MODUL

Teaching English as a Foreign

Language

Disusun oleh:

Dra. NANIK SUPRIANI. M.Pd., Ph.D 0026035401

IMA WIDYASTUTI, S.S., M.A., MA TESOL 0506027904

PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN
UNIVERSITAS SARJANAWIYATA TAMANSISWA
AGUSTUS, 2O18
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This module is only used for students of English Education Department,

Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa University who are enrolled in Teaching English as a
Foreign Language Unit on Semester 5. This is compiled from both printed and
electronic materials. We hope students will gain their understanding on some
concepts and practices in teaching English.

20 August 2018

Team

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Halaman

COVER …………………………………………………………………… i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………. ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………… ii
COURSE DESCRIPTION …………………………………………………. Iv
SYLLABUS………………………………………………………………….. v
WEEK 1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………… 1
WEEK 2 AN OVERVIEW ON LANGUAGE 2
TEACHING METHODOLOGY ………………………..
WEEK 3-4 TAXONOMY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING 4
TECHNIQUES ……………………………………………
WEEK 5 TEACHING GRAMMAR…………………………….... 15
WEEK 6 TEACHING VOCABULARY…………………………… 25
WEEK 7 TEACHING PRONUNCIATION………………………… 36
WEEK 9 TEACHING LISTENING………………………………… 41
WEEK 10 TEACHING SPEAKING………………………………… 61
WEEK 11 TEACHING READING………………………………… 89
WEEK 12 TEACHING WRITING………………………………… 95
WEEK 13-14 GENRE-BASED APPROACH…………………………… 102
WEEK 15 SCIENTIFIC-BASED APPROACH……………………… 114

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 COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course objective is to provide the students with knowledge, skills, and the
basic principles of teaching and learning processes relevant to their future job:
procedures and techniques of teaching language skills, and kinds of language
teaching strategies. It will also discuss the use of IT based teaching model. The
implementation of the teaching methods in teaching the four language skills and
components will be maximized to provide students with a real example of each
method in the teaching of English in formal school setting, or more specifically in
the Indonesian setting. In the teaching process the students are expected to
identify the principles of each method and its implementation (niteni) to apply the
principles in teaching English (niroke), to develop teaching learning activities
based on the specified methods (nambahi). Therefore, classroom activities also
include observing of teaching model from the video recording to enable Ss to
analyze techniques and activities employed in the teaching model. Ss are also
supposed to develop teaching scenarios/design based on specified teaching
method and case provided. Ss then present the results of their design. It is hoped
that students will get enough theoretical and practical knowledge of effective
teaching methods. In executing their tasks, they are supposed to work not only
individually but also in group to develop their responsibility, independence,
collaboration, and sense of respecting others. Evaluation on students’
achievement is based on classroom participation, assignments, presentation and
semester tests.

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 COURSE OUTLINE
PRODI PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS
FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN- UST
UST

Course Name Code Fields Credit Semester Revision

Points
TEACHING ENGLISH AS A ING 15540 LANGUAGE 2 5 20 August 2018
FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING
Authorization Course Developers Coordinator Head of English Department
Dra. Nanik Supriyani,
M.Pd., Ph. D
Dra. Nanik Supriyani, Anselmus Sudirman, S.Pd., M. Hum.
M.Pd., Ph. D
Ima Widyastuti, S.S., M.A.,
MA TESOL
Learning Outcomes - Understanding theories, concepts and principles of teaching English as a foreign language.
- Implementating principles and techniques in teaching four language skills.

Course descriptions This course objective is to provide the students with knowledge, skills, and the basic principles of teaching and learning
processes relevant to their future job: procedures and techniques of teaching language skills, and kinds of language
teaching strategies. It will also discuss the use of IT based teaching model. The implementation of the teaching methods
in teaching the four language skills and components will be maximized to provide students with a real example of each
method in the teaching of English in formal school setting, or more specifically in the Indonesian setting. In the
teaching process the students are expected to identify the principles of each method and its implementation (niteni) to

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 apply the principles in teaching English (niroke), to develop teaching learning activities based on the specified methods
(nambahi). Therefore, classroom activities also include observing of teaching model from the video recording to enable
Ss to analyze techniques and activities employed in the teaching model. Ss are also supposed to develop teaching
scenarios/design based on specified teaching method and case provided. Ss then present the results of their design. It is
hoped that students will get enough theoretical and practical knowledge of effective teaching methods. In executing
their tasks, they are supposed to work not only individually but also in group to develop their responsibility,
independence, collaboration, and sense of respecting others. Evaluation on students’ achievement is based on
classroom participation, assignments, presentation and semester tests
References a. Brown, D (2001) Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, New York: Longman
b. Harmer, Jeremy. 2002. The Practice of English Language Teaching. 3rd Ed. Longman, London
c. Nunan, D (1991) Language Teaching Methodology. New York: Prentice Hall
d. Richards, Jack C. and T. Rogers. 2002. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge.
e. Gruyter, M. (2006). Studies on Language Acquisition. Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the Four
Skills.Mouton de Gruyter. Berlin New York
Learning Media Module, Power Point, Video
Teaching Team Dra. Nanik Supriyani, M.Pd., Ph.D
Ima Widyastuti, S.S., M.A., MA TESOL
Meeting Learning Major Topics Teaching Duration Students’ learning Assessment Weight
Objectives Method (per Experience Indicator types
minutes)
1 Introduction Syllabus and course Lecture 100 1.Discussion Showing good
coverage 2. task /assignment understanding of
basic concepts in
Overview of TEFL TEFL
Quiz 1
10%
2 Understanding Overview of Language Clarify the concepts
the language Teaching methodology of language teaching
teaching approaches,
methodologies methods, procedures

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 and techniques.
3-4 Understanding Taxonomy of language 1. lecture 1.Discussion Identify various
the principles of teaching techniques 2. group 2. task /assignment techniques in
language work language teaching Quiz 2
10 %
teaching
techniques

5 Understanding Teaching Grammar - lecture - discussion Design a lesson plan

the basic - group - group assignment
principles on work
teaching - quiz
Grammar, and
designing a
lesson plan

6 Understanding Teaching Vocabulary - lecture - discussion Design a lesson plan

the basic - group - group assignment
principles on work Assignments
teaching - quiz 10 %
Vocabulary, and
designing a
lesson plan

7 Understanding Teaching Pronunciation - lecture - discussion Design a lesson plan

the basic - group - group assignment
principles on work
teaching - quiz
Pronunciation,
and designing a
lesson plan
8 MID TERM TEST 20%
9 Understanding Teaching Listening - lecture - discussion Design a lesson plan 20%

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 the basic - group - group assignment
principles on work
teaching - quiz
Listening, and
designing a
lesson plan

10 Understanding Teaching Speaking - lecture 200 - discussion Design a lesson plan

the basic - group - group assignment
principles on work
teaching - quiz
Speaking, and
designing a
lesson plan
presentation
11 Understanding Teaching Reading - lecture 200 - discussion Design a lesson plan
the basic - group - group assignment
principles on work
teaching - quiz
Reading, and
designing a
lesson plan

12 Understanding Teaching Writing - lecture 200 - discussion Design a lesson plan

the basic - group - group assignment
principles on work
teaching - quiz
Writing, and
designing a
lesson plan
13-14 Understanding Genre-based Approach - lecture 200 - discussion Design a lesson plan 10%
the principles of - group - group assignment based on a Genre-

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 Genre-based work - Assignment based Approach
Approach - quiz
Assignment
15 Understanding Scientific-based - lecture 200 - discussion Design a lesson plan
the principles of Approach - group - group assignment based on a
Scientific-based work Scientific-based
Approach - quiz Approach

16 Final test 20%

No. Assessment Components Weights

(%)
1 Presentation Participation (responsibility, collaboration, respect, 20
partnership, honesty, responsibility, creativity, discipline, self-
confidence, awareness)
2 Quizzes 20
3 Assignments 20
5 Competence Tests Mid-term test 20
Final test 20
Total 100%

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 WEEK 1

INTRODUCTION

Course Conveners Contacts

Course Conveners Dra. Nanik Supriyani, M.Pd., Ph. D Ima Widyastuti, S.S., M.A., MA TESOL
Phone Numbers 082221295264 0821 380 771 37
Email addresses Naniks_2000@yahoo.com widyastuti_ima@yahoo.com.au
Consultation hours On Mondays On Tuesdays
11.20-13.00 11.00 – 11.30 AM

The Class Contract

a. Students must follow the campus rules in attending the class.
b. All students must have the module and read the materials before attending the class.
c. Both students and lecturer must respect each other.
d. Before uploading the final grade, the lecturer will show the grade details.
e. Complaining grade after uploading on portal is not considered.

The Syllabus
The syllabus of the unit course is also attached on the module. Here is the syllabus.

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 WEEK 2

AN OVERVIEW ON LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY

A. LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES

The term approach refers to theory about the nature of language, language teaching and language
learning. “An approach describe how language is used and how learners acquire the language”
(Harmer, 2007).
There are nine approaches discussed on Language Teaching Methodology Unit on Semester 4. The
materials were taken from this reference: Celce-Murcia, M (Ed). 2001. Teaching English as a Second
or Foreign Language. 3rd edition. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Thomson Learning.
1. Grammar-Translation Approach
2. Direct Approach
3. Reading Approach
4. Audiolingual Approach
5. Oral-Situational
6. Cognitive
7. Affective-Humanistic Approach
8. Comprehension-Based
9. Communicative Approach

B. LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS

The term method refers to the practical realization of an approach. In a method, there are some elements
involved such as types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, materials, procedures and techniques
(Harmer, 2007).

Four Methods of language teaching

1. Community Language Learning
2. Suggestopaedia
3. Total Physical Response (TPR)
4. Silent Way

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C. PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
The term procedure refers to an ordered sequence of techniques and technique refers to an activity used
as a part of a procedure (Harmer, 2007). In other words, a procedure is the step-by-step measure (or the
technique) to execute a method.

Here is the simplest example of a common procedure and techniques in Grammar-translation Method:
1. The students read a text written in the target language.
The students do skimming on a short reading passage.
2. The students translate the text from the target language to their mother tongue.
The students write the translation of each sentence under/above the sentence line.
3. The students translate the new words from the target language to their mother tongue.
The students list the new words and write their translation
4. The students are given a grammar rule related to the new words they found.
The teacher explain the grammatical rule. For example; how to form Noun Phrases
5. The students apply the grammar rules by deriving the new words they found.
The students recognize the grammatical rules (Noun Phrases) on the new words they found.
The students compose Noun Phrases using the new words they found.
6. The students memorize the vocabulary of the target language.
The student memorize the new words and are tested after the class or in the following meeting.
7. The students memorize the grammar rule.
The student memorize the grammatical rules of formatting Noun Phrase and are tested after the
class or in the following meeting.
8. Errors are corrected accurately.
The teacher corrects the error by doing class discussion.

Procedures:
1. PPP (Presentation, Practice and Production)
2. ESA (Engage, Study, Activate)
3. Boomerang
4. Patchwork
5. Task-based learning (TBL)

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 WEEK 3-4

TAXONOMY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Crookes & Chaudron (1991:52-54) divided the language teaching techniques into three:

A. CONTROLLED TECHNIQUES

1. Warm-up: Mimes, dance, songs, jokes, play. This activity gets the students stimulated,
relaxed, motivated, attentive, or otherwise engaged and ready for the lesson. I t does not
necessarily involve use of the target language.

2. Setting: Focusing on lesson topic. Teacher directs attention to the topic by verbal or
nonverbal evocation of the context relevant to the lesson by questioning or miming or
picture presentation, possibly by tape recording of situations and people.

