1.

The War of Liberation in Zimbabwe: views of the warring parties 1972-1980

(a) Study Source A

What does the source reveal about Whites’ ambitions in Rhodesia during the liberation war?
(4)
(b) Read Source B.
Why do you think the Rhodesian Minister of Defence spoke in this manner? (5)
(c) Read source C.
Does this source adequately explain the reason why blacks joined the liberation struggle?
Explain your answer. (5)
(d) Read source B and Source C
Which two sources is more reliable as evidence on the causes of the liberation war in
Rhodesia? Explain your answer. (5)
(e)Study source A
What do you were the reactions of the different groups of people in Rhodesia to the
Rhodesia Front election poster at that Time? Explain your answer. (6)

2(a) Identify any three minerals mined and any three animals kept by the Early Iron Age people of
Southern Africa [6]
(b)Describe the economic changes in the methods of production of food from the Late St0ne
Age to the Early Iron Age in Southern Africa. [12].
(c)To what extent did these changes benefit the people of Southern Africa? [8].

3(a) Identify any six reasons why Great Zimbabwe was built. [6]
(b)Describe the economic and social activities of the people of Great Zimbabwe. [11]
(c)To what extent did economic problems lead to the decline of the state? (8)

4 (a) Name any six rulers of the Mutapa State up to the 18 th century. [6]
(b)Describe the political and religious organization of the Mutapa State. [11]
(c)To what extent did political problems lead to the fall of the Mutapa? [8]

5 (a)Identify any six methods used by Sebetwane to unite his people in Bulozi (6)
(b).Describe the problems faced by the Kololo on their way to Bulozi. (11)
(c) To what extent did these problems unite the Kololo? Explain your answer. (8)

6 (a) List any six military reforms introduced by Tshaka. [6]

(b).Outline the problems faced by Tshaka as king of the Zulu state. [11]
(c).Is it true that Tshaka was responsible for his own downfall? Explain your answer.[8]

7(a) Give six aims of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State. [6]
(b)Describe the economic and social activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State
during this period. (11)
(c)To what extent did the people of Mutapa benefit from these Portuguese activities during
this period?

8(a) State six reasons why the local people resisted missionary influence in Zimbabwe
Between 1850 and 1900. (6)
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Early Iron Age in Zimbabwe-----------------------------------------------------2

2. Great Zimbabwe---------------------------------------------------------------- --7

1
 3. Mutapa State-------------------------------------------------------------------- -13
4. Rozvi State------------------------------------------------------------------------22
5. Mfecane wars and Zulu State------------------------------------------------29
6. The Ndebele State---------------------------------------------------------------37
7. The Portuguese in the Mutapa State----------------------------------------46
8. Missionaries in Zimbabwe-----------------------------------------------------61
9. Industrialisation in Britain-----------------------------------------------------74
10. Colonisation of Southern Africa----------------------------------------------80
11. Colonisation of Zimbabwe-----------------------------------------------------94
12. Resistance to Colonisation-----------------------------------------------------108
13. Post 1897 to 1950s Zimbabwe------------------------------------------------117

INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION

This marking guide was drafted with the hope that it would be useful to candidates preparing
for their ordinary level examinations. The questions are actual questions that were asked on
specified years and sessions and expected responses will guide candidates on how to answer
them. Some are similar to some seemingly different questions. This was deliberately done for
the candidates to realise that different wording of questions is sometimes used to confuse
unsuspecting candidates .Candidates are therefore made aware that at times examiners use
different words with the same meaning.

Questions are divided into THREE[3] categories so that candidates get used to questioning
techniques and know what is expected of them in each category. Candidates need to realise
the commonly used terms so as not to misfire in the exams.

Let us briefly look at words commonly used per category and an explanation would be done
as to what is expected from the candidates. The commonly used terms in category 1 are:

List, Identify, state and name.

Candidates need not write essays on such questions but must directly answer them and are
best advised to number their responses. These questions require straight forward
responses/answers without elaboration. Responses to these questions must be short sentences.

In Category 2, the commonly used terms are:

Describe.......................

Outline.........................

Show how.....................

Candidates are required to show their full understanding of what is demanded by the
question. They need to fully explain points to get maximum points. Candidates are required
to explain the 12 points as per mark allocation. Mere identification without elaboration might
result in candidates unnecessarily losing valuable marks. Writing in point form will result in
candidates getting half marks OR NO MARKS AT ALL!!!!. Candidates should also note that

2
at times these questions may be divided into TWO PARTS. In this scenario candidates are to
explain six points for the first part and another six points for second part.

CATEGORY 3.questions at this level are analytical/ analysis. Commonly used

terms/Phrases are:

To what.......................

How far.........................

There are THREE levels to answering this category questions and candidates are
expected to reach to the highest level if they are to get higher marks.

LEVEL 1-------One-sided analysis [mark range 1-3].No matter how many points a candidate
explains, the mark range does not change if all the given points are one-sided. Eg 3+0=3,
8+0.=3 6+0=3.

LEVEL 2------Balanced analysis[mark range 4-6].level 2 answer shows that the candidate
has understood the weakness of the question and has thus presented a balanced response .Eg
1+1=4, 2
+1=4, 4+3=6, 5+4=6

LEVEL 3------Balanced analysis plus judgement [mark range 7-8].This is the highest level
.The judgement sentence is thus a must if a candidate is to get highest marks. This judgement
statement can only be valid when it is added to a balanced analysis. The entry point to 8
marks should be 4 points [balanced] plus judgement. Candidates are encouraged to give
as many points as possible. Eg 2+1=7 and 2+2=8

Questions with their responses are grouped according to topics and this will give candidates
an opportunity to concentrate on a particular topic at any given time thus giving him/her a
thorough practice per topic.

Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age

[Specimen]

1 [a].List any six types of foods for the Late Stone Age people [6]

 Fish, Meat, insects

 Fruits, Roots, Grass
 Tubers

(b).Describe the economic changes in methods of production of food from the Late
Stone Age to the Early Iron Age in Southern Africa. (12).

