USING SQL

IN A
DATABASE
Sumario
Introduction to SQL............................................................................................................................12
What is SQL?.................................................................................................................................12
What Can SQL do?........................................................................................................................12
SQL is a Standard - BUT...............................................................................................................12
Using SQL in Your Web Site.........................................................................................................12
RDBMS.........................................................................................................................................13
Example....................................................................................................................................13
SQL Syntax.........................................................................................................................................13
Database Tables.............................................................................................................................13
SQL Statements.............................................................................................................................14
Example....................................................................................................................................14
Keep in Mind That.........................................................................................................................14
Semicolon after SQL Statements?.................................................................................................14
Some of The Most Important SQL Commands.............................................................................14
SQL SELECT Statement....................................................................................................................15
The SQL SELECT Statement........................................................................................................15
SELECT Syntax........................................................................................................................15
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................15
SELECT Column Example............................................................................................................16
Example....................................................................................................................................16
SELECT * Example.......................................................................................................................16
Example....................................................................................................................................16
SQL WHERE Clause..........................................................................................................................16
The SQL WHERE Clause..............................................................................................................16
WHERE Syntax........................................................................................................................16
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................16
WHERE Clause Example..............................................................................................................17
Example....................................................................................................................................17
Text Fields vs. Numeric Fields......................................................................................................17
Example....................................................................................................................................17
Operators in The WHERE Clause.................................................................................................17
SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators...................................................................................................17
The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators.......................................................................................18
AND Syntax..............................................................................................................................18
OR Syntax.................................................................................................................................18
NOT Syntax..............................................................................................................................18
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................18
AND Example................................................................................................................................20
Example....................................................................................................................................20
OR Example...................................................................................................................................20
Example....................................................................................................................................20
Example....................................................................................................................................21
NOT Example................................................................................................................................21
Example....................................................................................................................................21
Combining AND, OR and NOT....................................................................................................21
Example....................................................................................................................................21
Example....................................................................................................................................21
SQL ORDER BY Keyword................................................................................................................21

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 The SQL ORDER BY Keyword....................................................................................................21
ORDER BY Syntax...................................................................................................................22
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................22
ORDER BY Example....................................................................................................................22
Example....................................................................................................................................22
ORDER BY DESC Example.........................................................................................................22
Example....................................................................................................................................22
ORDER BY Several Columns Example........................................................................................23
Example....................................................................................................................................23
ORDER BY Several Columns Example 2.....................................................................................23
Example....................................................................................................................................23
SQL INSERT INTO Statement...........................................................................................................23
The SQL INSERT INTO Statement...............................................................................................23
INSERT INTO Syntax..............................................................................................................23
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................23
INSERT INTO Example................................................................................................................24
Example....................................................................................................................................24
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns.........................................................................................24
Example....................................................................................................................................24
SQL NULL Values..............................................................................................................................25
What is a NULL Value?.................................................................................................................25
How to Test for NULL Values?.....................................................................................................25
IS NULL Syntax........................................................................................................................25
IS NOT NULL Syntax..............................................................................................................25
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................25
The IS NULL Operator..................................................................................................................26
Example....................................................................................................................................26
The IS NOT NULL Operator.........................................................................................................26
Example....................................................................................................................................26
SQL UPDATE Statement...................................................................................................................26
The SQL UPDATE Statement.......................................................................................................26
UPDATE Syntax.......................................................................................................................26
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................27
UPDATE Table..............................................................................................................................27
Example....................................................................................................................................27
UPDATE Multiple Records...........................................................................................................28
Example....................................................................................................................................28
Update Warning!............................................................................................................................28
Example....................................................................................................................................28
SQL DELETE Statement....................................................................................................................29
The SQL DELETE Statement........................................................................................................29
DELETE Syntax.......................................................................................................................29
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................29
SQL DELETE Example.................................................................................................................29
Example....................................................................................................................................29
Delete All Records.........................................................................................................................30
Example....................................................................................................................................30
SQL TOP, LIMIT, FETCH FIRST or ROWNUM Clause..................................................................30
The SQL SELECT TOP Clause.....................................................................................................30
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................31

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 SQL TOP, LIMIT and FETCH FIRST Examples..........................................................................31
Example....................................................................................................................................31
Example....................................................................................................................................32
Example....................................................................................................................................32
SQL TOP PERCENT Example......................................................................................................32
Example....................................................................................................................................32
Example....................................................................................................................................32
ADD a WHERE CLAUSE............................................................................................................32
Example....................................................................................................................................32
Example....................................................................................................................................32
Example....................................................................................................................................33
SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions.....................................................................................................33
The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions.........................................................................................33
MIN() Syntax............................................................................................................................33
MAX() Syntax...........................................................................................................................33
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................33
MIN() Example..............................................................................................................................33
Example....................................................................................................................................33
MAX() Example............................................................................................................................34
Example....................................................................................................................................34
SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions...................................................................................34
The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions.......................................................................34
COUNT() Syntax......................................................................................................................34
AVG() Syntax............................................................................................................................34
SUM() Syntax...........................................................................................................................34
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................34
COUNT() Example........................................................................................................................35
Example....................................................................................................................................35
AVG() Example.............................................................................................................................35
Example....................................................................................................................................35
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................35
SUM() Example.............................................................................................................................35
Example....................................................................................................................................35
SQL LIKE Operator...........................................................................................................................36
The SQL LIKE Operator...............................................................................................................36
LIKE Syntax.............................................................................................................................36
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................37
SQL LIKE Examples.....................................................................................................................38
Example....................................................................................................................................38
Example....................................................................................................................................38
Example....................................................................................................................................39
Example....................................................................................................................................39
Example....................................................................................................................................39
Example....................................................................................................................................39
Example....................................................................................................................................39
SQL Wildcards....................................................................................................................................39
SQL Wildcard Characters..............................................................................................................39
Wildcard Characters in MS Access...........................................................................................40
Wildcard Characters in SQL Server..........................................................................................40
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................40

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 Using the % Wildcard....................................................................................................................42
Example....................................................................................................................................42
Example....................................................................................................................................42
Using the _ Wildcard.....................................................................................................................42
Example....................................................................................................................................42
Example....................................................................................................................................43
Using the [charlist] Wildcard.........................................................................................................43
Example....................................................................................................................................43
Example....................................................................................................................................43
Using the [!charlist] Wildcard........................................................................................................43
Example....................................................................................................................................43
Example....................................................................................................................................43
SQL IN Operator................................................................................................................................43
The SQL IN Operator....................................................................................................................43
IN Syntax..................................................................................................................................44
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................44
IN Operator Examples...................................................................................................................46
Example....................................................................................................................................46
Example....................................................................................................................................46
Example....................................................................................................................................46
SQL BETWEEN Operator.................................................................................................................46
The SQL BETWEEN Operator.....................................................................................................46
BETWEEN Syntax...................................................................................................................46
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................46
BETWEEN Example.....................................................................................................................47
Example....................................................................................................................................47
NOT BETWEEN Example............................................................................................................47
Example....................................................................................................................................47
BETWEEN with IN Example........................................................................................................47
Example....................................................................................................................................47
BETWEEN Text Values Example..................................................................................................47
Example....................................................................................................................................47
Example....................................................................................................................................48
NOT BETWEEN Text Values Example........................................................................................48
Example....................................................................................................................................48
Sample Table..................................................................................................................................48
BETWEEN Dates Example...........................................................................................................48
Example....................................................................................................................................48
Example....................................................................................................................................48
SQL Aliases........................................................................................................................................49
SQL Aliases...................................................................................................................................49
Alias Column Syntax................................................................................................................49
Alias Table Syntax....................................................................................................................49
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................49
Alias for Columns Examples.........................................................................................................49
Example....................................................................................................................................50
Example....................................................................................................................................50
Example....................................................................................................................................50
Alias for Tables Example...............................................................................................................50
Example....................................................................................................................................50

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 Example....................................................................................................................................50
SQL Joins............................................................................................................................................51
SQL JOIN......................................................................................................................................51
Example....................................................................................................................................51
Different Types of SQL JOINs......................................................................................................52
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword..............................................................................................................52
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword.........................................................................................................52
INNER JOIN Syntax.................................................................................................................52
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................53
SQL INNER JOIN Example..........................................................................................................53
Example....................................................................................................................................53
JOIN Three Tables.........................................................................................................................53
Example....................................................................................................................................53
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword.................................................................................................................54
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword............................................................................................................54
LEFT JOIN Syntax...................................................................................................................54
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................54
SQL LEFT JOIN Example.............................................................................................................55
Example....................................................................................................................................55
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword..............................................................................................................55
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword.........................................................................................................55
RIGHT JOIN Syntax.................................................................................................................55
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................55
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example..........................................................................................................56
Example....................................................................................................................................56
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword..................................................................................................56
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword.............................................................................................56
FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax.....................................................................................................56
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................57
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Example..............................................................................................57
SQL Self Join......................................................................................................................................57
SQL Self Join.................................................................................................................................57
Self Join Syntax........................................................................................................................58
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................58
SQL Self Join Example..................................................................................................................58
Example....................................................................................................................................58
SQL UNION Operator........................................................................................................................58
The SQL UNION Operator............................................................................................................58
UNION Syntax..........................................................................................................................59
UNION ALL Syntax.................................................................................................................59
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................59
SQL UNION Example...................................................................................................................59
Example....................................................................................................................................60
SQL UNION ALL Example...........................................................................................................60
Example....................................................................................................................................60
SQL UNION With WHERE..........................................................................................................60
Example....................................................................................................................................60
SQL UNION ALL With WHERE..................................................................................................60
Example....................................................................................................................................60
Another UNION Example.............................................................................................................61

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 Example....................................................................................................................................61
SQL GROUP BY Statement...............................................................................................................61
The SQL GROUP BY Statement...................................................................................................61
GROUP BY Syntax...................................................................................................................61
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................61
SQL GROUP BY Examples..........................................................................................................62
Example....................................................................................................................................62
Example....................................................................................................................................62
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................62
GROUP BY With JOIN Example..................................................................................................63
Example....................................................................................................................................63
SQL HAVING Clause.........................................................................................................................63
The SQL HAVING Clause.............................................................................................................63
HAVING Syntax.......................................................................................................................63
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................63
SQL HAVING Examples...............................................................................................................64
Example....................................................................................................................................64
Example....................................................................................................................................64
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................64
More HAVING Examples..............................................................................................................64
Example....................................................................................................................................64
Example....................................................................................................................................65
SQL EXISTS Operator.......................................................................................................................65
The SQL EXISTS Operator...........................................................................................................65
EXISTS Syntax.........................................................................................................................65
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................65
SQL EXISTS Examples.................................................................................................................66
Example....................................................................................................................................66
Example....................................................................................................................................66
SQL ANY and ALL Operators...........................................................................................................66
The SQL ANY and ALL Operators................................................................................................66
The SQL ANY Operator................................................................................................................66
ANY Syntax..............................................................................................................................67
The SQL ALL Operator.................................................................................................................67
ALL Syntax With SELECT.......................................................................................................67
ALL Syntax With WHERE or HAVING..................................................................................67
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................67
SQL ANY Examples......................................................................................................................68
Example....................................................................................................................................68
Example....................................................................................................................................68
Example....................................................................................................................................69
SQL ALL Examples.......................................................................................................................69
Example....................................................................................................................................69
Example....................................................................................................................................69
SQL SELECT INTO Statement..........................................................................................................70
The SQL SELECT INTO Statement..............................................................................................70
SELECT INTO Syntax..............................................................................................................70
SQL SELECT INTO Examples.....................................................................................................70
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement...........................................................................................71
The SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement...............................................................................71

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 INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax...............................................................................................71
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................72
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Examples......................................................................................72
Example....................................................................................................................................72
Example....................................................................................................................................72
Example....................................................................................................................................72
SQL CASE Statement.........................................................................................................................73
The SQL CASE Statement.............................................................................................................73
CASE Syntax.................................................................................................................................73
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................73
SQL CASE Examples....................................................................................................................73
Example....................................................................................................................................73
Example....................................................................................................................................74
SQL NULL Functions........................................................................................................................74
SQL IFNULL(), ISNULL(), COALESCE(), and NVL() Functions.............................................74
Solutions........................................................................................................................................74
SQL Stored Procedures for SQL Server.............................................................................................75
What is a Stored Procedure?..........................................................................................................75
Stored Procedure Syntax...........................................................................................................75
Execute a Stored Procedure......................................................................................................75
Demo Database..............................................................................................................................76
Stored Procedure Example.............................................................................................................76
Example....................................................................................................................................76
Example....................................................................................................................................76
Stored Procedure With One Parameter..........................................................................................76
Example....................................................................................................................................76
Example....................................................................................................................................77
Stored Procedure With Multiple Parameters.................................................................................77
Example....................................................................................................................................77
Example....................................................................................................................................77
SQL Comments..................................................................................................................................77
SQL Comments..............................................................................................................................77
Single Line Comments...................................................................................................................77
Example....................................................................................................................................78
Example....................................................................................................................................78
Example....................................................................................................................................78
Multi-line Comments.....................................................................................................................78
Example....................................................................................................................................78
Example....................................................................................................................................78
Example....................................................................................................................................78
Example....................................................................................................................................79
SQL Operators....................................................................................................................................79
SQL Arithmetic Operators.............................................................................................................79
SQL Bitwise Operators..................................................................................................................79
SQL Comparison Operators...........................................................................................................79
SQL Compound Operators............................................................................................................79
SQL Logical Operators..................................................................................................................80
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement..............................................................................................80
The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement..................................................................................80
Syntax........................................................................................................................................80

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 CREATE DATABASE Example....................................................................................................80
Example....................................................................................................................................80
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement...................................................................................................81
The SQL DROP DATABASE Statement.......................................................................................81
Syntax........................................................................................................................................81
DROP DATABASE Example........................................................................................................81
Example....................................................................................................................................81
SQL BACKUP DATABASE for SQL Server.....................................................................................81
The SQL BACKUP DATABASE Statement.................................................................................81
Syntax........................................................................................................................................81
The SQL BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL Statement..............................................................81
Syntax........................................................................................................................................82
BACKUP DATABASE Example...................................................................................................82
Example....................................................................................................................................82
BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL Example................................................................................82
Example....................................................................................................................................82
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement......................................................................................................82
The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement..........................................................................................82
Syntax........................................................................................................................................82
SQL CREATE TABLE Example...................................................................................................83
Example....................................................................................................................................83
Create Table Using Another Table.................................................................................................83
Syntax........................................................................................................................................83
Example....................................................................................................................................84
SQL DROP TABLE Statement...........................................................................................................84
The SQL DROP TABLE Statement...............................................................................................84
Syntax........................................................................................................................................84
SQL DROP TABLE Example........................................................................................................84
Example....................................................................................................................................84
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE.............................................................................................................84
Syntax........................................................................................................................................84
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement.........................................................................................................84
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement....................................................................................................84
ALTER TABLE - ADD Column....................................................................................................85
Example....................................................................................................................................85
ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN.............................................................................................85
Example....................................................................................................................................85
ALTER TABLE - ALTER/MODIFY COLUMN...........................................................................85
SQL ALTER TABLE Example......................................................................................................86
Change Data Type Example...........................................................................................................86
DROP COLUMN Example...........................................................................................................86
SQL Constraints..................................................................................................................................87
SQL Create Constraints.................................................................................................................87
Syntax........................................................................................................................................87
SQL Constraints.............................................................................................................................87
SQL NOT NULL Constraint..............................................................................................................88
SQL NOT NULL Constraint..........................................................................................................88
SQL NOT NULL on CREATE TABLE.........................................................................................88
Example....................................................................................................................................88
SQL NOT NULL on ALTER TABLE............................................................................................88

