Lesson 1: The structures of of the national markets to a wider global market

signified by the increased free trade. 

globalization
Globalization scholars do not necessarily disagree
with people who criticize unfair international trade
Introduction  deals or global economic organizations. In fact,
many are sympathetic to the critique of economic
The contemporary world is an ever-changing mix globalization. Academics differ from journalist and
of social and political changes. While religious, political activists, however, because they see
political, and ethnic conflicts continue, we are globalization in much broader terms. They view the
currently living in one of the most peaceful eras in process through various lenses that
the history of the planet. Challenges of the 21st consider multiple theories and perspective and they
century include emerging technologies, health call this an interdisciplinary approach. 
care, overpopulation, climate change, poverty,
illiteracy, disease, and migration. How we choose Manfred Steger, a Professor at the University of
to deal with these emerging frontiers will shape Hawaii at Manoa, describes globalization: 
this unit for future generations.
1. The process of expansion of social relations and
Unit 1: The Structures of Globalization 
consciousness across world-time and across world-
space; and Expansion refers to both the (1) creation
This unit will introduce the student the various of new social networks and (2) the multiplication of
drivers of the globalization process, with specific existing connections that cut across traditional
focus on economics and politics. Although it political, economic, cultural and geographic
emphasizes student’s experience globalization on boundaries. 
an everyday level, also to realize that there are big
institutions that create large-scale changes. This 2. The process of intensification of social relations
unit will first trace the emergences of these and consciousness across world-time and across
institutions historically. It will then move on to world-space; Intensification refers to the expansion,
explain how they affect the countries and people stretching and acceleration of created and existing
today.  network. Not only are global connections
multiplying, but they are also becoming more
Lesson 1: What is closely-knit and expanding their reach, Steger
posits that his definition of globalization must be
differentiated with an ideology he calls globalism.
Globalization?    
Globalization  Globalism
Learning outcomes: 
Represents many The widespread belief
1. Agree on a working definition of globalization
processes that among powerful people
for the course; 
allow for the that the global
2. Differentiate the competing conceptions of
expansion and integration of economic
globalization; and 
intensification of markets is beneficial for
3. Narrate a personal experience of globalization. 
global connections everyone since
it spreads freedom and
democracy across the
A. What Is Globalization?  world.
Globalization is a process of interaction2and
integration among the people, companies, and
governments of different nations, a process driven B. Dimensions of Globalization 
by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology. This process has effects on The three main dimensions of globalization are: 
the environment, on culture, on political systems,
on economic development and prosperity, and on 1. Economic Globalization 
human physical well-being in societies around the
world. Globalization is an elimination of barriers to Economic globalization refers to the mobility of
trade, communication, and cultural exchange. The people, capital, technology, goods and services
theory behind globalization is that worldwide internationally. It is also about how integrated
openness will promote the inherent wealth of all countries are in the global economy. It refers to
nations.  how interdependent different countries and regions
have become across the world.4 
Most of the people view globalization as primary
an economic process. When a newspaper reports Economic globalization may involve the financial
(layman’s term) that nationalists are resisting and economic aspects of a nation primarily, but its
“globalization”, it usually refers to the integration interdependent nature can inevitably affect
a country’s lawmaking system and cultural Globalization is a process of interaction and
identity. Trading policies and tax treaties are integration among the people, companies, and
created between countries to regulate trade and governments of different nations, a process driven
protect either country from threats of terrorism. by international trade and investment and aided by
Multinational companies are changing some information technology. When we speak
cultural aspects of many countries; fast food globalization the first thing comes to our mind is
restaurants, for example, have changed the eating the exchange and integration of national market to
habits of Asian countries that consider rice as a a wider global market as it signified by the
staple food. Fashion trends from European increase free trade. Globalization scholars
countries are also carried over to the opposite side see globalization is much broader terms. They
of the globe.  view the process through various lenses, the three
dimensions of globalization: economic, economic,
2. Cultural Globalization  cultural and political. The best scholarly
description of globalization is provided by
Cultural Globalization refers to the rapid movement Manfred Steger who describes the process as “the
of ideas, attitudes, meanings, values and cultural expansion and intensification of social relation and
products across national borders. It refers consciousness across the word-time and across the
specifically to idea that there is now a global and world-space. In general globalization can be
common mono-culture – transmitted and reinforced confusing and difficult to assess, as such, Arjun
by the internet, popular entertainment transnational Appadurai discussed globalization into a
marketing of particular brands and international multiple and intersecting dimension that he called
tourism – that transcends local cultural traditions escape, ethnoscape, mediascape, technoscape,
and lifestyles, and that shapes the perceptions, finanscape and ideoscape
aspirations, tastes and everyday activities of people
wherever they may live in the world’5 

3. Political Globalization 

Political globalization refers to the amount of Lesson 2: The Globalization of

political co-operation that exists between different World Economics 
countries. The transfer of competences from
national governments to supranational
organizations, the attempts to create international This lesson aims to trace how economic
justice and the increase of migrations are some of globalization came about. It will also address this
the characteristics of this phenomenon.  globalization system, and examine who benefits it
and who is left out. 
C. Globalization from the Ground Up 
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) regards
Globalization in general is an intersecting process “economic globalization” as a historical process
and can be confusing.  Indeed, it may be hard to representing the result of human innovation and
assess globalization or comment it because it is so technological process. It is characterized by the
diffuse and almost fleeting. Some scholars have, increasing integration of economies around the
therefore, found it is simpler to avoid talking about world through the movement of goods, services,
globalization as a whole. Instead, they want to and capital across the borders. These changes are
discuss “multiple globalizations”, instead of just the product of people, organizations, institutions,
one process. For anthropologist Arjun Appadurai, and technologies.
different kinds of globalization occur  on multiple
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an
and intersecting dimension of integration that he
organization of 189 countries, working to
calls  “escape”. 
foster global monetary cooperation, secure
financial stability, facilitate international
Kinds of globalization according to Arjun trade, promote high employment and
Apparudai:  sustainable economic growth, and reduce
poverty around the world. 
Ethnoscape  global movement of people
Created in 1945, the IMF is governed by
Mediascape  flow of culture and accountable to the 189 countries that
make up its near global membership. 
Technoscape  circulation of mechanical
goods and software The IMF's primary purpose is to ensure the
stability of the international monetary system—
Financescape  global circulation of money the system of exchange rates and international
Ideoscape  political ideas move around payments that enables countries (and their
citizens) to transact with each other. The Fund's
mandate was updated in 2012 to include all
macroeconomic and financial sector issues that
bear on global stability.
 to exchange products continuously –both with each
other directly and indirectly via other continents –and
in values sufficient to generate crucial impacts on all
movement of goods, services, and capital across trading partners.
the borders. These changes are the product of
people, organizations, institution and 1. Flynn and Giraldez trace back to 1571 with
technologies.  establishments of the galleon trade that
connected Manila in the Philippines and
Acapulco in Mexico.
According to the United Nations Conference on 2. This was the first time that the Americas were
Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the amount directly connected to Asian Trading routes.
of foreign direct investments flowing across the 3. For Filipinos, it is crucial to note that
word was US$ 57 billion in 1982 by 2015, that economic globalization began on the country’s
the number was $1.76 trillion.  shores. 
Apart from the sheer magnitude of commerce, it The Galleon trade was part of the age of mercantilism.
must be noted that the increased speed and
frequency of trading. These days, supercomputers From the 16th century to the 18th century, countries
can execute millions of stock purchases and sales primarily in Europe, competed with one another to sell
between different cities in a matter of seconds more goods as a means to boost their country’s income
through a process called high-frequency trading.  called monetary reserves later on. To defend their
product from competitors who sold goods more
cheaply, these regimes (mainly monarchies) imposed
A. International Trading Systems  the following:  

(a) imposed high tariffs;

(b) forbade colonies to trade with other nations; (a
The international trading system comprises many country stops trading to another country)
thousands of unilateral, bilateral, regional, and (c)  restricted trade routes; (the country will reach a
multilateral rules and agreements among more than certain amount enable to protect their product)
two hundred nations.The oldest known (d) subsidized its exports. Mercantilism was thus also
international trade route was the Silk-Road –a a system of global trade with multiple restrictions. 
network of pathways in the ancient world that
spanned from China to what is known the Middle A more open trade systems emerged in 1867 when,
East and to Europe. It was called because such following the lead of the United Kingdom, the United
(Silk) because of the most profitable products States and other European nations adopted the gold 
traded through this network, which was highly
prized especially in the area that is now Middle East The total worth of foreign currency and gold and other
as well as in the West  (today’s Europe). Traders precious metal, stockpiled by the government for
used the Silk Road regularly from 130 BCE when setting international obligation and transactions. 
the  Chinese Han dynasty opened trade the West
until 1453 BCE when the Ottoman  Empire closed standard at an international monetary conference in
it.  Paris. Broadly, it goal was to create a common system
that would allow for more efficient trade and prevent 
THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD  the isolationism – a policy of remaining apart from the
affairs or interests of  other groups, especially the
political affairs of other countries., of the mercantilist 
era. The countries thus established a common basis for
currency prices and a  fixed exchange rate system – all
based on the value of gold. 

Despite facilitating simpler trade, the gold standard

was still very restrictive system, as it compelled
countries to back to their currencies with fixed
gold reserves. During World War I, when
countries depleted their gold reserves to fund their
armies, many were forced to abandon the gold
standards. Since European countries had low gold
reserves, they adopted floating currencies
Silk Road However, while the Silk Road was that were no longer redeemable in gold. 
international, it was not truly “global” because it had
no ocean routes that could reach the American Floating currencies have a floating exchange rate,
continent.  which changes based on the demand and supply
mechanisms of the foreign exchange market.
According to historians Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo When the demand for a currency is high, the
Giraldez, the age of full economic globalization currency appreciates in value, thus impacting the
began when “all important populated continents began country’s exports. A strong currency shifts
consumers to a cheaper currency, thus lowering Through the more indirect versions of the gold
the demand for the exported goods.  standards were used until as late as the 1970s, the
world never returned to the gold standard of the
In the long run, exporters have to lower their early 20th century. Today, the world economy
prices to attract consumers, thus lowering their operates based on what are called fiat currencies –
profits and facing the risk of going out of business. currencies that are not backed by precious metals
Conversely, when the demand for a currency is and whose value is determined by their cost
low, the currency depreciates in value, relative to other currencies. This system allows
thus impacting the country’s importers. A weak government to freely and actively manage their
currency makes imported goods  expensive. economies by increasing or decreasing the amount
Therefore, consumers buy domestic goods, thus of money in circulation as they see fit. 
stimulating the  domestic economy. In both cases,
a floating currency tends to be volatile.5  B. The Bretton Woods System 

In July 1944, the Bretton Woods Agreement After the world wars, world leaders sought to
introduced the concept of pegged  currencies create a global economic system that would ensure
against the US dollar that was tied to the price of a longer-lasting global peace. They believed that
gold. In 1973, the  system collapsed following a one of the ways to achieve this goal was to set up a
sharp appreciation in the price of the US dollar network of global financial institution that would
that  raised a red flag with respect to exchange promote economic interdependence and
rates and the ties of the US dollar to  the price of prosperity. The Bretton Woods system (BWS) was
gold. From 1973 until today, countries are free to inaugurated in 1944 during the United
choose their  exchange agreement.  Nations Monetary and Financial Conference to
prevent the catastrophes of the early decades of the
century from reoccurring and affecting internal
Today, most of the widely traded currencies, such ties. 
as the US dollar, the Euro, the British pound or the
Japanese yen, have a floating exchange rate.
However, central banks often raise concerns about
the implications of adopting a floating exchange
rate and how floating currencies can affect global
foreign investment and monetary policies

. 
Gold standard  Floating currency

Connects a Floating currencies are

country's money systems that have The BWS was largely influenced by the ideas of  
currency's value to a fluctuating value British economist John Maynard Keynes6 who  
the value of gold following  believed that “economic crisis occur not when a  
country does not enough money, but when money  
the volatility in the foreign exchange  market. is not being spent and, thereby, not moving.” This  
active role of governments in managing spending  

