Method and Tools

of data collection
Dr. Manal Farouk
DR.Mona Hebeshy

Out line
.Define the process of data collection
.Differentiate between data collection methods, tools
.Physiological and biological measuring
.Observational methods
.Interviews
.Questionnaires
.Variable data and records
.Scales
Identify sources of bias in data collection
.Mention ethical consideration in data collection
.Criteria of data collection method

Data collecting process

Definition: is the process of acquiring the subjects and
collecting the data for the study
:Process of data collection
.obtaining subjects-1
.training data collectors-2
.collecting data in a consistent way-3
.maintaining research controls-4
.protecting the integrity (or validity ) of the study-5
solving problems that threaten to disrupt the study-6
:DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Definition: Is A Systematic Collecting Information
About Our Objects Of Study And About The
.Setting In Which They Occur
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 DATA COLLECTION TOOLS:
Definition: are instruments used to collect information for
the study.

Differentiate between data collection methods and data

collection tools

Methods Tools
Using available information Checklist, data complication forms
Using physiological and biological Physiological and biological
measurement measurement
Observing Eye, pen, paper, watch, scalp,
Interviewing. microscope, camera, checklist
Administering written Interviews schedule, checklist,
questionnaires. questionnaire, tap recorder.
Questionnaire

Using Available Data and Records There is a large part

of data collected by others, locating sources and
reviewing information is good starting point for
.any data collection effort

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For Example: Records are completion of writings and
figures that the individuals have collected.
To retrieve data from available sources, the researcher
will have to design an instrument such as checklist or
.compilation sheet
Analysis of health information system data, census data,
unpublished reports and publications in archives and
libraries or in offices at the various levels of health and
health related services may be a study in itself.
For Example: Analysis of the information routinely
collected by health facilities can be useful for
identifying problems in certain interventions or in the
flow of drug supply or to identify the increase
incidence of certain disease.
:Advantages
.Inexpensive because data are already there
.Permit examination of the past trends
.Easy to catch
Saving time
Free From bias
:Disadvantages
.Data are not always easily accessible
.Ethical issues concerning confidentiality may arise
.Information may be incomplete

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No one can be sure of the condition under which
information is obtained
:Interviewing
Is a method which involves oral questioning of the
respondent either individually or as a group. The
answer of the questions during interview can be
recorded by writing them down during the interview or
immediately after the interview to avoid for getting, or
.by tape recording the response
?Is data collection method that involves
Oral questioning of respondents either individually or as
.a group
Verbal communication between the researcher and the
subject during which information is provided to the
researcher commonly is used in qualitative and
descriptive studies
Interview can be conducted by varying
degree of flexibility
”High Degree of Flexibility “unstructured .1
In which the content is completely controlled by the
.subject
May be initiated by asking aboard question such as
.”..… “describe for me your experience with
After that the role of interviewer is to encourage the
subject to continue taking, sing technique such as
nodding the head
Advantages of unstructured interviews
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Permits collection of in-depth information and
exploration of spontaneous remarks by respondents
:Disadvantages of unstructured interviews
The interviewer may inabluertently influence the
.respondents
Open ended data are difficult to analyze
Note This interviews used when the researcher has yet
.little understanding of the problem
.Frequently applied in exploratory studies, case studies
May be called “Non standardized”, that interviewers have
freedom to conduct each interview in the most
appropriate manner for the situation, they are not held
.to a specific questions
”Low Degree of Flexibility “structured .2
Possible responses to questions carefully designed by the
.researcher
The interviewer using a questionnaire with a fixed list of
questions in a standard sequence that have mainly
fixed or Pre categorized answers
Advantages
Easy to analyze
Disadvantages
Important information may be missed because
spontaneous remarks by respondents are usually
.recorded or explored
Note Useful when the researcher relatively
knowledgeable or the number of respondents being
.interviewed is relatively large

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It may be called “standardized”, that in which the
interviewer aren’t permitted to change specific
wording of the interview question schedule, they must
.try to conduct each interview in the same manner
:Semi Standardized Interview .3
In which the interviewer required to ask a number of
specific question but beyond these they are free to
.probe as they choose
:Advantages of Interviews
.Suitable for use with illiterates
.Permits clarification of questions
.Higher response rate than written questionnaires
:Disadvantages of Interviews
.The presence of interviews can influence responses
Reports of event, may be less complete than information
.gained from observations
.Limited sample size
.Subject bias always a threat the validity of the findings
Inconsistency in data collection from one subject to
.another