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SQL UNIQUE Constraint...................................................................................................................88
SQL UNIQUE Constraint..............................................................................................................88
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE...........................................................................89
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE..............................................................................90
DROP a UNIQUE Constraint........................................................................................................90
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint.......................................................................................................90
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint..................................................................................................90
SQL PRIMARY KEY on CREATE TABLE.................................................................................90
SQL PRIMARY KEY on ALTER TABLE....................................................................................91
DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint.............................................................................................92
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint........................................................................................................92
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint...................................................................................................92
Persons Table.............................................................................................................................92
Orders Table..............................................................................................................................92
SQL FOREIGN KEY on CREATE TABLE..................................................................................93
SQL FOREIGN KEY on ALTER TABLE.....................................................................................94
DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint.............................................................................................94
SQL CHECK Constraint.....................................................................................................................94
SQL CHECK Constraint................................................................................................................94
SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE...............................................................................................95
SQL CHECK on ALTER TABLE..................................................................................................95
DROP a CHECK Constraint..........................................................................................................96
SQL DEFAULT Constraint.................................................................................................................96
SQL DEFAULT Constraint............................................................................................................96
SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE...........................................................................................96
SQL DEFAULT on ALTER TABLE..............................................................................................97
DROP a DEFAULT Constraint......................................................................................................97
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement......................................................................................................98
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement.................................................................................................98
CREATE INDEX Syntax..........................................................................................................98
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax..........................................................................................98
CREATE INDEX Example............................................................................................................98
DROP INDEX Statement..............................................................................................................98
SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field.......................................................................................................99
AUTO INCREMENT Field...........................................................................................................99
Syntax for MySQL.........................................................................................................................99
Syntax for SQL Server.................................................................................................................100
Syntax for Access.........................................................................................................................101
Syntax for Oracle.........................................................................................................................101
SQL Working With Dates.................................................................................................................102
SQL Dates....................................................................................................................................102
SQL Date Data Types..................................................................................................................102
SQL Working with Dates.............................................................................................................102
Orders Table............................................................................................................................103
SQL Views........................................................................................................................................103
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement..................................................................................................103
CREATE VIEW Syntax..........................................................................................................104
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples..................................................................................................104
Example..................................................................................................................................104
Example..................................................................................................................................104

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 Example..................................................................................................................................104
Example..................................................................................................................................104
SQL Updating a View..................................................................................................................104
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax........................................................................105
Example..................................................................................................................................105
SQL Dropping a View..................................................................................................................105
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax......................................................................................................105
Example..................................................................................................................................105
SQL Injection....................................................................................................................................105
SQL Injection...............................................................................................................................105
SQL in Web Pages.......................................................................................................................105
Example..................................................................................................................................106
SQL Injection Based on 1=1 is Always True...............................................................................106
SQL Injection Based on""="" is Always True.............................................................................106
Example..................................................................................................................................106
Result......................................................................................................................................106
Result......................................................................................................................................107
SQL Injection Based on Batched SQL Statements......................................................................107
Example..................................................................................................................................107
Example..................................................................................................................................107
Result......................................................................................................................................107
Use SQL Parameters for Protection.............................................................................................107
ASP.NET Razor Example.......................................................................................................108
Another Example....................................................................................................................108
Examples......................................................................................................................................108
SQL Hosting.....................................................................................................................................109
SQL Hosting................................................................................................................................109
MS SQL Server............................................................................................................................109
Oracle...........................................................................................................................................109
MySQL........................................................................................................................................109
MS Access....................................................................................................................................109
SQL Data Types for MySQL, SQL Server, and MS Access.............................................................110
SQL Data Types...........................................................................................................................110
MySQL Data Types (Version 8.0)................................................................................................110
String Data Types....................................................................................................................110
Numeric Data Types................................................................................................................111
Date and Time Data Types......................................................................................................112
SQL Server Data Types................................................................................................................112
String Data Types....................................................................................................................112
Numeric Data Types................................................................................................................112
Date and Time Data Types......................................................................................................113
Other Data Types.....................................................................................................................114
MS Access Data Types.................................................................................................................114
SQL Keywords Reference................................................................................................................114
SQL Keywords.............................................................................................................................115
MySQL Functions.............................................................................................................................117
MySQL String Functions.............................................................................................................117
MySQL Numeric Functions.........................................................................................................118
MySQL Date Functions...............................................................................................................119
MySQL Advanced Functions.......................................................................................................120

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SQL Server Functions.......................................................................................................................121
SQL Server String Functions.......................................................................................................121
SQL Server Math/Numeric Functions.........................................................................................122
SQL Server Date Functions.........................................................................................................123
SQL Server Advanced Functions.................................................................................................123

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Introduction to SQL
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language
• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
• SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987

What Can SQL do?

• SQL can execute queries against a database
• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can update records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database
• SQL can create new databases
• SQL can create new tables in a database
• SQL can create stored procedures in a database
• SQL can create views in a database
• SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there are different versions of the SQL language.
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands
(such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner.

Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to
the SQL standard!

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:

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 • An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
• To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
• To use SQL to get the data you want
• To use HTML / CSS to style the page

RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS SQL Server, IBM
DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of related data
entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Look at the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the Customers table consist
of CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode and Country. A field is a
column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every record in the table.
A record, also called a row, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For example, there are 91
records in the above Customers table. A record is a horizontal entity in a table.
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific field
in a table.

SQL Syntax

Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g.
"Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database (included in MS Access and
MS SQL Server).
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany

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 Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8
The table above contains five records (one for each customer) and seven columns (CustomerID,
CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, and Country).

SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
The following SQL statement selects all the records in the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;
In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.

Keep in Mind That...

• SQL keywords are NOT case sensitive: select is the same as SELECT

In this tutorial we will write all SQL keywords in upper-case.

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more
than one SQL statement to be executed in the same call to the server.
In this tutorial, we will use semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.

Some of The Most Important SQL Commands

• SELECT - extracts data from a database
• UPDATE - updates data in a database

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 • DELETE - deletes data from a database
• INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
• CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
• ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
• CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
• ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
• DROP TABLE - deletes a table
• CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
• DROP INDEX - deletes an index

SQL SELECT Statement

The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SELECT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to select data from. If you
want to select all the fields available in the table, use the following syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

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SELECT Column Example
The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from the
"Customers" table:

Example
SELECT CustomerName, City FROM Customers;

SELECT * Example
The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;

SQL WHERE Clause

The SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

WHERE Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statements, it is also used in UPDATE,
DELETE, etc.!

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

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 Emparedados y Constitución
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

WHERE Clause Example

The following SQL statement selects all the customers from the country "Mexico", in the
"Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Mexico';

Text Fields vs. Numeric Fields

SQL requires single quotes around text values (most database systems will also allow double
quotes).
However, numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerID=1;

Operators in The WHERE Clause

The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:

Operator Description Example

= Equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this
<>
operator may be written as !=
BETWEEN Between a certain range

Página 17 de 132
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN To specify multiple possible values for a column

SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators.

The AND and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition:

• The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND are TRUE.
• The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE.

The NOT operator displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE.

AND Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND condition3 ...;

OR Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR condition3 ...;

NOT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;

Demo Database
The table below shows the complete "Customers" table from the Northwind sample database:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Emparedados y
2 Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Constitución 2222 México D.F. 05021 Mexico
helados
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
5 Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
6 Blauer See Delikatessen Hanna Moos Forsterstr. 57 Mannheim 68306 Germany
7 Blondel père et fils Frédérique Citeaux 24, place Kléber Strasbourg 67000 France

Página 18 de 132
8 Bólido Comidas preparadas Martín Sommer C/ Araquil, 67 Madrid 28023 Spain
9 Bon app' Laurence Lebihans 12, rue des Bouchers Marseille 13008 France
10 Bottom-Dollar Marketse Elizabeth Lincoln 23 Tsawassen Blvd. Tsawassen T2F 8M4 Canada
11 B's Beverages Victoria Ashworth Fauntleroy Circus London EC2 5NT UK
12 Cactus Comidas para llevar Patricio Simpson Cerrito 333 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
13 Centro comercial Moctezuma Francisco Chang Sierras de Granada 9993 México D.F. 05022 Mexico
14 Chop-suey Chinese Yang Wang Hauptstr. 29 Bern 3012 Switzerland
15 Comércio Mineiro Pedro Afonso Av. dos Lusíadas, 23 São Paulo 05432-043 Brazil
16 Consolidated Holdings Elizabeth Brown Berkeley Gardens 12 Brewery London WX1 6LT UK
17 Drachenblut Delikatessend Sven Ottlieb Walserweg 21 Aachen 52066 Germany
18 Du monde entier Janine Labrune 67, rue des Cinquante Otages Nantes 44000 France
19 Eastern Connection Ann Devon 35 King George London WX3 6FW UK
20 Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Kirchgasse 6 Graz 8010 Austria
21 Familia Arquibaldo Aria Cruz Rua Orós, 92 São Paulo 05442-030 Brazil
FISSA Fabrica Inter.
22 Diego Roel C/ Moralzarzal, 86 Madrid 28034 Spain
Salchichas S.A.
23 Folies gourmandes Martine Rancé 184, chaussée de Tournai Lille 59000 France
24 Folk och fä HB Maria Larsson Åkergatan 24 Bräcke S-844 67 Sweden
25 Frankenversand Peter Franken Berliner Platz 43 München 80805 Germany
26 France restauration Carine Schmitt 54, rue Royale Nantes 44000 France
27 Franchi S.p.A. Paolo Accorti Via Monte Bianco 34 Torino 10100 Italy
Furia Bacalhau e Frutos do
28 Lino Rodriguez Jardim das rosas n. 32 Lisboa 1675 Portugal
Mar
29 Galería del gastrónomo Eduardo Saavedra Rambla de Cataluña, 23 Barcelona 08022 Spain
30 Godos Cocina Típica José Pedro Freyre C/ Romero, 33 Sevilla 41101 Spain
31 Gourmet Lanchonetes André Fonseca Av. Brasil, 442 Campinas 04876-786 Brazil
32 Great Lakes Food Market Howard Snyder 2732 Baker Blvd. Eugene 97403 USA
33 GROSELLA-Restaurante Manuel Pereira 5ª Ave. Los Palos Grandes Caracas 1081 Venezuela
34 Hanari Carnes Mario Pontes Rua do Paço, 67 Rio de Janeiro 05454-876 Brazil
Carrera 22 con Ave. Carlos
35 HILARIÓN-Abastos Carlos Hernández San Cristóbal 5022 Venezuela
Soublette #8-35
City Center Plaza 516 Main
36 Hungry Coyote Import Store Yoshi Latimer Elgin 97827 USA
St.
Hungry Owl All-Night
37 Patricia McKenna 8 Johnstown Road Cork Ireland
Grocers
38 Island Trading Helen Bennett Garden House Crowther Way Cowes PO31 7PJ UK
39 Königlich Essen Philip Cramer Maubelstr. 90 Brandenburg 14776 Germany
40 La corne d'abondance Daniel Tonini 67, avenue de l'Europe Versailles 78000 France
41 La maison d'Asie Annette Roulet 1 rue Alsace-Lorraine Toulouse 31000 France
Laughing Bacchus Wine
42 Yoshi Tannamuri 1900 Oak St. Vancouver V3F 2K1 Canada
Cellars
43 Lazy K Kountry Store John Steel 12 Orchestra Terrace Walla Walla 99362 USA
44 Lehmanns Marktstand Renate Messner Magazinweg 7 Frankfurt a.M. 60528 Germany
45 Let's Stop N Shop Jaime Yorres 87 Polk St. Suite 5 San Francisco 94117 USA
Carrera 52 con Ave. Bolívar
46 LILA-Supermercado Carlos González Barquisimeto 3508 Venezuela
#65-98 Llano Largo
47 LINO-Delicateses Felipe Izquierdo Ave. 5 de Mayo Porlamar I. de Margarita 4980 Venezuela
48 Lonesome Pine Restaurant Fran Wilson 89 Chiaroscuro Rd. Portland 97219 USA
49 Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti Giovanni Rovelli Via Ludovico il Moro 22 Bergamo 24100 Italy
50 Maison Dewey Catherine Dewey Rue Joseph-Bens 532 Bruxelles B-1180 Belgium
51 Mère Paillarde Jean Fresnière 43 rue St. Laurent Montréal H1J 1C3 Canada
52 Morgenstern Gesundkost Alexander Feuer Heerstr. 22 Leipzig 04179 Germany
South House 300
53 North/South Simon Crowther London SW7 1RZ UK
Queensbridge
Ing. Gustavo Moncada 8585
54 Océano Atlántico Ltda. Yvonne Moncada Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
Piso 20-A
55 Old World Delicatessen Rene Phillips 2743 Bering St. Anchorage 99508 USA
Henriette
56 Ottilies Käseladen Mehrheimerstr. 369 Köln 50739 Germany
Pfalzheim
57 Paris spécialités Marie Bertrand 265, boulevard Charonne Paris 75012 France

Página 19 de 132
 Guillermo
58 Pericles Comidas clásicas Calle Dr. Jorge Cash 321 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
Fernández
59 Piccolo und mehr Georg Pipps Geislweg 14 Salzburg 5020 Austria
60 Princesa Isabel Vinhoss Isabel de Castro Estrada da saúde n. 58 Lisboa 1756 Portugal
61 Que Delícia Bernardo Batista Rua da Panificadora, 12 Rio de Janeiro 02389-673 Brazil
62 Queen Cozinha Lúcia Carvalho Alameda dos Canàrios, 891 São Paulo 05487-020 Brazil
63 QUICK-Stop Horst Kloss Taucherstraße 10 Cunewalde 01307 Germany
64 Rancho grande Sergio Gutiérrez Av. del Libertador 900 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
65 Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery Paula Wilson 2817 Milton Dr. Albuquerque 87110 USA
66 Reggiani Caseifici Maurizio Moroni Strada Provinciale 124 Reggio Emilia 42100 Italy
67 Ricardo Adocicados Janete Limeira Av. Copacabana, 267 Rio de Janeiro 02389-890 Brazil
68 Richter Supermarkt Michael Holz Grenzacherweg 237 Genève 1203 Switzerland
69 Romero y tomillo Alejandra Camino Gran Vía, 1 Madrid 28001 Spain
70 Santé Gourmet Jonas Bergulfsen Erling Skakkes gate 78 Stavern 4110 Norway
71 Save-a-lot Markets Jose Pavarotti 187 Suffolk Ln. Boise 83720 USA
72 Seven Seas Imports Hari Kumar 90 Wadhurst Rd. London OX15 4NB UK
73 Simons bistro Jytte Petersen Vinbæltet 34 København 1734 Denmark
74 Spécialités du monde Dominique Perrier 25, rue Lauriston Paris 75016 France
Art
75 Split Rail Beer & Ale P.O. Box 555 Lander 82520 USA
Braunschweiger
76 Suprêmes délices Pascale Cartrain Boulevard Tirou, 255 Charleroi B-6000 Belgium
77 The Big Cheese Liz Nixon 89 Jefferson Way Suite 2 Portland 97201 USA
78 The Cracker Box Liu Wong 55 Grizzly Peak Rd. Butte 59801 USA
79 Toms Spezialitäten Karin Josephs Luisenstr. 48 Münster 44087 Germany
Miguel Angel
80 Tortuga Restaurante Avda. Azteca 123 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
Paolino
Anabela
81 Tradição Hipermercados Av. Inês de Castro, 414 São Paulo 05634-030 Brazil
Domingues
Trail's Head Gourmet
82 Helvetius Nagy 722 DaVinci Blvd. Kirkland 98034 USA
Provisioners
83 Vaffeljernet Palle Ibsen Smagsløget 45 Århus 8200 Denmark
84 Victuailles en stock Mary Saveley 2, rue du Commerce Lyon 69004 France
85 Vins et alcools Chevalier Paul Henriot 59 rue de l'Abbaye Reims 51100 France
86 Die Wandernde Kuh Rita Müller Adenauerallee 900 Stuttgart 70563 Germany
87 Wartian Herkku Pirkko Koskitalo Torikatu 38 Oulu 90110 Finland
88 Wellington Importadora Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, 12 Resende 08737-363 Brazil
89 White Clover Markets Karl Jablonski 305 - 14th Ave. S. Suite 3B Seattle 98128 USA
90 Wilman Kala Matti Karttunen Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland

AND Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is "Germany" AND
city is "Berlin":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany' AND City='Berlin';

Página 20 de 132
OR Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where city is "Berlin" OR
"München":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City='Berlin' OR City='München';
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is "Germany" OR
"Spain":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany' OR Country='Spain';

NOT Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is NOT
"Germany":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE NOT Country='Germany';

Combining AND, OR and NOT

You can also combine the AND, OR and NOT operators.

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is "Germany" AND
city must be "Berlin" OR "München" (use parenthesis to form complex expressions):

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany' AND (City='Berlin' OR City='München');
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is NOT "Germany"
and NOT "USA":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE NOT Country='Germany' AND NOT Country='USA';

Página 21 de 132
SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.