 Farming-Crop growing and livestock keeping; Settled existence

3
  Mining: mining of iron and copper; smelting to produce iron tools e,g axes, hoes,
knives, arrows and spear-heads
 Hunting: became more organised and efficient
 Trade: (Both internal and external) items were crops, animals, tools, craftwork etc.
Control of trade in the hands of the rich and powerful e,g rulers.
 Craftwork; pottery, basketry and weaving.
 Raiding: a result of better and stronger weapons
 Division of labour : Iron led to specialisation e,g there emerged specialised metal
workers and specialised craftsmen
 Tribute system: basis of exploitation. Agricultural production, distribution and trade
controlled by senior and ruling class. Tribute fines, taxes and judicial fees paid in
form of cattle, sheep, ivory, gold, cloth, skins, beads, iron tools and grain.

(c).To what extent did these changes benefit the people in this region at that time? (8)

Iron age brought specialisation in tasks performed by people e,g in mining, tool making,
trading and hunting, as well as crop growing by women.

 Women became regarded as commodities indicating wealth in marriage, i,e the more
wives one had the wealthier one was considered\regarded.
 There was settled existence, better food security; and security against enemies.
 Development of basic structures of government system
 Specialisation brought greater production and prosperity.
 Tribute system led to exploitation of man by man
 The resulting development of states led to socio-economic inequalities
 Raiding system increased warfare
 Destruction of the vanquished and enhancement of the victors’ status

(Nov 2009)

2[a].Identify any three minerals mined and any three domestic animals kept by the
Early Iron Age people of Southern Africa [6].

Minerals: iron, gold, tin, silver, copper

Animals: Cattle, sheep, goats, dogs

[b].Describe the economic and social l changes from the late Stone Age to the Early Iron
Age in the Southern Africa. [11].

i.
 Early Iron Age people began to make iron tools such as hoes, arrow heads,
spearheads, which were more efficient than stone tools
 Iron tools enable people to cut trees and clear more land for agriculture
 Production of food resulted in surplus
 There was also livestock rearing along river valleys
 Early iron age people mined iron, gold, copper and iron ore
 Smelted iron fashioned implements

4
  Early iron age people made clay pots for containing water, grain and milk
 Hunting improved
 Gathering improved
 Iron age people began to trade surplus products
 Fishing improved
 Vassals paid tribute
 Raiding of weaker groups
 Division of labour based on skill, gender and age
ii. Availability of food precipitated population growth
 Built more permanent shelters of pole and dagga
 Classes began to appear as a result of different skills such as blacksmithing,
fishing, trade and mining
 Polygamy was practiced
 Cattle used to pay lobola
 There was also the emergence of religious ceremonies and rituals
 Settlements according to clans and lineages
 Division of labor based on skill, gender and age
 Exploitation of women
c. To what extent did these changes benefit the people of Southern Africa?
i. BENEFITS
 iron age people made more food and a balanced diet
 were able to clear more land for agriculture
 were more sedentary
 were able to kill larger animals
 trading developed – as a source of foreign goods
 storage facilities improved
 employment creation
 life expectancy improved
 security found in larger groups
ii. NON BENEFITS
 there was competition for hunting, pasturing and cultivation of land
 classes began to + emerge – lower classes were exploited
 women were exploited e.g. They did more arduous tasks like crop cultivation
 manufacture of iron weapons promoted warfare and increased killing rate
 displacement of stone age people
 raiding brought strife
 land degradation
(June 2006)
3.(a.) Identify any three Iron Age sites in Southern Africa and three minerals
Extracted by the Early Iron Age people in Southern Africa.
[6]
(i.) Gokomere, Ziwa, abveni, Zhizo, Great Zimbabwe, Pelindaba, Lydenberg,
Mapungubwe, Chinhoyi, Malipati, Hwange Game Reserves

5
 (ii.) Gold, iron, copper, zinc, lead, silver, tin and salt
(b.) Describe the economic activities of the Early Iron Age people in Southern Africa
. [11]
 Agriculture:- crops grown – millet, sorghum, calabashes
 Domestication of animals – cattle, goats and sheep
 Mining – gold, copper – open shafts, smelting and blacksmithing
 Hunting an important source of meat, elephants for ivory
 Gathering of wild fruits – berries, tubers, source of supplementary food
 Gathering done by women whilst men hunted
 Trade – exported gold dust, ivory, feathers to foreigners.
Divided into two parts (local and external)
- Imported cloth, beads, sea shells
 Craft work – pottery, basketry, smelting and blacksmithing
 Raiding
 Payment of tribute
 Fishing
(c.) To what extent did the people of Southern Africa benefit from the use of iron?
[8]
i. BENEFITS
 More permanent homes of pole and dagga
 Clearing of fields – more food, better nutrition
 More balanced diet
 Hunting made more efficient and mining became easier
 Better weaponry for defence
 Population growth
 Polygamy
 State formation
 Tools more durable
 Trade developed
ii. DISADVANTAGES
 Exploitation of poor by the rich as cattle headers, labour in fields
 Conflicts over control of resources such as minerals, pastures and land became
common
 Formation of classes
 Loss of lives due to increased warfare
(Nov 2008)
4. (a.) Name any six tools used by the Early Iron Age people of Southern Africa.
[6]
 Bows and arrows, fishing hooks, hammers, razors, knobkerries, scrapers, grinding
stones, iron axes, knives, hoes, spearheads, swords, mattocks and wooden clubs.