Returning to a full pure standard became more John Maynard Keynes

difficult as the global economic crisis called the
Great Depression started during the 1920s and John Maynard Keynes was an early 20th-century
extended up to the 1930s, further emptying British economist, known as the father of
government coffers. Thus depression was the Keynesian economics. 
worst and longest recession ever experienced by  
the western world. Some economist argued that it served as the anchor for what would be called a
was largely caused by the gold standards, since it system of global Keynesianism. 
limited the amount of circulating money and,
therefore, reduced demand and consumption.  If Delegates at Bretton Woods agreed to create two
government could only spend money that was financial institutions: (1)  International Bank for
equivalent to gold, its capacity to print money and Reconstruction and Development (IBRD or World
increase the money supply was severely curtailed.  Bank)  and (2) International monetary Fund (IMF).
To this day, both institution remain  key players in
Economic historian Barry Eichengreen argues economic globalization. 
that the recovery of the United  States really began
when, having abandoned the gold standards, the
US  government was able to free up money to
spend in reviving the economy. At the height of
World War II, other major industrialized countries
followed. 
 accompanied by general economic growth and
IBRD or World Bank  IMF
reduced unemployment. The theory went that, as
Responsible for The global lender of prices increased, companies would earn more, and
funding last resort to prevent would have more money to hire workers.
postwar reconstructio individual countries Keynesian economist believed that all this was a
n projects. It was a form spiraling into necessary trade-off for economic development.
critical institution at a credit crisis. It
time when many of economic growth in a In the early 1970s, however the prices of oil rose
the world’s cities had country slowed sharply as a result of the  Organization of Arab
been destroyed by the down because there Petroleum Exporting Council (OAPEC) compose
war.  was not enough of, UAE,  Bahrain, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Syria,
money to stimulate Iraq, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya and Egypt,  imposition
the economy, the of an embargo in response to the decision of the
IMF would step in. United States and  other countries to resupply the
(the countries will Israeli military with the needed arms during the
help them to lend Yom Kippur War. Arab countries also used the
some money to embargo to stabilize their  economies and growth.
achieve financial The “oil embargo” affected the Western
stability) economies that were reliant on oil. To make matter
worse, the stock markets crashed in 1973 – 1974
after the United States stopped linking the dollar to
Shortly after Bretton Woods, various countries gold, effectively ending the Bretton Woods
also committed themselves to further global system. The result was a phenomenon that
economic integration through the General Keynesian  economics could not have predicted
Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) in 1947. the following:
GATT’s main purpose was to reduce tariff (a tax (a) stagflation –decline of  economic growth; and
or duty to be paid on a particular class of imports (stagflation is the result of stagnation)
or exports) and other hindrances for free trade.  (b) stagnation –decline of employment growth
which  takes place alongside a sharp increase in
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), prices (inflation). 
set of multilateral trade agreements aimed at the
abolition of quotas and the reduction of tariff Around this time, a new form of economic
duties among the contracting nations. When GATT thinking was beginning to challenge the Keynesian
was concluded by 23 countries at Geneva, in 1947 orthodoxy. Economist such as Friedrich Hayek and
(to take effect on Jan. 1, 1948), it was considered Milton  Friedman argued that the government
an interim arrangement pending the formation of a practice of pouring money into their  economies
United Nations agency to supersede it.  When such had cause inflation by increasing demand for
an agency failed to emerge, GATT was amplified goods without  necessary increasing supply. More
and further enlarged at several succeeding profoundly, they argued that government
negotiations. It subsequently proved to be the most intervention in economies distort the proper
effective instrument of world trade liberalization, functioning of the market. 
playing a major role in the massive expansion of
world trade in the second half of the 20th century. 

C. Neoliberalism and its Discontents 

Neoliberalism is contemporarily used to refer to

market-oriented reform policies such as
"eliminating price controls, deregulating capital
markets, lowering trade barriers" and reducing
state influence in the economy, especially through
privatization (transfer of business or ownership
into a private individual or sector. ibebenta ng
government yung business sa private sector) and
austerity. 

Examples: eliminating price controls, deregulating

capital markets and lowering trade barriers.
FRIEDRICH HAYEK
The high point of global Keynesianism came in the
mid-1940s to the early 1970s.  During this period,
government poured money into their economies,
allowing people to purchase more goods, and in
the process, increase demand of these goods.
Western and some Asian countries like Japan
accepted this rise in prices because it was
 publicly-traded company is
taken over by a few people  
is also called privatization. 

Finally, they pressured governments, particularly in

the developing world, to reduce tariff and open up
their economies, arguing that it is the quickest way
to progress. Advocates of the Washington
Consensus conceded that, along the way, certain
industries could be affected and die, but they
considered this “shock therapy” necessary for long-
term economic growth. 
MILTON FRIEDMAN
"Shock therapy" refers to the
Economist like Friedman used the concept of figuratively
economic turmoil to challenge the shocking, or shaking up, the
consensus around Keyne’s idea. What economy, with sudden and
emerge was a new form of economic dramatic economic policies
thinking that critic labeled neoliberalism. that affect prices and
From the 1980 onward, neoliberalism employment. Characteristics
became the codified strategy of the of shock therapy include
United States Treasury Department, the the ending of price controls,
World Bank, the IMF and eventually the the privatization of publicly
World Trade Organization (WTO) –a owned entities, and trade liberalization.
new organization founded in 1995 to
continue the tariff reduction under the The appeal of neoliberalism was in its simplicity. It
GATT. The policies they forwarded advocates like US President Ronald Reagan and
came to be called the Washington British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher justified
Consensus.   their reduction in government spending by
comparing national economies to households.
The Washington Consensus refers to a set of free- Thatcher, in particular, promoted an image of
market economic policies supported by prominent herself as a mother, who reined in overspending to
financial institutions such as the International reduce the national debt. 
Monetary  
Problem with the household analogy is that
Fund, the World Bank, and the U.S. Treasury. A government are not household:
British economist named John Williamson coined (1) government can print money, while household
the term Washington Consensus in 1989.  cannot; and
(2) the constant taxation systems of governments
provide them a steady flow of income that allows
The ideas were intended to help developing them to pay and refinance debts steadily.  
countries that faced economic crises.  In summary,
The Washington Consensus recommended Despite the initial success of neoliberal politicians
structural reforms that increased the role of market like Thatcher and Reagan, the defects of the
forces in exchange for immediate financial help. Washing Consensus became immediately palpable.
Some examples include free-floating exchange A good example is that of post-communist Russia.
rates and free trade.7  After the Communism had collapsed in 1990s, the
IMF called for the immediate privatization of all
The Washington Consensus dominated global government industries. The IMF assumed that such
economic policies from the 1980s until the early move would free these industries form corrupt
2000s. It advocates pushed for minimal bureaucrats and pass them on the more dynamic and
government spending to reduce government debt, independent private investors. What happened,
they also called for privatization of government however, was that only individuals and groups who
controlled services like water, power, had accumulated wealth under the previous
communication and transport, believing that the communist order had the money to purchase these
free market can produce the best results.   industries. In some cases, the economic elite relied
on easy access to government funds to take over the
The transfer of ownership, industries. This practice has entrenched an
property or business from   oligarchy that still dominates the Russian economy
the government to the private to this very day. 
sector is termed   D. The Global Financial Crisis and the
privatization. The government Challenge of Neoliberalism 
ceases to be the owner  
of the entity or business. The
process in which a   Russia’s case is an example how “shock therapy”
of neoliberalism did not lead to outcomes
predicted by economists who believed in perfectly
free markets. The greatest recent repudiation of investors tried to get rid of their bad investments.
this thinking was the recent global financial This dangerous cycle reached a tipping point in
crisis of 2008-2009.  September 2008, when major investments
bank Lehman Brothers collapsed, thereby
Neoliberalism came under significant strain during depleting major investments.  
the global financial crisis of 2007-2008 when the
The crisis spread beyond United States since many
world experienced the greatest economic downturn
investors were foreign governments, corporation
since the Great Depression. The crisis can be
and individuals. The loss of their money spread
traced back to the 1980s when the United States
like  wildfire back to their countries.  
systematically removed carious baking and
investment restrictions.  Because of such phenomenon, countries like Spain
and Greece are heavily  indebted, and debt relief
The scaling back of restrictions continued until the has come at a high price. Greece, in particular, has 
2000s, paving the way for a brewing crisis. In their been force by Germany and the IMF to cut back on
attempt to promote the free market, its social and public  spending. Affecting services
government authorities failed to regulate bad like pensions, health care and various form of 
investments occurring in the US housing market. social security, these cuts have been felt mostly
Taking advantage of “cheap housing loans,” acutely by the poor. Moreover,  the reduction in
Americans began building houses that were government spending has slowed down growth
beyond their financial capacities.  and ensured  high level of unemployment. 