The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records in
descending order, use the DESC keyword.

ORDER BY Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

ORDER BY Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the
"Country" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country;

Página 22 de 132
ORDER BY DESC Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted
DESCENDING by the "Country" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country DESC;

ORDER BY Several Columns Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the
"Country" and the "CustomerName" column. This means that it orders by Country, but if some rows
have the same Country, it orders them by CustomerName:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country, CustomerName;

ORDER BY Several Columns Example 2

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted ascending by
the "Country" and descending by the "CustomerName" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways:

1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:

Página 23 de 132
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to specify the column
names in the SQL query. However, make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the
columns in the table. Here, the INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

White Clover 305 - 14th Ave.
89 Karl Jablonski Seattle 98128 USA
Markets S. Suite 3B
Matti
90 Wilman Kala Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
Karttunen
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland

INSERT INTO Example

The following SQL statement inserts a new record in the "Customers" table:

Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen 21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norway');
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

305 - 14th
White Clover
89 Karl Jablonski Ave. S. Suite Seattle 98128 USA
Markets
3B
Matti
90 Wilman Kala Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
Karttunen
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland
Tom B.
92 Cardinal Skagen 21 Stavanger 4006 Norway
Erichsen
Did you notice that we did not insert any number into the CustomerID field?
The CustomerID column is an auto-increment field and will be generated automatically when a new
record is inserted into the table.

Página 24 de 132
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will insert a new record, but only insert data in the "CustomerName",
"City", and "Country" columns (CustomerID will be updated automatically):

Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

305 - 14th
White Clover
89 Karl Jablonski Ave. S. Suite Seattle 98128 USA
Markets
3B
Matti
90 Wilman Kala Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
Karttunen
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland
92 Cardinal null null Stavanger null Norway

SQL NULL Values

What is a NULL Value?

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update a record without adding
a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved with a NULL value.
Note: A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a
NULL value is one that has been left blank during record creation!

How to Test for NULL Values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.

Página 25 de 132
IS NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NULL;

IS NOT NULL Syntax

SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

The IS NULL Operator

The IS NULL operator is used to test for empty values (NULL values).

The following SQL lists all customers with a NULL value in the "Address" field:

Example
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address
FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NULL;
Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

The IS NOT NULL Operator

The IS NOT NULL operator is used to test for non-empty values (NOT NULL values).

Página 26 de 132
The following SQL lists all customers with a value in the "Address" field:

Example
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address
FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL;

SQL UPDATE Statement

The SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be updated. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated!

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

Página 27 de 132
UPDATE Table
The following SQL statement updates the first customer (CustomerID = 1) with a new contact
person and a new city.

Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt', City= 'Frankfurt'
WHERE CustomerID = 1;
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Alfreds Alfred
1 Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209 Germany
Futterkiste Schmidt
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

UPDATE Multiple Records

It is the WHERE clause that determines how many records will be updated.

The following SQL statement will update the ContactName to "Juan" for all records where country
is "Mexico":

Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan'
WHERE Country='Mexico';
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Alfreds Alfred
1 Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209 Germany
Futterkiste Schmidt
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Juan Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
3 Antonio Moreno Juan Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Página 28 de 132
 Taquería 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

Update Warning!
Be careful when updating records. If you omit the WHERE clause, ALL records will be updated!

Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan';
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Alfreds
1 Juan Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209 Germany
Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Juan Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Mataderos México
3 Juan 05023 Mexico
Taquería 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Juan London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Berguvsvägen
5 Juan Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp 8

SQL DELETE Statement

The SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE
clause, all records in the table will be deleted!

Página 29 de 132
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

SQL DELETE Example

The following SQL statement deletes the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" from the "Customers"
table:

Example
DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';
The "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio México
3 Mataderos 2312 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina
5 Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund

Delete All Records

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table
structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name;
The following SQL statement deletes all rows in the "Customers" table, without deleting the table:

Página 30 de 132
Example
DELETE FROM Customers;

SQL TOP, LIMIT, FETCH FIRST or

ROWNUM Clause

The SQL SELECT TOP Clause

The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.

The SELECT TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large
number of records can impact performance.
Note: Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause. MySQL supports the LIMIT
clause to select a limited number of records, while Oracle uses FETCH FIRST n ROWS ONLY
and ROWNUM.

SQL Server / MS Access Syntax:

SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
MySQL Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
LIMIT number;
Oracle 12 Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s)
FETCH FIRST number ROWS ONLY;
Older Oracle Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;
Older Oracle Syntax (with ORDER BY):

Página 31 de 132
SELECT *
FROM (SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name(s))
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

SQL TOP, LIMIT and FETCH FIRST Examples

The following SQL statement selects the first three records from the "Customers" table (for SQL
Server/MS Access):

Example
SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example for MySQL:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
LIMIT 3;
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example for Oracle:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
FETCH FIRST 3 ROWS ONLY;

Página 32 de 132
SQL TOP PERCENT Example
The following SQL statement selects the first 50% of the records from the "Customers" table (for
SQL Server/MS Access):

Example
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example for Oracle:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
FETCH FIRST 50 PERCENT ROWS ONLY;

ADD a WHERE CLAUSE

The following SQL statement selects the first three records from the "Customers" table, where the
country is "Germany" (for SQL Server/MS Access):

Example
SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany';
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example for MySQL:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
LIMIT 3;
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example for Oracle:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
FETCH FIRST 3 ROWS ONLY;

SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions

Página 33 de 132
The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

MIN() Syntax
SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

MAX() Syntax
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10
4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

MIN() Example
The following SQL statement finds the price of the cheapest product:

Example
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice
FROM Products;

MAX() Example
The following SQL statement finds the price of the most expensive product:

Página 34 de 132
Example
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice
FROM Products;

SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criterion.

COUNT() Syntax
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10
4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

Página 35 de 132
COUNT() Example
The following SQL statement finds the number of products:

Example
SELECT COUNT(ProductID)
FROM Products;
Note: NULL values are not counted.

AVG() Example
The following SQL statement finds the average price of all products:

Example
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;
Note: NULL values are ignored.

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "OrderDetails" table in the Northwind sample database:

OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity

1 10248 11 12
2 10248 42 10
3 10248 72 5
4 10249 14 9
5 10249 51 40

SUM() Example
The following SQL statement finds the sum of the "Quantity" fields in the "OrderDetails" table:

Example
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;
Note: NULL values are ignored.

Página 36 de 132
SQL LIKE Operator

The SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:

• The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or multiple characters

• The underscore sign (_) represents one, single character
Note: MS Access uses an asterisk (*) instead of the percent sign (%), and a question mark (?)
instead of the underscore (_).
The percent sign and the underscore can also be used in combinations!

LIKE Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;
Tip: You can also combine any number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards:

LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a
Finds any values that start with "a"
%'
WHERE CustomerName LIKE
Finds any values that end with "a"
'%a'
WHERE CustomerName LIKE
Finds any values that have "or" in any position
'%or%'
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r
Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
%'
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_ Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 2 characters
%' in length
WHERE CustomerName LIKE Finds any values that start with "a" and are at least 3 characters
'a__%' in length
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that start with "a" and ends with "o"

Página 37 de 132
Demo Database
The table below shows the complete "Customers" table from the Northwind sample database:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Constitución 2222 México D.F. 05021 Mexico
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
5 Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
6 Blauer See Delikatessen Hanna Moos Forsterstr. 57 Mannheim 68306 Germany
7 Blondel père et fils Frédérique Citeaux 24, place Kléber Strasbourg 67000 France
8 Bólido Comidas preparadas Martín Sommer C/ Araquil, 67 Madrid 28023 Spain
9 Bon app' Laurence Lebihans 12, rue des Bouchers Marseille 13008 France
10 Bottom-Dollar Marketse Elizabeth Lincoln 23 Tsawassen Blvd. Tsawassen T2F 8M4 Canada
11 B's Beverages Victoria Ashworth Fauntleroy Circus London EC2 5NT UK
12 Cactus Comidas para llevar Patricio Simpson Cerrito 333 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
13 Centro comercial Moctezuma Francisco Chang Sierras de Granada 9993 México D.F. 05022 Mexico
14 Chop-suey Chinese Yang Wang Hauptstr. 29 Bern 3012 Switzerland
15 Comércio Mineiro Pedro Afonso Av. dos Lusíadas, 23 São Paulo 05432-043 Brazil
16 Consolidated Holdings Elizabeth Brown Berkeley Gardens 12 Brewery London WX1 6LT UK
17 Drachenblut Delikatessend Sven Ottlieb Walserweg 21 Aachen 52066 Germany
18 Du monde entier Janine Labrune 67, rue des Cinquante Otages Nantes 44000 France
19 Eastern Connection Ann Devon 35 King George London WX3 6FW UK
20 Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Kirchgasse 6 Graz 8010 Austria
21 Familia Arquibaldo Aria Cruz Rua Orós, 92 São Paulo 05442-030 Brazil
22 FISSA Fabrica Inter. Salchichas S.A. Diego Roel C/ Moralzarzal, 86 Madrid 28034 Spain
23 Folies gourmandes Martine Rancé 184, chaussée de Tournai Lille 59000 France
24 Folk och fä HB Maria Larsson Åkergatan 24 Bräcke S-844 67 Sweden
25 Frankenversand Peter Franken Berliner Platz 43 München 80805 Germany
26 France restauration Carine Schmitt 54, rue Royale Nantes 44000 France
27 Franchi S.p.A. Paolo Accorti Via Monte Bianco 34 Torino 10100 Italy
28 Furia Bacalhau e Frutos do Mar Lino Rodriguez Jardim das rosas n. 32 Lisboa 1675 Portugal
29 Galería del gastrónomo Eduardo Saavedra Rambla de Cataluña, 23 Barcelona 08022 Spain
30 Godos Cocina Típica José Pedro Freyre C/ Romero, 33 Sevilla 41101 Spain
31 Gourmet Lanchonetes André Fonseca Av. Brasil, 442 Campinas 04876-786 Brazil
32 Great Lakes Food Market Howard Snyder 2732 Baker Blvd. Eugene 97403 USA
33 GROSELLA-Restaurante Manuel Pereira 5ª Ave. Los Palos Grandes Caracas 1081 Venezuela
34 Hanari Carnes Mario Pontes Rua do Paço, 67 Rio de Janeiro 05454-876 Brazil
Carrera 22 con Ave. Carlos
35 HILARIÓN-Abastos Carlos Hernández San Cristóbal 5022 Venezuela
Soublette #8-35
City Center Plaza 516 Main
36 Hungry Coyote Import Store Yoshi Latimer Elgin 97827 USA
St.
37 Hungry Owl All-Night Grocers Patricia McKenna 8 Johnstown Road Cork Ireland
38 Island Trading Helen Bennett Garden House Crowther Way Cowes PO31 7PJ UK
39 Königlich Essen Philip Cramer Maubelstr. 90 Brandenburg 14776 Germany
40 La corne d'abondance Daniel Tonini 67, avenue de l'Europe Versailles 78000 France
41 La maison d'Asie Annette Roulet 1 rue Alsace-Lorraine Toulouse 31000 France
42 Laughing Bacchus Wine Cellars Yoshi Tannamuri 1900 Oak St. Vancouver V3F 2K1 Canada
43 Lazy K Kountry Store John Steel 12 Orchestra Terrace Walla Walla 99362 USA
44 Lehmanns Marktstand Renate Messner Magazinweg 7 Frankfurt a.M. 60528 Germany
45 Let's Stop N Shop Jaime Yorres 87 Polk St. Suite 5 San Francisco 94117 USA
Carrera 52 con Ave. Bolívar
46 LILA-Supermercado Carlos González Barquisimeto 3508 Venezuela
#65-98 Llano Largo
47 LINO-Delicateses Felipe Izquierdo Ave. 5 de Mayo Porlamar I. de Margarita 4980 Venezuela
48 Lonesome Pine Restaurant Fran Wilson 89 Chiaroscuro Rd. Portland 97219 USA
49 Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti Giovanni Rovelli Via Ludovico il Moro 22 Bergamo 24100 Italy
50 Maison Dewey Catherine Dewey Rue Joseph-Bens 532 Bruxelles B-1180 Belgium

Página 38 de 132
51 Mère Paillarde Jean Fresnière 43 rue St. Laurent Montréal H1J 1C3 Canada
52 Morgenstern Gesundkost Alexander Feuer Heerstr. 22 Leipzig 04179 Germany
South House 300
53 North/South Simon Crowther London SW7 1RZ UK
Queensbridge
Ing. Gustavo Moncada 8585
54 Océano Atlántico Ltda. Yvonne Moncada Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
Piso 20-A
55 Old World Delicatessen Rene Phillips 2743 Bering St. Anchorage 99508 USA
56 Ottilies Käseladen Henriette Pfalzheim Mehrheimerstr. 369 Köln 50739 Germany
57 Paris spécialités Marie Bertrand 265, boulevard Charonne Paris 75012 France
58 Pericles Comidas clásicas Guillermo Fernández Calle Dr. Jorge Cash 321 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
59 Piccolo und mehr Georg Pipps Geislweg 14 Salzburg 5020 Austria
60 Princesa Isabel Vinhoss Isabel de Castro Estrada da saúde n. 58 Lisboa 1756 Portugal
61 Que Delícia Bernardo Batista Rua da Panificadora, 12 Rio de Janeiro 02389-673 Brazil
62 Queen Cozinha Lúcia Carvalho Alameda dos Canàrios, 891 São Paulo 05487-020 Brazil
63 QUICK-Stop Horst Kloss Taucherstraße 10 Cunewalde 01307 Germany
64 Rancho grande Sergio Gutiérrez Av. del Libertador 900 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
65 Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery Paula Wilson 2817 Milton Dr. Albuquerque 87110 USA
66 Reggiani Caseifici Maurizio Moroni Strada Provinciale 124 Reggio Emilia 42100 Italy
67 Ricardo Adocicados Janete Limeira Av. Copacabana, 267 Rio de Janeiro 02389-890 Brazil
68 Richter Supermarkt Michael Holz Grenzacherweg 237 Genève 1203 Switzerland
69 Romero y tomillo Alejandra Camino Gran Vía, 1 Madrid 28001 Spain
70 Santé Gourmet Jonas Bergulfsen Erling Skakkes gate 78 Stavern 4110 Norway
71 Save-a-lot Markets Jose Pavarotti 187 Suffolk Ln. Boise 83720 USA
72 Seven Seas Imports Hari Kumar 90 Wadhurst Rd. London OX15 4NB UK
73 Simons bistro Jytte Petersen Vinbæltet 34 København 1734 Denmark
74 Spécialités du monde Dominique Perrier 25, rue Lauriston Paris 75016 France
75 Split Rail Beer & Ale Art Braunschweiger P.O. Box 555 Lander 82520 USA
76 Suprêmes délices Pascale Cartrain Boulevard Tirou, 255 Charleroi B-6000 Belgium
77 The Big Cheese Liz Nixon 89 Jefferson Way Suite 2 Portland 97201 USA
78 The Cracker Box Liu Wong 55 Grizzly Peak Rd. Butte 59801 USA
79 Toms Spezialitäten Karin Josephs Luisenstr. 48 Münster 44087 Germany
80 Tortuga Restaurante Miguel Angel Paolino Avda. Azteca 123 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
81 Tradição Hipermercados Anabela Domingues Av. Inês de Castro, 414 São Paulo 05634-030 Brazil
82 Trail's Head Gourmet Provisioners Helvetius Nagy 722 DaVinci Blvd. Kirkland 98034 USA
83 Vaffeljernet Palle Ibsen Smagsløget 45 Århus 8200 Denmark
84 Victuailles en stock Mary Saveley 2, rue du Commerce Lyon 69004 France
85 Vins et alcools Chevalier Paul Henriot 59 rue de l'Abbaye Reims 51100 France
86 Die Wandernde Kuh Rita Müller Adenauerallee 900 Stuttgart 70563 Germany
87 Wartian Herkku Pirkko Koskitalo Torikatu 38 Oulu 90110 Finland
88 Wellington Importadora Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, 12 Resende 08737-363 Brazil
89 White Clover Markets Karl Jablonski 305 - 14th Ave. S. Suite 3B Seattle 98128 USA
90 Wilman Kala Matti Karttunen Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland

SQL LIKE Examples

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName starting with "a":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName ending with "a":