6
(b.) Describe the economic activities of the Early Iron Age people of Southern Africa.
[11]
 Agriculture – growing traditional Bantu crops – sorghum, millet, beans.
 Rearing of animals like goats, sheep, cattle
 Mining – gold, copper, iron
 Blacksmithing – making of iron implements such as axes, hoes, spears
 Trade – exchanging gold, ivory, livestock for grain, cloth beads. Locally and
international level.
 Craft work – such as pottery, weaving and basket making
 Hunting for meat and hides
 Gathering wild fruits and berries
 Levying of tribute from subjects
 Division of labor – women were gatherers whilst men went hunting
 Raiding for cattle – grain
 Fishing
(c) To what extent did iron technology contribute to the rise of classes within the
societies in Southern Africa?
[8]
(i.) CONTRIBUTION
 Iron technology - engendered surplus production and emergence of haves and have
not
 Iron technology led to emergence of miners, blacksmiths and traders as separate
classes
 Surplus production begot polygamy, a source of labour
(ii.) OTHER FACTORS
 Pastoral economy before iron technology
 Lineage and clan leaders developed into ruling classes
 Defeat in wars resulted in vassalage
 trade before iron technology
 charisma of people – made them candidates for leadership
[June 2011]
5[a].State any six iron tools produced during the Early Iron Age in Southern Africa.
[6]
 axes, hoes, spearheads
 swords, arrowheads, fishing hooks
 razors, hammers, scrappers
[b].Describe the social organisation of the Early Iron Age societies in Southern Africa.
[11]
Social organisation
 polygamy practised, payment of lobola
 cattle used asa symbol of status/ wealth
 patrilineal society ,held rainmaking ceremonies

7
  division of labour by sex, practised kuronzera system or mafias
 lived in round shaped huts
 believed in God-Mwari
 believed in spirit mediums and ancestral spirits
 lived in river valleys according to their lineages
 had permanent settlements
 consulted spiritual mediums in times of crisis
 Delegated duties.
[c].How important was religion to Early Iron Age societies in Southern Africa? [8]
Importance of religion
 It united people /peace creation
 The chief was chosen by spirit mediums
 King was respected as God’s chosen leader
 In rainmaking[ religion important in rainmaking ceremonies]
 In succession disputes
Other factors
 Marriage, trading brought foreign goods.
 Farming was the backbone of their economy
 Produced baskets for storing and carrying food
 Mining produced items for trade
GREAT ZIMBABWE
(June 2004)
6. (a) Identify any six reasons why Great Zimbabwe was built. (6)
 for environmental factors –e.g. good pastures, perennial rivers – gold deposits
 As the chief or Mambos court
 As an administrative centre
 As a symbol of power
 As a trading centre
 As a fortress in times of war
 As a religious centre
 As a dwelling place for nobles
(b) Describe the economic and social activities of the people of Great Zimbabwe. (11)
(i) Economic activities of Great Zimbabwe
Pastoralism
 Kept herds of cattle for food –milk-also for lobola, slaughtering at ritual ceremonies
 Goats also reared for meat
Crop cultivation
 They also grew crops such as sorghum and millet for food and brewing beer.
Cultivation of crops was women’s work.
 Hunting and gathering were also important sources of food. Trade goods such as
ivory and gold formed part of economic activities in the dry seasons.

8
  Mining of minerals such as iron copper, gold, lead and tin.
 Iron was mainly used for making tools and weapons whilst copper and gold were used
for ornaments like bangles and necklaces.
 Hence iron smelting and blacksmithing were important activities.
 Trade was practiced locally / regionally.
 Exchanging iron implements for grain and long distance trade with foreigners such as
the Swahili and Persians exchanging gold and ivory for cloth, glass beads, seashells
etc.
 Pottery was also practiced-clay pots served as storage for grain and featured in trade.
 Payment of tribute
(ii) Social Activities
 Great Zimbabwe, a religious centre
 People of Great Zimbabwe believed in creator God-called Mwari
 National spirits-Mhondoro, and in ancestral spirits- Vadzimu. These were worshiped
through spirit mediums.
 Soapstone Zimbabwe birds made as symbols of Shiri yaMwari
 Mhondoros and Mwari were consulted in times of crisis such as war, droughts etc
through the spirit mediums- maswikiro
 Spirit mediums-important at installation of new chiefs
 Beer brewed cattle slaughtered at traditional ceremonies
(c) To what extent did economic problems lead to the decline of the state? (8)
(i) Economic factors
 Shortage of resources such as salt and pastures
 Exhaustion of soil
 Successive droughts- poor harvests
 Decline in trade through depletion of resources
(ii) Socio political factors
 Succession disputes in royal family leading to migrations
 Over population
 Attacks from neighbours
(Nov 2004)
7. (a) List any six trade items exchanged for foreign goods by the people of Great
Zimbabwe during the late iron age. (6)
(i) Gold / cooper
(ii) Ivory
(iii) Soapstone / bowls
(iv)Ostrich feathers, iron tools, grains

(v) Beads from seeds/ jewellery, craft ware

(vi)Skins of animals

9
(vii) Livestock

(b) Describe the economic activities of the Great Zimbabwe state during the late iron
age. (11)

 Pastoralism – kept cattle and goats

 Cultivation of crops- millet and sorghum
 Division of labour
 Mining gold
 ;payment of tribute
 Fishing
 Craftwork- pottery basketry, weaving
 Hunting –for meat and skins
 Tool making-hoes, knives, arrows, spears
 Trade- local and long distance
 Gathering of fruits/berries
 Raiding

(c) To what extent did the economic activities contribute to the decline of the Great
Zimbabwe State? (8)

(i) Economic Activities

 Shortage of salt (led to northward migration of Nyatsimba Mutota)

 Shortage of food( due to droughts and sole exhaustion)
 Pastures for cattle (overgrazing)
 Fuel and other resources depleted (environmental degeneration )
 Decline in trade
 Refusal to pay tribute

(ii) Other reasons

 Succession disputes
 Rise of ambitious leaders
 Overpopulation
 Attacks from neighbours

(Nov 2005)

8. (a) State any three commodities imported and any three commodities exported by the
Great Zimbabwe State. (6)

(a) (i) Glass beads, cloth, seashells, brassware, ironware, axes and hoe heads, chisels,
chinaware

(ii) Ivory, gold, ostrich feathers, animal skins, soapstone/ bowls, livestock / cattle

10
(b)Describe the economic and social activities of the people of Great Zimbabwe (11)

(i) Economic activities

 Agriculture – grew sorghum , millet, calabashes, gourds

 Domestication of cattle , goats and sheep for meat, milk, traditional ceremonies and
lobola
 Mining-iron , copper, gold dust
 Smelting and blacksmithing-manufacture of hoes , spearheads and arrowheads
 Trade -internal trade exchanging grain for hoes, spears etc and external trade
exchanging ivory gold dust for cloth glass and beads with Swahili people from Persia,
India
 Hunting for meat , elephants for ivory
 Gathering still an important source of food
 Division of labour – men went hunting and herding whilst women went gathering,
cultivated land.
 Craftwork- ;basketry ,making soapstone bowls, Zimbabwe bird figurines
 Fishing
 Tribute