3. Organizational: Structuring of lesson or class activities includes disciplinary action,

organization of class furniture and seating, general procedures for class interaction and
performance, structure and purpose of lesson, etc.

4. Content explanation: Grammatical, phonological, lexical (vocabulary), sociolinguistic,

pragmatic, or any other aspects of language. As an example, in teaching past tense

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5. Role-play demonstration: Selected students or teacher illustrate the procedure(s) to be
applied in the lesson segment to follow. Includes brief illustration of language or other
content to be incorporated.

6. Dialogue/Narrative presentation: Reading or listening passage presented for passive

reception. No implication of student production or other identification of specific target
forms or functions (students may be asked to "understand").

7. Dialogue/Narrative recitation: Reciting a previously known or prepared text, either in

unison or individually.

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8. Reading aloud: Reading directly from a given text.

9. Checking: Teacher either. circulating or guiding the correction of students' work, providing
feedback as an activity rather than within another activity.

10. Question-answer, display: Activity involving prompting of student responses by means of

display questions (i.e., teacher or questioner already knows the response or has a very
limited set of expectations for the appropriate response). Distinguished from referential
questions by the likelihood of the questioner's knowing the response and the speaker's
being aware of that fact.

11. Drill: Typical language activity involving fixed patterns of teacher prompting and student
responding, usually with repetition, substitution, and other mechanical alterations. Typically
with little meaning attached.

There are three types of drills:

1. Mechanical drills
- Refer to a controlled practice activity which students can succefully carry out without
necessarily understanding the language they are using.
- Examples: repetition drills, substitution drills, transformation, complection drills, and
contraction/abbreviation drills.
Example of a transformation drill activity: positive into negative
Teacher : I love that house.
Students : I don’t love that house.

Teacher : I cook very well.

Students : I don’t cook very well.

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 2. Meaningful drills
- Focus on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning.
- Students have to understand part or all of the sentence in order to be able to respond.
- Example: provide a map and list of prepositions
Teacher : where is the post office?
Student 1 : It is near the ABC Bank.

Teacher : Where is the fresh market?

Students 2 : It is between Falcon Cinema and Delni Store

3. Communicative drills
- Encourage students to connect form, meaning and use because multiple cor rect
responses are possible.
- Students respond to a prompt using the grammar point under consideration, but
providing their own content
- Example:

12. Translation: Student or teacher provision of Ll or L2 translations of given text.

13. Dictation: Student writing down orally presented text.

Here are symbols used in note-taking which are also essential in dictation.

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14. Copying: Student writing down text presented visually.

15. Identification: Student picking out and producing/labeling or otherwise identifying a

specific target form, function, definition, or other lesson-related item.

16. Recognition: Student identifying forms, as in Identification (i.e., checking off items, drawing
symbols, rearranging pictures), but without a verbal response.

17. Review: Teacher-led review of previous wee/month/or other period as a formal summary
and type of test of student recall performance.

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18. Testing: Formal testing procedures to evaluate student progress.

19. Meaningful drill: Drill activity involving responses with meaningful choices, as in reference
to different information. Distinguished from Information exchange by the regulated sequence
and general form of responses. See the explanation on point 11.

B. SEMICONTROLLED TECHNIQUES

1. Brainstorming: A special form of preparation for the lesson, like Setting, which involves
free, undirected contributions by the students and teacher on a given topic, to generate
multiple associations without linking them; no explicit analysis or interpretation by the
teacher.
Example:

2. Story telling (especially when student-generated): Not necessarily lesson-based, a

lengthy presentation of story by teacher or student (may overlap with Warm-up or
Narrative recitation). May be used to maintain attention, motivate, or as lengthy practice.

3. Question-answer, referential: Activity involving prompting of responses by means of

referential questions (i.e., the questioner does not know beforehand the response
information). Distinguished from Question-answer, display.

4. Cued narrative/Dialogue: Student production of narrative or dialogue following cues from

miming, cue cards, pictures, or other stimuli related to narrative/dialogue (e.g.,
metalanguage requesting functional acts).

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5. Information transfer: Application from one mode (e.g., visual) to another (e.g., writing),
which involves some transformation of the information (e.g., student fills out diagram
while listening to description). Distinguished from Identification in that the student is
expected to transform and reinterpret the language or information.

6. Information exchange: Task involving two-way communication as in information-gap

exercises, when one or both parties (or a larger group) must share information to achieve
some goal. Distinguished from Question-answer, referential in that sharing of information
is critical for the task.

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7. Wrap-up: Brief teacher- or student-produced summary of point and/or items that have been
practiced or learned.

8. Narration/exposition: Presentation of a story or explanation derived from prior stimuli.

Distinguished from Cued narrative because of lack of immediate stimulus.

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9. Preparation: Student study, silent reading, pair planning and rehearsing, preparing for later
activity. Usually a student-directed or oriented project.

C. FREE TECHNIQUES
1. Role-play: Relatively free acting out of specified roles and functions. Distinguished from=
Cued dialogues by the fact that cueing is provided only minimally at the beginning, and
not during the activity.

2. Games: Various kinds of language game activity not like other previously defined activit ies
(e.g., board and dice games making words).

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3. Report: Report of student-prepared exposition on books, experiences, project work,
without immediate stimulus, and elaborated on according to student interests. Akin to
Composition in writing mode.

4. Problem solving: Activity involving specified problem and limitations of means to resolve
it; requires cooperation on part of participants in small or large group.

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5. Drama: Planned dramatic rendition of play, skit, story, etc.

6. Simulation: Activity involving complex interaction between groups and individuals based
on simulation of real-life actions and experiences.

7. Interview: A student is directed to get information from another student or students.

Discussion: Debate or other form of grouped discussion of specified topic, with or without
'specified sides/positions prearranged.

8. Composition: As in Report (verbal), written development of ideas, story, or other exposition.

9. Apropos: Conversation or other socially oriented interaction/speech by teacher, students, or

even visitors, on general real-life topics. Typically authentic and genuine.

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 WEEK 5

TEACHING GRAMMAR

Grammar may be defined as the rules of a language, governing the way in which words are put together
to convey meaning in different contexts. An utterance (in speech) or a sentence (in writing) is
grammatical if it follows the rules of grammar, and ungrammatical, if it doesn’t, For example, the verb
“to be” may be am, is, or are.

Kinds of Knowledge required:

1. Knowledge of Word Order
The students have to learn a number of basic sentence patterns (kernel sentences):
- The position of word classes such as adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and words like only,
please and just within the sentence.

- The different forms in which an idea can be expressed, such as:

a. declarative/ statement
example: Mina is sitting down.
b. interrogative/question
example: Is Minah sitting down?
c. imperative/command
example: Minah, sit down
d. exclamatory/exclamation
example: Minah is sitting down!

- Positive and negative versions

Examples:
Minah is not sitting down.
Isn’t Minah sitting down?
Minah, don’t sit down!
Minah isn’t sitting down!

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2. Knowledge of Grammatical Facts and Rules
Examples:
Knowledge of Grammatical Facts Knowledge of Grammatical Rules
Idiomatic use of preposition that cannot be Inflection of verbs to indicate person, number,
explained through rule but needs to be accepted tense:
and learnt as a whole collocation. eat, eats, has eaten, ate

Saya datang dengan bis. pluralization of nouns: box—boxes

I come by bus.

3. Knowledge of Form and Function

Knowledge Language function Language form
Description We communicate to persuade, to express We use words, phrases,
agreement, thanks, to appreciate, to ask for and give sentences, etc.
information and so on.
Examples To introduce Jenny, meet my friend Lim.
Jenny, this is Lim.

- Expressing pleasure at being out of the cold It is warm in here.

- Indicating that someone should do something, e.g.
switch on the fan or open the windows.
- Just making a remark about the place as a means
of starting up a conversation, etc

4. Knowledge of How to Link Ideas in different Sentences (Sentence-Combining)

Examples:
o compound, He is handsome but his brother is not.
o Complex sentence, The match went on although it was raining.
o Conjunctions—and, or, but
o Logical connector, so, unless, therefore
o Pronouns—I, we, you, they, he, she, it

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5. Knowledge of the Grammar of Spoken and Written Sentences
Examples:
Abbreviations such as I’m, that’ll

6. Knowledge of the Meaning of different Grammatical Options

There is a marked and an unmarked form which carries different meaning.
The following sentences all express the same basic ide that someone (Mary) bought someone else
(Peter) a something (a pen).
- Mary bought a pen for Peter.
- It was Mary who bought Peter a pen.
- A pen is what Mary bought for Peter.
- It was peter for whom Mary bought the pen.

Stages of a Grammar Lesson

A grammar lesson can be divided into three main stages as shown below:
1. Presentation: introduction to new language through spoken or written texts. The techniques used:
flashcards, a highlighter, wall charts, activity in the class, sliding sentence strips, etc.
The teaching-learning strategies:
a. The didactic approach follows this procedure:
- Teacher explains the rule
- Teacher gives several seed sentences to help students grasp the concept and the pattern.
- Students apply the rule in drills.
b. The discovery method follows this procedure:
- Students are given several carefully chosen instances of a grammatical feature.
- Students try to derive the pattern in the given sample for themselves.
- The rule is explicitly stated, either by the students themselves or the teacher
- Further practice is given in applying the rule.
c. The comic story approach follows this procedure:
- The grammar item is first stated and exemplified
- Students use the materials on comic (pictures) to understand the grammar without the
teacher.

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2. Focused Practice: explicit form-based excercises to ensure students can produce new items
accurately. Activities on this stage are:
- Substitution drills
Types of drills Teacher Students Cue words
Simple repetition Rizal calls Mat. Rizal calls Mat.
Simple substitution Rizal calls Mat. Rizal calls Govind. Govind
Multiple substitution Rizal calls Mat. George calls Uma. George Uma
Simple correlations Rizal calls Mat. Janet and Norina call Mat. Janet and Norina
Multiple correlations Rizal hurts himself. We hurt ourselves. we
Transformation Rizal calls Mat. Does Rizal call Mat? question

- Substitution tables
How do I go to the post office?
Where is the railway station?
the art gallery?
the supermarket?
the museum?

- Jazz chants
The teacher sets a rhythm going by clapping or beating the rhythm out on the dest with a stick
and says a few sentences from the substitution table to show the activity will proceed; how
students will be chosen to answer.

- Meaningful drills
The students are asked to use forms they have learnt to say things that are true about themselves.
For example: work in pair
A: Have you been to Paris? B: Yes, I have / No, I haven’t
Creating a frame
Whenever I am hungry, I …….
I seldom ……when I’m angry.

- Blank-filling

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 Example:

Fill in the blanks in the following text using the correct form of the verb in brackets.

Two friends (walk) _____ together in a field when they (see) _____ a bear. One of
them (run) _____ off, (climb) _____ a tree and (hide) _____ in the branches, There
wasn’t room in the small tree for his friend. The friend (know) _____ that he (can not
fight) _____ a bear by himself, and so he (lie) _____ down in the field and (pretend)
_____to be dead.

- Motor activity
Example:
Give commands or get students to give
commands like the following. Others execute
these commands.

Put your hands above your head. Stretch.

Bend down and touch your toes.
Stretch your arms in front of you.
Turn your head slowly to the left, etc.

- Recombining activities
These are to get the students to re-use the sight vocabulary they already have for making new
sentences.
e.g.
The students have known the form I like ….
The teacher gives a cue word, chips.
The students, then, arrange I like chips.

