MODULE IV - L1 DATA MANAGEMENT

Lesson 1 Review on Basic Concepts of Statistics

Lesson 2 Measures of Central Tendency
Lesson 3 Measures of Location
Lesson 4 Measures of Dispersion/Variation
Lesson 5 Hypothesis Testing
Lesson 6 Linear Regression and Correlation

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INTRODUCTION
Pointers
If we talk about data management, we deal with statistics. Statistics is an art and
Statistics – an art and
science of collection, science of collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
organization,
presentation, analysis Particularly in the field of medicine, agriculture, education, business, economics,
and interpretation of data. politics and technology, the information provided that were translated as data give
medical practitioners, educators, managers and decision makers a better
understanding of the different environment where they are and enables them to make
more informed, sound and better decisions.
Take Note

Statistics can be used in

Statistics play a very vital role in our society today, specially this time of pandemic
all disciplines that you (COVID-19). All should be included, be counted and accountable for. No one should
could think of like in the
field of medicines, be left behind. Because of the usefulness of statistics in almost all fields of endeavor,
agriculture, education,
business, economics,
some cautions should also be considered. Impressive figures can be blown out of
politics, and technology to proportions of their real or imagined importance. Unscrupulous minds with vested
mention some.
interests make improper or unethical use of different statistical methods.
Questionable and even conflicting claims backed up with “statistics” can be accepted
as true which leads one to believe that anything can be proven statistically.
Moreover, faulty researchers maybe slanted to produce a particular outcome, that is,
statistical analyses are chosen to produce such outcomes.

Most importantly, for the above reasons, for the statistics users or the researchers
that they clearly understand the statistical tools or techniques being used in their
researches. Thus, in this module, careful attention will be given to the role of
statistics as a tool in research.

On this module, it will discuss the following:

Lesson 1 Review on Basic Concepts of Statistics
Lesson 2 Measures of Central Tendency
Lesson 3 Measures of Location
Lesson 4 Measures of Dispersion/Variation
Lesson 5 Hypothesis Testing
Lesson 6 Linear Regression and Correlation

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OBJECTIVES:

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Understand and be knowledgeable on the language used in statistics;
2. Interpret correctly and objectively statistical evidences through the gathered data,
and make inferences out of it;
3. Convert and transform normally distributed data into standardized one;
4. Use and apply the concept of normal distribution in the fields of specializations;
5. Appreciate the value of statistical analysis, know the impact and apply it in your
daily life;
6. Practice and display diligence, patience, honesty, accuracy and precision in solving
statistical problems.

DIRECTIONS:

1. Module IV consists of six (6) lessons. Take time to read all these six (6) lessons so
that you can grasp, be familiar, have better understanding, and appreciate the
beauty of statistics;

2. Accomplish all the activities which are assigned in every lesson and submit to
your professor/tutor in your next face-to-face meeting;

3. Margin Annotations, Notes and Comments – Margin annotations highlight key points
and provide additional insights for you are a key feature on this module. These
annotations are designed to provide emphasis and enhance understanding of the
terms and concepts being presented.

Notes and comments are designed to give you additional insights about the
statistical methodology and its application. It also includes warnings about or
limitations of the methodology, recommendations for applications, and other
matters.

4. For any inquiries, questions or clarifications, kindly contact your professor/tutor.

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LESSON 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN STATISTICS

Science is based on the empirical method for making observations – for systemically
obtaining information. It consists of methods for making observations. Observations
are the empirical “stuff” of science. Statistics, as we have defined, is an art and
science of collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

Statistics is a set of concepts, rules, and procedures that help us to collect, organize
and present numerical information in the form of tables, graphs, and charts;

Most of the statistical

understand and analyze statistical techniques underlying decisions that affect our
information in magazines, lives and well-being; and interpret or make informed decisions.
newspapers company
reports, and other
publication platforms
consists of data that are
Statistics is being divided into two (2) categories or branches called descriptive and
summarized and inferential statistics. We can differentiate the two using the definition of statistics.
presented in a form that
is easy for the reader or
viewer to understand.
Those summaries COLLECTING
included in data, which ORGANIZING DATA DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
may be tabular, graphical,
or numerical, are referred PRESENTING
to as Descriptive
Statistics.
ANALYSIS
DATA INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
INTERPRETING
Statistics uses data from
a sample to make
estimates and test
Since we talked about statistical inference, we should be very careful on every
hypotheses about the
characteristics of a information we take and use. Many situations require information about large size or
population through a
process is called group of people. On top of that, we also have to consider the time, cost, and many
Inferential Statistics.
more. Data can be collected from a small portion of the group. Population refers to
the group of elements or set of individuals of interest in a particular study. The smaller
group, sample, is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to
represent the population in a study.
We sample primarily to
facilitate data collection
that we use to research POPULATION
analysis particularly when
the condition being
A population is the set of all elements of interest to be considered a particular
studied is larger. study.