Página 39 de 132
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have "or" in any
position:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have "r" in the
second position:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that starts with "a" and
are at least 3 characters in length:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a__%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a ContactName that starts with "a" and
ends with "o":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that does NOT start with
"a":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName NOT LIKE 'a%';

SQL Wildcards

Página 40 de 132
SQL Wildcard Characters
A wildcard character is used to substitute one or more characters in a string.
Wildcard characters are used with the LIKE operator. The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE
clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

Wildcard Characters in MS Access

Symbol Description Example
* Represents zero or more characters bl* finds bl, black, blue, and blob
? Represents a single character h?t finds hot, hat, and hit
Represents any single character within
[] h[oa]t finds hot and hat, but not hit
the brackets
Represents any character not in the
! h[!oa]t finds hit, but not hot and hat
brackets
- Represents a range of characters c[a-b]t finds cat and cbt
2#5 finds 205, 215, 225, 235, 245, 255, 265,
# Represents any single numeric character
275, 285, and 295

Wildcard Characters in SQL Server

Symbol Description Example
% Represents zero or more characters bl% finds bl, black, blue, and blob
_ Represents a single character h_t finds hot, hat, and hit
[] Represents any single character within the brackets h[oa]t finds hot and hat, but not hit
^ Represents any character not in the brackets h[^oa]t finds hit, but not hot and hat
- Represents a range of characters c[a-b]t finds cat and cbt
All the wildcards can also be used in combinations!
Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards:

LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that starts with "a"
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a' Finds any values that ends with "a"
WHERE CustomerName LIKE
Finds any values that have "or" in any position
'%or%'
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r
Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
%'
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_ Finds any values that starts with "a" and are at least 3
%_%' characters in length
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that starts with "a" and ends with "o"

Demo Database
The table below shows the complete "Customers" table from the Northwind sample database:

Página 41 de 132
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Página 42 de 132
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Constitución 2222 México D.F. 05021 Mexico
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
5 Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
6 Blauer See Delikatessen Hanna Moos Forsterstr. 57 Mannheim 68306 Germany
7 Blondel père et fils Frédérique Citeaux 24, place Kléber Strasbourg 67000 France
8 Bólido Comidas preparadas Martín Sommer C/ Araquil, 67 Madrid 28023 Spain
9 Bon app' Laurence Lebihans 12, rue des Bouchers Marseille 13008 France
10 Bottom-Dollar Marketse Elizabeth Lincoln 23 Tsawassen Blvd. Tsawassen T2F 8M4 Canada
11 B's Beverages Victoria Ashworth Fauntleroy Circus London EC2 5NT UK
12 Cactus Comidas para llevar Patricio Simpson Cerrito 333 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
13 Centro comercial Moctezuma Francisco Chang Sierras de Granada 9993 México D.F. 05022 Mexico
14 Chop-suey Chinese Yang Wang Hauptstr. 29 Bern 3012 Switzerland
15 Comércio Mineiro Pedro Afonso Av. dos Lusíadas, 23 São Paulo 05432-043 Brazil
16 Consolidated Holdings Elizabeth Brown Berkeley Gardens 12 Brewery London WX1 6LT UK
17 Drachenblut Delikatessend Sven Ottlieb Walserweg 21 Aachen 52066 Germany
18 Du monde entier Janine Labrune 67, rue des Cinquante Otages Nantes 44000 France
19 Eastern Connection Ann Devon 35 King George London WX3 6FW UK
20 Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Kirchgasse 6 Graz 8010 Austria
21 Familia Arquibaldo Aria Cruz Rua Orós, 92 São Paulo 05442-030 Brazil
22 FISSA Fabrica Inter. Salchichas S.A. Diego Roel C/ Moralzarzal, 86 Madrid 28034 Spain
23 Folies gourmandes Martine Rancé 184, chaussée de Tournai Lille 59000 France
24 Folk och fä HB Maria Larsson Åkergatan 24 Bräcke S-844 67 Sweden
25 Frankenversand Peter Franken Berliner Platz 43 München 80805 Germany
26 France restauration Carine Schmitt 54, rue Royale Nantes 44000 France
27 Franchi S.p.A. Paolo Accorti Via Monte Bianco 34 Torino 10100 Italy
28 Furia Bacalhau e Frutos do Mar Lino Rodriguez Jardim das rosas n. 32 Lisboa 1675 Portugal
29 Galería del gastrónomo Eduardo Saavedra Rambla de Cataluña, 23 Barcelona 08022 Spain
30 Godos Cocina Típica José Pedro Freyre C/ Romero, 33 Sevilla 41101 Spain
31 Gourmet Lanchonetes André Fonseca Av. Brasil, 442 Campinas 04876-786 Brazil
32 Great Lakes Food Market Howard Snyder 2732 Baker Blvd. Eugene 97403 USA
33 GROSELLA-Restaurante Manuel Pereira 5ª Ave. Los Palos Grandes Caracas 1081 Venezuela
34 Hanari Carnes Mario Pontes Rua do Paço, 67 Rio de Janeiro 05454-876 Brazil
Carrera 22 con Ave. Carlos
35 HILARIÓN-Abastos Carlos Hernández San Cristóbal 5022 Venezuela
Soublette #8-35
City Center Plaza 516 Main
36 Hungry Coyote Import Store Yoshi Latimer Elgin 97827 USA
St.
37 Hungry Owl All-Night Grocers Patricia McKenna 8 Johnstown Road Cork Ireland
38 Island Trading Helen Bennett Garden House Crowther Way Cowes PO31 7PJ UK
39 Königlich Essen Philip Cramer Maubelstr. 90 Brandenburg 14776 Germany
40 La corne d'abondance Daniel Tonini 67, avenue de l'Europe Versailles 78000 France
41 La maison d'Asie Annette Roulet 1 rue Alsace-Lorraine Toulouse 31000 France
42 Laughing Bacchus Wine Cellars Yoshi Tannamuri 1900 Oak St. Vancouver V3F 2K1 Canada
43 Lazy K Kountry Store John Steel 12 Orchestra Terrace Walla Walla 99362 USA
44 Lehmanns Marktstand Renate Messner Magazinweg 7 Frankfurt a.M. 60528 Germany
45 Let's Stop N Shop Jaime Yorres 87 Polk St. Suite 5 San Francisco 94117 USA
Carrera 52 con Ave. Bolívar
46 LILA-Supermercado Carlos González Barquisimeto 3508 Venezuela
#65-98 Llano Largo
47 LINO-Delicateses Felipe Izquierdo Ave. 5 de Mayo Porlamar I. de Margarita 4980 Venezuela
48 Lonesome Pine Restaurant Fran Wilson 89 Chiaroscuro Rd. Portland 97219 USA
49 Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti Giovanni Rovelli Via Ludovico il Moro 22 Bergamo 24100 Italy
50 Maison Dewey Catherine Dewey Rue Joseph-Bens 532 Bruxelles B-1180 Belgium
51 Mère Paillarde Jean Fresnière 43 rue St. Laurent Montréal H1J 1C3 Canada
52 Morgenstern Gesundkost Alexander Feuer Heerstr. 22 Leipzig 04179 Germany
South House 300
53 North/South Simon Crowther London SW7 1RZ UK
Queensbridge
Ing. Gustavo Moncada 8585
54 Océano Atlántico Ltda. Yvonne Moncada Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
Piso 20-A

Página 43 de 132
55 Old World Delicatessen Rene Phillips 2743 Bering St. Anchorage 99508 USA
56 Ottilies Käseladen Henriette Pfalzheim Mehrheimerstr. 369 Köln 50739 Germany
57 Paris spécialités Marie Bertrand 265, boulevard Charonne Paris 75012 France
58 Pericles Comidas clásicas Guillermo Fernández Calle Dr. Jorge Cash 321 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
59 Piccolo und mehr Georg Pipps Geislweg 14 Salzburg 5020 Austria
60 Princesa Isabel Vinhoss Isabel de Castro Estrada da saúde n. 58 Lisboa 1756 Portugal
61 Que Delícia Bernardo Batista Rua da Panificadora, 12 Rio de Janeiro 02389-673 Brazil
62 Queen Cozinha Lúcia Carvalho Alameda dos Canàrios, 891 São Paulo 05487-020 Brazil
63 QUICK-Stop Horst Kloss Taucherstraße 10 Cunewalde 01307 Germany
64 Rancho grande Sergio Gutiérrez Av. del Libertador 900 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
65 Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery Paula Wilson 2817 Milton Dr. Albuquerque 87110 USA
66 Reggiani Caseifici Maurizio Moroni Strada Provinciale 124 Reggio Emilia 42100 Italy
67 Ricardo Adocicados Janete Limeira Av. Copacabana, 267 Rio de Janeiro 02389-890 Brazil
68 Richter Supermarkt Michael Holz Grenzacherweg 237 Genève 1203 Switzerland
69 Romero y tomillo Alejandra Camino Gran Vía, 1 Madrid 28001 Spain
70 Santé Gourmet Jonas Bergulfsen Erling Skakkes gate 78 Stavern 4110 Norway
71 Save-a-lot Markets Jose Pavarotti 187 Suffolk Ln. Boise 83720 USA
72 Seven Seas Imports Hari Kumar 90 Wadhurst Rd. London OX15 4NB UK
73 Simons bistro Jytte Petersen Vinbæltet 34 København 1734 Denmark
74 Spécialités du monde Dominique Perrier 25, rue Lauriston Paris 75016 France
75 Split Rail Beer & Ale Art Braunschweiger P.O. Box 555 Lander 82520 USA
76 Suprêmes délices Pascale Cartrain Boulevard Tirou, 255 Charleroi B-6000 Belgium
77 The Big Cheese Liz Nixon 89 Jefferson Way Suite 2 Portland 97201 USA
78 The Cracker Box Liu Wong 55 Grizzly Peak Rd. Butte 59801 USA
79 Toms Spezialitäten Karin Josephs Luisenstr. 48 Münster 44087 Germany
80 Tortuga Restaurante Miguel Angel Paolino Avda. Azteca 123 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
81 Tradição Hipermercados Anabela Domingues Av. Inês de Castro, 414 São Paulo 05634-030 Brazil
82 Trail's Head Gourmet Provisioners Helvetius Nagy 722 DaVinci Blvd. Kirkland 98034 USA
83 Vaffeljernet Palle Ibsen Smagsløget 45 Århus 8200 Denmark
84 Victuailles en stock Mary Saveley 2, rue du Commerce Lyon 69004 France
85 Vins et alcools Chevalier Paul Henriot 59 rue de l'Abbaye Reims 51100 France
86 Die Wandernde Kuh Rita Müller Adenauerallee 900 Stuttgart 70563 Germany
87 Wartian Herkku Pirkko Koskitalo Torikatu 38 Oulu 90110 Finland
88 Wellington Importadora Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, 12 Resende 08737-363 Brazil
89 White Clover Markets Karl Jablonski 305 - 14th Ave. S. Suite 3B Seattle 98128 USA
90 Wilman Kala Matti Karttunen Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland

Using the % Wildcard

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "ber":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 'ber%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City containing the pattern "es":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '%es%';

Página 44 de 132
Using the _ Wildcard
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with any character, followed
by "ondon":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '_ondon';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "L", followed by any
character, followed by "n", followed by any character, followed by "on":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 'L_n_on';

Using the [charlist] Wildcard

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "b", "s", or "p":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '[bsp]%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "a", "b", or "c":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '[a-c]%';

Using the [!charlist] Wildcard

The two following SQL statements select all customers with a City NOT starting with "b", "s", or
"p":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '[!bsp]%';
Or:

Página 45 de 132
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City NOT LIKE '[bsp]%';

SQL IN Operator

The SQL IN Operator

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.

IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);
or:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (SELECT STATEMENT);

Demo Database
The table below shows the complete "Customers" table from the Northwind sample database:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Constitución 2222 México D.F. 05021 Mexico
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
5 Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
6 Blauer See Delikatessen Hanna Moos Forsterstr. 57 Mannheim 68306 Germany
7 Blondel père et fils Frédérique Citeaux 24, place Kléber Strasbourg 67000 France
8 Bólido Comidas preparadas Martín Sommer C/ Araquil, 67 Madrid 28023 Spain
9 Bon app' Laurence Lebihans 12, rue des Bouchers Marseille 13008 France
10 Bottom-Dollar Marketse Elizabeth Lincoln 23 Tsawassen Blvd. Tsawassen T2F 8M4 Canada
11 B's Beverages Victoria Ashworth Fauntleroy Circus London EC2 5NT UK
12 Cactus Comidas para llevar Patricio Simpson Cerrito 333 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
13 Centro comercial Moctezuma Francisco Chang Sierras de Granada 9993 México D.F. 05022 Mexico
14 Chop-suey Chinese Yang Wang Hauptstr. 29 Bern 3012 Switzerland
15 Comércio Mineiro Pedro Afonso Av. dos Lusíadas, 23 São Paulo 05432-043 Brazil
16 Consolidated Holdings Elizabeth Brown Berkeley Gardens 12 Brewery London WX1 6LT UK
17 Drachenblut Delikatessend Sven Ottlieb Walserweg 21 Aachen 52066 Germany
18 Du monde entier Janine Labrune 67, rue des Cinquante Otages Nantes 44000 France
19 Eastern Connection Ann Devon 35 King George London WX3 6FW UK
20 Ernst Handel Roland Mendel Kirchgasse 6 Graz 8010 Austria

Página 46 de 132
21 Familia Arquibaldo Aria Cruz Rua Orós, 92 São Paulo 05442-030 Brazil
22 FISSA Fabrica Inter. Salchichas S.A. Diego Roel C/ Moralzarzal, 86 Madrid 28034 Spain
23 Folies gourmandes Martine Rancé 184, chaussée de Tournai Lille 59000 France
24 Folk och fä HB Maria Larsson Åkergatan 24 Bräcke S-844 67 Sweden
25 Frankenversand Peter Franken Berliner Platz 43 München 80805 Germany
26 France restauration Carine Schmitt 54, rue Royale Nantes 44000 France
27 Franchi S.p.A. Paolo Accorti Via Monte Bianco 34 Torino 10100 Italy
28 Furia Bacalhau e Frutos do Mar Lino Rodriguez Jardim das rosas n. 32 Lisboa 1675 Portugal
29 Galería del gastrónomo Eduardo Saavedra Rambla de Cataluña, 23 Barcelona 08022 Spain
30 Godos Cocina Típica José Pedro Freyre C/ Romero, 33 Sevilla 41101 Spain
31 Gourmet Lanchonetes André Fonseca Av. Brasil, 442 Campinas 04876-786 Brazil
32 Great Lakes Food Market Howard Snyder 2732 Baker Blvd. Eugene 97403 USA
33 GROSELLA-Restaurante Manuel Pereira 5ª Ave. Los Palos Grandes Caracas 1081 Venezuela
34 Hanari Carnes Mario Pontes Rua do Paço, 67 Rio de Janeiro 05454-876 Brazil
Carrera 22 con Ave. Carlos
35 HILARIÓN-Abastos Carlos Hernández San Cristóbal 5022 Venezuela
Soublette #8-35
City Center Plaza 516 Main
36 Hungry Coyote Import Store Yoshi Latimer Elgin 97827 USA
St.
37 Hungry Owl All-Night Grocers Patricia McKenna 8 Johnstown Road Cork Ireland
38 Island Trading Helen Bennett Garden House Crowther Way Cowes PO31 7PJ UK
39 Königlich Essen Philip Cramer Maubelstr. 90 Brandenburg 14776 Germany
40 La corne d'abondance Daniel Tonini 67, avenue de l'Europe Versailles 78000 France
41 La maison d'Asie Annette Roulet 1 rue Alsace-Lorraine Toulouse 31000 France
42 Laughing Bacchus Wine Cellars Yoshi Tannamuri 1900 Oak St. Vancouver V3F 2K1 Canada
43 Lazy K Kountry Store John Steel 12 Orchestra Terrace Walla Walla 99362 USA
44 Lehmanns Marktstand Renate Messner Magazinweg 7 Frankfurt a.M. 60528 Germany
45 Let's Stop N Shop Jaime Yorres 87 Polk St. Suite 5 San Francisco 94117 USA
Carrera 52 con Ave. Bolívar
46 LILA-Supermercado Carlos González Barquisimeto 3508 Venezuela
#65-98 Llano Largo
47 LINO-Delicateses Felipe Izquierdo Ave. 5 de Mayo Porlamar I. de Margarita 4980 Venezuela
48 Lonesome Pine Restaurant Fran Wilson 89 Chiaroscuro Rd. Portland 97219 USA
49 Magazzini Alimentari Riuniti Giovanni Rovelli Via Ludovico il Moro 22 Bergamo 24100 Italy
50 Maison Dewey Catherine Dewey Rue Joseph-Bens 532 Bruxelles B-1180 Belgium
51 Mère Paillarde Jean Fresnière 43 rue St. Laurent Montréal H1J 1C3 Canada
52 Morgenstern Gesundkost Alexander Feuer Heerstr. 22 Leipzig 04179 Germany
South House 300
53 North/South Simon Crowther London SW7 1RZ UK
Queensbridge
Ing. Gustavo Moncada 8585
54 Océano Atlántico Ltda. Yvonne Moncada Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
Piso 20-A
55 Old World Delicatessen Rene Phillips 2743 Bering St. Anchorage 99508 USA
56 Ottilies Käseladen Henriette Pfalzheim Mehrheimerstr. 369 Köln 50739 Germany
57 Paris spécialités Marie Bertrand 265, boulevard Charonne Paris 75012 France
58 Pericles Comidas clásicas Guillermo Fernández Calle Dr. Jorge Cash 321 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
59 Piccolo und mehr Georg Pipps Geislweg 14 Salzburg 5020 Austria
60 Princesa Isabel Vinhoss Isabel de Castro Estrada da saúde n. 58 Lisboa 1756 Portugal
61 Que Delícia Bernardo Batista Rua da Panificadora, 12 Rio de Janeiro 02389-673 Brazil
62 Queen Cozinha Lúcia Carvalho Alameda dos Canàrios, 891 São Paulo 05487-020 Brazil
63 QUICK-Stop Horst Kloss Taucherstraße 10 Cunewalde 01307 Germany
64 Rancho grande Sergio Gutiérrez Av. del Libertador 900 Buenos Aires 1010 Argentina
65 Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery Paula Wilson 2817 Milton Dr. Albuquerque 87110 USA
66 Reggiani Caseifici Maurizio Moroni Strada Provinciale 124 Reggio Emilia 42100 Italy
67 Ricardo Adocicados Janete Limeira Av. Copacabana, 267 Rio de Janeiro 02389-890 Brazil
68 Richter Supermarkt Michael Holz Grenzacherweg 237 Genève 1203 Switzerland
69 Romero y tomillo Alejandra Camino Gran Vía, 1 Madrid 28001 Spain
70 Santé Gourmet Jonas Bergulfsen Erling Skakkes gate 78 Stavern 4110 Norway
71 Save-a-lot Markets Jose Pavarotti 187 Suffolk Ln. Boise 83720 USA
72 Seven Seas Imports Hari Kumar 90 Wadhurst Rd. London OX15 4NB UK
73 Simons bistro Jytte Petersen Vinbæltet 34 København 1734 Denmark
74 Spécialités du monde Dominique Perrier 25, rue Lauriston Paris 75016 France

