Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion www.iiste.

org
ISSN 2422-8443 An International Peer-reviewed Journal
Vol.5, 2015

Insecurity in Nigeria: Political, Religious and Cultural

Implications
Udoh, Emmanuel Williams
Ph.D Student at the University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria

1.0 Abstract
Insecurity apart from being the fear of every Nigerian has become the word on the lips of every Nigerian and a
discussion topic where two or three Nigerians gather. This phenomenon is a state of being subject to danger or
injury. It is the anxiety one experience when one feels vulnerable and insecure. Several illegal armed groups,
ethnic militia groups, religious fundamentalist and fanatics, are evidence of insecurity in Nigeria. These have
given birth to series of bombings, murder, arson, armed robbery, corruption, injustices that we hear everyday. It
is clear that these happenings are negatively affecting Nigeria politically, religiously and culturally. Religious
organizations and other humanitarian agencies are losing confidence on the law enforcement agencies. This
issue has been critically examined in this paper, through library research and views from the media. These work,
therefore, examines, shows the causes, the effects of the political, religious and cultural implications of
insecurity in Nigeria. Arising from this research is the threat of political, economic, civil destabilization if the
trend of insecurity persists. This research paper recommends stiffer penalty for perpetrators of violence. It is
hoped that the result of this research will provide a viable solution to the current insecurity challenge in Nigeria.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Definition of Terms
3.3 Insecurity
3.4 Nigeria
3.5 Political
3.6 Religious
3.7 Cultural
4. Nigeria Security Challenges
5. Causes of Insecurity
5.3 Porous Boarders
5.4 Illegal Arms importation
5.5 Proliferation of Illegal Arms groups
5.6 Ethnicity
5.7 Emergence of Ethnic Militia Groups
5.8 Corruption
5.9 Marginalization
5.10 Poor Leadership
5.11 Religious Fanaticism/Extremism
5.12 Unemployment
6. The Effect of Insecurity in Nigeria
6.3 Economic downturn
6.4 Poverty
6.5 Increase in Armed robbery
6.6 Kidnapping

7. Implication of Insecurity on Nigeria

7.3 Political Implications
7.4 Religious Implications
7.5 Cultural Implication
8. Recommendations
9. Conclusion
Works Cited

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Vol.5, 2015

2.0 INTRODUCTION:
In modern history, internal strife has burdened Africa’s most populous nation, Nigeria. After independence,
Nigeria experienced frequent coups and long periods of autocratic military rule from 1966 until 1999 when a
democratic civilian government was established.
The past fifty years, in particular, have witnessed numerous coups as well as regional, religious, ethnic
and secessionist violence. Another reason for insecurity is the act of piracy in the Niger Delta which seems to
have characterized much of the current period of democracy. In the past two years, however, new forms of
discord, distrust, have emerged in which religious extremists, armed militant, and ethnic militia groups threaten
to bring about greater insecurity than those that preceded them. The older forms of militia groups have
metamorphous into armed groups and have intensified their activities.
Recently, there have been high incidences of insecurity that have resulted in deaths and psychological
trauma for individuals and families in the country. This requires the citizens to be much more security conscious
considering the threat by religious extremists to bring about greater insecurity than those that preceded them.
Other security indices also include the persistent tension between the north and the south of Nigeria,
growing unrest in the Niger Delta area and other parts of the country resulting in rise in violent incidents and
kidnappings. Ethnic tensions, religious differences, unemployment and numerous social and political
grievances are all fuelling the unrests in Nigeria and contributing to flashpoints for violence and creating
insecurity in the country.
This seminar paper will place the current insecurity in Nigeria in context by defining and reviewing the
causes, effect and the rise in violent incidences which have characterized the Nigerian society in recent times;
highlight the challenges; assess its political, religious and cultural implications to the nation. Let us begin with
understanding the terms which are frequently referred to in this paper.