The United State recovered relatively because of a

To mitigate the risk of these loans, banks that were
large Keynesian-style  stimulus package that the
lending house owner’s  money pooled these
president Barack Obama pushed for in his first
mortgage payments and sold them as “mortgage-
month  in office. In Europe, the continuing
backed  securities” (MBSs). One MBS would be
economic crisis has sparked a political  upheaval.
combination of multiple mortgages that they
Recently, far-right parties like Marine Le Pen’s
assumed would pay a steady rate. 
Front National in  France have risen to prominence
The mortgage-backed security by unfairly blaming immigrant for their woes, 
turns the bank into a claiming that they steal jobs and leech off welfare.
middleman between the These movements blend  popular resentment with
homebuyer and the investment utter hatred and racism.  
industry. A bank can grant
mortgages   E. Economic Globalization Today 
to its customers and then sell
them on at a   The global financial crisis will take decade to
discount for inclusion in an MBS.  resolve. The solutions proposed by  certain
nationalist and leftist group pf closing the national
Since there was so much surplus money circulating, economies to world  trade, however, will no longer
the demand for MBS increased as investors work. The world has become too integrated. 
clamored for more investment opportunities. In Whatever one’s opinion about the Washington
their haste issue these loans, however, the bank Consensus is, it is undeniable that  some form of
became less discriminating. They   international trade remains essential for countries
  to develop in the  contemporary world.
began extending loans to families and individuals
with dubious credit records – people who unlikely
Exports, not just the local selling of goods and
to pay their loans back. These high-risk mortgages
services, make national  economies grow at
became known as sub-prime mortgages. 
present. In the past, those that benefited the most
Financial experts wrongly assumed that, even if form free  trade were the advance nations that were
many of the borrowers were individual and producing and selling industrial and  agricultural
families who would struggle to pay, majority goods. The United States, Japan and the member-
would not default.  Moreover, banks though that countries of the  European Union were responsible
since were so many mortgages in just one MBS, a for 65 percent of global exports, while the 
few failures would not ruin the entirety of the developing countries only accounted for 29
investment.  percent. When more countries  opened up their
economies to take advantage of increase free trade,
Bank also assumed that housing prices would the shares  of the percentage began to change. The
continue to increase. Therefore, even if WTO-led reduction of trade barriers,  known as
homeowner defaulted on their loans, these banks trade liberalization, has profoundly altered the
could simply reacquire the homes and sell then at a dynamics of the global  economy. 
higher price, turning profit. 
In the recent decade, partly as a result of these
Sometime in 2007, however, home prices stopped increased exports, economic  globalization has
increasing as supply caught up with the demand. ushered in an unprecedented spike in global
Moreover, it slowly became apparent that families growth rates.  According to the IMF, the global per
could not pay off their loans. This realization capita GDP rose over five-fold in the second  half
triggered the rapid reselling of MBS, as banks and of the 20th century. It was this growth created the
large Asian economies  like Japan, China, Korean, assets in more than one
Hong King and Singapore.  country, produces goods or
services outside its country of
Still, the economic globalization remains an origin, or engages in
uneven process, with some countries,  corporations international production"
and individuals benefiting a lot more than the
others. The series of  trade talk under the WTO
have led to unprecedented reductions in tariffs and 
other trade barriers, but these processes have often
Lesson 3: A History of
been unfair.  Global Politics: Creating
Developed countries are often protectionist, as an International Order
they repeatedly refuse to lift  policies that
safeguard their primary product that could 1. Identify key events in the
otherwise be  overwhelmed by imports form the development of international
developing countries.   relations;
2. Differentiate internationalization
from globalization; 
Japan  United States 3. Define the state and the nation;  
4. Distinguish between the competing
Refusal to allow rice Fiercely protects its conception of internationalism; and 5.
imports into the  sugar industry,  Discuss the historical evolution of
country to protect its forcing consumers international politics. 
farming sector.  and sugar
Japan’s justification is independent business This lesson we will identify the major attributes of
that rice is  “sacred”. to pay higher  prices contemporary global politics and how did system
Ultimately, it is instead of getting emerge for you to have foundation to understand
economic  muscle as cheaper sugar  from the major issues of global  governance. 
the third largest plantation of Central
economy  that allows it America.
to resist pressures to  The world is composed of many countries or states,
open its agricultural all of them having different forms of government.
section. Some scholars of politics are interested in
individual states and examine the internal politics.
Faced with these blatantly protectionist measures Other scholars are more interested in the interaction
from powerful countries and  blocs, poorer between states rather than their internal politics.
countries can do very little to make economic Theses scholars look at trade deals between states.
globalization more  just. Trade imbalances, They also study political, military and other
therefore, characterize economic relations between diplomatic engagements 2between two or more
developed and developing countries.  countries. These scholars are studying international
The beneficiaries of global commerce have been relation. 
mainly Transnational  Corporations (TNCs) and International Relation
not government. And like any other business, these
TNCs are concerned more with profits than with it is the study of political, military and other
assisting the social programs of  the government diplomatic engagement between two or more
hosting them. Host countries, in turn, loosen tax countries. The way in which two or more
laws, which  prevent wages from rising, while countries  
sacrificing social and environmental programs
that protect the underprivileged members of their interact with and regard each other, especially in
societies. The term “race to  bottom” refers to the context of political, economic, or cultural
countries lowering their labor standards, including relationships. 
the  Internationalization
Refers to deepening interaction
protection of workers’ interest, to lure in foreign between the states.  -it is the state or
investors seeking high profit  margins at the lowest process of being international. 
cost possible. Government weaken environmental
law to  attract investors, creating fatal Internationalization does not equal globalization,
consequences on their ecological balance and although it is a major part of  globalization.
depleting them of their finite resources (like oil, Globalization encompasses multitude of
coal and minerals).  connections and interactions that  cannot be
reduced to the ties between governments.
Nevertheless, it is important to  study international
A transnational corporation relations as a facet of globalization, because
(TNC) is "any enterprise that states/governments are  key drivers of global
undertakes foreign direct process. 
investment, owns or controls
income-gathering   A. The Attributes of Today’s Global System 
World politics today has four key attributes:  3. Government 
 The agency or instrumentality through
1. There are countries or states that are independent
which the will of the state is  formulated
and govern themselves; 
expressed and realized. 
2. These countries interact with each other
through diplomatic relations;
The Philippines observed presidential
3. There are international organization that
form of government. 
facilitates interaction; and
4. International organization also takes lives
on their own.  Three main branch of Philippines government: 
a. Executive – vested to President 
What are the origins of this system? It is b. Legislative –vested to Congress 
important to determine first the meaning of a  c. Judiciary –vested to Supreme Court 
“country” or what academic also called the
nation-state”. The nation-state is composed  4. Sovereignty 
of non-interchangeable terms. Not all states
 The supreme and uncontrollable power
are nations and not all nations are states. 
inherent in a state by which that state is
Example: The nation of Scotland has its own flag governed. 
and national culture, but still belongs to a state
called the United Kingdom.  Kinds of sovereignty: 
a. Internal –the supreme power over everything
What is the difference between nation and state? In
within its territory. No individual or group can
layman‟s term, state refers to a country and its
operate in a given national territory by ignoring
government. 
the State. 
Nation b. External – freedom from external control.
The States policies and procedures are
 a large area of land that is controlled by its independent of the interventions of other
own government.  States. 
 Is an ethnic or racial concept. 
 According to Benedict Anderson, it is an B. The Interstate System 
“imagined community”. It is limited
because: (1) it does not go beyond a given The origin of present day concept of sovereignty
„official boundary and  (2) rights and can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia. 
responsibilities are mainly privilege and
concern of the  citizen of nation.  Treaty of Westphalia  
 Limited means a nation has it boundaries.  Agreement signed in 1648 to end the thirty years‟
State war between the major  continents of powers of
Europe. 
 a community of persons, more or less
The Westphalian system provided stability for the
numerous, permanently  occupying a
nations of Europe, until it  faced it first major
definite portion of territory, independent of
challenge by Napoleon Bonaparte.
external control, and  possessing a
government which great body of inhabitants
render habitual  obedience.  Bonaparte believed in spreading the principle of
French Revolution – liberty,  equality and fraternity
Elements or attributes of State: 
to the rest of Europe and thus challenged the power 
1. Citizen (people)  of Kings, nobility and religion in Europe.  
Membership in a political community which is
personal and more or less permanent in character.
The Napoleonic War lasted from 1803 to 1815 with
Modes of acquiring citizenship  Napoleon and his  armies marching all over much
a. By birth  of Europe. In every country they conquered,  they
I. Jus sanguinis  implement the Napoleonic Code – forbade birth
II. Jus soli  privileges,  encourage freedom or religion and
promoted Meritocracy government3. This  system
b. By naturalization 
shocked the monarchies and the hereditary elites of
c. By Marriage  Europe, and  they mustered their armies to push
back against the French emperor. 
2. Territory 
 An area of land that belongs to or
is controlled by a government.  The Napoleonic Code (Code Napoléon) was a
 The territory of the Philippines is unified legal code  
embodied in Article 1 Section 1 produced in post-revolutionary France and
of the  1987 Philippine enacted by Napoleon in  
Constitutions. 
1804. Napoleon gave the laws his name, and
they largely remain in  
place in France today. They also heavily
influenced world laws in the  
19th century. It is easy to imagine how the
conquering Emperor could  
spread a legal system across Europe, but it
might have surprised many  
of his day to know long it outlasted him.  Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is the central
figure in  modern philosophy. He synthesized
early modern  rationalism and empiricism, set
In 1815 the Anglo and Prussian armies defeated the terms for much of  nineteenth and
Napoleon in the Battle of  Waterloo, ending twentieth century philosophy, and  
Napoleon’s mission to spread his liberal code continues to exercise a significant influence
across  Europe. To prevent another war and to keep today in  metaphysics, epistemology, ethics,
their system of privilege, the  royal powers created political philosophy,  aesthetics, and other
a new system was created, in effect restored the  fields. 
Westphalian system, the Concert of Europe. 
The Concert of Europe is an alliance of “great Kant likened states in a global system to
powers”, United Kingdom,  Austria, Russia and people living in a given territory. If people 
Prussia. The concert sought to restore the world of  living together require government to prevent
monarchial hereditary and religious privileges of lawlessness, shouldn’t that same  principle be
the time before the French  Revolution and the applied to states? Without form of world
Napoleonic Wars. More importantly, it was an government, he argued, the  international
alliance  that sought restores the sovereign of the system would chaotic. Therefore, states, like
states.  citizens of countries  must give up some
freedom and “establish a continuously
Metternich System was created under the concert growing state consisting  of various nations
and named after the  Klemens von Metternich, when will ultimately include the nations of
system’s main architect, the concert power and  the world”. In short,  Kant imagined a form
authority lasted from 1815 to 1914.  of global government. 
Despite the challenge of Napoleon to the Writing in the late 18th century as well, British
Westpahlian system and the  eventual collapse of Philosopher Jeremy Bentham (who  coined the
the Concert of Europe after World War 1, present- word “international” in 1780), advocate the creation
day  international system still has traces of this of “international  law” that would govern the inter-
history.  state relations. He believed that objective global 
legislators should aim to propose legislation that
C. Internationalism   would create “the greatest  happiness of all nations
taken together.” 
The Westphalian and Concert systems divided the
world into separate, sovereign  entities. Since the To many, these proposals for global government
existence of this interstate system, there have been and international law seemed to  represent
attempts to  transcend it. Some like Bonaparte challenges to states. Would not a world
directly challenged the system by infringing on  government, in effect, become  supreme? And
other state‟s sovereignty, while others sought to would not is laws overwhelm the sovereignty in
imagine other system of  governance that go individual states? 
beyond, but do not necessarily challenge, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian patriot in 19th century,
sovereignty.   the first thinker to reconcile  nationalism with
Two Broad Categories of Internationalism  liberal internationalism. He was both an advocate
of unification  of the various Italian-speaking mini-
states and a major critic of the Metternich  system.
Meritocracy government- is a system of
He also believed in a republican government and
government based on rule by merit. In this context
proposed a system of  free nations that cooperated
“merit “means intelligence, effort and ability.
with each other to create international system. For 
him free and independent states would be the basis
1. Liberal Internationalism4  of free and cooperative  international system. He
2. Social Internationalism  also believes that free, unified nation-state should
be the basis of global cooperation.

Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher in 18th

century, is the first major thinker of  liberal Liberal internationalism is a set of related concepts
internationalism.  on how to best organize international relations
between  states and non-state actors that emphasize
a belief in international progress, interdependence,
cooperation,  diplomacy, multilateralism, and
support for international political structures and Health Organization  (WHO) and International
organizations. Labour Organization (ILO). More importantly, it
would  serve as the blueprint for future forms of
international cooperation.  
Karl Marx he is the biggest critic of Mazzini, he
differed from the later because he  did not believe
in nationalism. He believes that any true form of
internationalism  should be deliberately reject
nationalism, which rooted in people domestic 
concerns instead of global ones. Instead, Marx
placed a premium on economic  equality; he did not
divide the world into countries but into two classes:
(1)  Capitalist class, referred to the owners of
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) factories, companies and other means of 
production; (2) Proletariat class, those who did not
own means product but work  for capitalist.
was a writer and political activist who strived to
found a unified democratic republic of  
Italy. Throughout his life, he founded and Karl Marx (1818-1883)
supported revolutionary groups who sought to free
Italy of foreign powers and unite the different was a German political philosopher  
states. During his lifetime, his aspirations were who laid a theoretical framework for Communism.
only partially fulfilled, and he considered   a radical alternative to capitalist society. With his
himself to have failed. But, when Italy was finally collaborator Frederich Engels, he wrote the best-
united, Mazzini was credited with playing a selling “Communist Manifesto”  
significant role. Mazzini also helped define early (1848) which sought to ferment Communist
ideas of a united Europe and was a leading figure in revolution around the world. Marx had a powerful
the European movement for popular democracy in influence over the ideological struggle of the
a republican state.  twentieth century. 

President Woodrow Wilson (USA, 1913-1921) was Marx and his co-author, Friedrich Engels, believed
influenced by the thinking of  Mazzini. He saw that that in a socialist revolution  seeking to overthrow
nationalism as a prerequisite for the state and alter the economy, the proletariat “had
internationalization. Because  of his faith in no  nation”. Hence, their now famous battle cry,
internationalism, he forwarded the principle of self- “Workers of the world, unite! You  have nothing to
determination - the belief that the world’s nation lose but your chains.” They opposed nationalism
has a right to free and sovereign government. He  because they  believed it prevented the unification
hoped that free nations would become democracies, of the world‟s workers. Instead of identifying  with
because only by being such  would they be able to other workers, nationalism could make workers in
build free system of international relation based on  individual countries identify  with the capitalist of
international law and operation. He became the their countries. 
most notable advocate for the  creation of the The vision of Marx continues even after he died,
League of Nations. At the end of World War I in his followers establish an  international
1918, He pushed  to transform the league into a organization, the Socialist International (SI), was a
venue for conciliation and arbitration to prevent  union in European  socialist and labor parties
another war.   established in Paris in 1889. Although short-lived,
The league came into being that same year. the  SI‟s achievement included the declaration of
Ironically and unfortunately for  Wilson, the US May 1 as Labor Day and the creation  of an
was not able to join the organization due to strong International Women‟s Day. Most importantly, it
opposition from  the Senate. The league was also initiated the successful  campaign for an 8-hour
unable to hinder another war from breaking out.  It workday. 
was practically helpless to prevent the onset and The SI collapsed during WWI as the member
intensification of World War II.  On one side of the parties refused or were unable to  join the
war were the Axis Powers –Hitler‟s Germany, international efforts to fight for the war. Many of
Mussolini‟s Italy  and Hirohito‟s Japan –who were these sister parties even  ended up fighting each
ultra-nationalists that had an instinctive disdain  for other. It was a confirmation of Marx‟s warning:
internationalism and preferred to violently impose when  workers and their organization take the side
their dominance over the  nations. It was in the of their countries instead of each  other, their long-
midst of this year between Axis Powers and Allied term interests is compromised. 
Powers  (composed of the US, UK, France, Holland
and Belgium) that internationalism  would be When the SI collapsed more radical version
eclipsed.  emerged like in the case of Bolshevik  party and its
leader Vladimir Lenin. They did not believe in
The league failed to prevent another war but it gave obtaining power for the  working class through
birth to some of the more  task-specific election, rather, they exhorted to revolutionary
international organization which include World
“vanguard”  parties which today partied referred to This lesson examined the roots of the international
as Communist party system. In tracing these roots, a  short history of
internationalism was provided. Moreover,
.  internationalism is one  window into broader
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known as phenomenon of globalization. Nevertheless, it is a
Lenin (April 22, 1870 – January 21, 1924) very crucial  aspect of globalization since global
was a Russian  revolutionary and the leader of interactions are heightened by the increased 
the Bolshevik party. He  was the first leader interdependence of states. This increased
of the USSR and the Communist  government interdependence manifests not just through  state-
that took over Russia in 1917. Lenin is also  to-state relations. Increasingly, international
known as the creator of Leninism a version relations are also facilitated by  international
of  Communism that he adapted for the Soviet organizations that promote global norms and
Union. policies. The most prominent  example of this
organization is the United Nations.