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3. Communicative Practice: meaningful activities to allow students to use new language in
appropriate contexts.
The teaching-learning materials and activities:
a. Problem-solving

Complete this information sheet about an animal you know. Then ask your friend
to say what animal you are describing.
1. It normally eats…..
2. At night it ….
3. It is afraid of ….
4. When it moves it usually…
5. The males are ….than the females.

b. Stories

- Write past tense verbs on the board like this:

lived bought chased met caught stole praised walked saw knocked
(The verbs can be from a story students have heard or read)
- Check students understanding on all the verbs
- Explain unknown ones
- Ask students to write a story based on the verbs
- Ask students to listen friend’s story

c. Songs and Nursery Rhymes

- Sing a song, e.g. “If you’re happy and you know it”
- Listen and do, e.g sing a song “This is the way we brush our teeth”
- Ask and answer comprehension questions based on the song
- Write lyrics by imitation, e.g. sing “When I was a soldier” using the tune of “Mary had a
little lamb”
- Fill in blanks

d. Using personal experience

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 Examples:

Complete these statements as truthfully as Work in pair. Read each sentence. Then state
you can whether it is true or false. Give reasons. Make
1. The first thing I do when I get up in the the false ones by rewriting the sentence. You
morning is …. must all agree with the newly written
2. As soon as I realize another person is sentences.
angry with me, I … 1. All boys should learn to cook.
2. Everyone needs many friends.

e. Games
Examples:
- Twenty questions: one student write a thing, others ask 20 Yes/No questions.
- Drawing: one student draw one by one line. After drawing each line, others guess the
object.

f. Using visuals
Using pictures, maps, diagrams, graphs, tables and charts for providing the contexts.

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g. Poems

To practice adjectives To practice verbs To practice present To teach the imperative

tense verbs
The following poem is Change the fruit Fill the balnk and act Act and rewrite by
about beans. Use the putting in the things
structure of this poem HOW TO EAT A JUMP OR JIGGLE your parents say to
and write a poem of GRAPE you.
your own about Frog ____.
anything, e.g. people, squash, squish Caterpillars hump CHIVY
trees, shoes. crunch Worms wiggle
chew, chew Bugs jiggle. Grown ups say things
Baked beans, trickle Rabbits____. like:
Butter beans, twang, bang Horses clop Speak up
Big fat lima beans, spit Snakes slide Don’t talk with your
Long thin string swallow Seagulls_____. mouth full
beans— choose Mice creep. Don’t stare
those are just a few. squash, squish Deer____. Don’t point
Green beans, crunch Puppies bounce. Don’t pick your nose
Black beans, chew, chew Kittens _____. Sit up
Big fat kidney beans, trickle Lions stalk Say please
Red hot chili beans, twang, But Less noise
Jumping beans too spit I _____. Shut the door behind
Pea beans swallow you
Don’t forget shelly choke Don’t drag your feet
beans. cough, cough Evelyn Beyer Haven’t you got a
Last of all, best of all, hankie?
I like jelly beans. Anonymous
Take your hands out of
Lucia and James your pockets
l.Hynes Pull your socks up
Stand straight
Say thank you
Don’t interrupt

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 No one thinks you are
funny
Take your elbows off
the table.
Can’t you make your
own mind up about
anything?

Michael Rosen

h. Information gap activities

One student has information which another student does not have. So, there is a need to ask
questions and exchange information.

i. Role play
It allows you to bring real-life situations into the classroom.

j. Quizzes, puzzles, riddles

A Quiz

Ask students questions like the following to generate comparative and superlative
structures:
1. What is the longest river in the world?
2. Which is hotter: the Atacama Desert or the Sahara Desert?

23
 A riddle: What am I?

You use me to make a pot of tea.

You put cold water in me.
I get very hot when I am turned on.
What am I?

k. Editing and reformulation

Ask students to find errors on texts.

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 WEEK 6

TEACHING VOCABULARY

In looking at words as the basic tools of language, we can categorize them into two main groups:
1. Content words
- These are words with a specific meaning, e.g. girls, chair.
- They may refer to a person (teacher), a thing (pencil), an action (skipping), a quality (sweet), or
a state (unhappy).
- These include mainly nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

2. Function words
- Though they have little meaning, they show grammatical relationships in and between
sentences, such as the, but, and over.

Words and meanings:

1. Denotations
e.g. house—a building made for people to live in.

2. Connotations
- A word can have certain emotional or attitudinal overtones.
e.g. plan (a positive connotation) and scheme (a negative connotation) bring the meaning of
making arrangement in advance.

- A word bring affective meaning depending on the speaker’s situation and experience.
e.g. sea would associate with vast, calm, unpredictable, threatening.

- A word could involve the socio-cultural associations.

e.g. red may have connotations of prosperity and good luck for a Chinese speaker, while to
another speaker, it may a signal of danger, aggression or anger.

25
3. Polysemy
One word has two or more meanings.
Example:
Mouth could refer to:
- Cave, the mouth of a cave
- The opening through which we take in our food
- The place where a river joins the sea

4. Homonymy
When words are written in the same way and sound alike but have different meanings.
Examples:
He hasn’t been well since he fell down the well.
Why was Cinderella a bad football player? She ran away from the ball.

5. Homophones
Words that sound alike but are not spelt alike.
Example:
Blue and blew

6. Homographs
Words may also be written the same way but are pronounced differently.
Examples:
She had a red bow on her dress.
You must bow before the king.

Sense Relations
1. Synonyms
Example: happy – pleased

2. Antonyms
Example: good – bad

26
3. Hyponym
Example:
Superordinate furniture vehicle
Hyponyms bed, chair, table, cupboard car, bus, truck, ship, boat, plane, bicycle

Other types of Relations

1. Part-whole relations
Example: pedal, wheels, brakes are parts of a bicycle.

2. Systems
Some words are related to other words because they all belong to the same system.
Examples:
Morning, afternoon, evening, and night are parts of a day.
Spring, summer, autumn, and winter belong to the category of seasons.

3. Items associated with a word

Techniques and activities for Teaching Vocabulary

1. Visual techniques
These include:
- blackboard drawings - photographs - maps - signs
- wall charts - flashcards - mime - facial expressions
- real objects - realia gestures

27
Activity types:
a. Word picture association

b. Using diagrams

28
2. Verbal techniques
Techniques:
a. Use of synonyms and definition

29
b. Use of antonyms and contrasts
Direction: choose the matching antonym from the words in the box

c. Use of context

30
d. Word part clues
Direction: group the part of speech, then write the meaning.

e. Vocabulary groups

31
Activities:
a. Rhyme games

b. Word building

32
c. Word classification

33
34
 d. Text-based activities

3. The use of dictionary

English teacher use dictionaries commonly for showing:
- the meaning or words,
- the meaning of phrases
- part of speech
- how to pronounce words
- word formation

4. Translation
Teacher may provide English text and ask students to translate, or in vice versa.

35
 WEEK 7

TEACHING PRONUNCIATION

The Speech Organs

The English sounds

There are basically three aspects in pronunciation presented diagrammatically as follows:

36
37
Stress

1. Word stress
- Primary stress
- Secondary stress
- Unstresses syllable

2. Sentence stress
a. Mark and unmarked stress
Some ways of saying things are more natural and frequent (unmarked) than other ways of saying
which are less frequent and perhaps more deliberate (marked)

38
 b. Stress-time Rhythm

Intonation

39
Activities for Teaching Pronunciation

1. Sounds
a. Practicing animal sounds
Examples:
The cow says ‘moo’.
The chick says ‘cheep-cheep’.

b. Practicing pairs of words

Examples:
pit – peat bun – barn bid – bead sit – seat
hut – heart cut – cart

log – fog rice – lice lay – ray day – lay

2. Limericks and tongue twisters

3. Stress practice

40
 WEEK 9
TEACHING LISTENING

Approaches in teaching listening

1. Auditory discrimination

2. Comprehension skills
A comprehensive taxonomy of aural skills proposed by Jack Richard (1983) involves in
conversational discourse. This is useful in designing listening material and exercises for the
students.

41
Here is the microskills of listening comprehension adapted from Richard (1983)
1. Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
2. Discriminate among the distinctive sounds of English.
3. Recognize English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstresses positions, rhythmic
structure, intonational contours, and their role in signaling information.
4. Recognizing reduced forms of words.
5. Distinguish word boundaries, recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and
their significance.
6. Process speech at different rates of delivery.
7. Process speech containing pauses, errors, corrections, and other performance variables.
8. Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc), systems (e.g., tense, agreement,,
pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
9. Detect sentence constituents and dictinguish between major and minor constituents.
10. Recognize that a particular meaning may be expresses in different grammatical forms.
11. Recognize cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
12. Recognize the communicative functions of utterances, according to situations, participants,
goals.
13. Infer situations, participants, goals using real-world knowledge
14. From events, ideas, etc., described, predict outcomes, infer links and connections between
events, deduce causes and effects, and detect such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new
information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
15. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
16. Use facial, kinesic, body language, and other nonverbal clues to decipher meanings.
17. Develop and use a battery of listening strategies, such as detecting key words, guessing the
meaning of words from context, appeal for help, and signaling comprehension or lack thereof.

42
Teaching-Learning Strategies
1. Beginners
a. Length of input
Do not give more than one to three minutes worth of listening materials to process at any one
time.

b. Type of input
- Use teacher-made material with the following features: short basic sentences, clear
pronunciation, small stock of words, no background noise.
- Select words/ideas/events that can be visually supported, e.g. chalk, chair, stand up.
- Use a short story with visual support such as pictures, gestures, facial expressions, and
dramatization.
- Focus on specific aspects of listening, e.g. minimal pairs, distinguishing between questions
and statements, intonation patterns.

c. Speed of delivery
Do not slow down your speech too much

d. Outcome of listening
Do not expect full comprehension.

2. Intermediate Learners
a. Lenght of input
5 to 10 minutes each time
b. Type of Input
- Two-way communications with more than one speakers.
- Introducing English varieties, e.g. American and British English
- Authentic or semi-scripted materials
- Providing a lot of redundancy for authentic materials
- Providing edited material version before the authentic version
- Introducing more difficult sub skills, e. g. marked and unmarked stress
- Setting the listening comprehension on discource level

43
3. Advanced Learners
- Using a variety of authentic texts
- Task-oriented listening
- Developing macro skills
- Introducing more varieties in English, e.g. Australian English, African English, Indian
English, Filipino English.

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46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Types of Classroom Listening Performance

Sometimes, these are embedded in a brader technique or task, and sometimes they are the sum of the
activity of a technique.
1. Reactive
Students only listen to the surface structure of an utterance for repeating it back to you.
Example: a brief choral or individual drills that focus on pronunciation.

2. Intensive
It focuses on components such as phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc.
Examples:
- Students listen for cues in certain choral or individual drills.
- The teacher repeats a word or sentence several times to “imprint” it in the students’ mind
- The teacher asks students to listen to a sentence or a longer stretch of discourse and to notice a
specified element, such as intonation, stress, a contraction, a grammatical structure, etc.

3. Responsive
The students respond the teacher’s talk.
Examples:
- Asking questions: How are you today? What dis you do last night?
- Giving commands: Take a sheet of paper and a pencil.
- Seeking clarification; What was that word you said?
- Checking comprehension: So, how many people were in the elevator when the power went out?

4. Selective
It is to scan certain information from longer listening discourse.
Examples of such discourse:
- Speeches
- Media broadcasts
- Stories and anecdotes
- Conversations

53
 Techniques promoting selective listening skills could ask students to listen for:
- People’s names
- Dates
- Certain facts or events
- Location, situation, context, etc.
- Main ideas and/or conclusion

5. Extensive
This covers listening to lengthy lectures to a conversation for gaining comprehensive message or
purpose. It requires other interactive skills such as note-taking and/or discussion for full
comprehension.

6. Interactive
This is the combination of type 1-5 which is commonly integrated with speaking skills in the
authentic give and take.
Examples: discussions, debates, conversations, role-plays, pair/group works

54
Techniques for Teaching Listening Comprehension adapted from Peterson (1991:115-121)

For Beginning-level Listeners

Botton-Up Exercises
Goals Instructions
Discriminating between intonation Listen to a sequence of sentence patterns with either rising or falling
contours in sentence intonation.
Place a check in column 1 (rising) or column 2 (falling), depending on the
pattern you hear.