[ii]Social Activities

 Great Zimbabwe-religious centre

 Figurines of Zimbabwe bird excavated at Great Zimbabwe
 People of Great Zimbabwe –believed in creator-God Mwari,
 Believed in existence of other superior beings ,ancestral spirits
 National and regional spirits called Mhondoros
 Communication with spirits made through spirit mediums
 Spirit mediums used to interpret voice of Hungwe[Fish-eagle]
 Polygamy was practiced
 Cattle as a status symbol
 Division of labour
 Cattle loaning system/kuronzera
 Settlement system/dwellings/accommodation

[c].To what extent did trade contributes to the decline of Great Zimbabwe? [8]

[i].Trade and decline:

 Contributed through exhaustion of resources, gold, ostrich feathers, ivory

 Opening of Zambezi tra de precipitated decline of trade at Great Zimbabwe
 Unfair trade practices e.g. received worthless goods

[ii].other factors

 Shortage of salt
 Persistent droughts
 Exhaustion of pasture/soil which supported agriculture
 Overpopulation
 There were also succession disputes and threats of attacks from external enemies
 Civil wars

11
 (Nov 2010)

9(a).List any six crafts practised by the people of Great Zimbabwe. (6)

 Pottery, Basketry, Weaving

 Blacksmithing, Sculpture, Building of stones.
 Carvings, Leatherwork, Jewellery
 Smelting, Drum making

(b).Outline the factors which led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe. (11)

 Favourable climate-good rainfall and availability of water from rivers such as the
Mtirikwi.
 Absence of tsetse flies and good pasture which sustained pastoralism
 Abundance of game for meat, skins and ivory in the area
 Area was accessible to international trade with Swahili, Arabs , Persians and Chinese
through Sofala and local trade
 Hilltop was probably chosen for defence against enemies and as a centre for religious
worship.
 Rise of ambitious leaders who undertook conquest of other lineages to control trade
routes, resources and to levy tribute
 Fertile lands for agriculture
 Abundance of minerals for trade and tool making
 Availability of granite rock
 Cattle loaning system(Kuronzera\Mafisa)
 The fall of Mapungubwe
 Polygamy
 Strength of the army.

(c).To what extent did economic factors contribute to the rise of the state? (8)

Economic factors

 Trade goods used by rulers to strengthen their positions

 Availability of salt
 Agriculture- food available
 Pastoralism
 Hunting-meat and skins
 Tribute payment
 Minerals- for trade, making tools and weapons.
 Availability of wood for fuel
 Cattle loaning system-made leaders strong.

Other factors

 Rise of ambitious leaders- leading and organising people

 Tribute
 Hilltop area for defence purposes
 Religion, fall of Mapungubwe.
 Absence of tsetse flies
 Rise of population

12
  Accessibility of the area through rivers
 Polygamy
 Role of the army
 Good relation with other people

[Nov 2011]

10. [a].State any six uses of cattle in the Great Zimbabwe state. [6]

 Payment of lobola(bride-price)
 Form of wealth/ status symbol
 Loaning-mafisa-cattle for political influence
 For trade
 Payment of tribute
 For ritual ceremonies such as rain making ceremonies,appeasing spirits
 For food-milk and meat
 Forms of transport,riding, carrying goods(draught power)
 Mats,clothes and blankets
 Drums, payment of fines, manure, flour polish, making shields, making sandals, hides
and skins-for clothing and blankets

[b].Describe the factors that led to the rise of the Great Zimbabwe state. [11]

 Fall of mapungubwe
 Good rainfall supplies
 Availability of granite rock
 Religious powers
 Its geographical location
 Livestock ownership especially cattle
 Strong army
 Marriage alliances
 Fertile soils for gowing crops
 Control of surplus production by leaders
 Good pastures for domestic animals,cattle, gotas and sheep
 Abundant water supplies from nearby rivers eg Mutirikwe River
 Plenty of Fauna for meat, ivory
 Favourable climate- free tsetse- fly- promoting cattle rearing
 Rich mineral wealth in the neighbourhood,e,g cooper,gold,iron
 Suitable place for taking refuge in war time-Nemnwa Hill
 Hill regarderd as sacred for religious purposes
 Central location made area accessible to local and international trade
 Emergence of influential and ambitious leaders keen on rulling a larger political unit
and levying tribute
 Abundance of fuel,Abundance of salt, strong army
 Development of iron technology
 Polygamy leading to population increase

13
[c].How important were political factors in the rise of Great Zimbabwe. [8]

Importance of political factors

 Fall of Mapungubwe
 Emergence of ambitious leaders
 Control of religion –rukers regarded as divinely appointed hence commanded
universal respectn
 Leaders’ ambitions wetted by considerations of tribute collection
 Strong army
 Unity
 Suitability of the area for defence in war time

Importance of other factors

 Economic factors such as accessibility to international and local trade

 Fertile solis for growing crops
 Abundant pastures for livestock
 Abundant mineral wealth
 Abundant fauna
 Suitability of area for defence in war time

THE MUTAPA STATE

[Specimen]

11[a].State six factors that led to the rise of the Mutapa State. [6]

 Depletion of resources at Great Zimbabwe and the resultant migration of groups of

people from there.
 Need to control long distance trade along the Zambezi (Sambavezi) river.
 Succession disputes at Great Zimbabwe led to the migration of defeated leaders to
new area.
 Ambitious leaders like Mutota wanted to start new states
 Existence of better resources in the North East.
 Growth in population of Shona people.
 Emergence of several chieftainships in the area led to amalgamation
 Military strength of some leaders helped them to dominate and expand

[b].Describe the economic activities of the Mutapa State. [11]

 Farming-both agriculture and pastoral farming

 Mining –for things like iron, copper and weapons
 Craftwork-the making of household items like baskets, pottery drums and mats
 Trade –both internal and external trade. The former involved exchange between
different groups of Shona e,g Miners exchanging with farmers ; and the latter
involved the Shona and outsiders like the Swahili and Portuguese who brought in new
items like cloth and maize
 National wealth was also accumulated through tribute paid to the ruler
 Hunting –also played a part in the economy of the Mutapa as it augmented the food
supply