The Communist International (Commenter) was

established in 1919 to encourage  socialist
revolution across the world. The Comnitern served Lesson 4: The United Nations
as the central body for  directing Communist parties
all over the world. Many of the world‟s states
and Contemporary
feared  the Comintern, believing that it was Global Governance 
working in secret to stir up revolutions in their 
countries. A problem arose during WWII when the Although many internationalists like Bentham and
Soviet Union joined the Allied  Kant imagined the possibility of  global
government, nothing of the sort exists today. There
Powers in 1941. The United States and the United is no one organization  that various states are
Kingdom would not trust the  Soviet Union in their accountable. Moreover, no organization can
fight against Hitler‟s Germany. These countries military compel a  state to obey predetermined
wondered if  the Soviet Union was trying to global rules. There is, however, some regularity in
promote revolutions in their backyards. To  the  general behavior of states. For example, they
appeased his allies. Lenin‟ successor, Joseph more or less follow global navigation  routes and,
Stalin, dissolved the Comintern.  more often than not, respect each other’s territorial
boundaries.  Moreover, when they do not – like
In 1943 the Comintern was dissolve by Joseph when Russia invaded Crimea in 2014 – it  
Stalin after arose during WWII,  when the Soviet
Union joined allied power. After the war, Stalin re- becomes a cause for global concern and debate.
established  Comintern as the communist The fact that states in an  international order
Information Bureau (Cominform), help to direct continue to adhere to certain global norms means
the  various communist parties that had taken that there is a  semblance of world order despite
power Eastern Europe when the US, the  Soviet the lack of a single world government. Global 
Union, and Great Britain divided the war-torn governance refers to various intersecting processes
Europe into their respective  spheres of influence. that create this order.  
The Cominform, like the Comintern, helped direct
the various  communist parties that had taken There are many sources of global governance.
power in Eastern Europe.  State sign treaties and form  organizations, in the
process legislating public international law
The collapsed of the Soviet Union in 1991,
(international rules  that govern interactions
whatever existing thought about  communist
between the states as opposed to, say, private
international also disappeared. The SI managed to
companies).  International Non-Governmental
re-establish itself  in1951, but its influence
Organizations (NGOs), though not having formal 
remained primarily confined to Europe and has
state power, can lobby individual stated to behave
been  considered a major player in international
in a certain way. For example an  international
relations until today. 
animal protection can pressure the governments to
After the wars, liberal internationalism would once pass animal cruelty  laws. Powerful transnational
again be ascendant. And the  best evidence of this corporation can likewise have tremendous effects
is the rise of the United Nations as the center of on  global labor laws, environmental legislation,
global  governance.  trade policy, etc. Even ideas such as the  need for
“global democracy” or the clamor for “good
governance” can influence the  ways international
The United Nations is an international actors behave. 
organization  founded in 1945. It is currently
made up of 193 Member  States. The mission A. What is an International Organization? 
and work of the United Nations are  guided
by the purposes and principles contained in International organization, institution drawing
its  founding Charter. membership from at least three  states, having
activities in several states, and whose members are
held together  by a formal agreement.2 When authority. They can, therefore, create norms
scholars refer to groups like the UN or institutions  regarding the  implementation and
like the IMF and the World Bank, they usually call conceptualization of development projects. 
them international  organizations (IOs).  
Because of these immense powers, IOs can be
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a non- sources of great good and great  harm. They can
profit, citizen-based group that  functions promote relevant norms like environmental
independently of government. NGOs, sometimes protection and  human rights. But, like other
called civil societies,  are organized on entrenched bureaucracies, they can become sealed
community, national and international levels to off communities that fail to challenges their
serve specific  social or political purposes, and are beliefs. For example, the Nobel  Prize-winning
cooperative, rather than commercial, in  nature. economist Joseph Stiglitz famously criticized the
Although international NGOs refer to international IMF from using a  “one-size-fits-all” approach
intergovernmental  organizations or groups that are when its economist made recommendation to 
primarily made up of member-states.  developing countries.  

One major fallacy about international B. The United Nations  

organizations is that they are merely 
amalgamations of various state interests. In 1960s The United Nations is an international organization
and 1970s, many scholars  believed that IOs were founded in 1945. It is  currently made up of 193
just a venue where contradicting, but sometimes  Member States. The mission and work of the
intersecting, agendas of countries were discussed – United  Nations are guided by the purposes and
no more than talk shops.  What has become more principles contained in its founding  Charter. 
evident in recent years, however, is that IOs can on
lives  of their own. For example, the IMF was able Due to the powers vested in its Charter3and its
to promote a particular form of  economic unique international character,  the United Nations
orthodoxy that stemmed mainly from the beliefs of can take action on the issues confronting humanity
its professional  economists. IOs can thus become in the  
influential as independent organizations.    
International relations scholars Michael N. Barnett 3
The Charter of the United Nations was signed on
and Martha Finnemore listed  the following 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion
powers of IOs.  of the United Nations  Conference on
International Organization, and came into force
First, IOs have the power of classification. on 24 October 1945. The Statute of the
Because IOs can invent and apply  categories, they International Court of Justice  is an integral part
create powerful global standards. For example, it is of the Charter.
the UN High  Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) that defines what a refugee is. And 21st century, such as peace and security, climate
since  states are required to accept refugees change, sustainable  development, human rights,
entering their borders, this power to  establish disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health 
identity has concrete effects.  emergencies, gender equality, governance, food
production, and more. 
Second, IOs have the power to fix meanings. This
is a broader function related  to the first. Various The UN also provides a forum for its members to
terms like “security” or “development” need to be express their views in the  General Assembly, the
well defined. States, organizations, and individuals Security Council, the Economic and Social
view IOs as legitimate sources of  information. As Council, and  other bodies and committees. By
such, the meanings they create have effects on enabling dialogue between its members, and  by
various policies.  For example, recently, the United hosting negotiations, the Organization has become
Nations has started to define security as not  just a mechanism for  governments to find areas of
safety from military violence, but also from agreement and solve problems together.4 
environmental harm. 
Having examined the powers, limitations and
Finally, IOs have the power to diffuse norms. weaknesses of IOs, the spotlight  will now fall in
Norms are accepted codes of  conduct that may not the most prominent IO in the contemporary world,
be strict law, but nevertheless produce regularity the United  Nations (UN). After the collapse of the
in  behavior. IOs do not only classify and fix League of Nations at the end of WWII,  countries
meanings; they also spread their ideas  across the that worried about another global war began to
world, thereby establishing global standards. Their push for the formation  of a more lasting
members are, as Barnett and Finnemore, international league. The result was the creation of
emphasized, the “missionaries” of our time. Their the UN.  Although the organization is far from
power  to diffuse norms stems from the fact that perfect, it should be emphasized that it has  do far
IOs are staffed with the independent  achieved its primary goal of averting another
bureaucracies, who are considered experts in global war. For this reason  alone, the UN should
various fields. For example, World  Bank be considered a success. 
economists come to be regarded as experts in
development and thus carry  some form of
Main Organs  The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945
by the UN Charter,  under Chapter XIII, to provide
The main organs of the UN are General Assembly, international supervision for 11 Trust  Territories
the Security Council, the  Economic and Social that had been placed under the administration of
Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International seven  Member States, and ensure that adequate
Court of  Justice, and the UN Secretariat. All were steps were taken to prepare  the Territories for self-
established in 1945 when the UN was  founded.   government and independence. By 1994, all Trust 
Territories had attained self-government or
1. General Assembly  independence. The  Trusteeship Council suspended
operation on 1 November 1994. By a  resolution
The General Assembly is the main deliberative, adopted on 25 May 1994, the Council amended its
policymaking and  representative organ of the UN. rules of  procedure to drop the obligation to meet
All 193 Member States of the UN are  represented annually and agreed to meet as  occasion required
in the General Assembly, making it the only UN -- by its decision or the decision of its President, or
body with  universal representation. Each year, in the request of a majority of its members or the
September, the full UN  membership meets in the General Assembly or the  Security Council. 8 
General Assembly Hall in New York for the 
annual General Assembly session, and general 5. International Court of Justice 
debate, which many heads  of state attend and
address. Decisions on important questions, such as  The International Court of Justice is the principal
those on peace and security, admission of new judicial organ of the  United Nations. Its seat is at
members and budgetary  matters, require a two- the Peace Palace in The Hague  (Netherlands). It is
thirds majority of the General Assembly. the only one of the six principal organs of the
Decisions  on other questions are by simple United  Nations not located in New York (United
majority. The General Assembly, each  year, elects States of America). The Court’s  role is to settle, in
a GA President to serve a one-year term of office.5  accordance with international law, legal disputes 
submitted to it by States and to give advisory
2. Security Council  opinions on legal questions  referred to it by
authorized United Nations organs and specialized 
The Security Council has primary responsibility, agencies.9 
under the UN Charter, for  the maintenance of
international peace and security. It has 15 Only States (States Members of the United Nations
Members  (5 permanent and 10 non-permanent and other States which  have become parties to the
members). Each Member has one  vote. Under the Statute of the Court or which have accepted  its
Charter, all Member States are obligated to comply jurisdiction under certain conditions) may be
with  Council decisions. The Security Council parties to contentious  cases. 
takes the lead in determining the  existence of a
threat to the peace or act of aggression. It calls 6. Secretariat 
upon the  parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful
means and recommends  methods of adjustment or The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General
terms of settlement. In some cases, the  Security and tens of thousands of  international UN staff
Council can resort to imposing sanctions or even members who carry out the day-to-day work of
authorize the  use of force to maintain or restore the  UN as mandated by the General Assembly and
international peace and security. The  Security the Organization's other  principal organs. The
Council has a Presidency, which rotates, and Secretary-General is chief administrative officer
changes, every  month.6  of  the Organization, appointed by the General
Assembly on the  recommendation of the Security
Council for a five-year, renewable term.  UN staff
3. Economic and Social Council  members are recruited internationally and locally,
and work in  duty stations and on peacekeeping
The Economic and Social Council is the principal missions all around the world. But  serving the
body for coordination,  policy review, policy cause of peace in a violent world is a dangerous
dialogue and recommendations on economic, occupation.  Since the founding of the United
social  and environmental issues, as well as Nations, hundreds of brave men and  women have
implementation of internationally  agreed given their lives in its service.10 
development goals. It serves as the central
mechanism for  activities of the UN system and its
specialized agencies in the economic,  social and
environmental fields, supervising subsidiary and C. Challenges of the United Nations 
expert  bodies. It has 54 Members, elected by the
General Assembly for  overlapping three-year Given the scope of the UN’s activities, it naturally
terms. It is the United Nations’ central platform faces numerous challenges.  Chief among these are
for  reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on the limits placed upon various organs and
sustainable development.7  programs by  the need to respect state’s
sovereignty. The UN is not a world government,
4. Trusteeship Council  and  its functions primarily because of voluntary
cooperation from the states. If states  refuse to
cooperate, the influence of the UN can be severely This lesson has focused on the International
circumscribed. For   Organizations (IO) and the United  Nations (UN)
in particular. International organizations are
example, the UN Council on Human Rights can highlighted because  they are the most visible
send special rapporteurs to  countries where symbols of global governance. The UN, in
alleged human rights violations are occurring. If a particular, is the closest to a world government.
country does  not invite the rapporteurs or places What is important to remember is that 
conditions on his/her activities, however, this  international institutions like the UN are always in
information-gathering mechanism usually fails to precarious position.  
achieve its goals. 
On the other hand, they are groups of sovereign
However, perhaps the biggest challenge of the states. On the other, they are  organizations with
United Nations is related to issue  of security. As their own rationalities and agendas. It is the
mentioned, the UN Security Council is tasked with tension that will  continue to inform the evolution
authorizing  international acts of military of these organizations. However, note that there 
intervention. Because of the P5’s veto power, it is  are many institutions, groups and ideas that hold
tough for the council to release a formal resolution, international and global politics  together.
much more implement it.  This became as issue,
for example, in the late 1990s when leader
Slodoan  Milosevic was committing acts of ethnic
cleansing against Muslim Albanians in  the LESSON 5: A World of
province of Kosovo. Hundreds and thousands of Regions  
Albanian were victims of  massacres, mass
deportation and internal displacement. Amid this The contemporary world is an ever-
systematic  terror, members of the North Atlantic changing mix of social and political
Treaty Organization (NATO), let by the  United changes. While religious, political, and
States, sought Security Council authorization to ethnic conflicts continue, we are
intervene the Kosovo war  on humanitarian currently living in one of the most
grounds. China and Russia, however, threatened to peaceful eras in the history of the
veto any  actions, rendering the UN incapable of planet. Challenges of the 21st century
addressing the crisis. In response, NATO  decided include emerging technologies, health
to intervene on its own. Though the NATO care, overpopulation, climate change,
intervention was largely a  success, it, poverty, illiteracy, disease, and
nevertheless, left the UN ineffectual.  migration. How we choose to deal with
these emerging frontiers will shape this
Today, a similar dynamic is evident in Syria, unit for future generations.1 
which is undergoing a civil war,  Russia has
threatened to veto any SC resolution against Syria; Unit 1: The Structures of Globalization 
thus, the UN has  done very little to stop state-
sanctioned violence against opponents of the  This unit will introduce the student the
government. Since Syrian President Bashar al- various drivers of the globalization
Assad is an ally of Russian dictator  Vladimir process, with specific focus on
Putin, the latter has shield away from any policy economics and politics. Although it
that could weaken the  legitimacy of the former. emphasizes student’s
As a result, the UN is again ineffectual amid a experience globalization on an
conflict  that has led to over 220,000 people dead everyday level, also to realize that there
and 11 million displaced.   are big institutions that create large-
scale changes. This unit will first trace
Despite these problems, it remains important for the emergences of these
the SC to place a high bar on  military institutions historically. It will then
intervention. The UN Security Council has been move on to explain how they affect the
wrong on issues of  intervention, but it has also countries and people today. 
made right decision. When the United States
sought  to invade Iraq in 2001, it claimed that Major learning outcomes of this unit are: 
Iraq’s Saddam Hussein had weapon of  mass
destruction (WMD) that threatened the world. 1. Analyze the various contemporary drivers of
However, UN members  Russia, China, and France globalization; and 
were unconvinced and vetoed the UN resolution 2. Describe the emergence of Global economic
for  intervention, forcing the United States to lead and political systems. 
a small “coalition of the willing”  with its allies. It
has since been discovered that there were no
weapons of mass  destruction and the invasion of Lesson 5: A World of Regions 
Iraq has caused problems for the country and the  Learning outcomes: 
region that last until today.   1. Differentiate regionalization and globalization; 
2. Explain how regions are formed and kept
SUMMARY  together; 
3. Discuss the advantages and dis advantages of ship  carrying different commodities
regionalism; and  from Africa, Europe, the Middle East
4. Identify the factors leading to a greater and mainland  Southeast Asia to
integration of the Asian’s region.  countries in the Asia-Pacific. In most
cases, countries form  regional alliance
Governments, associations, societies and groups for –as the saying goes –there is
form regional organizations and/or networks as a strength in numbers. 
way of coping with the challenges of globalization.
Globalization has made people aware of the world Countries form regional association for
in general, but it has also made Filipinos several reasons. One is for military
more cognizant of specific areas such as Southeast defense.  The most widely known
Asia.  defense grouping is the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization  (NATO) formed
Regionalism is often seen as political and economic during the Cold War when several
phenomenon; the term actually encompasses a Western European countries plus 
broader area. It can be examined in relation to United States agreed to protect Europe
identities, ethics, religion, ecological, sustainability against the threat of the Soviet Union.
and health. Regionalism is also the process, The Soviet Union in responded by
and must be treated as an “emergent, socially creating it regional alliance, Warsaw
constituted phenomenon.” It means that regions are Pact, consisting  Eastern European
not natural or given, rather, they are constructed and countries under Soviet domination. The
define by policymaker, economic actors and even Soviet Union imploded in December
social movement.  1991, but NATO remains in place. 

