (2010-2019), member of the
Working group of Underwater Cultural heritage–Baltic Sea Region (2011-
2019). He is a member of the ICOMOS/ICUCH, member of the UN Pool of
Experts for the second cycle of the Regular Process for Global Reporting
and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment (2016-2020), sin-
ce 2018. He has published many articles in the field of underwater ar-
chaeology.
Contact e-mail: vladas.maritime[at]gmail.com
Appendix III 217
ICOMOS
ICOMOS is a non-governmental, not-for-profit international organization

committed to furthering the conservation, protection, use and enhance-
ment of the world’s cultural heritage.
Founded in 1965, ICOMOS is dedicated to the development of common
doctrines, the evolution and circulation of knowledge, the creation of
improved conservation techniques, and the promotion of cultural heritage
significance.
ICOMOS has built a solid philosophical, doctrinal, and managerial frame-

work for the sustainable conservation of heritage around the world. As an
official advisory body to the World Heritage Committee for the implemen-
tation of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, ICOMOS evaluates
nominations and advises on the state of conservation of properties inscri-
bed on the World Heritage List. ICOMOS’ world-wide network of individual
and institutional members, covering a broad range of professions and
specializations in its field of work, is organized into National Committees
and International Scientific Committees.
international council on monuments and sites

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HERITAGE AT RISK

HERITAGE UNDER WATER

HERITAGE UNDER WATER

INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE ON THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE

Heritage Under Water at Risk: Challenges, Threats and Solutions

President: Mr Toshiyuki Kono (Japan)

International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)

© November 2020 ICOMOS

FOREWORD – AVANT-PROPOS – PREÁMBULO

Toshiyuki Kono, President ICOMOS

INTRODUCTION TO HERITAGE UNDER WATER AT RISK: THREATS,

Christopher J. Underwood, President ICUCH

The final section of the book features capacity building, a the-

A maritime archaeologist is surveying masonry blocks from

FOREWORD – AVANT-PROPOS – PREÁMBULO 5

INTRODUCTION TO HERITAGE UNDER WATER AT RISK: THREATS, CHALLENGES, AND SOLUTIONS 7

SECTION 1: LEGAL AND POLICY PERSPECTIVES 15

CULTURAL HERITAGE: ITS INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTION 16

RISK AND PROBLEMS RELATING TO PROTECTING AND RESEARCHING UNDERWATER

UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITES UNDER WATER: ARCHAEOLOGICAL PLACES

UNDER THE WATERS OF GALLE: A PRELUDE TO THE AVONDSTER PROJECT 31

JAPAN’S APPROACH TO CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS: DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN BELGIUM: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 2012–2019 46

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN INDIA 50

SPAIN AND THE LEGAL PROTECTION OF THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE 56

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN THE YUCATAN PENINSULA, MEXICO 62

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE AT RISK: PROBLEMS RELATED TO URBANIZATION 77

THE MARY ROSE: EXCAVATION, SALVAGE, AND DISPLAY.

EXPLORING, DOCUMENTING, AND PROTECTING THE RIVER HERITAGE IN HUNGARY: EXPERIENCES

UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND: CHALLENGES

CAPTURING CULTURAL VALUE: CAN ECONOMIC CONCEPTS PROVIDE SOLUTIONS

CARIBBEAN MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW OF ITS DEVELOPMENT FROM

THE LJUBLJANICA RIVER PHENOMENON: RESCUE RESEARCH, CONSERVATION, AND PRESENTATION

INTRODUCTION TO THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE

SECTION 3: IN SITU PRESERVATION 127

IN SITU PRESERVATION OF SITES AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL

IN SITU PRESERVATION OF SITES AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL

IN SITU PROTECTION AND MONITORING OF UNDERWATER PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT REMAINS:

SECTION 4: PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT 147

PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT, COMMUNITY ARCHAEOLOGY AND UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE

ANCIENT SHIPWRECKS IN CYPRUS: REACHING OUT TO THE PUBLIC 158

TREASURE HUNTING AND LOOTING: ISSUES OF PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT IN VIETNAM 163

SECTION 5: CAPACITY BUILDING 169

STANDARDIZING CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY: A STRATEGY

CAPACITY BUILDING: THE UNESCO UNDERWATER CULTURAL

APPENDIX I: ICOMOS CHARTER ON THE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF UNDERWATER

APPENDIX II: UNESCO CONVENTION ON THE PROTECTION OF THE UNDERWATER

APPENDIX III: AUTHORS‘ BIOGRAPHIES AND CONTACT EMAILS 205

A Lykian type sarcophagus from Simena, a partially

CULTURAL HERITAGE: ITS INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROTECTION

Mariano J. Aznar, Spain

Introduction reefs which became ecosystems, or marine gravesites trans-

Aznar Mariano J (2004) La protección internacional del patrimonio cultural sub-

Bonifácio Ramos JL (2008) O achatamento de bens culturais subaquáticos.

Dromgoole Sarah (2013) Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law.

Garabello Roberta (2004) La Convenzione UNESCO sulla protezione del patri-

They M (2018) La protection international du patrimoine culturel de la mer.

RISK AND PROBLEMS RELATING TO PROTECTING AND

Fig. 1 Stone Tidal Weirs in Mainland China. © Akifumi Iwabuchi.