3. DEFINITION OF TERMS
3.1 Insecurity: Insecurity is the state of being subject to danger or injury. The anxiety that is
experienced when one feels vulnerable and insecure. Michael Ezemonye (2011) affirms the above
definition of insecurity as “a state of being not secure, lack of confidence’. To enable us understand
this term, we now turn to the meaning of the word ‘insecure’ which the Advance English Dictionary
defines as ‘not confident about yourself or your relationships with ^other people; not safe or protected’.
This definition further expounds the meaning of the term to include not just the general meaning but it
touches the individual person “not being confident about oneself”.
3.2 Nigeria
Nigeria is a republic in western Africa, with a coast along the Atlantic Ocean on the Gulf of
Guinea. Most of Nigeria consists of a low plateau cut by rivers, especially the Niger and its largest
tributary, the Benue. The country takes its name from its chief river. Until 1991, the capital was the
Lagos, the largest city, located on the South-western coast. However, a new city called Abuja, located
at the centre of country became the capital in 1991.
Nigeria has a federal form of government and is divided into 36 states and a federal capital
territory. Robert Stock (2011) opined that
The area that is now Nigeria was home to ethnically based kingdoms and tribal
communities before it became a European colony. In spite of European contact that
began in the 16th century, these kingdoms and communities maintained their
autonomy until the 19th century. The colonial era began in earnest in the late 19th
century, when Britain consolidated its rule over Nigeria. In 1914 the British merged
their northern and southern protectorates into a single state called the Colony and
Protectorate of Nigeria. Nigeria became independent of British rule in 1960.
Nigeria is by far the most populated of Africa’s countries, with more than one hundred and
fifty million people. The people belong to many different ethnic groups. These groups give the country
a rich culture, but they also pose major challenges to nation building. Ethnic strife has plagued Nigeria
since it gained independence in 1960.
Nigeria, apart from being multi-ethnic is multi-religious with – Christianity, Islam and African
religion as the three main religions. Constitutionally, Nigeria is a secular state.
3.3 Political – We begin with the word politics. The Dictionary defines it as the activities involved
in getting and using power in public life, and being able to influence decisions that affect a country or
society. This is that which relates to the state, government, the body politics, public administration,
policy-making in a nation. It is an organized or ordered with respect to government (Collins 2005).
Political therefore connotes activities pertaining to policy, or the administration of the
government. For instance, Political rights are those which may be exercised in the formation or
administration of the government. John Bouvier (1856) said that “a political corporation is one has

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ISSN 2422-8443 An International Peer-reviewed Journal
Vol.5, 2015

principally as its object, the administration of the government, or to which the powers of government, or
a part of such powers, have been delegated” (Bouvier. Inst. n.182, 197, 198).
3.4 Religious – Religious is that which relates to belief in religion, the teaching of religion or the
practice of religion. While religion with all the controversies surrounding its meaning is defined
differently by different scholar depending on their persuasion and perspective of the proponents. For
instance, Emile Durkheim sees religion as “an inter-dependent system of beliefs and practices regarding
thing which are sacred” However, for the purpose of this presentation, I wish to accept the definition
given by Ebenezer Ejalonibu Lawal (2005) that says “Religion is the attempt to bring the relative and
temporary, the painful things in life into relation with what is conceived to be permanent, absolute and
cosmically opinionistic.” This definition is based upon the social functions which religion universally
fulfills. (p106)
3.5 Cultural – ‘cultural’ denotes deriving from or distinctive of the ways of living built up by a
group of people and relates to shared knowledge and values of a society that is transferable from one
generation to another and possibly from one society to another. Culture is the total way of life of a
people (John Beattie 1964). This refers to a whole range of human activities which are learned and not
instinctive, and which are transmitted from generation to generation through various learning process (p.
20). K. Bediako (1994) expanded the meaning of culture to include the way of thinking and behaviour
share by a substantial social grouping which gives them identity in relation to others. By this definition
it means all persons participate in one culture or another; people are identified for who they are by their
culture.
4. CAUSES OF INSECURITY IN NIGERIA:
There is a dramatic increase in violence, terrorism and the like, in Nigeria today. Lawless
sects are raising the tempo of their campaign in various parts of the country. We hear of series of
bombings, shooting and killings, kidnappings, armed robbery, arson and so on. These take place from
north to south, east to west and almost on daily basis.
The phenomenon ‘insecurity’ has been extended to cover other spheres like economic, ob and political
insecurity. In this paper, our concentration will treat the topic holistically - as it affects the life and
property of the citizenry. Let us now examine the cause of this problem.
4.1. Porous borders – the free flow of migrants from other countries to Nigeria through our
unguarded borders allows criminals to enter the country without check.
4.2. Proliferation of Arms and Ammunitions: Several arms hauls have been ceased at our air and
sea ports, some in very large quantities. This is not good for the country. These arms and ammunition
end up in the hands of criminals who apply same in their nefarious activities in the country thereby
making life insecure for the people of their locality.
9.3 Illegal Armed groups – Illegal importation of arms and ammunitions has made possession of
arms by individuals and groups very easy. We can name groups like Niger Delta Militants, Oodua
Peoples Congress, ‘Bakassi Boys’, MASSOB that possess arms and ammunitions.
9.4 Oil Bunkering – Nigeria being one of the largest oil producing nation suffers from the
activities of illegal oil bunkering. This activity is promoted by the spate of insecurity in the country.
This is back-up with criminals who are ready to die in Nigeria water-ways. This therefore makes the
coastal areas of our oil producing states unsafe.
9.5 Labour activists – Early in 2012 the Nigerian Labour Congress call for a nation wide strike as
a result of increase in price of fuel by government. They accused the government of insensitivity to the
suffering of the people as well as ignoring the insecurity challenges in the country. Peaceful protests by
Labour and other civil society groups have severally been high-jacked by miscreants and inflicted pains
on people and made life in our cities insecure.
9.6 Kidnapping – this is another visible sign of insecurity in the country. The perpetrators of this
crime do not spare any one in this new wave of crime that seems to have supplanted armed robbery and
other non-contact crimes. Since this act began in Nigeria, aged, children, male and female have been
kidnapped for ransom. This has made life unbearable to the citizens. People now live in fear of falling
victims to these criminals.
9.7 Militancy – According to criminal law, militancy is violence, illegal force or the illegal use of
unjustified force or the intimidating effect created by the threat of this act.
This word became pronounced in Nigeria when the Niger Deltans took up arms against
government exploitation and environmental degradation of their area due to oil exploration and
exploitation. This does not only exist in the Niger Delta area. Other parts of the country have witnessed
militants who commit atrocities worse than the youths of Nigeria Delta whose area is given the ‘brand
name’.