Countries form regional association to

A. Countries, Regions, and Globalization 
pool their resources, get better return
for their exports, as well as expand their
Edward D. Mansfield and Helen V. leverage against trading partners.
Miller states that economic and The Organization of the Petroleum
political definitions of regions vary, but Exporting Countries (OPEC) was
there are certain basic features that established in 1960 by Iran, Iraq,
everyone can agree on:  Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela to
regulate the production and sale of oil.
First, regions are “a group of countries This regional alliance flexed its
located in the same geographically muscles in the 1970s when its
specified  area”; or “an amalgamation member countries too over domestic
of two regions or combination of more production and dictated crude oil prices
than two  regions” organized to regulate in the world market. In a world
and oversee flow and policy choices. dependent on oil, this integration
Second, the words Regionalization and became source of immense power.
Regionalism should not be OPEC’s success convinced nine other
interchanged, as the former  “refers to oil-producing countries to join it.
the regional concentration of economic
flow” while the latter “is a political 
process characterized by economic Moreover, there are countries form
policy cooperation and coordination regional blocs to protect their
among  countries.”  independence from the pressure of
superpower politics. The presidents of
Countries respond economically and Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia and
politically to globalization in various Yugoslavia created the Non-Aligned
ways.  Some are large enough and have Movement (NAM) in 1961 to pursue
a lot of resources to dictate how they world peace and international
participate  in process of global cooperation, human rights, national
integration. China, for example, offers sovereignty, racial and national
its cheap and huge  workforce to attract equality, non-intervention and peaceful
foreign business and expand trade with conflict resolution. It called itself non-
countries it once  considered its aligned because the association refused
enemies but now sees as markets for it to side either the First World capitalist
goods (e.g. the United States  and democracies in Western Europe and
Japan). Other countries make up for North America of the communist states
their small size by taking advantages of  in Eastern Europe. At its peak, the
their strategic location. Singapore and NAM had 120 countries. The
Switzerland compensate for their lack movement, however, was never
of  resources by turning themselves into formalized and continues to exist up to
financial and banking hubs. Singapore  the present, although it lacks the same
developed its harbour facilities and fervor that it had in the past. 
made them a first class transit port for
Finally, economic crisis compels
countries to come together. The Thai 3. To promote active collaboration and
economy collapsed in 1996 after mutual assistance on matters of
foreign currency speculators and common interest in the economic,
troubled international banks demanded social, cultural, technical, scientific
that the Thai government pay back its and administrative fields; 
loans. A rapid withdrawal of foreign
investments bankrupted the economy. 4. To provide assistance to each other
This crisis began to spread to other in the form of training and
Asian countries as their currencies were research facilities in the educational,
as devalued and foreign professional, technical and
investments left in a hurry. The IMF administrative spheres; 
tried to reverse the crisis, but it was
only after the ASEAN countries along 5. To collaborate more effectively for
with China, Japan and South Korea the greater utilization of their
agreed to establish an emergency fund agriculture and industries, the
to anticipate a crisis that the Asian expansion of their trade, including the
economies stabilized.  study of the problems of international
commodity trade, the improvement of
The crisis made ASEAN more “unified their transportation and
and coordinated.” The association has communications facilities and the
come  way since it was formed as a raising of the living standards of their
coalition of countries which were pro- peoples; 
American and  supportive of the United
State intervention in Vietnam. After the 6. To promote Southeast Asian studies; and 
Vietnam War,  ASEAN continued to
act as a military alliance to isolate 7. To maintain close and beneficial
Vietnam after it invaded  Cambodia, cooperation with existing
but there were also the beginning of international and regional organizations
economic cooperation.  with similar aims and purposes, and
explore all avenues for even closer
The Association of Southeast Asian cooperation among themselves.
Nations, or ASEAN, was established on
8 August  1967 in Bangkok, Thailand,
with the signing of the ASEAN B. Non-State Regionalism 
Declaration (Bangkok  Declaration) by
the Founding Fathers of ASEAN, Not only states that agree to work
namely Indonesia, Malaysia,  together in the name of single cause. 
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Communities also engage in regional
Brunei Darussalam then joined on 7 organizing referred to as
January  1984, Viet Nam on 28 July “new regionalism”. New regionalism
1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23 varies form: 
July 1997, and  Cambodia on 30 April
a. Can be a tiny association that include
1999, making up what is today the ten
no more than a few actors and focus on
Member States of  ASEAN.2 
single issue; or 
b. Huge continental unions that address a multitude
Aims and Purposes  common problem. 
As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and
purposes of ASEAN are: 
Organizations representing this new
regionalism likewise rely on the power
1. To accelerate the economic growth, of  individuals, non-government
social progress and cultural  organizations (NGOs) and association
development in the region through joint to link up one  another in pursuit of a
endeavors in the spirit of equality  and particular goal (goals). New
partnership in order to strengthen the regionalism is identified with  reformist
foundation for a prosperous  and who shares the same “values, norms,
peaceful community of Southeast Asian institutions and system that exist 
Nations;  outside of traditional, established
mainstream institutions and systems.” 
2. To promote regional peace and
stability through abiding respect for Their strategies and tactics likewise
justice and the rule of law in the vary. Some organizations partner with 
relationship among countries of governments to initiate social change.
the region and adherence to the Those who work for government 
principles of the United Nations (“legitimize”) participate in n”
Charter;  institutional mechanism that afford
some civil  society groups voice and
influence (in) technocratic policy- impact in global politics is,  therefore,
making processes. For  example, the limited. 
ASEAN issued its Human Rights
Declaration in 2009, but the  regional New regionalism differs significantly
body left it to the member countries to from traditional state-to-state
apply the declaration principles  as they regionalism  when it comes to
see fit. Aware that democratic rights is identifying problems. For example,
limited in many ASEAN countries,   States treat poverty or  environmental
degradation as technical or economic
new regionalism organization used this issues that can be resolved  by refining
official declaration to pressure these existing programs of state agencies,
governments to pass laws and making minor changes in  economic
regulations that protects and promote policies and creating new offices that
human rights.  address these issues. However,  new
regionalism advocates such as the NGO
Global Forum see these issues are 
In South America, left-wing
reflections of flawed economic-
governments support the Hemispheric
development and environmental
Social  Alliance’s opposition to the
models. By  “flawed”, they mean
North American Free Trade Agreement
economic development plans that are
(NAFTA),  while members of the Mesa
market-based, profit driven, and hardly
de Articulacion de Associaciones
concerned with social welfare,
Nacionales y Redes  de ONGs de
especially among the poor. 
America Latina y El Caribe
(Roundtable of National Association
and  Networks and NGOs in Latin Another challenge for new regionalism
America and Caribbean) participate in is discord that may emerge among
“forums,  summits and dialogues with them.  For example, disagreement
president and ministers. Likewise, a surface over issues like gender and
group called the Citizen Diplomacy religion, with 
Forum tries to influence the policies
and programs of the  Organization of an pro-choice NGOs breaking from
ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human religious civil society groups that side
Rights was in part the  result of non- with the Church, Muslim imams, or
government organizations and civil government opposed to reproductive
society groups pushing to  prevent rights and other pro-women policies.
discrimination, uphold political Moreover, while civil society groups
freedom, and promote democracy and  are able to dialogue with governments,
human rights throughout the region.  the latter may not be welcoming to this
new trend and set up one obstacle after
Other regional organizations dedicate another. Migrant Forum Asia and its
themselves to specialized causes. ally, the Coordination of Action
Activist across Central and South Research on AIDS (CARAM), lobbied
America established the Rainforest ASEAN governments to defend
Foundation to protect indigenous migrant labor rights. Their program of
peoples and the rainforest in Brazil, action, however, slowed down
Guyana, Panama and  Peru. Young once countries like Malaysia, Singapore
Christians across Asia, Africa, the and Thailand refused to recognize the
Middle East, the Americas and the  rights of undocumented migrant
Caribbean form Regional Interfaith workers and the rights of the families of
Youth Networks to promote “conflict,  migrants.  
preservation, resolution, peace,
education and sustainable development. C. Contemporary Challenges to Regionalism 
The  Migrants Forum in Asia is another
regional network of NGOs and trade Today, regionalism faces multiple
unions  “committed to protecting and challenges, the most serious if which is
promoting the rights and welfare of the resurgence of militant nationalism
migrant  workers.”  and populism. 