:Observational Method
Determining how subjects behave under certain
.conditions

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Observation is a method involves systematically
selecting, watching and recording behavior and
.characteristics of living beings, objects, or phenomena
It is a two-part process, 1. someone is observing and 2.
.there is something to b e observed
Observation of human behavior is a much used data
.collection technique
.It can be undertaken in different ways
:Advantages of Observation

.Provide large quantities of data with relative case

.Important technique for studying human behavior
.Inexpensive to use
Subjects are usually available, other research technique
are dependent on questionnaire returns, volunteers for
experiment, and so on, which limit the quantity of
.data
Is most open to using recording devices such as tape
.records and cameras
Allow the researcher to view the complete situation .it
develop and also affords the inclusion of a sequence of
.events
.Can begin or stopped at any time
.Evaluating or appraising the actions of individuals
:Disadvantages of Observation

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The observers bias may occur observer watching only
what interested for him and the researcher’s culture
.background and personal interpretation
The presence of an observer gins the subject(s) a quality
.normally absent, it also creates an artificial situation
The time and duration of an event cannot be predicted
usually, the observer must wait until an event happens.
Therefore, it is difficulty to know when to be present
.to observe key events
.Extensive training is necessary .1
Results may be unreliable because different observers
may not see and record a particular event in the same
manner
Physiological and Biological Measurement
Used with studies that measures the effects of physical
care practices
:Advantages
.Attention to detail ,objectivity, precision and sensitivity
Focus in outcome of nursing care
:Disadvantages
.Not easy to make
Some instruments are not available or expensive

:Questionnaires
Is a printed self-report form designed to elicit information
.through writer or verbal responses of the subject

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A written questionnaire can be administered in different
-:ways for example
Sending the questions y mail with clear instructions on -1
how to answer the questions and asking for mailed
.responses
Gathering all or a part of people (respondents) in one -2
place at one time, giving oral or written instructions on
how to answer and letting the respondents fill out the
.questionnaire
Hand delivery of the questionnaire to the respondents -3
.and collecting them later
Types of Questions
.Open-ended question
Closed question
:Open-ended Question .1
Permit free responses that should be recorded in the
respondent's own words, the respondents is not given
.any possible answers to choose from
:Open-ended Question may be
Broad question: suggest a topic and requires the
respondent to answer from his point of view for
example: in your opinion, w hat’s the most common
?health care problem

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Narrow Question: allows only limited flexibility of
responding for example: list the three main satisfaction
?that your nursing profession has provided
This type of question (open ended question) is useful for
obtaining information on
.Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar -1
.Opinions, attitude, suggestion of informant-2
.Sensitive issue-3
:Advantages of Open-ended Questions
.Providing available new insight into the problem-1
Information provided spontaneously is likely to be -2
more valid than answers suggested in options from
.which the informant must choose
Information provided in the respondent's own words -3
may be useful as example or illustrations that add
.interest to the final repost
Disadvantages of Open-ended Questions
Skilled interviewers are needed to get the discussion -1
started and focused in relevant issues and to record all
.important information
Analysis is time consuming and require experience-2
:Closed Question .2

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Sometimes called forced-choice questions, offers a list of
the possible options or answers from which the
.respondent must choose
:When we designing a closed question we must try to 
Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and mutually -1
.exclusive
.Keep the no of the options as few as possible-2
Closed questions are useful if the range of possible 
responses is known
Closed Question .
Closed questions may be used as well to get the
respondents to express their opinions by choosing a
.rating points on a scale
How useful would you say the activities of the village
health committee have been in the development of this
?village
.Extremely useful
Very useful
Useful
.Not very useful
Not useful at all
?What’s your marital status
.Single
.Married / living together

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Separated / divorced / widowed
Closed questions also may be used if one is only 
interested in certain aspects of an issue and doesn’t
want to waste the time of the respondent and
interviewer by obtaining more information than
one need. For example: a researcher who is only
interested in the protein content of a family diet may
-:ask
Did you eat any of the following foods yesterday?
Peas, bean, lentils Yes No
Fish or meat Yes No
Eggs Yes
No
Milk or cheese Yes No
Advantages of Closed Questions
.Answers can be recorded quickly-1
Analysis is easy-2
:Disadvantages of Closed Questions
Are less suitable for face to face interviews with -1
.non literates
Respondents may choose options they would not-2
have thought of themselves (leading questions
.bias)

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Important information may be missed if it isn’t -3
.asked
The respondent and interviewer may lose interest -4
.after a number of closed questions
The suggestions for optimal use of the open and closed
ended questions

 Open-ended Questions Closed Questions

 Train and supervise the  Use closed questions only
interviewers or select on issues that are simple.
experienced people.  Pre-test closed questions
 Prepare a list of further first as open-ended
questions to keep at hand questions to see if your
using to “probe” for categories cover all
answer(s) in a systematic possibilities.
way.  Use closed questions in
 Pre-test open-ended combination with open-
questions and if possible pre- ended questions.
categorize the most common
responses learning enough

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 space for other answers.