Discriminating between phonemes Listen to pairs of words. Some pairs differ in their final consonant, and
some pairs are the same. Circle the word “same” or “different,” depending
on what you hear.

Selective listening for Listen to a series of sentences. Circle “yes” if the verb has an –ed ending,
Morphological Endings and circle “no” if it does not. Listen to a series of sentence. On your
answer sheet, circle the one (of three) verb forms contained in the sentence
that you hear.

Selective details from the text Match a word that you hear with its picture
(word recognition) Listen to a weather report.
Look at a list of words and circle the words that you hear.
Listen to a sentence that contains clock time. Circle the clock time that you
hear, among three choices (5:30, 5;45, 6;15)
Listen to an advertisement, select the price of an item, and write the
amount on a price tag.
Listen to a seris of recorded telephone messages from an answering
machine. Fill in a chart with the following information from each caller:
name, number, time, and message.

Listening for Normal Sentence Listen to a short dialogue and fill in the missing words that have been
Word Order deleted in a partial transcript.

55
Top-down exercises
Goal Instructions
Discriminating between emotional Listen to sequence of utterances.
reactions Place a check in the column that decribes the emotional reaction that you
hear: interested, happy, surpriced, or unhappy.

Getting the gist of a sentence Listen to a sentence describing a picture and select the correct picture.

Recognize the topic Listen to a dialogue and decide where the conversation occurred.
Circle the correct location among three multiple-choice items
Listen to a conversation and look at the pictured greeting cards.
Decide which of the greeting cards was sent. Write the greeting under the
appropriate cars.
Listen to a conversation and decide what the people are talking about.
Choose the picture that shows the topic.

Interactive Exercises
Goal Instructions
Build a semantic network of word Listen to a word and associate all the related words that come to mind
associations
Recognize a familiar word and relate Listen to words from a shopping list and match each word to the store
it to a category that sells it
Following directions Listen to a description of a route and trace it on a map.

56
FOR INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL LISTENERS
Bottom-Up Exercises
Goal Instructions
Recognizing fast speech forms Listen to a series of sentences that contain unstresses function
words. Circle your choice among three words on the answer sheet –
for example: up, a, of
Finding the stresses syllable Listen to words of two (or three) syllables. Mark them for word
stress and predict the pronunciation of the unstressed syllable
Recognizing words with Read a list of polysyllabic words and predict which syllabic vowel
reduced syllables will be dropped. Listen to the words read in fast speech and confirm
your prediction.
Recognize words as they are Listen to a series of short sentences with consonant/vowal linking
linked in the speech stream between words. Mark the linkages on your answer sheet.
Recognizing pertinent details in Listen to a short dialogue between a boss and a secretary regarding
the speech stream changes in the daily schedule. Use an appointment calendar. Cross
out appointments that are being changes anf write in new ones.
Listen to announcements of airline arrivals and departures. With a
model of an ariline information board in front of you, fill in the
flight numbers, destinations, gate numbers, and departure times.
Listen to a series of short dialogues after reading questions that
apply to the dialogues. While listening, find the answers to questions
about prices, places, names, and numbers. Example: Where are the
shoppers? How much is whole bread?
Listen to a short telephone conversation between a customer and a
service station manager. Fill in a chart which lists the car repairs that
must be done. Check the part of the car that needs repair, the reason,
and the approximate cost.

Top-down exercises
Goal Instructions
Analyze discourse structure to Listen to six radio commercials with attention to the use of music,
suggest effective listening repetition of key words, and number of speakers. Talk about the
strategies effect these techniques have on the listeners.
listen to identify the speaker or Listen to a series of radio commercials. On your answer sheet,
the topic choose among four types of sponsors or products and identify the
picture that goes with the commercial.
Listen to evaluate themes and Listen to a series of radio commercials. On your answer sheet are
motives four possible motives that the companies use to appeal to their
customers. Circle all the motives that you feel each commercial
promotes: escape from reality, family security, snob appeal, sex
appeal.
Finding main ideas and Listen to a short conversation between two friends. On your answer
supporting details sheet are scenes from television program. Find and write the name
of the program and the channel. Decide which speaker watched
which program.
Making inferences Listen to a series of sentences, which may be either statements or

57
 questions. After each sentence, answer inferential questions such as
Where might the speaker be? How might the speaker be feeling?
What might the speaker be referring to?
Listen to a series of sentences. After each sentence, suggest a
possible context for the sentence (place, situation, time,
participants).

Interactive Excersices
Goal Instructions
Discriminating between Listen to a series of sentences. On your answer sheet, mark whether
registers of speech and tones of the sentence is polite or impolite
voice
Recognize missing grammar Listen to a series of short questions in which the auxiliary verb and
markers in colloquial speech subject have been deleted. Use grammatical knowledge to fill in the
missing words: (Have you) got some extra?
Listen to a series of questions with reduced verb auxiliary and
subject and identify the missing verb (does it/is it) by checking the
form of the main verb. Example: Zit come with anything else? Zit
arriving on time?
Use knowledge of reduced Listen to a short sentence containing a reduced form. Decide what
forms to clarify the meaning of the sentence means. On your answer sheet, choose the one (of three)
an utterance alternatives that is the best paraphrase of the sentence your heard.
Example: You hear You can’t be happy with that. You read:
a. Why can’t you be happy?
b. Thah will you happy
c. I don’t think you are happy
Use context to build listening Read a short want-ad describing job qualifications from the
expectations employment section of a newspaper. Barainstorm additional
qualifications that would be important for that type of job
Listen to confirm your Listen to short radion advertisements for jobs that are available.
expectations Check the job qualifications against your expectations.
Use context to build Read some telephobe messages with missing words. Decide what
expectations. Use Botton-Up kinds of information are missing so you know what to listen for.
Processing to recognize missing Listen to the information and fill in the blanks. Finally, discuss with
words. Compare your the class what strategies you used for your predictions.
predictions to what you actually
heard
Use incomplete sensory data Listen to one of a telephone conversation. Decide what the topic of
and cultural background the conversation might be and create a little for it
information to construct a more Listen to the beginning of a conversation between two people and
complete unsderstanding of a answer questions about the nuber of participants, their ages, gender,
text and social roles.Guess the time of day, location, temperature, season,
and topic. Choose among some statements to guess what might
come next.

58
FOR ADVANCED LEVEL LEARNERS
Bottom-Up Exercises
Goal Instructions
Use features of sentence stress and Listen to a number of sentences and extract the content words,
volume to identify important which are read with greater stress. Write the content words as
information for note-taking notes
Become aware of sentence-level Listen to a segment of a lecture while reading a transcript of the
features in lecture text material. Notice the incomplete sentences, pauses, and verbal
fillers
Become aware of arganizational Look at a lecture transcript and circle all the cue words and
cues in lecture text enumerate the main points. Then listen to the lecture segment and
note the organizational cues
Become aware of lexical and Read a list of lexical cues that signal a definition; listen to signals
suprasegmental markers for of the speaker’s intent, such as rhetorical questions; listen to
definitions special intonation patterns and pause patterns used with
appositives
Listen a short lecture segments that contain new terms and their
definitions in context. Use knowledge of lexical and intentional
cues to identify the definition of the word.
Identify specific points of Read a skeleton outline of a lecture in which the main categories
information are given but the specific examples are left blank. Listen to the
lecture and find the information that belongs in the blanks

Top-down exercises
Goal Instructions
Use the introduction to the lecture Listen to the introductory section of a lecture. Then read a
to predict its focus and direction number of topics on your answer sheet and choose the topic that
best expresses what the lecture will discuss.
Use the lecture transcript to predict Read a section of a lecture transcript. Stop reading at a juncture
the content of the next section point and predict what will come next. Then read on to confirm
your prediction
Find the main idea of a lecture Listen to a section of a lecture that decribes a statistical trend.
segment While you listen, look at three graphs that show a change over
time and select the graph that best illustrates the lecture.

Interactive exercises
Goal Instructions
Use incoming details to determine Listen to the introductory sentences to predict some of the main
the accuracy of prediction about ideas you expect to hear in the lecture. Then listen to the lecture.
content Note whether or not the instructor talks about the points you
predicted. If she/he does, note a detail about the point.
Determine the main ideas of a Listen to a section of a lecture and take notes on the important
section of a lecture by analysis of the details. Then relate the details to form an understanding of the
details in that section main point of that section. Choose from a list of possible
controlling ideas.
Make inferences by identifying ideas Listen to a statement and take notes on the important words.
on the sentence level that lead to Indicate what further meaning can be inferred from the

59
evaluative statements statement. Indicate the words in the original statement. Indicate
the words in the original statement that serve to cue the
inference
Use knowledge of the text and the Listen to a lecture for its gist. Then listen to a statement from
lecture content to fill in missing which words have been omitted. Using your knowledge of the
information text and of the general content, fill in the missing information.
Check your understanding by listening to the entire segment.
Use knowledge of the text and the Listen to a lecture segment that contains an incorrect term.
lecture content to discover the Write the incorrect term and the term that the lecturer should
lecturer’s misstatements and to have used. Finally, indicate what clues helped you find the
supply the ideas that he meant to say misstatement.

60
 WEEK 10
TEACHING SPEAKING

The Functions of Oral Language

1. Transactional function / Information Routines

This function focusses on conveying information, or message-oriented.

2. Interactional function / Interaction Routines

- Starting a conversation: greetings, expressions of delight/surprise at meeting
- Giving appropriate response
- Introducing a new topic
- Developing the topic
- Switching to a new topic
- Turn-taking
- Ending the conversation

61
Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
1. Imitative
e.g. drilling.
- keep drills short ( a few minutes of a class hour only)
- keep them simple (preferably just one point at a time)
- keep them snappy
- make sure students know why they are doing the drill
- limit them to phonology or grammar points.
- Make sure they ultimately lead to communicative goals.
- Don’t overuse them.
2. Intensive
- One step beyond imitative
- Practice certain forms of language
3. Responsive
- It is short replies to teacher-, or student-initiated questions or comments.
- Do not extend into dialogue
- Examples:
T: How are you today?
S: Pretty good, thanks, and you?
4. Transactional (dialogue)
- It is more than a responsive as it develops into dialogue.The conversations can be between
teacher and student as well as among students in a group discussion.
- Example:
T: what is the main idea in this essay?
S: The United Nations should have more authority.
T: More authority than what?
S: Than it does right now.
T: What do you mean?
S: Well, for example, the UN should have the power to force a country like Iraq to destroy its
nuclear weapons.
T: You don’t think the UN has that power now?
S: Obviously not. Iraq is still manufacturing nuclear bombs.

62
5. Interpersonal (dialogue)
- It is carried out more for the purpose of maintaining social relationships than for transferring
information.
- Leaners sometimes need to consider several factors such as:
o A casual register
o Colloquial language
o Emotionally charged language
o Slang
o Ellipsis
o Sarcasm
o A covert “agenda”
Example:
Amy: Hi, Bob, how’s it going?
Bob: Oh, so-so
Amy: Not a great weekend, huh?
Bob: Well, far be it from me to criticize, but I’m pretty miffed about last week.
Amy: What are you talking about?
Bob: I think you know perfectly well what I’m talking about.
Amy: Oh, that…How come you get so bent out of shape over something like that?
Bob: Well, whose fault was it, huh?
Amy: Oh, wow, this is great. Wonderful. Back to square one. For crying out loud, Bob, I
thought we’d settled this before. Well, what more can I say?