SAMPLE
A sample is only a subset of the population.

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Examples:

1. DMMMSU-SLUC employees (both teaching and non-teaching personnel)

Take Note
- Population
Sampling permits us to
draw conclusion about
DMMMSU-SLUC Faculty members – Sample
the complexity of the 2. DMMMSU-SLUC – Population
situation. It also permits
us do research faster and College of Arts and Sciences (or any college) – Sample
at a lesser cost.
3. State Universities and Colleges in Region I – Population
Sampling is very DMMMSU, MMSU, UNP, PSU, ISPSC – Sample (choose one or more SUCs)
important in facilitating
the research process 4. Research Title – Factors Affecting the Adoption of ICT in Teaching Tertiary
BUT adequate care
needs to be taken when
Education of DMMMSU.
selecting the sample DMMMSU Educators/teachers teaching in Tertiary Level – Population
because if the sample is
not representative, the DMMMSU-SLUC Educators/teachers teaching in Tertiary Level – Sample
results being applied or
used to the entire
population will be
misleading.
PARAMETER
A parameter is a value, usually a numerical value that describes a population. It
may be obtained from a single measurement, or it may be derived from a set of
measurements from the population. (µ-population mean; δ-population standard
deviation)

STATISTIC
A statistic is a value, usually a numerical value that describes a sample. It may
be obtained from a single measurement, or it may be derived from a set of
measurements from the sample. (Ẍ-sample mean; s-sample standard deviation)
Pointers

Data set are all the data Data are the facts and figures that are being collected, organized, analyzed, and
collected in a particular
study.
summarized for presentation and interpretation. Table 1.1 is an example of data set
of different weights, in kg, of randomly selected 40 Grade IV pupils in five (5) sections
in Aginsanganan Elementary School for the first quarter of 2020 before the lockdown.

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Table 1.1 Weights of Randomly selected Grade IV pupils in AES, 1st Quarter of 2020

Section Weights (Kg)

IV - 1 50 41 36 34 54 60 51 37
IV - 2 22 39 42 42 45 38 38 40
IV - 3 38 28 32 44 42 47 37 28
IV - 4 27 27 40 41 39 32 36 24
IV - 5 40 39 33 33 27 30 31 45

Elements are the entities Each weight of pupils included in the data set is called an element. An entity on which
on which data are being
collected.
data are collected.

VARIABLE and CONSTANT

Variable is a A variable is any information that differs from one member to another in a population
characteristic of interest
for the elements.
or sample. It is a characteristic of interest for the elements. The weight (kg) in Table
1.1 served as the variable.

Observation is a set of Collected measurements on each variable for every element in a study provide the
measurements obtained
data. The set of measurements obtained for particular element is called observation.
for particular element.
In Table 1.1, we see the different measurements for the first observations (IV-1) are
50, 41, 36, 34, 54, 60, 51, 37. For the second observations (IV-2) are 22, 39, 42, 42,
45, 38, 38, 40, and so on. A data set with 40 elements contains 40 observations.

Constant are information A constant is an information about the population or sample that is true to all
on which the values
never change.
members. The value of pi, temperature (Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa), number
of days in a week, and different forms of measurements e.g. 12 inches = I foot, are
some examples of constant.

QUALITATIVE and QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

Qualitative variables are Variables can be classified as either qualitative and quantitative. Variables that can
variables that can be
grouped by specific be grouped by specific categories are referred to as qualitative variables. A number
categories e.g. sex – may be assigned to the categories of this variable but doesn’t have quantitative
male or female, religion –
Roman Catholic, INC, meaning. Information or data gathered from these variables are qualitative data.
Latter Day Saints, etc.
The data are either Numbers are being used to label the categories only. Religion, Citizenship, Type of
nominal or ordinal scale
municipality are some examples of qualitative variable.
of measurement.

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Quantitative variables are Quantitative variables are variables which employ numerical values to indicate how
variables that employs
quantitative data or
much or how many referred as quantitative data. When it is measured, the scores or
numbers. The data are value tell something about the amount or degree of the variable. Some examples are
obtained using either the
interval or ratio scale of scores, age, class size, etc.
measurement.