Administering Written Questionnaire Is data

collection tool in which written questionnaire are
presented that are to be answered by the
.respondents in a written form
Advantages of Administering Written Questionnaire
.It’s a relatively simple method of obtaining data-1
It’s a rapid and efficient method of gathering -2
.information
.It’s less expensive-3
It’s a simple method for exploring new ideas or -4
.topics
It’s one of the easiest tools for testing the validity -5
.and reliability
.Doesn’t require research assistants-6
Eliminate bias due to questions phrases -7
.differentiate with different respondents
Disadvantages of Administering Written
:Questionnaire
.Cannot be used with illiterate people-1
.Low rate of response-2
.The question may be misunderstood-3

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The instrument is unable to probe a topic in depth -4
.without becoming length
Printing may be costly if the questionnaire is -5
.lengthy and printed on high quality paper
.Time consuming for construction-6
Some items may force the respondent to select the -7
response that’s not his actual choice “forced
.”choice items
The amount of the gathered data is limited by the -8
.subjects available time and interest span
.Some items may be misunderstood-9
.The sample is limited to these who are literate -10
Other Tools of Data Collection
:Scales

Is a form of self-report/observation tool according to

method of data collection, it is more precise means of
.measuring phenomena than the questionnaire
Summative scale are summed to obtain a single score
:Types of Scales
Rating scales Are the crudest form of measures .1
.using scale technique
.Commonly used by general public
Used in the observational measurement to guide data
collection

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:Example
Examine differences in communication among
nurses patient
:Nurse come into my room
Rarely
Sometimes
.When ever I call them
The Likert scale .2
Designed to measure the opinion or attitude
of subject, contains a number of declarative
statement with a scale after each statements
EX
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly agree
disagree
People with
cancer
are
almost
die

Semantic Differential Scales .3

.Measures attitude and benefits 
Consist of two opposite objectives 
.with a 7 point between them

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 4. Visual Analogue Scales
Used to measures phenomena that are erratic over
time
 Bias in Information Collection
 Is a distortion that result in the information
not being representative of the true situation.
Possible source of bias during data collection
:Defective Instruments .1
:Questionnaires with
Fixed closed questions on topic about which too
.little is known
Open ended questions without guidelines on how to
.ask (or to answer) them
Vaguely phrased questions or
.Questions placed in an illogical order
.Weighing scales that are not standardized
:Observer Bias .2
Easily occur during observation or loosely
.structured group or individual interviews
There is risk that the data collector will see or hear
only things in which he or she interested or will
.miss information that is critical to research

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Training and practice should be provided to data
.collections in using these tools
:Effect of the Interview on the Informant .3
The informant may mistrust the intention of
the interview and dodge certain question or
.give misleading answers
:This can be reduced by
Adequately introducing the purpose of-1
.the study to informants
Taking sufficient time for the -2
.interview
Assuring the informants that the data collected -3
will be confidential
:Ethical Consideration in Data Collection
As we develop our data collection techniques, we need
to consider whether our research procedures are
likely to cause any physical or emotional harm,
-:harm may be caused for example by
Violating informants right to privacy by posing -1
sensitive questions, or by gaining access to
.records that may contain personal data
Observing the behaviors or informants without -2
.their being aware

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Failing to observe or respect certain cultural -3
.values, traditional or taboos
Several methods for dealing with these issues may be
-:recommended
Obtaining informed consent before the -1
.study or interview begin
Not exploring sensitive issues before a -2
good relationship has been established
.with the informant
Ensuring the confidentiality of the data -3
.obtained

Criteria for selection data

collection methods &tool
Several criteria must be considered when
deciding on a data collection tool these
include the
Practicality
Reliability
Validity

Practicality
before the researcher examine the reliability_ validity of
tool question should be ask about the practicality