Página 47 de 132
75 Split Rail Beer & Ale Art Braunschweiger P.O. Box 555 Lander 82520 USA
76 Suprêmes délices Pascale Cartrain Boulevard Tirou, 255 Charleroi B-6000 Belgium
77 The Big Cheese Liz Nixon 89 Jefferson Way Suite 2 Portland 97201 USA
78 The Cracker Box Liu Wong 55 Grizzly Peak Rd. Butte 59801 USA
79 Toms Spezialitäten Karin Josephs Luisenstr. 48 Münster 44087 Germany
80 Tortuga Restaurante Miguel Angel Paolino Avda. Azteca 123 México D.F. 05033 Mexico
81 Tradição Hipermercados Anabela Domingues Av. Inês de Castro, 414 São Paulo 05634-030 Brazil
82 Trail's Head Gourmet Provisioners Helvetius Nagy 722 DaVinci Blvd. Kirkland 98034 USA
83 Vaffeljernet Palle Ibsen Smagsløget 45 Århus 8200 Denmark
84 Victuailles en stock Mary Saveley 2, rue du Commerce Lyon 69004 France
85 Vins et alcools Chevalier Paul Henriot 59 rue de l'Abbaye Reims 51100 France
86 Die Wandernde Kuh Rita Müller Adenauerallee 900 Stuttgart 70563 Germany
87 Wartian Herkku Pirkko Koskitalo Torikatu 38 Oulu 90110 Finland
88 Wellington Importadora Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, 12 Resende 08737-363 Brazil
89 White Clover Markets Karl Jablonski 305 - 14th Ave. S. Suite 3B Seattle 98128 USA
90 Wilman Kala Matti Karttunen Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland

IN Operator Examples
The following SQL statement selects all customers that are located in "Germany", "France" or
"UK":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
The following SQL statement selects all customers that are NOT located in "Germany", "France" or
"UK":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country NOT IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
The following SQL statement selects all customers that are from the same countries as the suppliers:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country IN (SELECT Country FROM Suppliers);

SQL BETWEEN Operator

The SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be numbers, text, or
dates.

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The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.

BETWEEN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10
4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 1 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 1 2 36 boxes 21.35

BETWEEN Example
The following SQL statement selects all products with a price between 10 and 20:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

NOT BETWEEN Example

To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

BETWEEN with IN Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price between 10 and 20. In addition; do
not show products with a CategoryID of 1,2, or 3:

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Example
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20
AND CategoryID NOT IN (1,2,3);

BETWEEN Text Values Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName between Carnarvon Tigers
and Mozzarella di Giovanni:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di Giovanni'
ORDER BY ProductName;
The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName between Carnarvon Tigers
and Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE ProductName BETWEEN "Carnarvon Tigers" AND "Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning"
ORDER BY ProductName;

NOT BETWEEN Text Values Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName not between Carnarvon
Tigers and Mozzarella di Giovanni:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE ProductName NOT BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di Giovanni'
ORDER BY ProductName;

Sample Table
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table in the Northwind sample database:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 7/4/1996 3
10249 81 6 7/5/1996 1
10250 34 4 7/8/1996 2

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10251 84 3 7/9/1996 1
10252 76 4 7/10/1996 2

BETWEEN Dates Example

The following SQL statement selects all orders with an OrderDate between '01-July-1996' and '31-
July-1996':

Example
SELECT * FROM Orders
WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #07/01/1996# AND #07/31/1996#;
OR:

Example
SELECT * FROM Orders
WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN '1996-07-01' AND '1996-07-31';

SQL Aliases

SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.
An alias only exists for the duration of that query.
An alias is created with the AS keyword.

Alias Column Syntax

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;

Alias Table Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.

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Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10354 58 8 1996-11-14 3
10355 4 6 1996-11-15 1
10356 86 6 1996-11-18 2

Alias for Columns Examples

The following SQL statement creates two aliases, one for the CustomerID column and one for the
CustomerName column:

Example
SELECT CustomerID AS ID, CustomerName AS Customer
FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement creates two aliases, one for the CustomerName column and one for
the ContactName column. Note: It requires double quotation marks or square brackets if the alias
name contains spaces:

Example
SELECT CustomerName AS Customer, ContactName AS [Contact Person]
FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement creates an alias named "Address" that combine four columns
(Address, PostalCode, City and Country):

Example
SELECT CustomerName, Address + ', ' + PostalCode + ' ' + City + ', ' + Country AS Address
FROM Customers;
Note: To get the SQL statement above to work in MySQL use the following:
SELECT CustomerName, CONCAT(Address,', ',PostalCode,', ',City,', ',Country) AS Address
FROM Customers;

Página 52 de 132
Alias for Tables Example
The following SQL statement selects all the orders from the customer with CustomerID=4 (Around
the Horn). We use the "Customers" and "Orders" tables, and give them the table aliases of "c" and
"o" respectively (Here we use aliases to make the SQL shorter):

Example
SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName
FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o
WHERE c.CustomerName='Around the Horn' AND c.CustomerID=o.CustomerID;
The following SQL statement is the same as above, but without aliases:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Orders.OrderDate, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Customers, Orders
WHERE Customers.CustomerName='Around the Horn' AND
Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID;
Aliases can be useful when:
• There are more than one table involved in a query
• Functions are used in the query
• Column names are big or not very readable
• Two or more columns are combined together

SQL Joins

SQL JOIN
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column
between them.
Let's look at a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID OrderDate

10308 2 1996-09-18
10309 37 1996-09-19
10310 77 1996-09-20
Then, look at a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country

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1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Mexico
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mexico
Notice that the "CustomerID" column in the "Orders" table refers to the "CustomerID" in the
"Customers" table. The relationship between the two tables above is the "CustomerID" column.
Then, we can create the following SQL statement (that contains an INNER JOIN), that selects
records that have matching values in both tables:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
and it will produce something like this:

OrderID CustomerName OrderDate

10308 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 9/18/1996
10365 Antonio Moreno Taquería 11/27/1996
10383 Around the Horn 12/16/1996
10355 Around the Horn 11/15/1996
10278 Berglunds snabbköp 8/12/1996

Different Types of SQL JOINs

Here are the different types of the JOINs in SQL:
• (INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
• LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records
from the right table
• RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched records
from the left table
• FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left or right
table

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

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SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.

INNER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
And a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.

SQL INNER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement selects all orders with customer information:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match
between the columns. If there are records in the "Orders" table that do not have matches in
"Customers", these orders will not be shown!

JOIN Three Tables

The following SQL statement selects all orders with customer and shipper information:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Shippers.ShipperName
FROM ((Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID)
INNER JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID = Shippers.ShipperID);

Página 56 de 132
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the matching records
from the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from the right side, if there is no match.

LEFT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Note: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

Página 57 de 132
SQL LEFT JOIN Example
The following SQL statement will select all customers, and any orders they might have:

Example
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
Note: The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (Customers), even if there
are no matches in the right table (Orders).

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the matching
records from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records from the left side, if there is no match.

RIGHT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Note: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3

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10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
And a selection from the "Employees" table:

EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo

1 Davolio Nancy 12/8/1968 EmpID1.pic
2 Fuller Andrew 2/19/1952 EmpID2.pic
3 Leverling Janet 8/30/1963 EmpID3.pic

SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The following SQL statement will return all employees, and any orders they might have placed:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.LastName, Employees.FirstName
FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID
ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;
Note: The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (Employees), even if
there are no matches in the left table (Orders).

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left (table1) or
right (table2) table records.
Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.

FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;

Página 59 de 132
Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers, and all orders:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
A selection from the result set may look like this:

CustomerName OrderID
Alfreds Futterkiste Null
Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 10308
Antonio Moreno Taquería Null

Página 60 de 132
Note: The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all matching records from both tables whether
the other table matches or not. So, if there are rows in "Customers" that do not have matches in
"Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Customers", those rows will
be listed as well.

SQL Self Join

SQL Self Join

A self join is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself.

Self Join Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 T1, table1 T2
WHERE condition;
T1 and T2 are different table aliases for the same table.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.

SQL Self Join Example

The following SQL statement matches customers that are from the same city:

Example
SELECT A.CustomerName AS CustomerName1, B.CustomerName AS CustomerName2, A.City
FROM Customers A, Customers B
WHERE A.CustomerID <> B.CustomerID
AND A.City = B.City
ORDER BY A.City;

Página 61 de 132
SQL UNION Operator

The SQL UNION Operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.

• Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns
• The columns must also have similar data types
• The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order

UNION Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

UNION ALL Syntax

The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use UNION
ALL:

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
Note: The column names in the result-set are usually equal to the column names in the first
SELECT statement.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
And a selection from the "Suppliers" table:

SupplierID SupplierName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

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 Charlotte 49 Gilbert
1 Exotic Liquid London EC1 4SD UK
Cooper St.
New Orleans Cajun P.O. Box New
2 Shelley Burke 70117 USA
Delights 78934 Orleans
Grandma Kelly's 707 Oxford Ann
3 Regina Murphy 48104 USA
Homestead Rd. Arbor

SQL UNION Example

The following SQL statement returns the cities (only distinct values) from both the "Customers"
and the "Suppliers" table:

Example
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
Note: If some customers or suppliers have the same city, each city will only be listed once, because
UNION selects only distinct values. Use UNION ALL to also select duplicate values!

SQL UNION ALL Example

The following SQL statement returns the cities (duplicate values also) from both the "Customers"
and the "Suppliers" table:

Example
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION ALL
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;

SQL UNION With WHERE

The following SQL statement returns the German cities (only distinct values) from both the
"Customers" and the "Suppliers" table:

Example
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
UNION

Página 63 de 132
SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany'
ORDER BY City;

SQL UNION ALL With WHERE

The following SQL statement returns the German cities (duplicate values also) from both the
"Customers" and the "Suppliers" table:

Example
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
UNION ALL
SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany'
ORDER BY City;

Another UNION Example

The following SQL statement lists all customers and suppliers:

Example
SELECT 'Customer' AS Type, ContactName, City, Country
FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT 'Supplier', ContactName, City, Country
FROM Suppliers;
Notice the "AS Type" above - it is an alias. SQL Aliases are used to give a table or a column a
temporary name. An alias only exists for the duration of the query. So, here we have created a
temporary column named "Type", that list whether the contact person is a "Customer" or a
"Supplier".

SQL GROUP BY Statement

The SQL GROUP BY Statement

The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary rows, like "find the
number of customers in each country".

Página 64 de 132
The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT(), MAX(), MIN(),
SUM(), AVG()) to group the result-set by one or more columns.

GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

SQL GROUP BY Examples

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;

Página 65 de 132
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table in the Northwind sample database:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3
10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1
10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2
And a selection from the "Shippers" table:

ShipperID ShipperName
1 Speedy Express
2 United Package
3 Federal Shipping

GROUP BY With JOIN Example

The following SQL statement lists the number of orders sent by each shipper:

Example
SELECT Shippers.ShipperName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders
LEFT JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID = Shippers.ShipperID
GROUP BY ShipperName;

SQL HAVING Clause

The SQL HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword cannot be used with aggregate
functions.

HAVING Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column_name(s);

Página 66 de 132
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

SQL HAVING Examples

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country. Only include countries
with more than 5 customers:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low
(Only include countries with more than 5 customers):

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table in the Northwind sample database:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3

Página 67 de 132
10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1
10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2
And a selection from the "Employees" table:

EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo Notes

1 Davolio Nancy 1968-12-08 EmpID1.pic Education includes a BA....
2 Fuller Andrew 1952-02-19 EmpID2.pic Andrew received his BTS....
3 Leverling Janet 1963-08-30 EmpID3.pic Janet has a BS degree....

More HAVING Examples

The following SQL statement lists the employees that have registered more than 10 orders:

Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID)
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 10;
The following SQL statement lists if the employees "Davolio" or "Fuller" have registered more than
25 orders:

Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID
WHERE LastName = 'Davolio' OR LastName = 'Fuller'
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 25;

SQL EXISTS Operator

The SQL EXISTS Operator

The EXISTS operator is used to test for the existence of any record in a subquery.

The EXISTS operator returns TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records.

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EXISTS Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10
4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35
And a selection from the "Suppliers" table:

SupplierID SupplierName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Charlotte
1 Exotic Liquid 49 Gilbert St. London EC1 4SD UK
Cooper
New Orleans New
2 Shelley Burke P.O. Box 78934 70117 USA
Cajun Delights Orleans
Grandma Kelly's Regina Ann
3 707 Oxford Rd. 48104 USA
Homestead Murphy Arbor
9-8 Sekimai
4 Tokyo Traders Yoshi Nagase Tokyo 100 Japan
Musashino-shi

SQL EXISTS Examples

The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the suppliers with a product price less than 20:

Example
SELECT SupplierName
FROM Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE Products.SupplierID =
Suppliers.supplierID AND Price < 20);
The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the suppliers with a product price equal to 22:

Example
SELECT SupplierName
FROM Suppliers

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WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE Products.SupplierID =
Suppliers.supplierID AND Price = 22);

SQL ANY and ALL Operators

The SQL ANY and ALL Operators

The ANY and ALL operators allow you to perform a comparison between a single column value and
a range of other values.

The SQL ANY Operator

The ANY operator:

• returns a boolean value as a result

• returns TRUE if ANY of the subquery values meet the condition
ANY means that the condition will be true if the operation is true for any of the values in the range.

ANY Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
Note: The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=, <>, !=, >, >=, <, or <=).