14
 [c].How far did these economic activities contribute to the growth and expansion of
the Mutapa State?
[8]

 The system of division of labour helped to promote the economy as different groups
played their part to enhance wealth—e,g men could concentrate on trade while
women produced food.
 Control of trade by leaders gave them power and wealth which helped them dominate
other less wealthy groups.
 Knowledge of iron making also gave power in terms of weapons and helped the
leading group to establish authority and even expand its influence over large areas
 Resulting exhibition of power also enhanced growth and expansion when some
smaller ethnic groups voluntarily joined the Mutapa kingdom.
 The king’s alleged religious powers were controlled through the chiefs representative
also enhanced growth
 The military prowess of the nucleus group of Mutota helped to conquer other areas
and bring them under centralized authority.

[JUNE 2004]

12. [a].Name any six rulers of the Mutapa state from the 15th century to the 17th century.
[6]

 Kapararidze
 Nyatsimba Mutota
 Nyanhewe Matope
 Nyahuma mukomberanwa
 Mamvura Mhande
 Nyakambire/Nyakunembire
 Negomo Mapunzaguta
 Gatsi Rusere

[b].Describe the political structure of the Mutapa state. [11]

The political structure of the Mutapa state

 Mutapa state-very large by 1450
 Bounded by Zambezi river in the north ,Limpopo in the south, the Indian
Ocean in East and the Kalahari desert in west
 Hence there was need for efficient system of government
 The Mutapa himself was the centre of government-based at his headquarters-
muzinda [court].
 Other important state officials included-the court chancellor, the court
chamberlain ,the army commander, the head drummer, the cook
 The queen mother, king’s sister as well as the king’s nine principal wives,
nobles and pages sent by vassals
 Chief priests of the Mwari cult
 In the important provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire ,Dande, Barwe, Manyika
and Uteve the Mutapa put trusted relatives or friends to rule as vassal chiefs
 Chiefs were chosen/appointed in consultation with spirit mediums or
mhondoros

15
  Each vassal chief collected tribute on behalf of the Mutapa in form of ivory,
gold, grain ,cattle etc
 Sent own son with tribute to Mutapa as sign of loyalty
 Vassal chiefs also required to light their own fire from Mutapa’s fire
annually ,as further sign of loyalty
 Rebellious vassals were attacked by the king’s army which also helped to hold
empire/state together
 Mutapa maintained a strong army for defence

[c].How far did succession disputes contribute to the decline of the Mutapa state?[8]

Reasons for the decline

 The kingdom was too large, communication with all parts was difficult
 Poor leadership of certain rulers-who lacked the charisma and military prowess –to
keep state united
 Succession disputes-e.g. Portuguese against Gatsi Rusere, Mamvura Mhande
 Interference form foreigners such as Swahili traders for better contracts from rulers
 Later interference from Portuguese traders in the 16th/17th centuries who had influence
on rulers like Mamvura Mhande, Gatsi Rusere
 Foreigners fanned succession disputes-taking sides in disputes
 Brought Islam/Christian religion which destroyed traditional religion-a unifying
element.

[June 2006]

13. [a].List any six titles of officials in Mutapa’s government [6]-

Chancellor,-army commander,-head drummer, head doorkeeper, court chamberlain ,head
cook, Queen mother, king’s sister, king’s nine principal wives, chief spirit medium, king’s
sons in law ,vassal chiefs ,chiefs, provincial chiefs

[b].Describe the political system and the social system of the Mutapa state [8].

[i].Political system of Mutapa state

 King was the highest official ,centre of government ,commander in chief of army,
chief judge, religious leader, distributor of land and booty
 Important officials at chiefs court included army commanders, chancellor, head
drummer, head doorkeeper, head cook, king’s sister, Queen mother and the king’s
nine principal wives
 Officials related to Mutapa State-divided into provinces under control of vassal chiefs
such as Uteve of Sofala, Sendada of Save, Chikanga of Manyika, and Makombe of
Barwe.
 Vassal chiefs paid tribute to Mutapa
 Vassal chiefs required to light fires every year from Mutapa’s fire
 Also sent sons as ambassadors to Mutapa as sign of loyalty
 Marriage alliances
 Maintenance of an army as part of politics

16
[ii] Social system of the Mutapa state

 Shona believed in high God-Mwari Creator of mankind

 Shona also believed in various spirits such as family ancestors, clan and National
Spirits called Mhondoros
 Spirits –were consulted through spirit mediums
 Spirits appeared through brewing beer and slaughtering cattle
 Beliefs in witchcraft
 Practiced polygamy
 Kuronzera/cattle loaning system
 Living in villages according to lineages

[c].How important was religion in the political system of the Mutapa state? [8]

[i]. Importance of shona religion

 Shona religion most integrating and unifying factor in Mutapa state

 New Mutapa –chosen and installed by National Mhondoro
 Mutapa respected as a divine ruler
 King consulted spirits/mhondoros in times of crisis, war, famine
 King ruled with blessing of spirit mediums

[ii] Other factors:

 Included military organization or the army for defence/expansion of the state

 Strong economy based on farming, pastoralism, mining, trade-which helped to
maintain a large army
 Payment of tribute ,royal fire
 Also important in ensuring loyalty to state/strong ruler

[Nov 2006]

14. [a].List any six items that were used to pay tribute in the Mutapa State. [6]

-Agricultural produce,-labour, -valuable skins, -gold, -cattle, -ivory, -iron hoes, -ostrich
feathers,-jewellery/beads, -guns, -ceramics, -foreign goods.