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Vol.5, 2015

Until recently the word ‘insurgence’ was alien to Nigerian society. The activities of the
Militant Islamic sect popularly called “Boko Haram” have opened this chapter of militancy in Nigeria.
Shootings, bombings, kidnappings, arson, car and suicide bombing in various parts of the country are
said to be the handiwork of ‘insurgence’. These activities have heightened the spade of insecurity in the
nation.
4.8 Fear and Distrust on Government - What the current trend of violence is imprinting on the
psyche of Nigerians is that the government security apparatus is incapable of guaranteeing the safety
and security of its people. This has, therefore, impact on the general human security of the people as the
situation promotes fear, limits the peoples' ability to develop economically.
4.9 Unemployment – The rise in Crime wave in Nigeria since the mid-1990s was as a result of
unemployment, economic decline, and social inequality, which are abetted by inefficient and corrupt
police and customs forces (Robert Stock (2008 Encarta Entry). The idle minds became devil’s
workshop. These people who are mostly youth are easily recruited into militant groups and trained in to
rob, kill, kidnap, smuggle, highjack to mention but a few.

Accurate unemployment rates are difficult to obtain and generally mean little in a society
where many who work are marginally employed and where begging is a socially accepted occupation.

4.10 Religious fanaticism/extremism – Religious fanaticism and extremism have been among the
major cause of insecurity in Nigeria. The recent incidences of attack on churches and Christians in
Northern part of the country by Moslem extremists have rendered several states in the north unsafe for
life and properties. The damage these extremists have caused can be seen in the following words.

… religion has unleashed on mankind… it has left in its wake, a heavy toll of
destroyed lives and wanton destruction of property. It has delayed workable political
agreements and brutalised societies…. Religious violence has been responsible for the
collapse of one political order or the other throughout history. It has given rise to
assassination and tempted assassination of various Heads of State or government in
recent times….leads to irretrievable breakup of internal harmony, and leads to foreign
intervention. (Agi,1996).
This is a true assessment of the Nigerian situation.
4.11 Wrong Political Ambition – The desire for a political office not evil but to nurse negative reasons for
that ambition can result to one doing anything to attain it. Ben Okolo writing from ^Johannesburg, South
Africa observed that “the current crisis which started in Bauchi and has engulfed other states in the north has
elements of theocratic ambitions in it”. The perpetrators of the violent activities in parts of the country are
operating with a hidden agenda. They have the intention of enthroning their own type of government which
is selfish, criminal and unpatriotic as Nigerians. With such ambition they can try to make the country
ungovernable or insecure.
Electioneering - Election periods in the country seem to be the moment of serious security
challenge. Shafiu S. Zurmi (Daily Sun, Friday January 21, 2011 p. 19)
“While the major political characters intensify their efforts at winning the support of
the Nigerian public, ordinary Nigerians are daily becoming more and more
apprehensive about the security implications to the country before, during and after
the elections. The general anxiety over the nation’s security is germane and should be
a source of concern to the government”
Dr. Franz Fanon once said “Those who make peaceful change impossible make violent change
inevitable”.
4.12 Ethnic violence - We have heard in some area like Plateau and Benue States reprisal attacks
by ethnic militia unleashing insecurity in these areas. While security in some parts of the country, like
the South-south, southeast and the southwest has been compromised, the northern zone that has always
shown a propensity for violent conflicts did not disappoint security watchers. Starting with the usual
religious/ethnic oriented conflicts to the Jos ethnic/religious/political conflicts of 2008 till date, the
northern states have shown that security of persons and properties is still far from being realized.
4.13 Desire to actualize ethnic agenda – This has become a phenomenon in Nigeria society today.
Because of certain unsatisfactory or unfavourable situation politically, economically, developmentally
and so on they would want to be separated from Nigeria. We hear of, Movement for the Emancipation
of the Niger Delta (MEND) in the South, Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of
Biafra (MASSOB) in the South East, Oodua Peoples Congress (OPC) in the West, BOKO HARAM in