6. Extensive (monologue)
- At intermediate to advanced level
- Extended monologues such as oral reports, summaries, or speech.
- The register is more formal
- The monologues can be planned or impromptu.

63
Microskills of oral communication adapted from Richards (1983)
1. Produce chunks of language of different lengths.
2. Orally produce differences among the English phonemes and allophonic variants.
3. Produce English stress patterns, words in stresses and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and
intonational contours.
4. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.
5. Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) in order to accomplish pragmatic purposes.
6. Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.
7. Monitor your own oral production and use various strategic devices—pauses, fillers, self-
corrections, backtracking—to enhance the clarity of the message.
8. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization),
word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
9. Produce speech in natural constituents—in appropriate phrases, pause groups, breath groups, and
sentences.
10. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
11. Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
12. Accomplish appropriately communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals.
13. Use appropriate registers, implicature, pragmatic conventions, and other sociolinguistic features in
face-to-face conversations.
14. Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as mainidea,
supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
15. Use facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language
to convey meaning.
16. Develop and use battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing,
providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately
assessing how well your interlocutor is understanding you.

64
The role of speaking in language learning

Ask yourself, what is the role of interactive speaking in my lessons? What do I want my students to be
able to do in interactive speaking activities?
You may well come up with a list which includes the following goals for your students:

1. Participation
Most of your students will participate in your English lessons if you select activities which involve
them. However, a word of warning: some students may resist your efforts to involve them. They may
be used to drills, which do not require much thought beyond a mechanical manipulation of the
language, and they may be suspicious of your efforts to change their level of involvement. But there are
ways of loosening up your students. To do so you need to make your classes fun, but also to underline
the benefits of your approach. Introduce interactive speaking activities with issues and topics which are
personal, but also light -hearted. It takes time to build up trust in a classroom. Start out with activities
like the following one called "The Route to School," which is suitable for beginning level classes.
a. Bring to class a large map of the city, town, or village in which you are teaching. Pin the map to
the wall.
b. Ask a student what time she started her trip to school and what time she arrived. Ask her to
trace her route on the map.
c. On the black board construct a chart with columns in which to record starting point and time,
route, arrival time at school, and total time of the journey. Fill in the relevant information given
to you by your student. Your chart will look like this:
Starting point Starting Route Time Arrival Time Total Time
Past market, left by shops, up hill
Kwala market 7:00 to 7:20
School

d. Divide your class into groups of five to seven. Ask each group to produce a chart with
information from the group on the route to school.
e. Ask each group to draw a map and to indicate on the map the route to school taken by each one
of the group members.

65
2. Interaction
Interaction can be stimulated if you give your students the opportunity to talk to each other about what
is important to them. As you know, if you are working with adolescents, the teen years are often
marked by an unevenness of mood, by dramatic swings in energy levels, by immense physical and
mental changes. One way of helping adolescents to cope is to create opportunities for them to speak out
and to be heard. The following activity is simple but therapeutic. It requires from your students a
willingness to share a little of themselves and gives them the opportunity to think about the values
which guide their lives.
a. Ask your students to bring to class three objects which are significant or important to them. (For
example, a religious object, a stone from a significant place, a photo, a letter, an article of
clothing worn on a special occasion.)
b. Divide the class into groups of four, and ask them to take turns in explaining to the group the
significance or importance of the objects each one has brought.
c. With the class as a whole, list on the board the names of the objects brought to the class. If you
have objects of your own, add them to the list, too. Then ask students if they would like to ask
other students about the significance or importance of the object they brought. If several
students have brought the same object ask them to talk about the object, to see if they had
different reasons for bringing the same item to class.

[Adapted from Patricia A. Richard-Amato. Making It Happen. Longman Inc., 1988.]

This exercise has been presented as a class activity for adolescents, but clearly it could be adapted
and used in a tutorial situation with an adult as well.

3. Fluency
In the communicative approach, fluency takes some priority over accuracy. Basically, being fluent
means being able to keep the language coming. There may be mistakes, fillers and repetitions, but there
are no unusually long pauses in the flow of talk. In interactive speaking activities you are trying to get
your students to communicate their own ideas, opinions and wishes. They are fully aware of the
meaning they wish to convey, but the exact content of their message is unpredictable, and you, the
teacher, cannot give them the exact language they need to communicate. As a result your students will
not always be accurate in their use of the language, but this is not important, so long as the speakers are
able to be understood. This emphasis on fluency implies two things.

66
First, your error correction policy should reflect this emphasis. Particularly in speaking, it is important
that you should encourage the risk takers. This is often a simple process of listening to what is said and
giving feedback on the message, rather than interrupting to correct pronunciation or grammar. This is
not to say that errors should not be corrected, but interactive speaking activities is not the place to do
so. You should, however, keep notes of persistent problems and set aside time to deal with them later.
Second, the activities you present should promote fluency. You want to find ways of stimulating your
students so that they want to speak, and this wanting to speak overcomes their inhibitions about
expressing themselves in English.
"Famous Personalities" is an activity that can be adapted to beginning, intermediate, or advanced
levels. It requires your students to have opinions and wishes and to express them. The steps in the
activity are as follows:
a. Write on the board a list of 20-30 personalities. Ask students to select from the list six people they
would like to invite to give a talk. Students write their choices in order on a piece of paper. All the
papers are collected.
b. Go through the papers and mark on the board the number of "invitations" each personality on the
list has received. Make a final list of the six people the class would like to invite. During this
process, call on students to explain their choices.
c. Rank the six invitees, again calling on students to explain their reasons for the ranking.
d. You could also add the step of dividing the class into groups to come up with questions they would
like to ask their invitees. If you are teaching advanced students, you could then ask them to choose
personalities from the list and to role play these personalities by answering the questions prepared
by the rest of the class.

[Adapted from Friederike Klippel. Keep Talking. Cambridge University Press, 1984.]
Note: The list of names you give to the students is obviously dependent on the cultural background and
age group of your students. It will be up to you to draw up a list of personalities your students really
would like to talk to.

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4. Confidence
A common comment from people learning a foreign language is "l hate making a fool of myself." Your
own language learning experiences in pre-service training probably brought the same thought home to
you. You feel foolish because you are not in control, the way you are in your native language, and are
reduced to a level of needy dependence which can be hard to tolerate. How can you reduce some of
your students' fear of looking foolish and build up their confidence and pleasure in using English? How
can you give them the confidence to start taking control of themselves as speakers of English?
A very practical way of putting these two principles into practice is though storytelling, role play and
drama. The comprehensible input comes from you, telling a story for instance. And while not
pressuring your students, especially your beginners, to speak before they are ready, you can still build
in an escalating degree of involvement. Look, for example, at the degree of student involvement
generated in this "Sound Effects" activity, suitable for low intermediate students.
o Make sure that your students are sitting comfortably. Then tell a story like the one below. (You may
want to make up your own story and add details to it which will be familiar to your students.)
Mohammed's parents had to go to the city for the day, so they left him in charge of his sister
Amal and his two young brothers Naceur and Sabri. When it got dark the children sat around the
fire (a) and waited for their parents to return.
The wind began to blow (b) and it started to rain. (c) They heard a scratching (d) noise at the
door. The children gasped (e) and moved closer together. Maybe it's a lion (f). Maybe it's a snake
(g). Maybe it's a wild dog (h). Mohammed could see that his sister and brother were scared. He
switched on the radio to drown the scratching noise. The radio was playing a song (i). He turned
the radio up loud (j). He turned it down low (k). But the scratching noise continued. Mohammed
went to the door (l) and opened it (m).
There were the family chickens which Mohammed had forgotten to shut in the chicken coop for
the night.
The children sighed (n) with relief and helped Mohammed put the chickens in the coop.
Use as much drama and as many pictures on the board as is necessary to make sure that
everyone understands.

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o Tell the story a second time, this time adding in sound effects where indicated by a number in the
text. Get your students to help to create the noises:

a. scrunch a large sheet of newspaper

b. make hooing noises
c. pat the desk with your fingers
d. scratch the desk with your fingernails
e. gasp
f. make a roaring noise
g. make a hissing noise
h. bark
i. sing a song
j. sing loudly
k. sing softly
l. stamp feet
m. make a creaking noise
n. sigh

o Tell the story a third time. This time leave the sound effects up to the class.
o Divide students into groups and ask them to mime the story and to use sound effects. If they are
ready for it, individuals from each group can tell the story while the rest of group mimes.
o As groups become more proficient, they can organize the telling of their own stories complete with
sound effects.

[Adapted from Patricia A. Richard-Amato. Making It Happen. Longman Inc., 1988.]

Second language students can easily become absorbed in the dramatic playing out of their own
experiences or experiences they can identify with. Through this playing out, they forget the self-
consciousness which inhibits their learning and can build their self-confidence.

Role plays can be another way of building confidence, particularly if you focus on problem solving
situations where students have to define their own roles and use their judgment to determine a

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course of action. This kind of role play is referred to as sociodrama. The enactment is open ended
and centers around a clearly stated conflict which is relevant to the students. The steps are as
follows:
1. Introduce the topic of your sociodrama; present the new vocabulary and structures you think
will be helpful to your students' comprehension and ability to participate in the role play. Read a
story which identifies a problem, stopping the story at the climax.
2. Discuss the problem with your students. Select the students who demonstrate a special interest
in particular roles to play those parts. Prepare the ether students to listen to the role play and to
offer advice.
3. Ask the selected students to act out the rest of the story. Then discuss reactions with the
audience. If plausible alternatives for dealing with the same problems are offered, replay the
same drama using the newly suggested strategies.

Here are sample suggestions for sociodramas:

1. Maria comes home from school all excited. She has been offered a scholarship to go to
university. She tells her mother, who is upset.
"You know that I am relying on you to get a job and help with your brothers' school fees."
"But Mother, this is the chance of a lifetime."
"But we are too poor. And we need money now. And besides you are
a girl. You will get married and then the money you earn will go to
your husband." "Oh mother ...."

2. Nduku has a close friend Rubadiri. They come from the same village. They were at the same
primary school together and they are now at secondary school together. Nduku is doing very
well, but his friend Rubadiri is having trouble keeping up, especially with the math. Rubadiri
expects Nduku to coach him or even to do his homework for him, but Nduku is finding that this
is taking so much time his own work is suffering. He is becoming angry with his friend. What
should he do?

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5. Communication strategies
Your students should be aware of the need to develop two major communication strategies: active
listening and managing a conversation.
Active listening is a good strategy for those students who shy away from speaking. And being a good
listener in English conversations will build the confidence necessary to taking a more active role in
communication. Good listeners use phrases which encourage the speaker, such as:
"Uh - huh."
"Yes."
"Of course."
"Is that so?"

List these phrases for your students, and give them opportunity to practice them, along with the
correct body language-the smile, the nodding of the head, the eye contact. If your students have
contact with native speakers of English, encourage them to observe these listening strategies and to
mimic the body language when speaking English.

As good non-native listeners of English, your students will also need the phrases necessary to ask a
speaker for help, repetition, or slower speech. Phrases such as the following will help:

"I'm sorry, what was that again?"

"Would you repeat that please?"

"Did you say _________?”
"Could you speak more slowly please?"

Practice in the communication strategies for managing a conversation should be woven throughout
your lessons. Every one uses these strategies when speaking. Your task will be to make your
students conscious of these strategies and of how much they use them in their native language, and
then to help them use these strategies when speaking English.