We can summarize qualitative data by counting the number of observations in each category
or computing the proportions of the observations of each category. However, even when the
categorical data are identified by a numerical code, arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division do not provide meaningful results. Arithmetic
operations provide meaningful results for quantitative variables like computing the average
weights of the pupils. Average is usually meaningful and easy to interpret. In general, more
alternatives for statistical analysis are possible when data are quantitative.

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

A variety of collection methods for acquiring data are employed in experimental or

Take Note non-experimental studies. The commonly used methods are the following:

Interview method requires

appointment for the Interview. The researcher prepares a set of questions which are usually answered by
availability of the the respondents verbally and recorded by the researcher. The researcher may use
interviewee to make it
happen. It also requires face-to-face interview, phone interview, or by video call/conferencing using different
preparations, time,
money and effort too. Not applicable apps.
recommended for big
number of respondents
because it is time Questionnaire. A well-planned, written questions in a questionnaire which are given
consuming.
to the target respondents to complete.
Questionnaire method is
in written form and can
save time in collecting Observation. The needed information on the characteristics of the units are collected
data because it can be
used simultaneously. by actual measurements.

Experiment method is
being used when the Experimentation. It is an approach of discovering what facts really are with the use
objective is to determine
the cause and effect of experimental design.
relationship of certain
phenomena under
controlled condition.
Documentation. An approach wherein the records or documents are being used as
Documentation method is data in a certain study. Proper protocol is to be observed in using this method because
also known as
registration method of the nature of information to be gathered.
because it deals with
records or documents.

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DATA PRESENTATION

Data may be presented in three (3) main forms, namely: textual, tabular, and
graphical form. A graph or chart may be a bar graph, line graph, pie chart, pictograph
or a statistical map.

Textual Form. Textual form is used in presenting data in paragraph or narrative form.
It is simple but appropriate when there are few numbers to be
Take Note presented.

Tabular form is a very Tabular Form. It is a systematic way of arranging data in columns and rows according
effective and efficient
to classifications or categories. A good statistical table must consist of
means of organizing and
summarizing data the following parts:
because a lot of
information can be seen
from a single table and it
A. Table Heading – it includes the table number and the title.
makes comparison of
figures quick under each B. Body – it is the main part of the table containing the figures being
category.
presented.
C. Stubs or Classes – the categories describing the data, usually found
at the left-hand side of the table.
D. Caption – this is the designation or description of the information
contained in a column, usually found at the top of the column.

In graphical form, if data Graphical Form. Another way of presenting the data is by means of graph or chart.
is based from another
source, a source note It is a pictorial presentation of a set of data. It shows a general
should be included. situation at a glance wherein each graph or chart must have a figure
It is considered the most number and a title.
effective means of
organizing and presenting
statistical data because Some commonly types of graphs being used are:
the important
relationships are brought
out more clearly and
creatively in virtually solid A. Histogram or Bar graph – it represents the frequency or magnitudes
and colorful figures.
of quantities of each of the categories as a bar rising vertically from
Histogram or Bar chart the horizontal axis with height of each bar proportional to the
can be used for both
qualitative and frequency or magnitude of the corresponding category. It is simple,
quantitative data.
compound, and can be vertically or horizontally arranged. Let us apply
the histogram or bar graph using the data in Table 1.2.

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Table 1.2. Water Consumption (in thousand m 3) of Agoo, La Union for 2019.

Establishment 1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter

Residential 31.2 36.7 32.5 35.8
Commercial 54.0 68.4 78.1 65.0
NGO/GO 46.3 56.0 45.2 44.9

Water Consumption (in thousand cu.meter) of Agoo, La Union

for 2019
100

80

60

40

20

0
1st QTR 2nd QTR 3rd QTR 4th QTR

Residential Commercial NGO/GO

Fig.1.1. Histogram/Bar graph on Water Consumption (in thousand m3) of Agoo, La Union for 2019.

B. Frequency Polygon or Line Graph – It is obtained by plotting the

frequency of a category above the point on the horizontal axis
representing the category, and then joining the points with straight
lines or broken lines. The midpoint of each class is being used to plot
the points it indicates.

Water Consumption (in thousand cu.meter of Agoo, La Union for 2019

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1st QTR 2nd QTR 3rd QTR 4th QTR

Residential Commercial NGO/GO

Fig.1.2. Frequency Polygon/Line graph on Water Consumption (in thousand m3) of Agoo, La Union for
2019.

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Pie charts are effective C. Pie Chart – It is a circle subdivided into a number of slices that
whenever the objective is
represent the various categories. It should be drawn so that the size
to display the
components of a whole of each slice is proportional to the percentage corresponding to that
entity in a manner that
indicates their relative category.
sizes. Usually,
percentages are being
used to indicate the Water Consumption (in thousand cu.meter) of Agoo, La Union for
values of each slice. 2019

26% 23%

24% 27%

1st QTR 2nd QTR 3rd QTR 4th QTR

Fig.1.3. Pie Chart on Water Consumption (in thousand m3) of Agoo, La Union for 2019.