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ISSN 2422-8443 An International Peer-reviewed Journal
Vol.5, 2015

the North, BAKASI BOYS, Fulani HERDSMEN, and VIGILANTE groups all other the country. Each
one of these groups has reasons for their agitation (Michael Ezemonye. Vanguard, Dec 02, 2011)

5.0 IMPLICATIONS OF INSECURITY IN NIGERIA:

5.1 Political Implication of Insecurity in Nigeria
The current security situation in Nigeria has forced the political leaders to a ‘rethinking
national security’ as Ibrahim Bashir of the Daily Sun puts it. This situation demands Nigeria security
agencies to rethink and refocus our national security resources on the unique character of security
threats in Nigeria. (Ibrahim, Thursday, March 24, 2011). Nigerians are daily becoming more and more
apprehensive about the security implications to the country before, during and after the elections. I
agree with Shafiu S. Zurmi that the general anxiety over the nation’s security is germane and should be
a source of concern to the government.” (Daily Sun, Friday January 21, 2011 p.19)
The weakness of Nigeria’s Criminal Justice System has been exposed greatly. This has posed
a challenge and showed the ineffectiveness and delay in the implementation of the policy.
General Owoye Andrew Azazi has given some imperative, one of which is
… the need for a more robust legislation on Anti-Terrorism. An effective and
enabling Anti-Terrorism Act must provide the institutional and co-ordination
framework for combating and elimination the acts of terrorism in and against the
Federal Republic of Nigeria…provide for additional judicial guidelines to the
Criminal Justice System for the effective and speedy prosecution of terrorists and
must clearly enable NSO to conduct their anti-terrorism measures and activities
across many of our national ethnic-centric, religious, political and social biases.
Very important is whether the government will be willing to take the bold steps necessary to
clearly articulate, communicate and implement whatever policy that is in place. Political instability
sometimes results from uncontrollable state of insecurity in a nation.
The growing insecurity challenges in Nigeria are signs of the growing popular discontent with
the national political system and indications that past elections were not free and fair. Many years ago
John Calvin condemned any practice that could harm or oppressed the poorest element in society as
spiritually and politically illegitimate (qtd. by Brenda K. Savage). If the government is unable to
control and solve the problem of insecurity it means that that government for the common has failed.
This is because the basic goals of any civilized are the survival and security of life and property.
Karl Marx added a voice that “Insecurity as destabilizing” (qtd. By Benjamin Ryan: 2008).
This is true in that when a nation is not secure it can destabilize the economy, agriculture, governance
and increases criminality in the society. It can also destroy the structures put in place by the
government for political stability.
5.2 RELIGIOUS IMPLICATION OF INSECURITY IN NIGERIA
The tendency to highjack any form of violence and branding it religious is possible. Based on
this the ‘outsider’ of religion will give it a bad name in order to hang it.
Religious worship places are being desecrated through blood shedding resulting from
indiscriminate bombing of religious worship centres. It scares members away from regular religious
worship and fellowship.
Insecurity in a nation can help spread or promote fake religious faith and practice.
Violent or an insecure situation drives people into various religious groups not by reason of
believing but for security purposes. In an environment where a particular religion commands majority,
the residents would like to align with the popular religion there for the sake of securing their lives and
that of their relations and possibly their business investments. Nothing thrives in an insecure
environment. Economic, religious activities, as well as governance can be frustrating in such an
atmosphere.
Religion can play a positive roll of preaching peace and living out same in an environment that
is prone to violence. Dialogue could be initiated amongst warring groups.
5.3 CULTURAL IMPLICATION OF INSECURITY IN NIGERIA
It is expected that the continuous growth and development of ethnic communities into an integrated
society based on Islamic solidarity cemented by increased inter-dependence and harmonization of shared
values and goals will bring about transformation of the relationship between the various ethnic groups. But
in a situation where there is insecurity this desire cannot materialize. T. A. Imobighe (2002) commenting on
Warri experience said “Rather than the expected evolutionary change towards ethnic integration and
peaceful co-existence, what has taken place in Warri is a heightened awareness of ethnic identity, extreme
communal disharmony and a more intense rivalry and hostility (p.66). The incessant taking of life through