These organizations’ primary power Populism refers to political ideas

lies in their moral standing and their and activities that are intended to
ability  to combine lobbying with get the support of ordinary people
pressure politics. Unfortunately, most by giving them what they want.4 
of them are  poorly financed, which
places them at a disadvantage when
dealing with their  official counterparts The refusal to dismantle NATO after
who have large state funds. Their the collapsed of the Soviet Union
has become the basis of the anti-NATO implementation or lead to unclear
rhetoric of Vladimir Putin in Russia. outcomes. Democracy’s tedious 
Now, even the relationship of the procedure must, therefore, give way to
United States with NATO has become efficiency. 
problematic after Donald Trump
demonized the organization as simply Summary  
leeching off American military power
without giving them anything in return.  Governments, associations, societies
and groups form regional organizations
Perhaps the most crisis-ridden regional and/or  network as a way of coping
organization of today is the with the challenges of globalizations.
European Union. The Continuing Globalization has  made people aware
financial crisis of the region is forcing of the world in general, but it has also
countries like Greece to consider made the people more  cognizant of
leaving the Union to gain more specific areas such as Southeast Asia,
flexibility in their economic policy. an example of region.  Regionalism is
Anti-immigrant sentiment and a often seen as political and economic
populist campaign against Europe have  phenomenon, the term actually 
already led to the United Kingdom encompasses a broader area. Regions
voting to leave the European Union in a are not natural or given rather, they are 
move  the media has termed the constructed and defined by the
“Brexit.”  policymakers, economic actors and
even social  movements. There are
ASEAN members continue to disagree various ways hoe countries respond to
over the extent to which member  economic and political  globalization
countries should sacrifice their such as: (a) some are large enough and
sovereignty for the sake of regional have a lot of resources to  dictate how
stability. The  Association’s link the they participate in process of global
East Asia has also been problematic; integration and (b) Other countries 
Recently, ASEAN  countries also make up for their small size by taking
disagreed over how to relate to China, advantage of their strategic location.  
with the Philippines unable  to get the
other countries to support is Countries form regional association for
condemnation of China’s occupation several reasons: (1) for military
of  West Philippine Sea. Cambodia and defense; (2)  To pool their resources,
Laos led the opposition favouring get better return for their exports, as
diplomacy  over confrontation, but the well as expand their  leverage against
real reason was the dramatic increase of trading partners; (3) countries form
Chinese  investment and economic aid regional blocs to protect their 
to these countries. Moreover, when independence from the pressure of
some formerly  authoritarian countries superpower politics; and (4) economic
democratized, this “participatory crisis  compels countries to come
regionalism” clashed  with ASEAN’s together. 
policy of non-interference, as civil
society groups in Indonesia, the   Not only states that agree to work
together in the name of single cause. 
Philippines and Thailand demanded Communities also engage in regional
that the other countries democratized organizing referred to as new
adopt  a more open attitude toward regionalism. New  regionalism is
foreign criticism.  identified with reformist who shares the
same values, norms,  institutions and
A final challenge pertains to differing system that exist outside of traditional,
visions of what regionalism should be established mainstream  institutions and
for.  Western government may see systems. Their strategies and tactics
regional organizations not simply as likewise vary; (a) some  organization
economic  formation but also as partner with government to initiate
instruments of political social change; and (b) other regional 
democratization. Non-Western and  organizations dedicate themselves to
developing societies, however, may specialized causes. Challenges for new 
have a different view regarding regionalism: (a) most of them are
globalization,  development and poorly financed; (b) differs
democracy. Singapore, China and significantly from  traditional state-to-
Russia see democracy as an  obstacle to stare regionalism when it comes to
the implementation and deepening of identifying problem; and (c)  the
economic globalization because  of discord (disagreement) that may
constant public inquiry about economic emerge among them. 
projects and lengthy debate slow  down
 GUIDE QUESTIONS 
1. How regionalism
different form and yet
part of globalization? 2. RELIGION  GLOBALISM
What is the difference
between stat-to-state Concerned with sacred Places value on
regionalism and non- ideas  material wealth
state  regionalism? 
3. What triggers various Follows divine Abides by human
regionalist project. commandments  made laws

The possibility of Much on human

communication between action can lead
LESSON 6: The Globalization human and the to highest
transcendent  (the link material
of Religion between the human and satisfaction
the  divine, confers some and subsequent
Introduction  social power on  the latter) wisdom that his
new status
The contemporary world is an ever-
produces
changing mix of social and political
changes. While  religious, political, and ⇨ Religious Person   ⇨ Globalist  
ethnic conflicts continue, we are Less concerned with wealth Less worried
currently living in one of the  most and  about whether
peaceful eras in the history of the they will 
planet. Challenges of the 21st century
include  emerging technologies, health
care, overpopulation, climate change,
poverty, illiteracy,  disease, and all that come with it end up in heaven or hell.
migration. How we choose to deal with (higher   Their skills  
these emerging frontiers will shape  this social status, a are more pedestrian as
unit for future generations.1  standard of living   they aim to  
similar with that of seal trade deals, raise the
Unit 2: A World of Ideas: Cultures of the rest of profit of  
Globalization  the world)  private enterprise, and
improve government
This unit focuses on how the revenue.  
⮲Main duty is to live
globalization structures discussed in
a virtuous, sinless ⮲ Trains to be a shrewd
Unit 1 affect various  form of cultural
life  businessperson 
life. “Culture” is used here in the
broadest possible sense, referring to  ⮲Conspires to ⮲ Values politics and
the daily practices of people. Thus, if become a power as both means and
the first unit focused on a “large” form saint   ends to open up
of  globalization, this unit will zero in ⮲ Detest politics and further the economies of
on everyday globalizations in the the quest for power the world.  
realms of religion,  culture and city they are evidence ⮲ Spread goods and
life.  of  humanity’s services 
weakness 
Major learning outcome of this unit:  ⮲ Concerned with
1. To explain the role of global processes in the spreading holy
everyday life.  ideas globally

Lesson 6: The Globalization of Religion 

The religion regard identities associated
Learning outcomes:  with globalism (like citizenship,
1. Explain how globalization affects religious language  and race) as inferior and
practices and beliefs;  narrow because they are earthly
2. Identify the various religious responses to categories. In contrast,  membership to
globalization; and  a religious group, organization or cult
3. Discuss the future of religion in globalization represents a superior affiliation  that
world.  connects human directly to the divine
and the supernatural.  
Religion much more than culture
have the most difficult relationship A. Migration and Religion 
with globalism.  The two (religion
and globalism) are entirely Reasons: 
contrasting belief system. 
1. To practice their religion without the the Religion of the Federation” and the
meddling and control of “Rulers of each  state was also the
state authorities.  “Head of the Religion of Islam”.
2. In able to devote themselves to prayer and Therefore, Malaysia is an  example of
contemplation.  religious state. 
3. Non-believers will distract them
from their mission or tempt them According to the late Iranian religious
to abandon their faith and become leader, Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, 
sinners like everyone else.  bragged about the superiority of Islamic
4. Escape from persecution.  rule over its secular counterparts and 
pointed out that “there is no
Communities justify their opposition to fundamental distinction among
government authority on religious  constitutional,  despotic, dictatorial,
grounds. Priestess and monk led the democratic and communistic regimes.
first revolts against colonialism in Asia To him, all secular  ideologies were the
and  Africa, warning that these same –they were flawed – and Islamic
outsiders were out to destroy their rule was the superior  form of
people’s gods and  ways of life. Similar government because it was spiritual.
arguments are being invoked by Yet, Iran calls for itself republic, a 
contemporary versions of  these term that is associated with the secular. 
millenarian movements that wish to
break away from the hold of the state  Some religious movements do not
or vow to overthrow the latter in the hesitate to appropriate secular themes
name of God. To their “prophets,” the  and  practices. Nahdatul Ulama in
state seeks to either destroy their Indonesia has Islamic school were
people’s sacred belief of distort religion students are  taught not only Islam but
to  serve non-religious goals.  also about modern science, the social
sciences,  modern banking, civic
B. Religion and State 
education, right of a women, pluralism
and democracy. In  other cases, religion
A secular state is a country where the was the result of a shift in state policy. 
state is keep separate from religion,
and  the state does not discriminate or The Church of England was shaped by
favor persons based on their religious the rationality of modern democratic 
beliefs.  culture. King Henry the VIII broke
away from Roman Catholicism and
Within a secular state, the government established  his own church to bolster
does not interfere with religion and its  his own power. 
activities, as long as such activities are
done under the confines of the law. A 
C. Religion for and Against Globalization 
secular state is not inspired by religion
when formulating laws and policies.2A 
Globalization has freed communities
non-secular state is one in which a
from the constraint of the nation-state,
religion, any religion, controls any
but in  the process, also threatens to
aspect of  the state’s behavior, or in
destroy the cultural system that binds
which the state exercises its power to
them together.  Religion seeks to take
enforce any of  the religion’s rulings. 
the place of these broken traditional ties
to either help  communities to cope
The relationship between religion and with their new situation or organize
globalism is much more complicated.  them to oppose this major 
There are veritable explosions of transformation of their lives. It can
religious fervor, occurring in one form provide the groups moral codes that
of  another in all the major religious answer  problems ranging from
traditions- Christianity, Judaism, people’s health to social conflict to
Islam,  Hinduism, Buddhism, and even personal happiness. 
Confucianism and in many places in
imaginative  syntheses of one or more
world religions with indigenous faiths.  

Religious Intolerance vs. Religious Extremist 

Religions are the foundations of
modern republic as example the
Malaysian  government places religion Religious Intolerance 
at the center of the political system. Its
constitution  explicitly states “Islam is
Refuse to tolerate practices, persons or belief on 3. Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) also
religious ground.  known Lord Resistance Movement – is
a  rebel group and heterox Christian
Religious intolerance is intolerance group. They waged an armed rebellion 
against another's religious beliefs or seeking to remove the government of
practices  or lack thereof. The mere Yoweri Museveni, the Uganda
statement on the part of a religion that President  and rule the country on the
its own beliefs  and practices are Biblical Ten Commandments. 
correct and any contrary beliefs are
incorrect does not in itself  constitute There is hardy religious movement
intolerance (i.e., ideological today that non-religious do not use
intolerance). Religious intolerance, religion to oppose “profane”
rather,  is when a group (e.g., a society, globalization. Yet some religion sees
religious group, non-religious group) globalization less as an  opportunity
specifically  refuses to tolerate to expand their reach all over the
practices, persons or beliefs on world. While religion may benefit 
religious grounds.3  from the process of globalization,
this does not mean that it tension
In the case of Gerona vs. Secretary of with globalist  ideology subsides. 
Education, in the case of Jehovah’s 
Witnesses they believe that saluting a Religions may benefit from the process
flag, singing national anthem and of globalization; this does not mean
reciting  pledge of alliance are that  tensions with globalist ideology
religious acts. They bible-trained subside. Some Muslin view
conscience does not  permit them to globalization as a Trojan  horse hiding
participate on such acts of worship.  supporters of Western values like
secularism, liberalism or even 
The decision of the Supreme Court: communism ready to spread these
“the idea that one may be compelled ideas in their areas to eventually
to  salute the flag, singing the national displace Islam. The Catholic and its
anthem and reciting the patriotic dynamic leader, Pope Francis
pledge  during flag ceremony on pain condemned globalization “throw away
being dismissed from one’s job or culture” that fatally destined to
being expelled  from school, is alien suffocate hope and increase risk and
to conscience of the present threats. 
generation of Filipinos who cut  their
teeth of the Bill of Rights which D. Science vs. Religion  
guarantees their rights to free speech
and  the free exercise religious According to Peter Bayer and Lori
profession and worship.”  Beaman – religion, it seems somehow
“outside”  looking at globalization as
Religious Extremist  problem or potential, because of the
perspective of the  association of
Practicing one’s belief or religion to the extent of globalization with modernization,
using violence.  which is concept of progress that  is
based on science, technology, reason
Examples  and law, will have to look elsewhere
than  to moral discourse for fruitful
1. Al-Qaeda – the purpose is to avenge thinking about economic globalization
“the wrong committed by Christians  and religion. 
against Muslims. The organization
wants to implement a single Islamic  Religion –being belief system
political leadership and drive away that cannot be empirically,
Non-Muslim form areas it deems proven, therefore,  anathema to
belong to  the nation of the Islam.  modernization. 

2. Islamic State in Iraq and Syria

(ISIS) - is a group of scriptural
fundamentalist  who believe all other
Muslims are apostate. The ISIS wants
to restore the  early Islamic empire
Summary  
and called the Caliphate and
eventually takes over the  whole
world.  Religion much more than culture have
the most difficult relationship with 
globalism. The two (religion and
globalism) are entirely contrasting globalizations in the realms of religion, 
belief system.  culture and city life. 

Religion has the most difficult Major learning outcome of this unit: 
relationship with globalism. Religions 1. To explain the role of global processes in
regards  identities as inferior and everyday life. 
narrow because they are earthly
categories, on the  other hand
membership to a religious group , Lesson 7: Media and Globalization 
organization or cult represent a 
Learning outcomes: 
superior affiliation that connects human
directly to the divine and supernatural.  1. Analyze how various media drive
The relationship between religion and different forms of global integration;
globalism is much more complicated.  2. Compare the social impacts of
There are veritable explosions of different media on the process of
religious fervor, occurring in one form globalization; 3. Explain the dynamic
of  another in all the major religious between local and global cultural
traditions. Religions may benefit from production; and 4. Define responsible
the  process of globalization; this does media consumption. 
not mean that tensions with globalist
ideology  subside. Globalization entails the spread of various
GUIDE QUESTIONS  cultures and involves the spread of ideas. 
When a film is made in Hollywood, it is
1. What are the conflicting shown not only in the United States, but also
ideas between religious in  other cities across the globe. 
thoughts and the
ideology  of globalism People who travel the globe teaching and
discussed in Lesson 1?  preaching their beliefs in universities, 
2. Why is secularization churches, public forums, classrooms or even
theory outdated?  as guests of a family play major role in the 
3. How do you describe the spread of culture and ideas. But, today
reactions of some televisions programs, social media groups, 
religious movements to  books, movies and magazines and the like
globalization? How do have made it easier for advocates to reach
others facilitate larger audiences. Globalization relies on
globalization? media as it main conduit for the spread of
global culture and ideas. 