The SQL ALL Operator

The ALL operator:

• returns a boolean value as a result

• returns TRUE if ALL of the subquery values meet the condition
• is used with SELECT, WHERE and HAVING statements

ALL means that the condition will be true only if the operation is true for all values in the range.

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ALL Syntax With SELECT
SELECT ALL column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

ALL Syntax With WHERE or HAVING

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ALL
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
Note: The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=, <>, !=, >, >=, <, or <=).

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10
4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35
6 Grandma's Boysenberry Spread 3 2 12 - 8 oz jars 25
7 Uncle Bob's Organic Dried Pears 3 7 12 - 1 lb pkgs. 30
8 Northwoods Cranberry Sauce 3 2 12 - 12 oz jars 40
9 Mishi Kobe Niku 4 6 18 - 500 g pkgs. 97
And a selection from the "OrderDetails" table:

OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity

1 10248 11 12
2 10248 42 10
3 10248 72 5
4 10249 14 9
5 10249 51 40
6 10250 41 10
7 10250 51 35
8 10250 65 15
9 10251 22 6
10 10251 57 15

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SQL ANY Examples
The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if it finds ANY records in the OrderDetails
table has Quantity equal to 10 (this will return TRUE because the Quantity column has some values
of 10):

Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ANY
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity = 10);
The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if it finds ANY records in the OrderDetails
table has Quantity larger than 99 (this will return TRUE because the Quantity column has some
values larger than 99):

Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ANY
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity > 99);
The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if it finds ANY records in the OrderDetails
table has Quantity larger than 1000 (this will return FALSE because the Quantity column has no
values larger than 1000):

Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ANY
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity > 1000);

SQL ALL Examples

The following SQL statement lists ALL the product names:

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Example
SELECT ALL ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE TRUE;
The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if ALL the records in the OrderDetails table
has Quantity equal to 10. This will of course return FALSE because the Quantity column has many
different values (not only the value of 10):

Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ALL
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity = 10);

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SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SELECT INTO statement copies data from one table into a new table.

SELECT INTO Syntax

Copy all columns into a new table:
SELECT *
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM oldtable
WHERE condition;
Copy only some columns into a new table:
SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM oldtable
WHERE condition;
The new table will be created with the column-names and types as defined in the old table. You can
create new column names using the AS clause.

SQL SELECT INTO Examples

The following SQL statement creates a backup copy of Customers:
SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2017
FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement uses the IN clause to copy the table into a new table in another
database:
SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2017 IN 'Backup.mdb'
FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement copies only a few columns into a new table:
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName INTO CustomersBackup2017
FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement copies only the German customers into a new table:

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SELECT * INTO CustomersGermany
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Germany';
The following SQL statement copies data from more than one table into a new table:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
INTO CustomersOrderBackup2017
FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID;
Tip: SELECT INTO can also be used to create a new, empty table using the schema of another.
Just add a WHERE clause that causes the query to return no data:

SELECT * INTO newtable

FROM oldtable
WHERE 1 = 0;

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement

The SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from one table and inserts it into another
table.
The INSERT INTO SELECT statement requires that the data types in source and target tables
matches.
Note: The existing records in the target table are unaffected.

INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax

Copy all columns from one table to another table:
INSERT INTO table2
SELECT * FROM table1
WHERE condition;
Copy only some columns from one table into another table:
INSERT INTO table2 (column1, column2, column3, ...)
SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...
FROM table1
WHERE condition;

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Página 76 de 132
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
And a selection from the "Suppliers" table:

Postal
SupplierID SupplierName ContactName Address City Country
Code
Charlotte 49 Gilbert
1 Exotic Liquid Londona EC1 4SD UK
Cooper St.
New Orleans Cajun P.O. Box New
2 Shelley Burke 70117 USA
Delights 78934 Orleans
Grandma Kelly's 707 Oxford
3 Regina Murphy Ann Arbor 48104 USA
Homestead Rd.

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Examples

The following SQL statement copies "Suppliers" into "Customers" (the columns that are not filled
with data, will contain NULL):

Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)
SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers;
The following SQL statement copies "Suppliers" into "Customers" (fill all columns):

Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country)
SELECT SupplierName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country FROM Suppliers;
The following SQL statement copies only the German suppliers into "Customers":

Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)
SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany';

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SQL CASE Statement

The SQL CASE Statement

The CASE statement goes through conditions and returns a value when the first condition is met
(like an if-then-else statement). So, once a condition is true, it will stop reading and return the
result. If no conditions are true, it returns the value in the ELSE clause.

If there is no ELSE part and no conditions are true, it returns NULL.

CASE Syntax
CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
WHEN conditionN THEN resultN
ELSE result
END;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "OrderDetails" table in the Northwind sample database:

OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity

1 10248 11 12
2 10248 42 10
3 10248 72 5
4 10249 14 9
5 10249 51 40

SQL CASE Examples

The following SQL goes through conditions and returns a value when the first condition is met:

Example
SELECT OrderID, Quantity,
CASE
WHEN Quantity > 30 THEN 'The quantity is greater than 30'
WHEN Quantity = 30 THEN 'The quantity is 30'
ELSE 'The quantity is under 30'

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END AS QuantityText
FROM OrderDetails;
The following SQL will order the customers by City. However, if City is NULL, then order by
Country:

Example
SELECT CustomerName, City, Country
FROM Customers
ORDER BY
(CASE
WHEN City IS NULL THEN Country
ELSE City
END);

SQL NULL Functions

SQL IFNULL(), ISNULL(), COALESCE(), and NVL()

Functions
Look at the following "Products" table:

P_Id ProductName UnitPrice UnitsInStock UnitsOnOrder

1 Jarlsberg 10.45 16 15
2 Mascarpone 32.56 23
3 Gorgonzola 15.67 9 20
Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values.
Look at the following SELECT statement:
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + UnitsOnOrder)
FROM Products;
In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result will be NULL.

Solutions
MySQL
The MySQL IFNULL() function lets you return an alternative value if an expression is NULL:

SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder, 0))

FROM Products;

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or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:

SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder, 0))

FROM Products;
SQL Server
The SQL Server ISNULL() function lets you return an alternative value when an expression is
NULL:
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder, 0))
FROM Products;
MS Access
The MS Access IsNull() function returns TRUE (-1) if the expression is a null value, otherwise
FALSE (0):
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + IIF(IsNull(UnitsOnOrder), 0, UnitsOnOrder))
FROM Products;
Oracle
The Oracle NVL() function achieves the same result:

SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + NVL(UnitsOnOrder, 0))

FROM Products;

SQL Stored Procedures for SQL Server

What is a Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save, so the code can be reused over and
over again.
So if you have an SQL query that you write over and over again, save it as a stored procedure, and
then just call it to execute it.
You can also pass parameters to a stored procedure, so that the stored procedure can act based on
the parameter value(s) that is passed.

Stored Procedure Syntax

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name
AS
sql_statement
GO;

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Execute a Stored Procedure
EXEC procedure_name;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

Stored Procedure Example

The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure named "SelectAllCustomers" that selects
all records from the "Customers" table:

Example
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers
AS
SELECT * FROM Customers
GO;
Execute the stored procedure above as follows:

Example
EXEC SelectAllCustomers;

Stored Procedure With One Parameter

The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that selects Customers from a particular
City from the "Customers" table:

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Example
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30)
AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City
GO;
Execute the stored procedure above as follows:

Example
EXEC SelectAllCustomers @City = 'London';

Stored Procedure With Multiple Parameters

Setting up multiple parameters is very easy. Just list each parameter and the data type separated by a
comma as shown below.
The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that selects Customers from a particular
City with a particular PostalCode from the "Customers" table:

Example
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30), @PostalCode nvarchar(10)
AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City AND PostalCode = @PostalCode
GO;
Execute the stored procedure above as follows:

Example
EXEC SelectAllCustomers @City = 'London', @PostalCode = 'WA1 1DP';

SQL Comments

SQL Comments
Comments are used to explain sections of SQL statements, or to prevent execution of SQL
statements.
Note: The examples in this chapter will not work in Firefox and Microsoft Edge!
Comments are not supported in Microsoft Access databases. Firefox and Microsoft Edge are using
Microsoft Access database in our examples.

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Single Line Comments
Single line comments start with --.

Any text between -- and the end of the line will be ignored (will not be executed).
The following example uses a single-line comment as an explanation:

Example
--Select all:
SELECT * FROM Customers;
The following example uses a single-line comment to ignore the end of a line:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers -- WHERE City='Berlin';
The following example uses a single-line comment to ignore a statement:

Example
--SELECT * FROM Customers;
SELECT * FROM Products;

Multi-line Comments
Multi-line comments start with /* and end with */.

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored.

The following example uses a multi-line comment as an explanation:

Example
/*Select all the columns
of all the records
in the Customers table:*/
SELECT * FROM Customers;
The following example uses a multi-line comment to ignore many statements:

Example
/*SELECT * FROM Customers;
SELECT * FROM Products;
SELECT * FROM Orders;
SELECT * FROM Categories;*/
SELECT * FROM Suppliers;

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To ignore just a part of a statement, also use the /* */ comment.
The following example uses a comment to ignore part of a line:

Example
SELECT CustomerName, /*City,*/ Country FROM Customers;
The following example uses a comment to ignore part of a statement:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE (CustomerName LIKE 'L%'
OR CustomerName LIKE 'R%' /*OR CustomerName LIKE 'S%'
OR CustomerName LIKE 'T%'*/ OR CustomerName LIKE 'W%')
AND Country='USA'
ORDER BY CustomerName;

SQL Operators

SQL Arithmetic Operators

Operator Description Example
+ Add
- Subtract
* Multiply
/ Divide
% Modulo

SQL Bitwise Operators

Operator Description
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR

SQL Comparison Operators

Operator Description Example
= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than

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>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to

SQL Compound Operators

Operator Description
+= Add equals
-= Subtract equals
*= Multiply equals
/= Divide equals
%= Modulo equals
&= Bitwise AND equals
^-= Bitwise exclusive equals
|*= Bitwise OR equals

SQL Logical Operators

Operator Description Example
ALL TRUE if all of the subquery values meet the condition
AND TRUE if all the conditions separated by AND is TRUE
ANY TRUE if any of the subquery values meet the condition
BETWEEN TRUE if the operand is within the range of comparisons
EXISTS TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records
IN TRUE if the operand is equal to one of a list of expressions
LIKE TRUE if the operand matches a pattern
NOT Displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE
OR TRUE if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE
SOME TRUE if any of the subquery values meet the condition

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.

Syntax
CREATE DATABASE databasename;

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CREATE DATABASE Example
The following SQL statement creates a database called "testDB":

Example
CREATE DATABASE testDB;
Tip: Make sure you have admin privilege before creating any database. Once a database is created,
you can check it in the list of databases with the following SQL command: SHOW DATABASES;

SQL DROP DATABASE Statement

The SQL DROP DATABASE Statement

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing SQL database.

Syntax
DROP DATABASE databasename;
Note: Be careful before dropping a database. Deleting a database will result in loss of complete
information stored in the database!

DROP DATABASE Example

The following SQL statement drops the existing database "testDB":

Example
DROP DATABASE testDB;
Tip: Make sure you have admin privilege before dropping any database. Once a database is
dropped, you can check it in the list of databases with the following SQL command: SHOW
DATABASES;

SQL BACKUP DATABASE for SQL Server

The SQL BACKUP DATABASE Statement

The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in SQL Server to create a full back up of an existing
SQL database.

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Syntax
BACKUP DATABASE databasename
TO DISK = 'filepath';

The SQL BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL Statement

A differential back up only backs up the parts of the database that have changed since the last full
database backup.

Syntax
BACKUP DATABASE databasename
TO DISK = 'filepath'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;

BACKUP DATABASE Example

The following SQL statement creates a full back up of the existing database "testDB" to the D disk:

Example
BACKUP DATABASE testDB
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak';
Tip: Always back up the database to a different drive than the actual database. Then, if you get a
disk crash, you will not lose your backup file along with the database.

BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL Example

The following SQL statement creates a differential back up of the database "testDB":

Example
BACKUP DATABASE testDB
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;
Tip: A differential back up reduces the back up time (since only the changes are backed up).

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

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The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.

Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);
The column parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
The datatype parameter specifies the type of data the column can hold (e.g. varchar, integer, date,
etc.).
Tip: For an overview of the available data types, go to our complete Data Types Reference.

SQL CREATE TABLE Example

The following example creates a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: PersonID,
LastName, FirstName, Address, and City:

Example
CREATE TABLE Persons (
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);
The PersonID column is of type int and will hold an integer.
The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar and will hold characters,
and the maximum length for these fields is 255 characters.
The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:

PersonID LastName FirstName Address City

Tip: The empty "Persons" table can now be filled with data with the SQL INSERT INTO statement.

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Create Table Using Another Table
A copy of an existing table can also be created using CREATE TABLE.

The new table gets the same column definitions. All columns or specific columns can be selected.
If you create a new table using an existing table, the new table will be filled with the existing values
from the old table.

Syntax
CREATE TABLE new_table_name AS
SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM existing_table_name
WHERE ....;
The following SQL creates a new table called "TestTables" (which is a copy of the "Customers"
table):

Example
CREATE TABLE TestTable AS
SELECT customername, contactname
FROM customers;

SQL DROP TABLE Statement

The SQL DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database.

Syntax
DROP TABLE table_name;
Note: Be careful before dropping a table. Deleting a table will result in loss of complete
information stored in the table!

SQL DROP TABLE Example

The following SQL statement drops the existing table "Shippers":

Example
DROP TABLE Shippers;

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SQL TRUNCATE TABLE
The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete the data inside a table, but not the table itself.

Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.

The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various constraints on an existing table.

ALTER TABLE - ADD Column

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype;
The following SQL adds an "Email" column to the "Customers" table:

Example
ALTER TABLE Customers
ADD Email varchar(255);

ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't
allow deleting a column):
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;
The following SQL deletes the "Email" column from the "Customers" table:

Example
ALTER TABLE Customers
DROP COLUMN Email;

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ALTER TABLE - ALTER/MODIFY COLUMN
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
SQL Server / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype;
My SQL / Oracle (prior version 10G):
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;
Oracle 10G and later:
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY column_name datatype;

SQL ALTER TABLE Example

Look at the "Persons" table:

ID LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD DateOfBirth date;
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a date. The data
type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types
available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
The "Persons" table will now look like this:

ID LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

Change Data Type Example

Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.

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We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year;
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two- or
four-digit format.

DROP COLUMN Example

Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth;
The "Persons" table will now look like this:

ID LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table.

SQL Create Constraints

Constraints can be specified when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE statement, or after
the table is created with the ALTER TABLE statement.

Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype constraint,
column2 datatype constraint,
column3 datatype constraint,
....
);

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SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation between the constraint and the data action,
the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a column, and
table level constraints apply to the whole table.
The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:
• NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value
• UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
• PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each
row in a table
• FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables
• CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition
• DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified
• CREATE INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a column can hold NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.

This enforces a field to always contain a value, which means that you cannot insert a new record, or
update a record without adding a value to this field.

SQL NOT NULL on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "LastName", and "FirstName" columns will NOT accept
NULL values when the "Persons" table is created:

Example
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,

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 Age int
);

SQL NOT NULL on ALTER TABLE

To create a NOT NULL constraint on the "Age" column when the "Persons" table is already created,
use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
MODIFY Age int NOT NULL;

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different.

Both the UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column
or set of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint.

However, you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY KEY
constraint per table.

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,

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 FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
UNIQUE (ID)
);
To name a UNIQUE constraint, and to define a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the
following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName)
);

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD UNIQUE (ID);
To name a UNIQUE constraint, and to define a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the
following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName);

DROP a UNIQUE Constraint

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

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ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP INDEX UC_Person;
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT UC_Person;

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.

Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.
A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can consist of single or
multiple columns (fields).

SQL PRIMARY KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "ID" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on
multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

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MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName)
);
Note: In the example above there is only ONE PRIMARY KEY (PK_Person). However, the
VALUE of the primary key is made up of TWO COLUMNS (ID + LastName).

SQL PRIMARY KEY on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" column when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on
multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName);
Note: If you use ALTER TABLE to add a primary key, the primary key column(s) must have been
declared to not contain NULL values (when the table was first created).

DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP PRIMARY KEY;
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT PK_Person;

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SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between tables.