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Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion www.iiste.org
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Vol.5, 2015

bombing, shooting and other forms of violence renders the sanctity of life which many African cultures
uphold to be baseless.
The problem of suicide bombing which has become a very prominent way of destroying lives
in the country is an act or practice which is condemned culturally in Nigeria. Writing on the abominable
practices in the Igbo culture (Cyril Okorocha) pointed out four of such practices – homicide (including
poisoning with intent to maim or kill); suicide; killing a totem animal or an animal dedicated to a spirit; and
stealing or destroying yams, especially when already planted; incest. Most of these abominations have to do
with life. According to him “if life is the summum bonum, then anyone who destroys it is committing a
most hideous crime indeed”. Life is valued in all cultures. In most cultures, suicide is abhorred because of
the value place on life.
Insecurity that arises from ethnic or tribal setting generates and leaves scars of ethnic prejudice,
suspicion, distrust, hatred and discrimination. And culture consisting of learned modes of behaviour that are
socially transmitted from one generation to the next, from one society or individual to another will be
affected negatively by the wave of insecurity. The learned mode of behaviour will be overwhelmed with
negative vices. In Nigeria most parents, due to unsafe learning environment preferred their children
studying overseas. This trend is tantamount to cultural breakdown. These children are bound to imbibe new
cultures which are alien to their ethnic group. The foreign and the local will basically be incompatible.

6.0 CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSION
The danger of insecurity can not be over emphasize. When a nation is saddled with the
problem of insecurity every other plans are stalled. Nigeria a country with a population of over one hundred
and fifty million people cannot allow insecurity to derail her political and economic development plans.
The country’s young democracy is being threatened.
Recently, we have experienced increased in violent activities in Nigeria which has claimed
several lives and properties. There is therefore urgent need to tackle it before it makes the country
ungovernable.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
6.2.1. Unemployment: As this phenomena rises so also is the increase in violence and crime making
the country insecure. This has been identified by scholars and leaders alike. Also an insecure
environment will definitely result in job lose. Government should therefore tackle and arrest youth
restiveness by investing on job creation.
6.2.2 Provision of Proper Legal Framework: The editorial in the Punch newspaper of Wednesday
13th of July 2011 gave the following summary that addresses this fact and stands as a suitable
recommendation:
Security chiefs who met with senators at a closed Session on 5th July 2011 claimed
that efforts to rein in the sect had often been thwarted by the judiciary through
generous granting of bail… (they) were unanimous on the need to have the Judiciary
effectively integrated into action plans instituted by the security agencies.
This will encourage the security operatives in their work and hasten the process of bringing to justice
the perpetrators of criminal activities in the country.
6.2.3. Justice Dispensation: The Punch Editorial of July 13 2011 made a very frantic opinion on the
idea of fighting insecurity in Nigeria
In the fight against corruption in the public service and against cultism in tertiary
institutions, the anti-craft agencies and university authorities have often been up
against a brick wall in the courts. The courts have been repeatedly blamed for
frustrating justice delivery through all manners of injunctions, exparte orders, and in
some cases, outright acquittals.
On this problem, I strongly recommend that the government should through the justice ministry check
these excesses and discipline any judge found to collaborate with criminals to stall justice dispensation.
6.2.4. Provision of Basic Needs of the Citizens: The basic goals of any civilized society are
the survival and security of life and property. These basic goals are not negotiable, no matter who wins
or loses in election. Therefore, the ordinary Nigerians must be given protection at all cost through
appropriate information, education, mobilization, job opportunity, pressure-group formation and legal
requirements in our democratic politics.
6.2.5. Lack of or non-use of Intelligence Network: The failure of the security cluster in
Nigeria to make use of its intelligence network to decode the security challenge the militant groups and
all such sects poses to the peace and security of the nation leaves much to be desired. The country's
Early Warning System Mechanism to preventing such deadly conflicts from erupting should be