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There are many basic communication strategies, some of which are described below.
a. Choose the topic of conversation. Where possible, encourage your students to take the initiative
and select the topic of conversation. By using this general strategy your students will be more in
control, and in talking about a familiar topic, can feel more confident.
b. Paraphrase. Encourage students to use words they do know to replace words they do not.
c. Borrow. Borrowing or inventing words from any language in the place of unknown English
words and adjusting the form or pronunciation is a particularly useful strategy for students who
can borrow from their knowledge of Spanish or French.
d. Gesture. Using gestures to get meaning across is a simple but most effective strategy.
e. Ask for feedback. This can be done directly: "How do you say ___?" or "What does ___ mean?"
Or it can be done indirectly by constantly watching the other person's reactions, or speaking
with a rising, questioning intonation to check that what was said was understood.
f. Ask for slower speech. It is often helpful to get native speakers to slow down. Saying "Could
you say that again, slowly?" will help.
g. Reduce. Simplifying, changing, or even abandoning those parts of speech which are too difficult
to handle is an important skill, especially for a beginner. The longer the sentence, the more
complicated the message, and the greater the danger of not being understood. Some of your
students may come from cultures which place a high value on ornate, complicated expression.
Your students need to know that this is not the case in English. In English a high value is placed
on clear, straightforward expression and simplicity of speech.

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Overcoming obstacles to implementing spoken communicative activities
1. Restriction of the classroom
Traditional classroom seating arrangements often work against you in your interactive teaching of
English. The flexibility of the seating arrangements would be a good point to bring up with your school
director or head of department when you make a site visit. It is sometimes easier to bring about changes
at the beginning of your teaching when your director may not know what to expect from an American
teacher and is willing to accommodate, particularly on small items such as classroom arrangements.
However, if you share a classroom with other teachers you must consider their needs and find a seating
plan which is acceptable to them, or which requires a minimum of rearrangement. You are aiming for a
situation in your English lessons which permits all students to see each other's faces, you, the teacher,
and the blackboard. You also want a situation which permits easy transition between whole class,
group, and pair work and provides space for you and your students to move between desks for activities
such as role plays etc.
Seating plans:
a. Seating Plan A shows a traditional layout which would not need to be rearranged between classes.
b. Seating Plan B shows a horseshoe. It allows more eye contact between speakers in whole class
practice, and more central space for role plays.
c. Seating Plan C shows a group layout. This plan allows for easy movement between groups and
good eye contact between listeners and speakers in whole-group work, and it needs no
rearrangement for small-group work.

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2. Limited practice time
Your goal is to give your students as much opportunity as possible to talk. This means group work.
With practice and encouragement from you, your students will quickly become accustomed to moving
to groups during your lessons. And you will probably find that the physical movement of breaking into
groups is a refreshing change for you as well. Here are a variety of ways in which you can organize
your groups:
a. Buzz groups
Your students break into small groups, maybe by just turning around, to quickly discuss a problem
for a few minutes before reporting their views or opinions to the whole class. By using these buzz
groups regularly, you can build up a cooperative spirit in your classroom and generate more
involvement. For example, if you are correcting a homework exercise in class and someone has
answered incorrectly, instead of just asking "Does anyone know the correct answer?" ask the buzz
groups to come up with an answer. Your students probably talk among themselves anyway during
lessons. By developing a buzz group system you are channelling their energies and creatively
controlling the underlying chat which is a feature of almost all classrooms.

b. Panels
Selected students sit on a panel at the front of the class and are questioned by the "audience" made
up of the rest of the class. These panels can be a good platform for the more advanced students to
show off their skills. And if you ask the class to center the questions around, for instance, a book
which the whole class is reading, the less advanced students will benefit from hearing the better
students talk about characters or plot development.

c. Fishbowl
All members of the class sit in a trig circle. In the middle of the circle are five chairs occupied by
students discussing a topic you have given them. Students from the outer circle listen to the debate
and may replace speakers in the inner circle by tapping them on the shoulder if they feel confident
they can present the case better. "A Quote to Live By" is an activity which works well with fishbowl
groups.
Have your students chose a favorite quotation, or proverb, such as "Let sleeping dogs lie," or "If
you love something, you must set it free." Ask the inner circle to begin the discussion on
accepting or rejecting these quotes as a rule for living. You may need to prepare for this activity

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 by researching a little on local proverbs or quotations which could be stimulating discussion
points.

d. Network
The class is divided into groups which should not have more than ten students each. Each group
receives a ball of string. Whoever is talking on the topic holds the ball of string. When the speaker
has finished he or she passes the ball on to the next speaker, but holds on to the string. In this way a
web of string develops, showing who talked the most, and who the least. A word of warning: in
teaching speaking skills you are focusing on the outgoing, extroverted students. If at the end of a
network session you see that a few students are dominating discussions, you may need to step in and
facilitate making sure that the quieter students are not being constantly interrupted by their more
talkative classmates.

e. Onion
The class is divided into two equal groups. As many chairs as there are students are arranged in a
double circle, with the chairs in the outer circle facing inward and the chairs in the inner circle facing
outward. Thus each member of the inner circle sits facing a student in the outer circle. After a few
moments of discussion all students in the outer circle move on one chair and now have a new partner
to continue with. If moving from chair to chair seems too cumbersome, the Onion group can be
formed without chairs. Students can sit on mats on the floor, or if there is not enough space inside,
then move everyone outside. Here are some suggestions for discussion topics you can use with onion
groups:
What has been your best year in school? Why?

If you could choose any country in the world to live in, which one
would you choose? Why? Describe what you would like to learn to
do well. What is the nicest thing anyone ever did for you?

Do you have any advice you think it would be good for me to hear?
f. Star
Four to six groups try to find a common view or solution. First, select a topic for discussion, such as,
"How would you change this school if you could?" Each group discusses the topic then elects a
speaker who remains in the group but enters into discussion with the speakers of other groups. The

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 rest of the class listens to the exchange. These star groups are particularly helpful if you are dealing
with multilevel classes, since they give all of your students the chance to participate at levels
appropriate to their English language skills.

g. Market
All students walk around the room talking to each other. An activity which works well for market
groups is "Opinion Poll." For this you need to prepare cards for each student, like the ones shown in
Figure 3. 2. Students should each have their own card, but you can prepare the same set of cards for
groups of five to seven students. When students have finished their poll taking they can work in
groups to write up the information they have gathered.

h. Opinion Vote
Each student receives voting cards with values from 1 to 5 (5 = to agree completely, 1 = to disagree
completely). After the issue, which needs to be phrased as a positive statement, has been discussed
for a while, each student votes, and the distribution of different opinions in the class can be seen at a
glance. Suggestions for issue statements are:
Opinion poll
FOOD
Breakfast
You have to find out what the other people in your class usually have for breakfast.
Each of you prepares an interview card which could look like this:
Name food? drink?
Lisa cornflakes milk

FOOD
Drinks
You have to find out which drinks the people in your class like and dislike.
Each of you prepares an interview card which could look like this:
Name likes? dislikes?
Tina milk, tea, water orange juice
FOOD
Eating out

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You have to find out whether the other people in your class ever eat out and if so where they go.
Each of you prepares an interview card which could look like this:
Name eats out? where?
Tim yes sometimes McDonald's

FOOD
Favorite meals
You have to find out the favorite meals (main course and dessert) of the other people in your class.
Each of you prepares an interview card which could look like this:
Name favorite main course? favorite dessert?
Chris Pizza ice cream

FOOD
Food hates
You have to find out which meals or kinds of food the other people in your class dislike.
Each of you prepares an interview card which could look like this:
Name food hates?
Freddie chocolate, spinach

FOOD
Weight-watching
You have to find out if the other people in your class think they are too fat, just right or too thin.
Each of you prepares an interview card which could look like this:
Do you think you are:

Name too far? just right? to thin?

Bob x

FOOD

Cooking

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 You have to find out which meals or drinks the other people in your class can prepare themselves.
Each of you prepares an interview card which could look like this:
Name can prepare/make?
tea, porridge, sandwiches,
Peter omelettes

3. Learner Anxiety
In teaching speaking you are asking your students to perform, to speak up in front of their classmates.
As a result, many of your student's may experience stress during these activities. Whether the anxiety is
a help or a hindrance often depends on the degree to which it manifests itself in your students. For
example, no anxiety might result in a student's not caring or putting any effort into speaking English;
too much might block learning. But a small amount will bring your students to an optimal state of
alertness. Your role is to monitor this level of anxiety, and while not aiming to eradicate it altogether, to
make sure that this level is kept reasonably low. There are various techniques you can use to prevent
anxiety from taking over.
First, you can provide in your classroom a sort of surrogate "family" which offers support and the sort
of encouragement which leads to independence and enables your students to go out and use English in
the real world outside of the school compound.
Second, be specific in your feedback. When you praise a student, do so around a precise point. Empty
praise becomes meaningless very quickly. But by underlining a specific item that you know a student
has worked hard at, you can offer the meaningful recognition that builds a student's confidence. An
example of this specific praise is: "Well done. You managed that conversation well. Did the rest of you
notice how he was using those 'Uh-huhs' to keep his partner talking?" On the other hand, when you
correct a student's English, make sure your explanations are clear and brief and that you deliver them at
an appropriate moment.
Third, while including, an element of competitiveness in some of your activities, you should take care
to prevent this competitiveness from getting out of hand. To balance out the win-lose tendencies, which
undoubtedly exist in your class, make sure that you are including cooperative activities such as "Two
Heads Are Better Than One."

Divide the class into several groups of five to seven and give each student a number within the
group. Depending upon the number assigned, each student does one small portion of the group's
work. For example, if your class is working on a project with the agriculture teacher, you could
give the groups several short passages, each describing an important aspect of agriculture. The
person who is assigned the number 4 in each group could be responsible for reading the passage
about fertilizers. The same person is then responsible for sharing this information with the others
in the group. The person assigned the number 3 could do the same for a passage describing
beekeeping, and so forth.

Basically, maintaining the balance between cooperation and competition means recognizing that your
students have different learning styles, and that whereas some like the hurley-burley of racing against

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the clock or each other, others prefer pacing themselves and work better in a quiet environment. You
have to be able to provide opportunities for both kinds of learning.

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 WEEK 11
TEACHING READING

Types of written language

non-fiction: reports, editorials, greeting cards questionnaires

essays and articles, reference
(dictionaries, ancyclopedias) diaries, journals directions

fiction: novels, stories, jokes, memos: interoffice memos labels

drama, peotry
messages: phone messages signs
letters: personal, business
announcements recipes
academic writing:short answer
test responses, reports, essays newspaper ‘journalese’ bills (and other financial
and papers, theses and books statements
forms, applications
schedules (e.g., transportation maps
information) menus
manuals
directories, e.g., telephone, invitations
yellow pages advertisements:
comic strips, cartoons commercials, personal (want
ads)

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Microskills for Reading Comprehension
1. Discriminate among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
2. Retain chinks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
3. Process writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
4. Recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance.
5. Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc,), systems (e.g., tense, agreement,
pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
6. Recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms.
7. Recognize cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the relationship
between and among clauses
8. Recognize the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for interpretation
9. Recognize the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and purpose.
10. Infer context that is not explicit by using background knowledge.
11. Infer links and connections between events, ideas, etc., deduce causes and effects, and detect such
relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and
exemplification
12. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
13. Detect culturally specific references and interpret them in a context of the appropriate cultural
schemata
14. Develop and use a battery of reading strategies such as scanning and skimming, detecting discourse
markers, guessing the meaning of words from context, and activating schemata for the
interpretation of texts.