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to the PRIMARY KEY
in another table.
The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and the table with the primary key is called
the referenced or parent table.
Look at the following two tables:

Persons Table
PersonID LastName FirstName Age
1 Hansen Ola 30
2 Svendson Tove 23
3 Pettersen Kari 20

Orders Table
OrderID OrderNumber PersonID
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1
Notice that the "PersonID" column in the "Orders" table points to the "PersonID" column in the
"Persons" table.
The "PersonID" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.

The "PersonID" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.

The FOREIGN KEY constraint prevents invalid data from being inserted into the foreign key
column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the parent table.

SQL FOREIGN KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "PersonID" column when the "Orders" table is
created:
MySQL:

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CREATE TABLE Orders (
OrderID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int,
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Orders (
OrderID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on
multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Orders (
OrderID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int,
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder FOREIGN KEY (PersonID)
REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

SQL FOREIGN KEY on ALTER TABLE

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "PersonID" column when the "Orders" table is
already created, use the following SQL:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on
multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

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ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);

DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP FOREIGN KEY FK_PersonOrder;
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder;

SQL CHECK Constraint

SQL CHECK Constraint

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values for this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on
values in other columns in the row.

SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the "Persons" table is
created. The CHECK constraint ensures that the age of a person must be 18, or older:

MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);

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SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age intCHECK (Age>=18)
);
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT CHK_Person CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes')
);

SQL CHECK on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CHECK (Age>=18);
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns,
use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT CHK_PersonAge CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes');

DROP a CHECK Constraint

To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

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ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_PersonAge;
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CHECK CHK_PersonAge;

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

The DEFAULT constraint is used to set a default value for a column.

The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.

SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the "City" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
);
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using functions like
GETDATE():

CREATE TABLE Orders (

ID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
);

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SQL DEFAULT on ALTER TABLE
To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
SQL Server:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT df_City
DEFAULT 'Sandnes' FOR City;
MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
Oracle:
ALTER TABLE Persons
MODIFY City DEFAULT 'Sandnes';

DROP a DEFAULT Constraint

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City DROP DEFAULT;
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT;

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.

Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database more quickly than otherwise. The users cannot
see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries.

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Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the
indexes also need an update). So, only create indexes on columns that will be frequently searched
against.

CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies among different databases. Therefore: Check the
syntax for creating indexes in your database.

CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "idx_lastname" on the "LastName" column in the
"Persons" table:
CREATE INDEX idx_lastname
ON Persons (LastName);
If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names within
the parentheses, separated by commas:
CREATE INDEX idx_pname
ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);

DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

MS Access:
DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name;
SQL Server:
DROP INDEX table_name.index_name;
DB2/Oracle:

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DROP INDEX index_name;
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;

SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field

AUTO INCREMENT Field

Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated automatically when a new record is
inserted into a table.
Often this is the primary key field that we would like to be created automatically every time a new
record is inserted.

Syntax for MySQL

The following SQL statement defines the "Personid" column to be an auto-increment primary key
field in the "Persons" table:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
Personid int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (Personid)
);
MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.

By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new
record.
To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100;

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will NOT have to specify a value for the
"Personid" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen');

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The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "Personid"
column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the
"LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for SQL Server

The following SQL statement defines the "Personid" column to be an auto-increment primary key
field in the "Persons" table:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
Personid int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);
The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.

In the example above, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each
new record.
Tip: To specify that the "Personid" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change it to
IDENTITY(10,5).

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will NOT have to specify a value for the
"Personid" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen');
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "Personid"
column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the
"LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for Access

The following SQL statement defines the "Personid" column to be an auto-increment primary key
field in the "Persons" table:

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CREATE TABLE Persons (
Personid AUTOINCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int
);
The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.

By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new
record.
Tip: To specify that the "Personid" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the
autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5).

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will NOT have to specify a value for the
"Personid" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)
VALUES ('Lars','Monsen');
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "Personid"
column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the
"LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for Oracle

In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky.
You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object (this object generates a
number sequence).
Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE syntax:

CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person

MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 10;
The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1 and will increment
by 1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance. The cache option specifies how many
sequence values will be stored in memory for faster access.
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval function (this
function retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):

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INSERT INTO Persons (Personid,FirstName,LastName)
VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen');
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "Personid"
column would be assigned the next number from the seq_person sequence. The "FirstName"
column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

SQL Working With Dates

SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you are
trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected. However, if
a time portion is involved, it gets more complicated.

SQL Date Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:
• DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
• DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
• TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
• YEAR - format YYYY or YY

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the
database:
• DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
• DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
• SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
• TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number

Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your database!

SQL Working with Dates

Look at the following table:

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Orders Table
OrderId ProductName OrderDate
1 Geitost 2008-11-11
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29
Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

The result-set will look like this:

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11
Note: Two dates can easily be compared if there is no time component involved!
Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the added time-component in the
"OrderDate" column):

OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11 13:23:44
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09 15:45:21
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11 11:12:01
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29 14:56:59
If we use the same SELECT statement as above:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no time portion.
Tip: To keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not use time-components in your dates,
unless you have to!

SQL Views

SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or
more real tables in the database.

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You can add SQL statements and functions to a view and present the data as if the data were coming
from one single table.
A view is created with the CREATE VIEW statement.

CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the view, every time a
user queries it.

SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

The following SQL creates a view that shows all customers from Brazil:

Example
CREATE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';
We can query the view above as follows:

Example
SELECT * FROM [Brazil Customers];
The following SQL creates a view that selects every product in the "Products" table with a price
higher than the average price:

Example
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName, Price
FROM Products
WHERE Price > (SELECT AVG(Price) FROM Products);
We can query the view above as follows:

Example
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price];

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SQL Updating a View
A view can be updated with the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement.

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
The following SQL adds the "City" column to the "Brazil Customers" view:

Example
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, City
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';

SQL Dropping a View

A view is deleted with the DROP VIEW statement.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;
The following SQL drops the "Brazil Customers" view:

Example
DROP VIEW [Brazil Customers];

SQL Injection

SQL Injection
SQL injection is a code injection technique that might destroy your database.
SQL injection is one of the most common web hacking techniques.
SQL injection is the placement of malicious code in SQL statements, via web page input.

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SQL in Web Pages
SQL injection usually occurs when you ask a user for input, like their username/userid, and instead
of a name/id, the user gives you an SQL statement that you will unknowingly run on your database.
Look at the following example which creates a SELECT statement by adding a variable (txtUserId)
to a select string. The variable is fetched from user input (getRequestString):

Example
txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = " + txtUserId;
The rest of this chapter describes the potential dangers of using user input in SQL statements.

SQL Injection Based on 1=1 is Always True

Look at the example above again. The original purpose of the code was to create an SQL statement
to select a user, with a given user id.
If there is nothing to prevent a user from entering "wrong" input, the user can enter some "smart"
input like this:
UserId:
Then, the SQL statement will look like this:
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 OR 1=1;
The SQL above is valid and will return ALL rows from the "Users" table, since OR 1=1 is always
TRUE.
Does the example above look dangerous? What if the "Users" table contains names and passwords?
The SQL statement above is much the same as this:
SELECT UserId, Name, Password FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 or 1=1;
A hacker might get access to all the user names and passwords in a database, by simply inserting
105 OR 1=1 into the input field.

SQL Injection Based on""="" is Always True

Here is an example of a user login on a web site:
Username:
Password:

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Example
uName = getRequestString("username");
uPass = getRequestString("userpassword");

sql = 'SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="' + uName + '" AND Pass ="' + uPass + '"'

Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="John Doe" AND Pass ="myPass"
A hacker might get access to user names and passwordsin a database by simply inserting " OR ""="
into the user name or password text box:
User Name:
Password:
The code at the server will create a valid SQL statement like this:

Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="" or ""="" AND Pass ="" or ""=""
The SQL above is valid and will return all rows from the "Users" table, since OR ""="" is always
TRUE.

SQL Injection Based on Batched SQL Statements

Most databases support batched SQL statement.
A batch of SQL statements is a group of two or more SQL statements, separated by semicolons.
The SQL statement below will return all rows from the "Users" table, then delete the "Suppliers"
table.

Example
SELECT * FROM Users; DROP TABLE Suppliers
Look at the following example:

Example
txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = " + txtUserId;
And the following input:
User id:

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The valid SQL statement would look like this:

Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105; DROP TABLE Suppliers;

Use SQL Parameters for Protection

To protect a web site from SQL injection, you can use SQL parameters.
SQL parameters are values that are added to an SQL query at execution time, in a controlled
manner.

ASP.NET Razor Example

txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = @0";
db.Execute(txtSQL,txtUserId);
Note that parameters are represented in the SQL statement by a @ marker.
The SQL engine checks each parameter to ensure that it is correct for its column and are treated
literally, and not as part of the SQL to be executed.

Another Example
txtNam = getRequestString("CustomerName");
txtAdd = getRequestString("Address");
txtCit = getRequestString("City");
txtSQL = "INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City) Values(@0,@1,@2)";
db.Execute(txtSQL,txtNam,txtAdd,txtCit);

Examples
The following examples shows how to build parameterized queries in some common web
languages.
SELECT STATEMENT IN ASP.NET:
txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
sql = "SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerId = @0";
command = new SqlCommand(sql);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@0",txtUserId);
command.ExecuteReader();
INSERT INTO STATEMENT IN ASP.NET:

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txtNam = getRequestString("CustomerName");
txtAdd = getRequestString("Address");
txtCit = getRequestString("City");
txtSQL = "INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City) Values(@0,@1,@2)";
command = new SqlCommand(txtSQL);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@0",txtNam);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@1",txtAdd);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@2",txtCit);
command.ExecuteNonQuery();
INSERT INTO STATEMENT IN PHP:
$stmt = $dbh->prepare("INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City)
VALUES (:nam, :add, :cit)");
$stmt->bindParam(':nam', $txtNam);
$stmt->bindParam(':add', $txtAdd);
$stmt->bindParam(':cit', $txtCit);
$stmt->execute();

SQL Hosting

SQL Hosting
If you want your web site to be able to store and retrieve data from a database, your web server
should have access to a database-system that uses the SQL language.
If your web server is hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you will have to look for SQL
hosting plans.
The most common SQL hosting databases are MS SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL, and MS Access.

MS SQL Server
Microsoft's SQL Server is a popular database software for database-driven web sites with high
traffic.
SQL Server is a very powerful, robust and full featured SQL database system.

Oracle
Oracle is also a popular database software for database-driven web sites with high traffic.

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Oracle is a very powerful, robust and full featured SQL database system.

MySQL
MySQL is also a popular database software for web sites.
MySQL is a very powerful, robust and full featured SQL database system.
MySQL is an inexpensive alternative to the expensive Microsoft and Oracle solutions.

MS Access
When a web site requires only a simple database, Microsoft Access can be a solution.
MS Access is not well suited for very high-traffic, and not as powerful as MySQL, SQL Server, or
Oracle.

SQL Data Types for MySQL, SQL Server, and

MS Access
The data type of a column defines what value the column can hold: integer, character, money, date
and time, binary, and so on.

SQL Data Types

Each column in a database table is required to have a name and a data type.
An SQL developer must decide what type of data that will be stored inside each column when
creating a table. The data type is a guideline for SQL to understand what type of data is expected
inside of each column, and it also identifies how SQL will interact with the stored data.
Note: Data types might have different names in different database. And even if the name is the
same, the size and other details may be different! Always check the documentation!

MySQL Data Types (Version 8.0)

In MySQL there are three main data types: string, numeric, and date and time.

String Data Types

Data type Description

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 A FIXED length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters).
CHAR(size) The size parameter specifies the column length in characters - can be from 0
to 255. Default is 1
A VARIABLE length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
VARCHAR(size) characters). The size parameter specifies the maximum column length in
characters - can be from 0 to 65535
Equal to CHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size parameter specifies
BINARY(size)
the column length in bytes. Default is 1
Equal to VARCHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size parameter
VARBINARY(size)
specifies the maximum column length in bytes.
TINYBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Max length: 255 bytes
TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
TEXT(size) Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 bytes
BLOB(size) For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data
MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters
LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data
A string object that can have only one value, chosen from a list of possible
ENUM(val1, val2, values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM list. If a value is inserted
val3, ...) that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted. The values are sorted in
the order you enter them
SET(val1, val2, A string object that can have 0 or more values, chosen from a list of possible
val3, ...) values. You can list up to 64 values in a SET list

Numeric Data Types

Data type Description
A bit-value type. The number of bits per value is specified in size. The size
BIT(size)
parameter can hold a value from 1 to 64. The default value for size is 1.
A very small integer. Signed range is from -128 to 127. Unsigned range is from
TINYINT(size) 0 to 255. The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is
255)
BOOL Zero is considered as false, nonzero values are considered as true.
BOOLEAN Equal to BOOL
A small integer. Signed range is from -32768 to 32767. Unsigned range is from
SMALLINT(size) 0 to 65535. The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is
255)
A medium integer. Signed range is from -8388608 to 8388607. Unsigned range
MEDIUMINT(size
is from 0 to 16777215. The size parameter specifies the maximum display
)
width (which is 255)
A medium integer. Signed range is from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
INT(size) Unsigned range is from 0 to 4294967295. The size parameter specifies the
maximum display width (which is 255)
INTEGER(size) Equal to INT(size)
BIGINT(size) A large integer. Signed range is from -9223372036854775808 to

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 9223372036854775807. Unsigned range is from 0 to 18446744073709551615.
The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
A floating point number. The total number of digits is specified in size. The
number of digits after the decimal point is specified in the d parameter. This
FLOAT(size, d)
syntax is deprecated in MySQL 8.0.17, and it will be removed in future
MySQL versions
A floating point number. MySQL uses the p value to determine whether to use
FLOAT or DOUBLE for the resulting data type. If p is from 0 to 24, the data
FLOAT(p)
type becomes FLOAT(). If p is from 25 to 53, the data type becomes
DOUBLE()
A normal-size floating point number. The total number of digits is specified in
DOUBLE(size, d) size. The number of digits after the decimal point is specified in the d
parameter
DOUBLE
PRECISION(size,
d)
An exact fixed-point number. The total number of digits is specified in size.
The number of digits after the decimal point is specified in the d parameter.
DECIMAL(size, d)
The maximum number for size is 65. The maximum number for d is 30. The
default value for size is 10. The default value for d is 0.
DEC(size, d) Equal to DECIMAL(size,d)
Note: All the numeric data types may have an extra option: UNSIGNED or ZEROFILL. If you add
the UNSIGNED option, MySQL disallows negative values for the column. If you add the
ZEROFILL option, MySQL automatically also adds the UNSIGNED attribute to the column.

Date and Time Data Types

Data type Description
A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD. The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to
DATE
'9999-12-31'
A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss. The supported
DATETIME(fs range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'. Adding DEFAULT
p) and ON UPDATE in the column definition to get automatic initialization and
updating to the current date and time
A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since the
Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss.
TIMESTAMP(f The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07'
sp) UTC. Automatic initialization and updating to the current date and time can be
specified using DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and ON UPDATE
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP in the column definition
TIME(fsp) A time. Format: hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
A year in four-digit format. Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155, and
YEAR 0000.
MySQL 8.0 does not support year in two-digit format.

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SQL Server Data Types
String Data Types
Data type Description Max size Storage
char(n) Fixed width character string 8,000 characters Defined width
Variable width character
varchar(n) 8,000 characters 2 bytes + number of chars
string
Variable width character
varchar(max) 1,073,741,824 characters 2 bytes + number of chars
string
Variable width character
text 2GB of text data 4 bytes + number of chars
string
nchar Fixed width Unicode string 4,000 characters Defined width x 2
nvarchar Variable width Unicode string 4,000 characters
nvarchar(max) Variable width Unicode string 536,870,912 characters
ntext Variable width Unicode string 2GB of text data
binary(n) Fixed width binary string 8,000 bytes
varbinary Variable width binary string 8,000 bytes
varbinary(max) Variable width binary string 2GB
image Variable width binary string 2GB

Numeric Data Types

Data type Description Storage
bit Integer that can be 0, 1, or NULL
tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
int Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes
Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and
bigint 8 bytes
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
Fixed precision and scale numbers.

Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.

The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be
5-17
decimal(p,s) stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a
bytes
value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.

The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the

right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17

bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.

The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be
stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a

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 value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.

The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the

right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 4 bytes

Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
money 8 bytes
922,337,203,685,477.5807
Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308.