[b].Describe the origins and expansion of the Mutapa State. [11]

[i] Origins

 Founded by Nyatsimba Mutota

 Assumed to be direct successor to Great Zimbabwe state that collapsed around mid
15th century
 Idea depends on oral tradition about Mutota
 Sent agents to northern plateau searching for salt
 Discovered new salt deposits in north so movement to Dande area/Mt Darwin area
 Drought at Gt Zimbabwe
 Shortage of resources
 Succession disputes shifting of trade to Zambezi valley
 Conquests and plunder of the Tonga and Tavara people
 Alliances to chief Dzivaguru, leading to support by local people

17
[ii].Development/Expansion

 Trade led to expansion of the state

 His son and successor ,Matope, extended territory eastwards by conquering
independent kingdoms of Barwe, Manica and Sofala, Uteve ,Madanda
 Mutapa exercised the powers of paramount chief over north-east Mashonaland and
much of present day Mozambique for 200 years
 Had direct control over NE corner of Mozambique
 Kings of Uteve, Madanda and Chikanga paid tribute
 Extended westward as far as the Kalahari desert

[c].How important was the army in the expansion of the Mutapa State? [8]

[i].Importance of the army in state expansion

 Conquest of new territory

 Collection of tribute
 Defence of the state
 Suppression of rebellions
 protecting the Mutapa

[ii] Other factors

 Alliance to Dzivaguru priests and support from the locals[religion]

 Marriage alliances
 Military prowess/charismatic leadership of Mutota& Matope
 Weaknesses of the locals.

[Nov 2007]

15[a].State any sixsocial groups within the Great Zimbabwe State. [6]

 Farmers; Miners; Traders; Ruling Class; Spirit Mediums; Hunters;

 Potters; Herbalists; War Captives; Blacksmiths; Soldiers; Gatherers; Slaves;

[b].Describe the political and social systems of the Great Zimbabwe State. [11]

[i]Political system:
 The king was the political, judicial and religious overlord
 King was also commander in chief of the army and distributor of land
 King was assisted by the traditional council of elders
 Also appointed district and village chiefs to control districts and villages respectively
 Lesser chiefs paid tribute as a sign of loyalty
 They also had an army for protection of traders and for maintaining order
 Kingship was hereditary
 There were also important official like the Queen mother, king’s wives and sons-in-
law and army commanders.

18
 [ii].Social system:

 Great Zimbabwe society was patrilineal

 Ownership of cattle was a status symbol
 Cattle were used to pay lobola
 Polygamy was practiced as a source of labour and soldiers
 Great Zimbabwe society believed in creator God Mwari and National Spirits or
Mondoros and ancestral spirits, Hungwe bird
 Worship was done through the spirit mediums(Masvikiro)
 The king was chosen by spirit mediums and led at ritual ceremonies such as
rainmaking or harvest

[c].How important was tribute in the Great Zimbabwe political system?

[i]Importance of tribute:

 Ensured loyalty of lesser chiefs to the king

 Ensured lesser chiefs would not become to rich, powerful and ambitious
 Enhanced the wealth, influence and power of the king

[ii].Other factors

 Also important was religion which united the people

 King was chosen by spirit mediums hence commanded universal respect
 The army also important for defence, law and order discouraging rebellions
 Trade was important for access to foreign goods and strength of the economy
 Agriculture was important for a strong economy and for feeding the populace.

[Nov 2008]

16. [a].State any six provinces of the Mutapa State at the peak of its power. [6].

-Guruuswa [Torwa], -Mbire, -Chidima [chidemo], -Barwe, -Manyika, -Uteve, -Madanda

[b].Describe the rise and expansion of the Mutapa State up to 1480. [11]

[i].Nyatsimba Mutota –ambitious but unsuccessful claimant to the throne-[1420-1450]

 1420 Mutota set out to Dande Region in search of salt ,gold, ivory, pastures, fertile
lands
 Also to control trade route on Zambezi River.
 Mutota conquered the Tonga, Tavara and Kore-kore of the Dande Region
 Was given praise name ‘MweneMutapa’
 Owner of the conquered lands which became a dynastic title
 Mutota established the capital at Chitako Changonya near Mt Fura in Dande
 Mutota died in 1450 before completing his expansionist policy
 Religion enhanced unity e.g. Dzivaguru cult

(ii.) Nyanhewe Matope, Mutota’s son continued the expansionist policy.

- Conquered and absorbed Barwe, Manyika, Uteve and Madanda

- Still desired to control trade routes, tribute, gold and ivory resources.

19
 - Mutapa State was at its zenith during Matope’s reign.

In the east it was bounded by the Indian Ocean, in the west by the Kalahari Desert, in
the north by the Zambezi River, and in the south by the Limpopo River. Mutota and
Matope created a very vast empire had to appoint vassal chiefs to control provinces.

(c.) Did the people of the Mutapa State benefit from the expansion of the state
during the period? Explain your answer. [8]

(i.) BENEFITS FROM MUTAPA STATE

 Peace and protection by strong state army

 Were conducive to trade and farming
 Access to foreign goods through trade
 Ruling class levied tribute from vassal chiefs
 Access to more resources – gold, game animals, ivory, fertile soil
 Unity enhanced by religion e.g. the Dzivaguru cult

(ii.) NON-BENEFITS
 Rebellions by vassal chiefs – caused deaths and destructions
 Succession disputes by ambitious members of the royal family
 Control of vast empire was difficult hindered by poor communication
 Ordinary people and vassal chiefs had to pay tribute
 Ordinary people fought in King’s armies and perished.

[Nov 2009]
17 (a.) Name any six rulers of the Mutapa State up to the 18th century. [6]
 Nyatsimba Mutota
 Nyanhewe Matope
 Chikuyo Chisamarengu
 Mavura Mande (Phillip)
 Gatsi Rusere
 Negomo Mapunzagutu (Sebastian)
 Nyambo Kapararidze
 Mukombwe
 Chivhere Nyasoro
 Nyahuma
 Nyakunembire/Neshangwe
 Nyamhita Nehanda
(b.) Describe the political and religious organization of the Mutapa State.
[11]
(i.) POLITICAL
 The ruler was overall in charge, chief administrator, chief judge, commander
in chief of the army and distributor of land. [max of 3 duties]
 Ruler was called by title Munhumutapa (Mwene Mutapa