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Strategies for Reading Comprehension
1. Identify the purpose in reading
Make sure that the students understand the purpose of reading something.
2. Use graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding (especially for beginning level
learners)
Examples:
a. “short: vowel sound in VC patterns, e.g., bat, him, leg, wish, etc.
b. “long” vowel sound in VCe (final silent e) patterns, e.g., late, time, bite, etc.
c. “long” vowel sound in VV patterns, e.g., seat, coat, etc.
d. Distinguish “hard” c and g from “soft” c and g e.g., cat vs city, game vs gem, etc
3. Use efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehension (for intermediate to
advanced levels)
Some considerations in silent reading:
- Don’t need to pronounce each word
- Try to visualize
- Understand the context
- Manage the time, e.g., 250-300 words per minute for academic reading
4. Skim the text for main ideas
Skimming consists of quickly running one’s eyes across a whole text (such as an essay, article, or
chapter) for its gist. One example how to train students is by asking students to do skimming some
pages of a reading material in thirty seconds, then retell after closing the book.
5. Scan the text for specific information
Scanning is used to find the detail information in the text quickly.
6. Use semantic mapping or clustering
Semantic mapping is to group ideas of a text into clusters.
7. Guess when you aren’t certain
- Guess the meaning of a word
- Guess a grammatical relationship, e.g., a pronoun reference
- Guess a discourse relationship
- Infer implied meaning (between the lines)
- Guess about a cultural reference
- Guess content messages

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8. Analyze vocabulary
- Look for prefixes (co-, inter-, un-, etc) that may give clues.
- Look for suffixes (-tion, -tive, -ally, etc) that may indicate what part of speech it is
- Look for roots that are familiar (e.g., intervening may be a word a student doesn’t know,
but recognizing that the root ven comes from Latin “to come” would tield the meaning “to
come in between”
- Look for grammatical contexts that may signal information
- Look at the semantic context (topic) for clues.

9. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings

Literal meaning can be interpreted through syntactic surface structure. Implied meaning, however,
must be in the level of pragmatics.

10. Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationships.

Types of discourse markers (Mackay, 1987: 254)
Notional Category/Meaning Marker
1 Enumerative first(ly), second(ly), last(ly), …
Introduce in order in which points are to be one, two, …
made or the time sequence in which a, b, c, …
actions or processes took place. next, then, finally
in the first/second place
for one thing/for another thing
to begin with
subsequently, eventually, in the end, to conclude
2 Addictive
Reinforcing Again, then again, also, moreover, furthermore, in
Introduces a reinforcement or confirmation addition, above all, what is more
of what has preceded.
Similarity Equally, likewise, similarly, correspondingly, in
Introduces a statement of similarity with the same way
what has preceded.
Transition Now, well, incidentally, by the way, O.K., fine

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 Introduces a new stage in the sequence of
presentation of information
3 Logical sequence
Summative So, so far, altogether, overall, then, thus, therefore,
Introduces a summary of what has in short, to sum up, to conclude, to summarize
preceded
Resultative So, as a result, consequently, hence, now,
Introduces an expression of the result of therefore, thus, as a consequence, in consequence
consequence of what preceded (and
includes inductive and deductive acts)
4 Explicative Namely, in other words, that is to you, better,
Introduces an explanation or reformulation rather, by (this) we mean
of what preceded
5 Illustrative For example, for instance
Introduces an illustration of example of
what preceded
6 Contrastive
Replacive Alternatively, (or) again, (or) rather, (but) then, on
Introduces an alternative to what preceded the other hand
Antithetic Conversely, instead, then, on the contrary, by
Introduces information in opporition to contrast, on the other hand
what preceded.
Concessive Anyway, anyhow, however, nevertheless,
Introduces information which is nonetheless, notwithstanding, still, though, yet, for
unexpected in view of what preceded all that, in spite of (that), at the same time, all the
same

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Types of Classroom Reading Performance

Linguistic

Intensive
Content

silent
Classroom Skimming
reading
performance
oral
extensive Scanning

Global /general
meaning

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 WEEK 12

TEACHING WRITING

Stages in the development of writing proficiency

1. Early stages of writing
Proficiency level: Low beginners
Skills and features of English to learn:
1. Use printed/cursive forms of Roman alphabet (as appropriate)
2. Learn general spelling and punctuation rules
3. Use simple word, phrase, and sentence forms

Materials to use:
1. Basic literacy materials
2. Writing tasks to follow up on oral and reading exercises
3. Short narratives/descriptions using Language Experience Approach
4. Dialogue journals

2. Expanded writing skills

Proficiency level: High beginners and intermediate students
Skills and features of English to learn:
1. Use commonly occurring word, phrase, and sentence patterns
2. Write paragraphs with topic sentences and supporting details
3. Use link words to signal organization of paragraphs
4. Practice techniques for pre-writing, revising, editing

Materials to use:
1. Dialogue journals
2. Compositions using Language Experience Approach
3. Exercises to teach organization of paragraphs
4. Paragraphs of narration, description, simpler logical relationships

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3. Academic writing skills
Proficiency level: High intermediate and advanced students
Skills and features of English to learn:
1. Use discourse patterns expected in academic writing
2. Develop a thesis with appropriate supporting details
3. Become more independent in the writing process

Materials to use:
Sequenced exercises to model and guide students' essays
Writing tasks simulating assignments in subject-matter courses

Types of Writing
Personal Writing Transactional Writing Creative Writing
Shopping lists Business letters Poetry
Notes Instructions Short stories
Diaries Memos Songs
Journals Plans Anecdotes
Letters Proposals Fiction
Messages Rules and regulations Jokes
Greetings Reports Riddles
Advertisements

Writing is traditionally also classified according to mode:

Types Descriptions Examples
Narration A sequence of events together with characters Story, autobiography, science
and setting fiction, etc
Description Detailed account of physical attributes as weel Details of people, places,
as qualities of a person, a thing or a place. It things, concepts, etc
attends to the senses—sight, hearing, smeel,
touch, and taste to convey the whole picture.
Exposition Presentation of tacts, information and Explanation, factual
exolanation of things as they are. This kind of information, instruction, etc
writing does not provide any interpretation or
take a stance.
Persuasion It contains the write’s point of view and Advertisements, political
statements to convince the reader to agree with essays, brochures, etc
and/or accept it (view point)
Argumentat A discussive essay containing a proporition Opinions, discussions,
ion and evidence of proof. evaluations, etc

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Microskills for Writing
1. Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
2. Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
3. Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns.
4. Use acceptable grammatical systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, and rules.
5. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
6. Use cohesive devices in writing discourse.
7. Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse.
8. Appropriately accomplish the communicative functions of written texts according to form and
purpose.
9. Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as main idea,
supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
10. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing.
11. Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text.
12. Develop and use a battery of writing strategies, such as accurately assessing the audience’s
interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases
and synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing.

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Types of Classroom Writing Performance
1. Imitative, or writing down
Steps in dictation:
- Teacher reads a short paragraph once or twice at normal speed.
- Teacher reads the paragraph in short phrase units of three or four words each, and each unit is
followed by a pause.
- During the pause, students write exactly what they hear.
- Teacher then read the whole paragraph once more at normal speed so students can check their
writing.
- Scoring of the students’ writing work can utilize a number of rubrics for assigning points.
Usually spelling and punctuation errors are not considered as severe as grammatical errors.
2. Intensive, or controlled
The intensive writing is commonly in controlled written grammar exercises.
Examples:
- the students have to change the verbs of a paragraph written in simple present into simple past
tense.
- Dicto-comp technique, the students rewarite a paragraph read by the teacher two or three times
at normal speed. Another strategy is, the teacher writes the keywords as cues after reading a
paragraph, then the students rewrite the whole paragraph.
3. Self-writing
- Note-taking
- Diary or journal writing
4. Display writing
Examples:
- Short answer exercises
- Essay examinations
- Research report
5. Real writing
- Academic, e.g. EAP
- Vocational/technical, e.g., English in the workplace (genuine directions for some operation
or assembly)
- Personal, e.g., diaries, letters, post cards, notes, personal messages

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Writing Process:
1. Prewriting
- Reading (extensively) a passage
- Skimming and/or scanning a passage
- Conducting some outside research
- Brainstorming
- Listing (in writing—individually)
- Clustering (begin with a key word, then add other words, using free association
- Discussion a topic or question
- Instructor-initiated questions and probes
- Freewriting

2. Drafting and Revising

Strategies:
- Getting started (adapting the freewriting technique)
- “optional” monitoring of one’s writing (without premature editing and diverted attention to
wording, grammar, etc.)
- Peer-reviewing for content (accepting/using classmates’ comments
- Using the instructor’s feedback
- Editing for grammatical errors
- “read aloud” technique (in small groups or pairs, students read their almost-final drafts to
each other for a final check on errors, flow of ideas, etc.)
- Proofreading
-
Product and Process Approach
a. Product Approach
The approach in which the process of writing is neglected and the focus is in obtaining a sample of
the target product, e.g. a letter, a story, etc.

b. Process Approach
It focusses on the process of writing thinking of something to write about, selecting what to
include, giving shape to these ideas by organizing them into an outline or plan, writing a draft,
revising and editing the draft and producing the final version.

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 With a process focus, it is a task of a teacher to work out what procedures and processes as well
as what skills and strategies the students would need to accomplish each task set out in the
syllabus successfully.

Here is the example of writing syllabus:

General Objective
At the end of the course, the students should be able to write:
- instructions, directions, messages, informal letters, and stories;
- fill in forms; and
- describe people, things, and events
Specific objectives
- Write instructions on how to play football, netball, and how to run a relay
- Write directions to the library and canteen in the school
- Write messages to friends expressing thanks, inviting them, asking then to meet one,
and to go somewhere.

Sub-skills of writing
- Improving spelling (root words, prefixes, syllabication)
- Recognizing and applying different genres, forms and formats
- Using rules of grammar such as agreement of verb and tense
- Using the dictionary, thesaurus, and reference texts
- Paragraph building topic sentence, relevance of details, singleness of purpose,
maintainance od consistent point of view
- Developing coherence unity of ideas, thoughts and reasoning
- Using registers
- Summary writing outlining and paraphrasing

Developmental writing
1. Spelling and writing
Correct spelling is as important as legible handwriting in effective written communication.
Some activities:
a. Anagram, e.g., using scrambled form
b. Cards, e.g., arranging some cards containing one letter into a word.
c. Missing letters of a word
d. Puzzles, e.g., crossword, and word maze

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2. Communicative writing activities for beginners
Examples:
- Writing a note for a friend
- Writing a reply for a note
- Writing a list of things to do
- Writing a diary
- Writing dialogues based on the diary

3. Other activities in writing

- Writing instructions based on the flow chart
- Writing directions
- Writing a story based on a picture series
- Writing from short notes

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 WEEK 13-14

GENRE-BASED APPROACH

A. SPOKEN CYCLE
1. BKOF – Spoken Cycle
BKOF or Building Knowledge Of Field is basically the development of overall knowledge of the
cultural and social contexts of the topic built (Hammond, Burns, Joyce, Brosnan, Gerot, 1992,
Helena, 2005). The tasks and activities at this stage enable learners to :
a. Explore cultural similarities and differences related to the topic
1. The class discusses pictures/other media about the topic
2. The class discusses the language items ( structure, vocabulary) needed in such object
b. Practise grammatical patterns relevant to the topic or text type ( narrative, descriptive, recount,
procedure etc )
In this stage students produce grammatically-well formed sentences. In the teaching process the
teacher can use deductive or inductive approach. Some techniques possibly used in this case are
content explanation, drills/imitative, intensive ( Brown, 2000) Some techniques possibly used in
this case are content explanation, drills/imitative, intensive ( Brown, 2000).
c. Build up and extent vocabulary relevant to topic or text type. Some study techniques can be
demonstration, explanation, discovery, accurate reproduction, immediate creativity, check
questions ( Harmer,2006).
2. Modelling of Texts
Students listen to a listening text, either of monologue or dialogue type of text.
To help the students understand the text, the teacher can use the techniques: pre-listening, while-
listening and post-listening.
In a dialogue type of text, the teacher can ask the students to practice the dialogue which has been
listened to. The students continue this activity by doing role-play about the topic.
3. Joint Construction of Texts ( Speaking )
In this JCOT the students can do a role play in pairs. Other speaking activities are
acting from a script, communication games, discussion, prepared talks, questionnaires, simulation (
Harmer, 2000 ).
4. Independent Construction of Texts ( speaking )
At this stage the students are supposed to create their own speaking text on the genre

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B. WRITTEN CYCLE

1. BKOF of Written Cycle

BKOF or Building Knowledge Of Field is basically the development of overall knowledge of the
cultural and social contexts of the topic built ( Hammond, Burns, Joyce, Brosnan, Gerot, 1992).
The tasks and activities at this stage enable learners to :
a. Explore cultural similarities and differences related to the topic
1) The class discusses pictures/other media about the topic. A teaching technique can be such
as brainstorming ( Brown, 2001)
2) The class discusses the language items ( structure, vocabulary) needed in such object.
b. Practise grammatical patterns relevant to the topic or text type.
In this stage students produce grammatically-well formed sentences. In the teaching process
the teacher can use deductive or inductive approach. Some techniques possibly used in this
case are content explanation, drills/imitative, intensive ( Brown, 2000)
c. Build up and extent vocabulary relevant to topic or text type. Some study techniques can be
demonstration, explanation, discovery, accurate reproduction, immediate creativity, check
questions ( Harmer,2006)
2. Modelling of Texts
Students read a reading text, either of monologue or dialogue type of text.
To help the students understand the text, the teacher can use the techniques: pre-reading, while-
reading and post-reading ( Gibbons, 2004).