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ISSN 2422-8443 An International Peer-reviewed Journal
Vol.5, 2015

developed. The intelligence sector and the conflict prevention mechanism of the country failed in many
instances to pick up the tell tale signs and this is indicative of failure of the state structure. What the
government should do is to develop the Conflict Prevention Mechanism in the country, including the
establishment of an Early Warning System at all levels of government. Through the early detection of
impending conflicts and its prevention, the government will be providing a safe and enabling
environment for the civilian population, and for political and economic development to thrive.
6.2.6. Need to Strengthen the Nations’ Economic Base. A weaken economy increased the
public’s sense of insecurity. It is reported in Collier Year Book 1997 about People’s Republic of Congo
that “visitors reported an upsurge of activities of quasi-official militia that circulated in the street of the
capital city of Brazzaville extorting money. To avoid similar situation in Nigeria the government must
initiate projects/programmes that will strengthen the economic base of the country.
6.2.7. Precaution In the use of Force: The Nigerian Government has to take precaution in
the use of force to tackle the root cause of insecurity because Government force seems to galvanize
greater retaliation by the ‘criminals’ and the masses end up bearing the brunt - with more violence,
deaths and destruction of innocent people, the poor and the rich.
6.2.9. Provide Good Governance: I agree with Dr. Taofeeq Abdul Azeez, the Chief Imam of the
University of Abuja that ‘good governance is a panacea for insecurity in Nigeria’ (Daily Sun
Newspaper of 01/01/2012). If the government will focus on the welfare of the people by providing jobs
for our teaming youth, infrastructure like good roads, water, electricity and housing and tackle the
problem of falling standard of education and medical care, then insecurity would have been reduced to
minimum if not eradicate.
6.2.10. Need for Collaboration: There is the need for a collaborative effort in solving the insecurity
problem in Nigeria. The government definitely cannot tackle the problem alone. The Religious
Leaders and traditional rulers, civil society groups, Labour Unions must team up with government to
find solution to this monster that is threatening the fabric of the nation’s peaceful co-existence.

WORKS CITED
Afrique en ligne; March 4, 2012 ‘Nigeria – Insecurity: drums of Civil Strife beat Louder in Nigeria’.
Agi, S. P. I. Holy Violence, Editions Ehi, Markurdi, 1996.
A Law Dictionary, Adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United States. By John Bouvier. Published 1856.
Beattie, John. Other Cultures: Aims, Methods and Achievements in Social Anthropology: London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul, 1964
Bediako, K. ‘Culture’ in New Dictionary of Theology : Sinclair B. Ferguson Ed. Et al,Inter Vasity Press, Illinois,
1994.
Benjamin Ryan, Political Insecurity, 2008 –
Brenda K. Savage: Echoes from Geneva: Finding John Calvins Socio-Economic Interest in the Modern World.
A Masters of Liberal Studies Theses Paper, Rollins College 2011, p.32
Colliers Year Book 1997 and 1980: on People’s Republic of Congo.
Imobighe, T. A. “Warri Crisis In Historical and Contemporary Perspectives” in Conflict and Instability in the
Niger Delta: The Warri Case, Spectrum Books, Ibadan, 2008.
Lawal, Ebenezer Ejalonibu “Religion” in The American Society Since the Four Freedoms. Nkpanom C. Ejituwu
ed. Et al. American Studies Association of Nigeria, Journal, 2005, p.106.
Leicher, Keri. “Insecurity in Nigeria: Rise of Extreme Fundamentalism”, Vanguard, Dec 02, 2011, p. 7
Morton H. Fried. “Cultural” Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex Clipart Collection. © 2003-2011 Princeton
University, Farlex Inc.
Okolo, Ben (unpublished) Doctoral thesis titled “The Responsibility to Protect Civilians” International
Relations Department, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2010.
Okorocha, Cyril. The Meaning of Religious Conversion in Africa: Gover Publishing, Hants, (no date) Vol.8.
Stock, Robert. "Nigeria." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Sunday Sun, July 17, 2010 interview with Brigadier General A. S. Audu, p.7-8
The Punch Newspaper Editorial of July 13 2011 p.3

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