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 • Practicality of the tool for the particular study
being planned
• The practicality of tool concern its cost and
appropriateness for the study population
How much will the tool cost?
• How long will it take?
• Will the population have physical and mental
stamina to complete the tool?
• Are special motor skills or language required of
subject?
• Dose the researcher required special training to
administer or score the tool?if so
• Is the training available?
• Are the many available for the study?
• Someone available for analyze the data
• These are very important questions the research
must be attend to practicality

Reliability
• The researcher is always interested in collecting
data that are reliable
• The reliability of tool concerns its consistency and
stability

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EX if you are using the thermometer to measure body
temperature e you would expect it to provide the same
reading each time it was placed in a constant
temperature water bath
• Reliability needs to determine whether the tools is
mechanical device ,written questionnaire, or
human observer
• The degree of reliability is usually determined by
the use of correlational procedures (correlation
coefficient )
• Correlation Coefficient Computed To Test The
Reliability Of Tool Are Expected To Be Positive
Correlations
• Reliability once establish remain for ever
• Reliability must continuously be assessed as the
tool is used with different subject under different
environment condition s

Type of reliability
• There Are Different Type Of Reliability;
• Stability
• Equivalence

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 • Internal Consistency
• Stability reliability of tool refer to its consistency
over a time
• (Test -Retest Reliability)

Equivalence

• Equivalence reliability is concerns the degree to

which two different forms of tools obtain the
same result or two or more observers using a
single tools to obtained the same result.
• Alternate forms reliability or parallel forms
reliability are terms used when two forms of same
tool are compared
• Interrelated or interobserver reliability are terms
applied to comparisons of raters or observer use
the same tools

• This type of reliability is determined by the degree

to which two or more independent raters or
observers are in agreement

Internal consistency reliability

• Internal consistency reliability, or scale
homogeneity

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 • Addresses the extent to which all items on a tools
measure the same variable.
• This type of reliability is appropriate only when
the tool examine one concept or construct at a
time.
• This type of reliability is concerned with the
sample of items used to measure the variable of
interest
• EX if an tools supposed to measure depression all
items on the tools must consistently measure the
depression, if some items measure the guilty ,the
tool is not an Internal consistency tools

Validity
• The validity is the ability of an instrument to
measure the variable that is intended to measure.
• The content of the instrument is of prime
importance in validity testing .
• It is difficult to determine that validity is the most
important characteristic of an instrument .
• The greater the validity of an instrument the more
confidence you can have that the instrument will
obtain data that will answer the research questions
or test the research hypotheses.
• Validity may be established through the use of a
panel of experts or through an examination of the
existing literature on the topic .
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Face validity
• An instruments is said to have face validity when a
cursory examination shows that it is measuring
what it is supposed to measure .
• On the surface or the face instrument; it appears to
be an adequate means of obtaining the data needed
for the research project .
• Validity = it is the accuracy with an instrument or test
to measures what it is supposed to measure. Because
different instruments and tests are designed for a
variety of purposes, different types of validity include;
Content validity, criterion-related validity, and
construct validity.

• 1- Content validity = the degree to which an

instrument or test measures an intended content area.
It is used in the development of a questionnaire,
interview schedule, interview guide, or instrument.
The instrument is constructed using concepts from the
literature to reflect the range of dimensions of the
variable being measured. A group of experts carefully
evaluate all items or questions used by the instrument,
as well as overall appropriateness for use in a
proposed study population.
2- Criterion-Related Validity =
it measure of how well an instrument measuring
a particular concept compares with a criterion,
providing more quantitative evidence on the

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accuracy of the instrument. A correlation
coefficient is used to evaluate the instrument, a
• high validity coefficient indicates high criterion-
• related validity. If an instrument selected to
• measure concept that is opposite to the
• dimension of interest.
• Criterion-related validity can be divided into 2 types:
• a- Concurrent; a new instrument is administered at the
same time data are collected. Example; test measuring
stress that has been validated in healthy normal
population will not necessarily provide valid results
when used to measure stress in hospitalized patients.
• b- Predictive; it is the ability to predict future events,
behaviors or outcomes. Example; Graduate Record
Examination (GRE) scores to admit students to
graduate school.
• 3- Construct Validity:
• It is the degree to which an instrument measures an
• intended hypothetical concept or construct. It is the
• most valuable yet the most difficult, way to assess an
• instrument’s validity. This type is referred to as
• convergent (to have similar effects or produce similar
• results) and discriminate (to be able to see and know

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• the differences between things, so that you can act in
• Particular or correct way). Another popular method
• used to assess construct validity is factor
• analysis.

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