20
  Kingship was hereditary passing on to the eldest son after the death of the
King
 The king was helped to rule by provincial rulers in the provinces
 District chiefs were in charge of chiefdoms
 The ruler had many officials such as court chamberlain, army commanders,
cooks, door-keeper, tax collectors, messengers, ambassadors. [max of 2]
 Also important was the queen mother and the kings nine principal wives.
 Lesser chiefs paid tribute to Mutapa as a sign of loyalty
 The Mutapa also required lesser chiefs to light their fires from the King’s fire
annually (royal fire)
 King also had an army to maintain law and order.
(ii.) RELIGIOUS
 The people of the Mutapa State believed in the creator God Mwari, National
Spirits (Mhondoros) and ancestral spirits. [MAX 3]
 These were worshiped through the spirit mediums (masvikiro). Spirits played
an important role in the installation of kings (kings chosen by spirit mediums)
 The Mutapas consulted spirit mediums in times of crises such as war, drought,
epidemics, succession disputes etc
 Rainmaking ceremonies
 Belief in life after death
 Believed in witchcraft
(c.) How far did religion contribute to the stability of the state? [8]
(i.) importance of religion
 Helped in choosing kings and in their installation
 Were consulted by kings and chiefs in times of crises such as war and drought
 Treating of ill people
 Religious ceremonies such as rain making
 Alliance with the Dzivaguru cult
(ii.) Other factors
 The army for maintaining law and order
 Tribute payment ensured the loyalty of lesser chiefs
 Collection of royal fire also ensured loyalty to lesser chiefs
 Stable economy meant a stable government
 Trade
 Raiding
 Marriage alliances
 Kuronzera
[Nov 2011]
18 [a].Name any six provinces of the Mutapa state. [6]
 Chikoya, Madnda/Sedanda
 Uteve/Quiteve, Manyika/Manica
 Barwe, Dande-Chidima.
 Mbire, Gururswa/ Butua

21
  Fura, Sango
[b].Outline the military achievements of Mutota and the political system that he
developed in the Mutapa state. [11]
Military achievement of Mutota
 In 1420, Mutota broke away from Great Zimbabwe as the head of the army
 He conquered the Tonga, Tavara and Korekore of the Dande- Chidima areas of the
Zambezi Valley.
 His name, Mutota meant that he controlled conquered lands
 He used the army to establish a large state
 He established his capital at Chitako Changinya Hill near Mt Fura
 Mutota formed the Mutapa state
 Tittle
Political system Developed in the Mutapa State
 Mutapa was the overall leader with political, religious and administrative power.
 King distributed land, army commander
 He appointed lesser chiefs to govern provinces
 Lesser chiefs paid tribute as a sign of loyality
 Lesser chiefs were also required to relight court fires annually from the royal fire
 The Mutapa also kept an army to enforce law and order in the state
 Alliance with Dzivaguru
 There was also a large number of court officials such as the court chamberlain, head
door keeper, army commander, spirit mediums, wives queenmother etc
 Kingship was hereditary
[c].To what extent did Mutota’s military achievements contribute to the rise of the
Mutapa State? [8]
Contribution of military achievements
 Conquest of the Zambezi valley
 Shifting of the capital to the North
 Use of a large army to create a large state
 Tittle Munhumutapa
 Created a strong stsate
 Other points in B1
Contribution of other factors
 Reasons for the fall of Great Zimbabwe also qualify
 Control of long distance trade
 Control of gold mining
 Search for salt
 Fertile land for cultivation wealth in form of cattle absence of tsetseflies
 Weaknesses of local people

22
 THE ROZVI STATE

[NOV. 2003]

19. (a.)List three duties carried out by male members and three duties carried out by

Female members in the Rozvi society. [8]

(i.) MALE

 Hunting, herding cattle, mining, thatching huts, also cultivation, smelting,

trade, fishing. [3]

(ii.) FEMALE

 Crop cultivation, gathering, household chores, looking after children. [3]

(b.) Outline the economic and social way of life in the Rozvi state.
[11]

(i.) ECONOMIC

 Crop cultivation – finger millet, bulrush millet, sorghum, cow peas, maize,
rapoko.
 Pastoralism – cattle, a form of wealth – important for wealth and times of
drought.
 Mining – gold, iron, copper. Practiced opencast mining.
 Hunting – to get meat, enjoyed as a sport by men; ivory, skins.
 Trade – local and external trade with Portuguese. Use of vashambadzi. Ivory
and gold important trade items to obtain cloth, beads, sea shells, etc.
 Blacksmithing – an industry to produce tools and weapons such as knives,
razors, spears, arrow-heads.
 Weaving – cloth – craftwork
 Pottery by women and basketry by men
 Tribute collected by the army for Changamire
 Division of labour according to sex, age and skill.

(ii.) SOCIAL WAY OF LIFE

 Religion - believed in Mwari and the importance of ancestors and spiritual

beings.
 Shona priests – an important link in the society
 Believed spirit lived in Mountains, big pools of water, thick forests.
Witchcraft.
 Mafisa – system – a system of kuronzera people who did not own cattle
looked after other people’s cattle, and would be given some eventually.
 Marriage – roora paid. Polygamy practiced esp. by those who owned many
cattle, and blacksmiths.
 A patrilineal society i.e. relations traced through the masculine gender
 Ethnic dances on important occasions and as leisure e.g. religious ceremonies.

23
(c.) Explain why this state declined. [8]

Reasons for decline

(i.) Internal factors – serious droughts, civil wars, economic decline, succession
disputes, disputes with Chikanga of Manyika, also Barwe chiefs

(ii.) External Factors – Nguni incursions and Portuguese invasions. Nguni groups
were Zwangendaba’s Ngoni; Nyamazana; the Ndebele; Nxaba and the Ngoni also briefly
invaded.

[Nov 2004]

20 [a].State any six economic activities of the Rozvi State.

 Crop cultivation –millet, sorghum

 Pastoralism-cattle, goats
 Trade-internal and external trade
 Hunting-for meat and animal skins
 Craftwork tool making/blacksmithing
 Payment of tribute
 Mining
 Fishing/gathering/raiding

[b].Describe the political organization of the Rozvi State. [11].