D. Pictograph – make use of symbols and it is used to compare few

discrete data usually of one kind.

E. Statistical Map – it shows the geographical location and may contain

different symbols on the map. The legend which tells what the
symbols represent is very important and needed.

INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT VARIABLES

An independent variable Independent variable is a variable that is being manipulated by the researcher in a
is a variable that is being
manipulated in a study. study – the treatment variable in an experiment. It is considered the presumed cause
of the difference in the dependent variable.

Dependent variable is a While dependent variable is measured and analyzed in an experiment. Its values are
variable that is being
being tested to determine whether they are dependent upon values of the
measured and analyzed
in a study. independent variable. It is the presumed effect of the independent variable.
Example:
Research Title: Mathematics Achievement of Grade IV Pupils Taught Under Three
Methods of Teaching
Dependent Variable: Mathematics Achievement (the variable measured after

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employing the treatment)

Independent Variable: Methods of Teaching (the variable is being manipulated)

DISCRETE and CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

Discrete variables are A discrete variable is obtained by counting individual units. It can take specific values
variables that can take
only whole numbers and only as it is always a collection of whole numbers and can never be a part of a unit.
can never be part of a Example: enrolment, class size
unit.

Continuous variables are Continuous variables come in units which are divisible into an infinite number of
numeric variables that
have infinite number of fractional parts. It can take any point I n the number line.
values between any two
Example: distance traveled, land area.
values.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Data collection requires one of the following scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio. It determines the amount of information contained in the data and
indicates the most appropriate data summarization and statistical analyses.

Nominal scale is a 1. Nominal Scale – when the data for a variable consist of labels or names used
measurement scale, in
which numbers sere as
to identify an attribute of the element. It is considered as the primitive type
codes, tags, or labels and lowest level of measurement scale. The basic requirement is to assign an
only to identify or classify
an object. item or individual to one and only one category and specify the criteria for
placing individuals into classes.
Example: Sex (either Male-1 or Female-2; never both)

Ordinal Scale is a scale 2. Ordinal Scale – it specifies the relative position of items, order or rank with
of measurement that
respect to a given characteristic, with no indication as to distance between
uses labels to classify
cases into ordered the positions. It has the same quality with a nominal scale, plus the
classes.
characteristics of greater than or less than.
Example: Socio-economic status (either poor or rich)
Contests results – Champion (1st Place), First runner-up (2nd Place),
Second Runner-up (3rd Place)

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Interval Scale is one 3. Interval Scale – if the data have all the properties of ordinal and the interval
where there is order and
between values is expressed in terms of a fixed unit of measure. Interval data
the difference between
two values is meaningful. are always numerical and it does not have a true zero point. Being zero does
not mean absence of something or nothing.
Example: Test Score (one who scored 4 has twice more of the one who got 2,
but one who got 0 does not mean he knows nothing about the lesson
discussed.

Ratio scale as a variable 4. Ratio Scale – permits the making of statements of sameness or difference,
measurement scale that
greater than or less than, equal ratios between items, and the presence of a
not only produces the
order of variables but also TRUE zero point, which means absence of the attribute being measured. The
makes the difference
between variables known data have all the properties of interval data and ratio of two values is
along with information on
the value of the true zero.
meaningful.
Example: Distance traveled (the measurement starts from point 0 always)

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LEARNING ACTIVITY – STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

Activity 1 – Classify the following variables according to quantitative (Qn)/qualitative (Ql), discrete
(Dis)/continuous (Con).

Variables Qn/Ql Dis/Con Variables Qn/Ql Dis/Con

Weight Burnout Level

Average Grade Highest Degree earned

Type of Residence Birth Order

Annual Salary Job Satisfaction Score

Academic Rank Length of Service

Height Attitude Score

Municipal Class Number of Children

Leadership Style Nutritional Status

Bacteria growth (cm) Palay Harvest (kilos)

Skin Color Population Growth Rate

Activity 2 – Classify the above variables into scale type (nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio). If the
stated variable can be classified into more than one scale type, justify.

Activity 3 – Identify the dependent and independent variables in the following research titles:

1. Effect of Training on the Managerial Capabilities of Newly-Elected Faculty Association officers

2. Bacteria Inhibition as influenced by Plant Part and Concentration Levels of Bangbangsit
3. Enhancing Concept Development and Retention through the Use of Graphic Organizers

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