There is an intimate relationship between

Lesson 7: Media and globalization and media which must be 
unraveled to further understand the
Globalization  contemporary world. 

A. Media and Its Functions 

Introduction 

The contemporary world is an ever-changing Communication channels through which

mix of social and political changes. While news, entertainment, education, data, or 
religious, political, and ethnic conflicts promotional messages are disseminated.
continue, we are currently living in one of the Media includes every broadcasting and 
most peaceful eras in the history of the planet. narrowcasting medium such as newspapers,
Challenges of the 21st century include magazines, TV, radio, billboards, direct  mail,
emerging technologies, health care, telephone, fax, and internet.2 
overpopulation, climate change, poverty,
illiteracy,  disease, and migration. How we Jack Lule describes media “as a means of
choose to deal with these emerging frontiers conveying something, such as channel of 
will shape  this unit for future generations.1  communication”. Technically speaking a
person’s voice is a medium. However,  when
Unit 2: A World of Ideas: Cultures of commentator refer to media (plural form of
Globalization  medium), they mean the  technologies of mass
communication. 
This unit focuses on how the globalization
structures discussed in Unit 1 affect various 
form of cultural life. “Culture” is used here in
the broadest possible sense, referring to  the Types of Media 
daily practices of people. Thus, if the first unit
focused on a “large” form of  globalization,
this unit will zero in on everyday
1. Print media – Print Media is an important communication, but they also dull the  users’
source of information. It  includes communicative capacities. Think about the
Newspapers, Magazines, and books, etc. We medium of writing. Before people  wroth
can update with  the latest news via that print things down on parchment, exchanging stories
media platforms.  was mainly done orally. To be  able pass
stories verbally from one person to another,
2. Broadcast Media – The main sources of storytellers had to have  retentive memories.
the broadcast are television  and radio. We However, papyrus started becoming more
can watch all types of events which are common in Egypt  after the fourth century
happening on  earth. Usually, people are BCE, which increasingly meant that more
interested to watch the news regarding  people could  write down their stories. As a
spiritual, politics, sports and so on.  result, storytellers no longer had to rely
Radio is also the source of broadcasting we completely  on their memories. This
can hear all kinds of news  on it and also development, according to some philosophers
enjoy the music on it through changing the at the time,  dulled the people’s capacity to
channels.  remember. 

3. Digital Media –Internet and mobile mass Cellphones expand people’s senses because
communication. Within the  category of they provide the capability to talk to  more
internet media, there are the e-mail, internet people instantaneously and simultaneously.
sites, social  media and internet-based video On the other hand, they also limit  the senses
and audio.  because they make users easily distractible
and more prone to  multitasking. This is not
necessary bad thing; it is merely change with
While it is relatively easy to define the term a trade-off. 
“media”, it is more difficult to  determine
what media do and how they affect societies.
The question of what new media enhance and
According to media  theorist Marshall
what they amputate was not a moral  or ethical
Mcluhan – the “medium is the message”.
one, according to McLuhan. New media are
McLuhan proposes  that medium itself, not
neither inherently good nor  bad. He merely
the content is carries, should be focus of the
draws attention to the historically and
study. He said  that a medium affects the
technologically specific  attributes of various
society in which it plays a role not only by the
media. 
content  delivered over the medium, but also
by the characteristic of the medium itself. He 
B. The Global Village and Cultural
also did not mean that ideas (“messages”) are
Imperialism 
useless and do not affect people.  

Rather, his statement was an attempt to draw Global village viewed the world as a
attention to how media, as a form of  community in which distance and isolation
technology, reshape society. In short how have been dramatically reduced by electronic
media reshape the societies. Thus  television media (such as television and the  Internet).3 
is not a simple bearer of messages; it also
shapes the social behavior of  users and The term global village is closely associated
reorients family behavior. Since it was with Herbert Marshall McLuhan, the
introduced in the 1960s, television  has Canadian communications theorist and
steered people from the dining table where literature professor hailed by many as a
they eat and tell stories to each  other to the prophet for the 20th century. McLuhan's
living room where they silently munch on mantra, "the medium is the message,"
their food while watching.  Television has summarized his view of the influence of
also drawn people away from meaningful television, computers, and other  electronic
activities such as playing  games or reading information sources in shaping society and
books.   modern life. By 1960, he  had delineated his
concept of the "global village," and by 1970,
the public had  embraced the term and
Today, smartphone allows users to keep in
recognized the idea as both exhilarating and
touch instantly with multiple people at  the
frightening.4 
same time. Consider the effect of the internet
on relationships. Prior to the  cellphone, there
was no way for couples to keep constantly in Years after McLuhan, media scholars further
touch, or to be  updated on what the others do grappled with the challenges of  global media
all the time. The technology (medium), and culture. A lot of them assumed that global
not the  message, make for this social change media had a tendency to  homogenize the
possible.  culture. They argued that as global media
spread, people from  all over the world would
begin to watch, listen to and read the same
McLuhan added that different media
things. This  thinking arose at a time when
simultaneously extend and amputate human 
America’s power had turned into the world’s
senses. New media expand the reach of
cultural heavy weight. Commentator,
therefore, believe that media globalization to pay attention to the ways in which audience
couple with American hegemony would create understood  and interpreted media message. A
a form of cultural imperialism  whereby study was conducted emphasizes that media 
American values and culture would consumers are active participants in the
overwhelm all others.  meaning-making process, who view media 
“texts” (in media studies, a “text” simply
Cultural Imperialism comprises the cultural refers to the content of any medium)  through
aspect of imperialism. Imperialism  refers to their cultural lenses. 
the creation and maintenance of unequal
relationship between  civilizations favoring Ian Ang studied the ways in which different
the more powerful civilization. Thus, cultural viewers in Netherlands experiences  watching
imperialism is  the practice of promoting and the American soap opera “Dallas”. She
imposing a culture, usually that of politically presented a detailed analysis of  audience-
powerful nation over a less powerful nation.  viewing experience. Her observation was
“rather than receiving American  culture in a
Cultural imperialism, in anthropology, passive and resigned way, the viewers’ put a
sociology, and ethics, the imposition by  one lot of emotional energy into the process and
usually politically or economically dominant they experience pleasure based on how the
community of various aspects of  its own program  resonated with them. 
culture onto another non-dominant
community. It is cultural in that the  customs, A further study was conducted by Elihu Katz
traditions, religion, language, social and moral and Tamar Liebes regarding Ang’s  analysis.
norms, and other  aspects of the imposing They argued that texts are received differently
community are distinct from, though often by varied interpretative  communities because
closely related  to, the economic and political they derived different meanings and pleasure
systems that shape the other community. It is from these  texts. Thus, people from diverse
a  form of imperialism in that the imposing cultural backgrounds have their own ways of 
community forcefully extends the  authority understanding the show. Russian was
of its way of life over the other population by suspicious of the show’s content, believing 
either transforming or  replacing aspects of not only that it was primarily about America,
the non-dominant community’s culture.  but that it contained American  propaganda.
American viewers believed that the show,
In 1976 media critic Herbert Schiller though set in America, was  primarily about
argued that not only was the world being the lives of the rich. 
Americanized but that this process also led
to the spread of American capitalist  values Apart from the challenge from the audience
consumerism.   studies, the cultural imperialism thesis  can be
belied by the renewed strength if regional
trends in the globalization  process. Asian
Consumerism the theory that culture, for example, has proliferated
an increasing consumption of   worldwide through the  globalization of
goods is economically desirable. media. Japan brands –from Hello Kitty to the
Mario Brothers to  Pokémon – are now an
Similarly, John Tomlinson states that cultural indelible part of global popular culture. The
globalization is simply euphemism  for “Western same can be  applied for Korean pop (K-pop)
cultural imperialism” since it promotes and Korean Drama (K-drama), which are
“homogenized, Westernized,  consumer culture.  widely  successful regionally and globally.
The observation even applies to culinary
These scholars who decry cultural tastes.  The most obvious case of globalized
imperialism, however, have a top-down view Asian cuisine is sushi. And while it is true
of the media, since they are more concerned that  McDonald’s has continued to spread
with the broad structures that  determine across the Asia, it is also the case that Asian 
media content. Moreover, their focus on brands have provided stiff competition. The
America had led them to  neglect other global Philippines’ Jollibee claims to be the  number
flows of information that the media can one choice for fast food in Brunei. 
enable. This  media/cultural imperialism
theory has, therefore, been subject to Globalization will remain an uneven process,
significant  critique.  and it will produce inequalities.  Nevertheless,
it leaves room for dynamism and cultural
change. This is not  contradiction; it is merely
a testament to the phenomenon’s complexity. 
C. Critiques of Cultural Imperialism 

Proponents of the idea of cultural imperialism D. Social Media and the Creation of Cyber
ignored the fact that media messages  are not Ghettoes 
just made by producers, they are consumed by
audience. In the 1980s,  Media scholars began
Social media refers to websites and Internet as splintering and  dividing due to
applications that are designed to allow people  various factors, such as technology,
to share content quickly, efficiently, and in commerce, politics, nationalism,  religion and
real-time. While many people access  social divergent national interests.8 
media through smartphone apps, this
communication tool started with  computers, In the United States, voters of Democratic
and social media can refer to any internet Party read liberal websites, and voters of 
communication tool that  allows users to Republican Party read conservative website.
broadly share content and engage with the This segmentation, notes in the  journal,
public.6  Science, has been exacerbated by the nature
of social media feeds which  leads users to
Cyber ghetto the equivalent of a read article, memes and videos shared by like-
ghetto in cyberspace; a  place on minded friends. 
the internet etc. where a social
group is marginalized.7  Facebook can be resembles living in an echo
chamber, which reinforces one’s  existing
The world is becoming culturally beliefs and opinion. This echo chamber
homogenous because of media. precludes users from listening to or  reading
As with that entire  with new opinions and information that challenge their
media, social media, have both view points, thus making  them more partisan
beneficial and negative effects. and closed-minded. 
Also,  enables the user to be a
consumer and producers of The segmentation has been used by people in
information simultaneously.  power who are aware that social  media
Apart from the nature of diverse bubbles can produce herd mentality. It can be
audiences and regional trends in exploited by politicians with  less than
cultural  production, the internet democratic intentions and demagogues
and social media are proving that wanting to whip up popular  anger. The same
the globalization of  culture and inexpensiveness that allows social media to be
ideas can move in different a democratic force  likewise makes it a cheap
directions. While Western culture tool of government propaganda. Russian
remains  powerful and media dictator Vladimir  Putin has hired armies of
production is still controlled by social media “troll” (paid users who harass
handful of powerful Western  political  opponents) to manipulate public
corporations, the internet opinion through intimidation and the
particularly the social media, spreading of  fake news. Most recently,
challenging previous ideas  about American intelligence agencies established
media and globalization.  the Putin used  trolls and online
misinformation to help Donald Trump win the
presidency – a tactic  the Russian autocrat is
On the other hand, these forms of likely to repeat in European elections he seeks
communication have democratized access.  to influence. 
Anyone with an internet connection or a smart
phone can use Facebook and  Twitter. These In across the world, Putin imitators replicate
media have enabled users to be consumers his strategy of online trolling and 
and producers of  information disinformation to clamp down on dissent and
simultaneously.  delegitimized critical media. Critics of  