3. Joint Construction of Texts ( Writing )

In this JCOT the students can write a text of the same genre as given in the modelling of text
together in a group. The activities in writing, some steps can be followed :

4. Independent Construction of Texts ( writing )

In this ICOT the students can write a text of the same genre as given in the modelling of text
individually.

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1. What is this?
2. Yes, it is a picture of a city.
3. What is the name of the city?
4. It is Hokitika.
5. It is in New Zealand.

Vocabulary
Some words need to be learned about tourist objects as in the text and other possible words
about tourist objects.
Task 1. Find the meaning of the words and pronounce them
Noun Meaning Adjective meaning Verb meaning
weather famous swarm
tourist area natural fight
handicraft historical reign
history notorious dedicate
art design
jewelerry build
resources destroy
museum seek
temple
foreigner
miner
designer

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Structure
When we have a conversation, many times we make question tag such as
Question tag: It is hot, isn’t it? It is South East of Australia, isn’t it? You like jewellery, don’t
you?
Explanation :

Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.

They are mainly used in speech when we want to:

 confirm that something is true or not, or

 to encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.

Question tags are formed with the auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and the
appropriate subject.

A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.

 Jack is from Spain, isn't he?

 Mary can speak English, can't she?

A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

 They aren't funny, are they?

 He shouldn't say things like that, should he?

When the verb in the main sentence is in the present simple we form the question tag
with do / does.

 You playthe guitar, don't you?

 Alison likestennis, doesn't she?

If the verb is in the past simple we use did.

 They went to the cinema, didn't they?

 She studied in New Zealand, didn't she?

When the statement contains a word with a negative meaning, the question tag needs to
be positive

 He hardly ever speaks, does he?

 They rarely eat in restaurants, do they?

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Task 2.
Put the following sentences into question tags
1. Ina and Hari are in the museum right now.
2. They were looking for information about the places of handicraft of the city.
3. The people designed Balinese handicrafts.
4.Your grand – father worked as a miner a long time ago.
5.The temple belongs to Hinduism.

Task 3
Create some sentences using question tags with the given words above

Task 4. Learn the follwing expressions

Some expressions
 It sounds interesting

 I’d love to come and visit .....

Modelling of Text ( MOT )

Listening Text : Hokitika : A Tourist Centre
Lisa was in Borobudur last Sunday. She met a foreigner, Allan and they had a small talk.
Lisa : It’s hot , isn’t it ?
Allan : You’ re right. But I like Indonesian weather. It’s different from my home-
town
Lisa : By the way, where are you from?
Allan : I am from Hokitika.
Lisa : Where is it? I have never heard of that city ?
Allan : It is in New Zealand. Do you know New Zealand ?
Lisa : Yes, it is south east of Australia, isn’t it ? What is… Hotikita … famous
for?
Allan : Hokitika… not Hotikita.
Lisa : OK, Hokitika.

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 Allan : Well, it is famous for the historical and natural resources of the area. You like
jewellery, don’t you ?
Lisa : Yes, I do, I love it. Look, my bracelet and earrings.
Allan : In Hokitika, there is a wide range of crafted jewellery and sculpture. There are
Pounamu and Goodletite.
Lisa : Those are names of jewellery, aren’t they ?
Allan : Yes, Pounamu is greenstone or jade and Goodletite contains ruby, sapphire and
tourmaline crystal.
Lisa : I see, it sounds interesting. What about the historical museum?
Allan : The museum has gold-mining equipment, scale model of aspects of gold recovery.You
know.. during the gold rush of the 1860s, tens of thousand of miners swarmed to the West
Coast to seek their fortune.
Lisa : Amazing ….!!!
Allan : You must come to visit Hokitika and see the historical and natural resources.
Lisa : I’d love to come and visit Hotikita…
Allan : Hokitika.!
Lisa : Hokitika !! Hokitika !!!

(taken from Your Free Guide, West Coast, go, see, discover, stay,www.aatravel.co.nz – 2012 and
Let’s Talk, 2009 )
Task 3
Answer the questions about the text.
1. What is the conversation about ?
2. Where is the town of Hokitika.
3. Is it in the north of Australia?
4. What is it famous for?
5. What do we learn from the museum in Hokitika?

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Task 4
Please practice the dialog
JOINT CONSTRUCTION OF TEXT ( JCOT )
Speaking Tasks
Students are given tasks about tourist objects of their own interest. The conversation above can be a
model, following the sequence. It is a role play in which the first speaker is a resident of a country and
the second speaker is some one from another city/town/country. Both are asked to plan their
conversation. When giving an instruction pictures can be given as follows.
Please create a dialog about a city. You can refer to one of the cities in Indonesia.
Nama Sekolah : X
Tingkat : SMP
Kelas : tahun ke 8/semester 2
Alokasi waktu : 45 menit

SK : Memahami makna dalam essei pendek sederhana berbentuk deskriptif untuk

berinteraksi dengan lingkungan sekitar
SK : Mengungkapkan makna dalam teks tulis......
Indikator ( micro-skills)- reading and writing
1. Mengidentifikasi ide pokok
2. Mengidentifikasi ide pendukung
3. Mengidentifikasi sebab dan akibat.
4. Mengidentifikasi tujuan teks
5. Mengidentifikasi generic structure dari teks
6. Menggunakan bentuk teks dan tujuannya untuk membuat teks
7 Membuat teks yang memperhatikan ide pokok, ide pendukung

Tujuan Pembelajaran
a. siswa mampu menggunakan kata – kata baru yang terkait dengan topic : Cities
b. siswa mampun menggunakan grammar : degrees of comparison
c. siswa mampu mengerti bentuk teks : deskriptif
d. Siswa mampu mengungkapkan makna......

Materi
a. Kata – kata baru terkait dengan topic : Cities
b. grammar : question tag
c. tindak tutur :
d. Teks listening berjudul : Istanbul

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Langkah – langkah pembelajaran
a. Brainstorming mengenai topic : Istanbul
b. Guru mengajar kata- kata baru dan diikuti dengan vocabulary practice.
c. Guru mengajar grammar : degrees of comparison
d. Siswa mendengar reading texts : Istanbul
e. Siswa menjawab pertanyaan mengenai teks readin
g. Siswa membuat tulisan bersama dalam grup berkaitan dengan topik cities
i. Siswa membuat teks berjudul Cities

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In the previous lesson, we talked about a city in New Zealand. Now let’s talk about another city in Asia.
Have you been to Turkey? This is about Istanbul. Do you know about it ?
Vocabulary
Task 1. Learn the meaning of the words and pronounce them.

Noun Adjetive Verb

Visitor Western Consist of
Tourist Eastern Meet
Building Northen Bury
Mosques Southern Trade
Church Populous Design
Mall Close to Enter
Sea – food Famous
Shore Historic
Island Upscale
Boundary

Task 2
Learn the structure : degrees of comparison.
Explanation :

Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another.

There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.They are positive degree, comparative degree, and
superlative degree.

Let us see all of them one by one.

1. Positive degree.

When we speak about only one person or thing, We use the Positive degree.

Examples:
• This city is big

The second one in the Degrees of Comparison is...

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2. Comparative degree.

When we compare two persons or two things with each other

Examples:

a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)

b. This flower is more beautiful than that. (Comparative)

c. He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative)

3. Superlative

Example:

The white house is the biggest among the houses in the area ( superlative)

Task 3.
1. The government moved the capital city to a ...... ( large ) one than the previous one.
2. The population of the country is ...... (big) among
3. Many tourists came to the........city. They saw ancient things.
Task 4.
Compare the cities in Indonesia related to their population, the width, the number of big buildings.
Task 4.
Learn a descriptive text.
A descriptive text is a text which is a text which says what a person or a thing is like. Its purpose is to
describe and reveal a particular person, place, or thing.".
Generic structure of a descriptive text
1. dentification : berisi tentang identifikasi sesuatu, baik makhluk hidup ataupun benda mati yang
akan dideskripsikan.
2. Description : berisi tentang penjelasan / penggambaran tentang sesuatu, baik makhluk hidup
ataupun benda mati, dengan menyebutkan beberapa gambaran, sifat, karakter, atau apapun yang
berhubungan dengan deskripsi sesuatu yang dimaksud.

Sumber ENGLISHINDO.COM Referensi Belajar Bahasa Inggris Online:

http://www.englishindo.com/2015/07/contoh-descriptive-text.html#ixzz4U9yBAT3p

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MODELLING OF TEXT ( MOT )
Task 5. Read the text.
Istanbul is the ” Europe’s coolest city”. It is really complex. The country has 99% Islamic people
but they like watermelon martinis ( a kind of whiskey ) more and more. It is strange isn’t?
Istanbul is the largest city and have many things from many countries. It is also the most
populous city in Turkey. It ranks as the world’s 7th – largest city.
Istanbul is located in north-westernTurkey. The city has a shore in Asia and another shore
in Europe. It is situated near North Anatolian Faut. It is close to the boundary between the African
and Eurasian Plates.
It has more billionaires than many cities in the world except New York, Moscow and
London. In the city there is a Blue Mosques. It has an LCD screen. It shows things in Paris and
Tokyo.
Istanbul has numeros shopping centres, from historic to the modern. The Grand Bazaar is
among the world’s oldest and largest markets. The Istinye Park and Zorlu center are among the
newest malls. They include stores of the world’s top fashion brands. In that buildingsthey sell
things of Armani, Gucci, Vuitton and Dior. Islamic meet the international order in those
buildings.
Istanbul is famous for its historic seafood restaurants.Many upscale seafood restaurants
line the shores of Bosphorus. The Prince Islands, 15 kilometres from the city centre, are also
popular for their seafood restaurants.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul#Geography)
Questions

1. What is the text about?

2. What is the type of the text entitled“ Istanbul “
3. Why do people call the city as the Europea’s coolest city?
4. Which malls are newer malls? Istinye park or Grand Bazaar?
5. Which is is a larger mall, Istinye or Grand Bazaar?
6. Where are the Prince Islands?
7. What is the purpose of the text?
8. What are the generic structure of the text?

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JCOT - Writing
Please create a text about Semarang, Palembang or Kuta- Bali. You may choose one of them. You may
refer to the modelling of text. Create the text in groups.

Semarang

Palembang

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 WEEK 15
SCIENTIFIC-BASED APPROACH

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