The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes. 4 or 8

float(n)
float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default bytes
value of n is 53.

real Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38 4 bytes

Date and Time Data Types

Data type Description Storage
From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33
datetime 8 bytes
milliseconds
From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 100
datetime2 6-8 bytes
nanoseconds
smalldatetime From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute 4 bytes
date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 3 bytes
time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds 3-5 bytes
8-10
datetimeoffset The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset
bytes
Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets created or
modified. The timestamp value is based upon an internal clock and does
timestamp
not correspond to real time. Each table may have only one timestamp
variable

Other Data Types

Data type Description
Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext, and
sql_variant
timestamp
uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
xml Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB
cursor Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations
table Stores a result-set for later processing

MS Access Data Types

Data type Description Storage

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 Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters
Text
maximum
Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536 characters.
Memo
Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are searchable
Byte Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
Integer Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
Long Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 4 bytes
Single Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 4 bytes
Double Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 8 bytes
Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 decimal
Currency 8 bytes
places. Tip: You can choose which country's currency to use
AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number,
AutoNumber 4 bytes
usually starting at 1
Date/Time Use for dates and times 8 bytes
A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In
Yes/No code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0). Note: 1 bit
Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields
up to
Ole Object Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects)
1GB
Hyperlink Contain links to other files, including web pages
Lookup Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a drop-
4 bytes
Wizard down list

SQL Keywords Reference

This SQL keywords reference contains the reserved words in SQL.

SQL Keywords
Keyword Description
ADD Adds a column in an existing table
ADD CONSTRAINT Adds a constraint after a table is already created
Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table, or changes the data type
ALTER
of a column in a table
ALTER COLUMN Changes the data type of a column in a table
ALTER TABLE Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table
ALL Returns true if all of the subquery values meet the condition
AND Only includes rows where both conditions is true
ANY Returns true if any of the subquery values meet the condition
AS Renames a column or table with an alias
ASC Sorts the result set in ascending order
BACKUP DATABASE Creates a back up of an existing database

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BETWEEN Selects values within a given range
CASE Creates different outputs based on conditions
CHECK A constraint that limits the value that can be placed in a column
COLUMN Changes the data type of a column or deletes a column in a table
CONSTRAINT Adds or deletes a constraint
CREATE Creates a database, index, view, table, or procedure
CREATE DATABASE Creates a new SQL database
CREATE INDEX Creates an index on a table (allows duplicate values)
CREATE OR REPLACE
Updates a view
VIEW
CREATE TABLE Creates a new table in the database
CREATE PROCEDURE Creates a stored procedure
CREATE UNIQUE
Creates a unique index on a table (no duplicate values)
INDEX
CREATE VIEW Creates a view based on the result set of a SELECT statement
DATABASE Creates or deletes an SQL database
DEFAULT A constraint that provides a default value for a column
DELETE Deletes rows from a table
DESC Sorts the result set in descending order
DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values
DROP Deletes a column, constraint, database, index, table, or view
DROP COLUMN Deletes a column in a table
Deletes a UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, or CHECK
DROP CONSTRAINT
constraint
DROP DATABASE Deletes an existing SQL database
DROP DEFAULT Deletes a DEFAULT constraint
DROP INDEX Deletes an index in a table
DROP TABLE Deletes an existing table in the database
DROP VIEW Deletes a view
EXEC Executes a stored procedure
EXISTS Tests for the existence of any record in a subquery
FOREIGN KEY A constraint that is a key used to link two tables together
FROM Specifies which table to select or delete data from
FULL OUTER JOIN Returns all rows when there is a match in either left table or right table
Groups the result set (used with aggregate functions: COUNT, MAX,
GROUP BY
MIN, SUM, AVG)
HAVING Used instead of WHERE with aggregate functions
IN Allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause
INDEX Creates or deletes an index in a table
INNER JOIN Returns rows that have matching values in both tables
INSERT INTO Inserts new rows in a table
INSERT INTO SELECT Copies data from one table into another table

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IS NULL Tests for empty values
IS NOT NULL Tests for non-empty values
JOIN Joins tables
Returns all rows from the left table, and the matching rows from the
LEFT JOIN
right table
LIKE Searches for a specified pattern in a column
LIMIT Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
NOT Only includes rows where a condition is not true
NOT NULL A constraint that enforces a column to not accept NULL values
OR Includes rows where either condition is true
ORDER BY Sorts the result set in ascending or descending order
OUTER JOIN Returns all rows when there is a match in either left table or right table
PRIMARY KEY A constraint that uniquely identifies each record in a database table
PROCEDURE A stored procedure
Returns all rows from the right table, and the matching rows from the
RIGHT JOIN
left table
ROWNUM Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
SELECT Selects data from a database
SELECT DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values
SELECT INTO Copies data from one table into a new table
SELECT TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
SET Specifies which columns and values that should be updated in a table
Creates a table, or adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table, or
TABLE
deletes a table or data inside a table
TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result set
TRUNCATE TABLE Deletes the data inside a table, but not the table itself
Combines the result set of two or more SELECT statements (only
UNION
distinct values)
Combines the result set of two or more SELECT statements (allows
UNION ALL
duplicate values)
UNIQUE A constraint that ensures that all values in a column are unique
UPDATE Updates existing rows in a table
VALUES Specifies the values of an INSERT INTO statement
VIEW Creates, updates, or deletes a view
Filters a result set to include only records that fulfill a specified
WHERE
condition

MySQL Functions
MySQL has many built-in functions.
This reference contains string, numeric, date, and some advanced functions in MySQL.

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MySQL String Functions
Function Description
ASCII Returns the ASCII value for the specific character
CHAR_LENGTH Returns the length of a string (in characters)
CHARACTER_LENG
Returns the length of a string (in characters)
TH
CONCAT Adds two or more expressions together
CONCAT_WS Adds two or more expressions together with a separator
FIELD Returns the index position of a value in a list of values
FIND_IN_SET Returns the position of a string within a list of strings
Formats a number to a format like "#,###,###.##", rounded to a specified
FORMAT
number of decimal places
Inserts a string within a string at the specified position and for a certain
INSERT
number of characters
INSTR Returns the position of the first occurrence of a string in another string
LCASE Converts a string to lower-case
LEFT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from left)
LENGTH Returns the length of a string (in bytes)
LOCATE Returns the position of the first occurrence of a substring in a string
LOWER Converts a string to lower-case
LPAD Left-pads a string with another string, to a certain length
LTRIM Removes leading spaces from a string
MID Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any position)
POSITION Returns the position of the first occurrence of a substring in a string
REPEAT Repeats a string as many times as specified
Replaces all occurrences of a substring within a string, with a new
REPLACE
substring
REVERSE Reverses a string and returns the result
RIGHT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from right)
RPAD Right-pads a string with another string, to a certain length
RTRIM Removes trailing spaces from a string
SPACE Returns a string of the specified number of space characters
STRCMP Compares two strings
SUBSTR Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any position)
SUBSTRING Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any position)
Returns a substring of a string before a specified number of delimiter
SUBSTRING_INDEX
occurs
TRIM Removes leading and trailing spaces from a string
UCASE Converts a string to upper-case
UPPER Converts a string to upper-case

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MySQL Numeric Functions
Function Description
ABS Returns the absolute value of a number
ACOS Returns the arc cosine of a number
ASIN Returns the arc sine of a number
ATAN Returns the arc tangent of one or two numbers
ATAN2 Returns the arc tangent of two numbers
AVG Returns the average value of an expression
CEIL Returns the smallest integer value that is >= to a number
CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is >= to a number
COS Returns the cosine of a number
COT Returns the cotangent of a number
COUNT Returns the number of records returned by a select query
DEGREES Converts a value in radians to degrees
DIV Used for integer division
EXP Returns e raised to the power of a specified number
FLOOR Returns the largest integer value that is <= to a number
GREATEST Returns the greatest value of the list of arguments
LEAST Returns the smallest value of the list of arguments
LN Returns the natural logarithm of a number
Returns the natural logarithm of a number, or the logarithm of a number to a
LOG
specified base
LOG10 Returns the natural logarithm of a number to base 10
LOG2 Returns the natural logarithm of a number to base 2
MAX Returns the maximum value in a set of values
MIN Returns the minimum value in a set of values
MOD Returns the remainder of a number divided by another number
PI Returns the value of PI
POW Returns the value of a number raised to the power of another number
POWER Returns the value of a number raised to the power of another number
RADIANS Converts a degree value into radians
RAND Returns a random number
ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places
SIGN Returns the sign of a number
SIN Returns the sine of a number
SQRT Returns the square root of a number
SUM Calculates the sum of a set of values
TAN Returns the tangent of a number
TRUNCATE Truncates a number to the specified number of decimal places

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MySQL Date Functions
Function Description
ADDDATE Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the date
Adds a time interval to a time/datetime and then returns the
ADDTIME
time/datetime
CURDATE Returns the current date
CURRENT_DATE Returns the current date
CURRENT_TIME Returns the current time
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time
CURTIME Returns the current time
DATE Extracts the date part from a datetime expression
DATEDIFF Returns the number of days between two date values
DATE_ADD Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the date
DATE_FORMAT Formats a date
DATE_SUB Subtracts a time/date interval from a date and then returns the date
DAY Returns the day of the month for a given date
DAYNAME Returns the weekday name for a given date
DAYOFMONTH Returns the day of the month for a given date
DAYOFWEEK Returns the weekday index for a given date
DAYOFYEAR Returns the day of the year for a given date
EXTRACT Extracts a part from a given date
FROM_DAYS Returns a date from a numeric datevalue
HOUR Returns the hour part for a given date
LAST_DAY Extracts the last day of the month for a given date
LOCALTIME Returns the current date and time
LOCALTIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time
MAKEDATE Creates and returns a date based on a year and a number of days value
MAKETIME Creates and returns a time based on an hour, minute, and second value
MICROSECOND Returns the microsecond part of a time/datetime
MINUTE Returns the minute part of a time/datetime
MONTH Returns the month part for a given date
MONTHNAME Returns the name of the month for a given date
NOW Returns the current date and time
PERIOD_ADD Adds a specified number of months to a period
PERIOD_DIFF Returns the difference between two periods
QUARTER Returns the quarter of the year for a given date value
SECOND Returns the seconds part of a time/datetime
SEC_TO_TIME Returns a time value based on the specified seconds
STR_TO_DATE Returns a date based on a string and a format
SUBDATE Subtracts a time/date interval from a date and then returns the date
SUBTIME Subtracts a time interval from a datetime and then returns the

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 time/datetime
SYSDATE Returns the current date and time
TIME Extracts the time part from a given time/datetime
TIME_FORMAT Formats a time by a specified format
TIME_TO_SEC Converts a time value into seconds
TIMEDIFF Returns the difference between two time/datetime expressions
TIMESTAMP Returns a datetime value based on a date or datetime value
TO_DAYS Returns the number of days between a date and date "0000-00-00"
WEEK Returns the week number for a given date
WEEKDAY Returns the weekday number for a given date
WEEKOFYEAR Returns the week number for a given date
YEAR Returns the year part for a given date
YEARWEEK Returns the year and week number for a given date

MySQL Advanced Functions

Function Description
BIN Returns a binary representation of a number
BINARY Converts a value to a binary string
CASE Goes through conditions and return a value when the first condition is met
CAST Converts a value (of any type) into a specified datatype
COALESCE Returns the first non-null value in a list
CONNECTION_I
Returns the unique connection ID for the current connection
D
CONV Converts a number from one numeric base system to another
CONVERT Converts a value into the specified datatype or character set
Returns the user name and host name for the MySQL account that the server
CURRENT_USER
used to authenticate the current client
DATABASE Returns the name of the current database
Returns a value if a condition is TRUE, or another value if a condition is
IF
FALSE
Return a specified value if the expression is NULL, otherwise return the
IFNULL
expression
ISNULL Returns 1 or 0 depending on whether an expression is NULL
LAST_INSERT_I Returns the AUTO_INCREMENT id of the last row that has been inserted or
D updated in a table
Compares two expressions and returns NULL if they are equal. Otherwise, the
NULLIF
first expression is returned
SESSION_USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
SYSTEM_USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
VERSION Returns the current version of the MySQL database

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SQL Server Functions
SQL Server has many built-in functions.
This reference contains string, numeric, date, conversion, and some advanced functions in SQL
Server.

SQL Server String Functions

Function Description
ASCII Returns the ASCII value for the specific character
CHAR Returns the character based on the ASCII code
CHARINDEX Returns the position of a substring in a string
CONCAT Adds two or more strings together
Concat with +
Adds two or more strings together
CONCAT_WS Adds two or more strings together with a separator
DATALENGTHReturns the number of bytes used to represent an expression
DIFFERENCECompares two SOUNDEX values, and returns an integer value
FORMAT Formats a value with the specified format
LEFT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from left)
LEN Returns the length of a string
LOWER Converts a string to lower-case
LTRIM Removes leading spaces from a string
NCHAR Returns the Unicode character based on the number code
PATINDEX Returns the position of a pattern in a string
Returns a Unicode string with delimiters added to make the string a valid SQL
QUOTENAME
Server delimited identifier
REPLACE Replaces all occurrences of a substring within a string, with a new substring
REPLICATE Repeats a string a specified number of times
REVERSE Reverses a string and returns the result
RIGHT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from right)
RTRIM Removes trailing spaces from a string
SOUNDEX Returns a four-character code to evaluate the similarity of two strings
SPACE Returns a string of the specified number of space characters
STR Returns a number as string
Deletes a part of a string and then inserts another part into the string, starting at a
STUFF
specified position
SUBSTRING Extracts some characters from a string
Returns the string from the first argument after the characters specified in the
TRANSLATE
second argument are translated into the characters specified in the third argument.

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TRIM Removes leading and trailing spaces (or other specified characters) from a string
UNICODE Returns the Unicode value for the first character of the input expression
UPPER Converts a string to upper-case

SQL Server Math/Numeric Functions

Function Description
ABS Returns the absolute value of a number
ACOS Returns the arc cosine of a number
ASIN Returns the arc sine of a number
ATAN Returns the arc tangent of a number
ATN2 Returns the arc tangent of two numbers
AVG Returns the average value of an expression
CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is >= a number
COUNT Returns the number of records returned by a select query
COS Returns the cosine of a number
COT Returns the cotangent of a number
DEGREES Converts a value in radians to degrees
EXP Returns e raised to the power of a specified number
FLOOR Returns the largest integer value that is <= to a number
Returns the natural logarithm of a number, or the logarithm of a number to a specified
LOG
base
LOG10 Returns the natural logarithm of a number to base 10
MAX Returns the maximum value in a set of values
MIN Returns the minimum value in a set of values
PI Returns the value of PI
POWER Returns the value of a number raised to the power of another number
RADIANS Converts a degree value into radians
RAND Returns a random number
ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places
SIGN Returns the sign of a number
SIN Returns the sine of a number
SQRT Returns the square root of a number
SQUARE Returns the square of a number
SUM Calculates the sum of a set of values
TAN Returns the tangent of a number

SQL Server Date Functions

Function Description
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time

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DATEADD Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the date
DATEDIFF Returns the difference between two dates
DATEFROMPARTS Returns a date from the specified parts (year, month, and day values)
DATENAME Returns a specified part of a date (as string)
DATEPART Returns a specified part of a date (as integer)
DAY Returns the day of the month for a specified date
GETDATE Returns the current database system date and time
GETUTCDATE Returns the current database system UTC date and time
ISDATE Checks an expression and returns 1 if it is a valid date, otherwise 0
MONTH Returns the month part for a specified date (a number from 1 to 12)
SYSDATETIME Returns the date and time of the SQL Server
YEAR Returns the year part for a specified date

SQL Server Advanced Functions

Function Description
CAST Converts a value (of any type) into a specified datatype
COALESCE Returns the first non-null value in a list
CONVERT Converts a value (of any type) into a specified datatype
CURRENT_USER Returns the name of the current user in the SQL Server database
Returns a value if a condition is TRUE, or another value if a condition is
IIF
FALSE
Return a specified value if the expression is NULL, otherwise return the
ISNULL
expression
ISNUMERIC Tests whether an expression is numeric
NULLIF Returns NULL if two expressions are equal
SESSION_USER Returns the name of the current user in the SQL Server database
SESSIONPROPERTY Returns the session settings for a specified option
SYSTEM_USER Returns the login name for the current user
USER_NAME Returns the database user name based on the specified id

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