The democratic potential of social media was the increasingly dictatorial regime of Turkish
most evident in 2011 during the wave  of President Recep Tayyip Erdogan are  threatened by
uprising known as the Arab Spring. Without online mobs of pro-government trolls, who hack
access to traditional broadcast  media like TV, accounts and  threaten violence. Some of their
activist opposing authoritarian regimes in responses have included threats of sexual violence 
Tunisia, Egypt and Libya  used Twitter to against women. 
organize and to disseminate information.
Their efforts toppled their  respective This dark side of social media shows that
government. More recently the “women even a seemingly open and democratic  media
march” against newly installed  US President may be co-opted towards undemocratic
Donald Trump began with a tweet from a means. Global online propaganda  will be the
Hawaii lawyer and became  a national, even biggest threat to face as the globalization of
global, movement.  media deepens. Internet  media have made the
world so interconnected that a Russian
Social media also have their dark side. In dictator can, for  example, influence
2000’s commentators began referring the  American elections on the cheap. 
emergence of “splinternet”. Splinternet – also
referred to as cyberbalkanisation or  Internet Summary 
balkanisation – is a characterization of the
This lesson showed that different media have on everyday globalizations in the
diverse effects on globalization  process. realms of religion,  culture and city
Global television was creating a global life. 
monoculture. More likely that  social media
will splinter cultures and ideas into bubbles of Major learning outcome of this unit: 
people who do not  interact. Societies can 1. To explain the role of global processes in
never be completely prepared for the rapid everyday life. 
changes in the  systems of communication.
Every technological change, after all, creates
multiple  unintended consequences. Lesson 8: The Global City 
Consumers and users of media will have hard
Learning outcomes: 
time  turning back the clock. Through people
may individually try to keep out of  Facebook 1. Explain why globalization is a spatial
and Twitter, for example, these media will phenomenon; 
continue to engender social  changes. Instead 2. Identity the attributes of a global city; and 
of fearing this changes or entering a state of 3. Analyze how cities serve as engines of
moral panic,  everyone must collectively globalization. 
discover ways of dealing with them
responsibly and  ethically.
Each phase in the long history of the
world economy raises specific
questions about  the particular
GUIDE QUESTIONS  conditions that make it possible. One
of the key properties of the  current
1. Compare and contrast the phase is the ascendance of information
social impacts of technologies and the associated
television and social  increase in the mobility and liquidity
media.  of capital. There have long been cross-
2. Do you think border  economic processes—flows of
globalization leads to capital, labor, goods, raw materials,
cultural imperialism? 3. and tourists. But  to a large extent
What strategies can you these took place within the inter-state
use to distinguish system, where the key  articulators
between fake news and  were national states. The international
factual information on the economic system was ensconced
internet? largely in this inter-state system. This
has changed rather dramatically over
the last  decade as a result of
Lesson 8: The Global City  privatization, deregulation, the
opening up of national  economies to
The contemporary world is an ever- foreign firms, and the growing
changing mix of social and political participation of national economic
changes. While  religious, political, and actors in global markets.2 
ethnic conflicts continue, we are
currently living in one of the  most If you had a chance, would you move
peaceful eras in the history of the to New York or Tokyo? Chances are
planet. Challenges of the 21st century many of  you would like to move to
include  emerging technologies, health these major cities. And if not you
care, overpopulation, climate change, would probably like to  visit them
poverty, illiteracy,  disease, and anyway. Some of you might have
migration. How we choose to deal with already travelled to these cities as
these emerging frontiers will shape  this tourists or temporary residents. Or
unit for future generations.1  maybe you have heard stories about
them. You  may have relatives living
there who have described buzzing
metropolises, with  forests of
skyscrapers and train lines that zigzag
Unit 2: A World of Ideas: Cultures of on top of each other. You may
Globalization  likewise have an idea of what these
cities look like based on what you
This unit focuses on how the have seen in  movies or TV. 
globalization structures discussed in
Unit 1 affect various  form of cultural Not all people have been to global
life. ―Culture‖ is used here in the cities, but most know about them.
broadest possible sense, referring to  Their influence  extends even to one’s
the daily practices of people. Thus, if imagination. What are these places?
the first unit focused on a ―large‖ form
of  globalization, this unit will zero in
 Why are they important?  And how are where global servants serve global
they relevant to you?  entrepreneurs. 
Global city is a city that plays a
A. Why Globalization is spatial? 
significant role in the global economic
system.  They portray the economic,
So far, much of the analysis of social, and political state of the country
globalization in the previous lessons and its  people.  
has looked at  how ideas or
internationalism shaped modern world The term ―GLOBAL CITY” was
politics. We also examined  cultural popularized by Sociologist Saskia
movements like K-pop and how they Sassen. Her  criteria for what
spread through media like internet.  constitutes a global city were primarily
What this lesson will emphasize, economic. She identified  three (3)
however, is that globalization is spatial. global cities: New York, London and
This  statement means two things:  Tokyo, all of which are hubs of  global
finance and capitalism. They are
homes, for instance, of the world
Spatial is relating to, occupying, or having the largest  stock exchange where investors
character of space or pertaining to or involving or buy and sell shares in major
having the nature of space. corporations. New  York has New York
Stock Exchange (NYSE), London has
the Financial Times  Stock Exchange
1. Globalization is spatial because it occurs in (FTSE) and Tokyo has the Nikkei. The
physical spaces. Foreign investments and capital amount of money traded  in these
move through a city, and when companies  build markets is staggering. 
skyscrapers. People who are working in these
business start to purchase  or rent high-rise The global economy has changed
condominium units and better homes. As all these significantly since Sassen wrote her
events  happen, more people are driven out of city book, and  any account of the economic
centers to make way for new  development.  power of cities today must take note of
the latest  developments. Recent
2. Globalization is spatial because commentators expanded the criteria that
what it makes it move is the fact that Sassen used to  determined what
it is based in places. Los Angeles, the constitutes a global city because of
home of Hollywood, is where the latest developments,  therefor it is not
movies are made for only the status of the economy of a
global consumption. The main certain city to be considered  global
headquarters of Sony is in Tokyo, and city. For example Los Angeles is
from there the   considered global city because of
company coordinates the sales of its cultural  influence. San Francisco is
various electronics goods to branches  now considered global city because it is
across the world. In other words, cities the home of  the most powerful internet
act on globalization and globalization  based companies. Some cities in China
acts on cities. Cities especially like Shanghai,  Beijing and Guangzhou
GLOBAL CITY are the sites as well as are also considered global city because
the  medium of globalization as well as they are centers  of trade and finance of
they enables and shapes global forces.  growing economy of china. 
Others consider cities ―global‖ simply
In the years to come, more and more because they are great places to live in.
people will experience globalization In  Australia, Sydney commands the
through  the cities. In 1950, only 30% greatest proportion of capital.
of the world lived in urban areas, by However,  Melbourne is described as
2014, that  number increased to 54%. Sydney’s global rival because it is
And by 2050, it is expected to reach referred to as the ―world livable city‖
66%.   –a place with good public
transportation, a thriving cultural  scene
B. Definition of Global Cities  and a relatively easy pace of life. 
Global Cities are the sites and mediums
C. Indicators for Globality 
of globalizations. They are, therefore, 
material representations of the
phenomenon. We can see the best of  Characteristics of Global City 
globalization; they are places that
create exciting fusion of culture and 1. Economic power 
ideas.  They are also places that
generate tremendous wealth. However, New York may have the largest stock
they remain  sites of great inequality, market in the world but Tokyo houses 
the most number of corporate  New York – headquarters of the United
headquarters. Shanghai may have a Nations 
smaller  stock market compared to New  Brussels –headquarters of European Union 
York and Tokyo, but plays a critical  Jakarta –location of main headquarters of
role in  the global economic supply ASEAN 
chain ever since China has become the 
manufacturing center of the world.
Powerful political hubs exert influence
Shanghai has the world’s busiest 
on their own countries as well as 
container port, moving over 33 million
international affairs. The European
container units in 2013. 
Central Bank, which oversees the
Euro,  is based in Frankfurt. A decision
Economic opportunities in a global city made in that city can, therefore, affect
make it attractive to talents from  across the  political economy of an entire
the world. Since the 1970s many of the continent and beyond. 
top IT programmers and  engineers
form Asia have moved to the San
3. Center of higher learning and culture 
Francisco Bay Area to become  of the
key figures in Silicon Valley’s
technology boom. London remains a  A city’s intellectual influence is seen
preferred destination for many Filipinos through the influence of its publishing 
with nursing degrees.  industry. Many of its books that people
read are published in places like  New
To measure the economic York, London or Paris. The New York
competitiveness of a city, The Times carries the name of the  New
Economist  Intelligence Unit has added York City, but is far from being a local
criteria like market size, purchasing newspaper. People read it not  just
power of  the citizens, size of the across the America, but also all over the
middle class and potential for growth. world. One of the reasons for  the many
Based from  these criteria, ―tiny‖ tourists visiting Boston is because they
Singapore is considered Asia’s most want to see Harvard  University. Many
competitive city  because of its strong Asians are moving to cities in Australia
market, efficient and incorruptible because of the  leading English-
government and  livability. Is also a language universities there. Education
house the regional offices of many is Australia’s third  largest export. In
major global  corporations.  2015, the Australia government
reported that it made as  much as 19.2
billion Australian dollars form
education alone. 

D. The Challenges of Global Cities 

Global cities conjure up images of fast-
2. Center of authority   paced, exciting cosmopolitan lifestyle. 
Global cities also have undersides.
They can be site of
Center of authority is also center for political
influence, a decision in that   (1) great inequality
city can, therefore, affect the political of entire (2)  poverty and
continent and beyond. (3) tremendous violence. Like the
broader process of globalization, 
Washington D.C. may not be wealthy as New York, global city create winners and losers. 
but it is the seat of  American state power. People Cities can be sustainable -able to
around the world know its major landmarks:  the continue over a period of time –
White House, The Capitol Building (Congress), the because of  their density. As Richard
Supreme Court.   Florida notes: ―Ecologists have found
that by  concentrating their populations
Similarly, compared with Sydney and in small areas, cities and metros
Melbourne, Canberra is a sleepy town  decrease human  encroachment of
and thus is not as attractive to tourist. natural habitats. Denser settlement
But as Australia’s political capital, it is  patterns yield energy  savings. Cities
home to the country’s top politicians, with extensive public transportation
bureaucrats and policy advisors.  systems, people tend to drive  less and
thereby cut carbon emissions. Not all
The cities that house major cities, however, are as dense as 
international organization may also be 
considered centers for political New York or Tokyo, people tend to
influence.  spend more money in cars and gas as
they  have massive freeway. Cities like
Manila, Bangkok and Mumbai are capital and richer resident, real  estate
dense, their  lack of public prices go up and poor residents are
transportation and their government’s force to relocate to far away but 
inability to regulate car  industries have cheaper areas.
made them extremely polluted. 
In most of the world’s global cities, the
Because of the sheer size of city middle class is also thinning out. 
population across the world, it is not Globalization creates high-income job
surprising  that urban areas consume that are concentrated in global cities. 
most of the world’s energy. Cities only These high earners, in turn, generate
2 percent of  the world’s landmass, but demand for unskilled labor force that
they consume 78% of global energy. will  attend their increasing needs.
Therefore,  carbon emission must be Many middle-income jobs in
cut to prevent global warming.  manufacturing and  business process
The major terror attacks of recent years outsourcing are moving to other
have also targeted cities, especially  countries. This hollowing out  of the
those with global influence, are obvious middle class in global cities has
target for terrorist due to their high  heightened the inequality within them.
population and role as symbol of A  large global city may thus be a
globalization that may terrorist despise. paradise for some, but a purgatory for
The  same attributes that make them others. 
attractive to workers and migrant make
them  sites of potential terrorist Summary 
violence. 
Global cities, as noted in this lesson,
are sites and medium of globalization.
E. Global City and the Poor  They are,  therefore the material
representation of the phenomenon.
Through them, we see the  best
Economic globalization has paved the globalization; they are places that
way for massive inequality. While  create exciting fusions of cultures and
economic globalization has created ideas.  They are also places that
great wealth, it is increasingly clear that generate tremendous wealth. However,
the  benefits of this growth are very they remain sites of  great inequality,
unevenly distributed. Wealth has where global servants serve global
accumulated at  the very top of the entrepreneurs. The question of  how
income scale while the wages paid for globalization can be made more just is
the service jobs that  have replaced partly a question of how people make 
manufacturing jobs lost to globalization their cities more just.
have stagnated or  declined. If this
growing inequality is both harmful for
urban residents and an  inexorable part
of the global city, then this is a serious
problem for the idea that  global cities
are a benefit for the majority of their
residents. In places like  Mumbai,
Jakarta and Manila, it is common to
find gleaming buildings alongside 
massive shantytowns. This duality may
even be seen in rich, urban cities. 

Gentrification –the process by which a

place, especially part of a city, changes 
from being a poor area to a richer one,
where people from a higher social class 
live. In the outskirt of New York and
San Francisco are poor urban enclaves
-an  area that is different from the larger
area or country surrounding it, or a
group of  people who are different from
the people living in the surrounding
area, occupied  by African-American
and immigrant families who are often
denied opportunities  in better life.
Slowly, they are being force to move
away from the economic  centers of
their cities. As a city attracts more