 Rozvi rulers known as Mambo or Changamire

 Mambo was overall in charge of the military ,religious and political power
 Position of Mambo was hereditary
 The power of the king rested mainly with the army
 Had advisors to assist –mainly priests and army commanders
 Provincial chiefs were in charge of provinces .The Mambo was in charge of their
installation. Also had hereditary positions
 Chiefs(ishe) were in charge of chiefdoms and were appointed by the Mambo
 Under the chiefs were headmen(sadunhu)
 Allegiance to the Mambo was done through payment of tribute .Tribute was collected
by the army.
 Religious leaders involved in the installation of the Mambo.
 Tumbare acted as regent after the death of Changamire.

NB: Mambo (king) Ishe (chief) Sadunhu(Headman)

[c].How far did political problems contribute to the collapse of the Rozvi State ?

[i]. Contribution to the fall:

 Rozvi state too big –hence poor communication

 Succession disputes
 Political divisions, Civil wars failure to fully incorporate some chiefdoms like
Kalanga ,(chiefdom rebellions)
 Practice of Tumbare acting as a regent

24
 [ii]Other factors for the collapse

 Successive droughts
 Decline of gold production
 Disruption of trade, especially by Portuguese
 Invasion of the State by Mfecane groups e,g Ndebele and Ngoni
 Depletion of resources

[Nov 2005]

21[a].Name any three Rozvi towns and any three Rozvi rulers up to the 18thcentury.

 Khami(Dlodlo); Naletale; Danangombe; Manyanga; Nhava YaTumbare

 Changamire Dombo; Changamire Rupanga Manhanga; Changamire Chirisamhuru ii

[b].Describe the political system and religious system of the Rozvi State up to the 19th
century.
[11]

 Rozvi political system-Rozvi Mambo- was head of state; and commander-in-chief

.Succession to the throne was hereditary and cultural
 On death of mambo- Tumbare (Rozvi general) acted as regent –till appointment of
new mambo.
 Provinces were under vassal chiefs installed by the Mambo or his representative
 Vassal Chiefs-paid tribute to Mambo as sign of loyalty; Tumbare (Rozvi general) was
responsible for collection of tribute.
 Sadunhu, Mambo’s senior wives and sons in-law were important officials of the
king’s court.
 Rozvi religion-the Rozvi worshiped the sky- God-Mwari- Creator of Mankind and all
creation ;Rozvi also believed in spirits-ancestral spirits regional and national spirits
called Mondoro
 Spirit mediums were go- between of the people and Mondoro- consulted in crises –
famine, war, drought
 Mambo believed to be a descendant of Mwari
 Was a religious leader

[c]. How important was the role of the army in the Rozvi political system? [8]

[i].Importance of the Army

 Used to conquer or raid neighbours for cattle ,extend territory

 Used to defend the state
 Army was also used to collect tribute –punish rebellious chiefs- failing to pay tribute

[ii].Other factors

 Most important element in the Rozvi state was religion-which united people
 Mambo was confirmed in office by spirit mediums
 Mambo regarded as divine ruler
 Also important was the strong economy of the state based on agriculture, pastoralism,
trade
 Kuronzera united people
25
  Marriage alliances
[Nov 2007]

22[a].List any six government officials of the Rozvi State.

[6]

 Army commanders
 Provincial chiefs
 District chiefs
 Queen mother
 King ‘s sons- in-law
 Spirit mediums
 Tumbare
 Village heads
 King
 Sadunhu(Headman)
 Court counsellors

[b].Outline the social activities of the Rozvi State.

[11]

 Rozvi society was patrilineal

 Succession to the throne was through father’s line(patrilineal)
 Ownership of cattle was a status symbol and cattle were used to pay roora
 Wealth in cattle could be loaned some by the wealthier through the kuronzera system
or Mafisa system
 Division of labour was mainly based on gender
 The Rozvi worshiped creator God called Mwari, National spirits(Mondoros) and
family ancestral spirit mediums(Masvikiro)just like the shona of great Zimbabwe.
 Consulted ancestors in times of crisis
 Rozvi Mambo was chosen by spirit mediums and led at ritual ceremonies such as
rainmaking
 The Rozvi believed that spirits resided in mountains, large pools and thick forests
 There was widespread belief in witchcraft

[c].To what extent did social activities strengthened the Rozvi State? [8]

[i].Importance of social activities:

 Religion was unifying factor

 The Mambo was chosen by spirit mediums and led at ritual ceremonies
 Kuronzera system helped to reduce poverty and maintain influence over important
lineages and the poor
 Polygamy helped to establish ties and influence. It was also a source of labour and
soldiers. Some marriages were for political alliance to maintain peace
 Since the Mambo had the highest number of cattle, he was the wealthiest and was
held in high esteem.
[ii].Other factors:
 Strong economy based on agriculture helped to maintain peace and stability
 Trade was a source of foreign goods and helped to strengthen the economy and
enrich the Mambo since he controlled trade

26
  Also payment of tribute –ensured loyalty to the Mambo and ensured that chiefs did
not become too rich and powerful.
 A strong army was also important for defence of the state and putting down
rebellions.

(Nov 2010)

23.(a).List any six responsibilities of the Rozvi ruler. (6)

 Distribution of land , Chief judge, Religious leader

 Chief administrator, Custodian of state property
 Installation of lesser chiefs, commander-in-chief of the army
 Receiving and sharing tribute
 Control of hunting activities, Concluding alliances
 Declaring war, Controlling trade, protecting citizens
 Controlling mining activities, receiving foreign visitors
 Presiding over the council.

(b).Describe the social organisation of the Rozvi state. (11)

 Built pole and dagga huts

 Lived in Homesteads-lived according to lineages
 Belonged to the Moyo totem
 Rozvi marriages were exogamous
 Practised polygamy and paid lobola in form of cattle and iron tools
 Ownership of cattle was a status symbol
 Practised ‘mafisa\kuronzera-cattle loaning to people without cattle
 Division of labour
 Patrilineal society
 Worshipped ‘Mwari’, the Supreme Being and Creator of everything on earth
 Believed in national or regional spirits(Mhondoros) and family ancestral spirit
mediums
 The king was the religious leader and led traditional ceremonies
 Brewed beer and slaughtered cattle at ceremonies called ‘Bira’ and held rain making
ceremonies
 Believed that larger pools, forests and mountains harboured spirits
 King communicated with Mwari on behalf of people
 Believed in life after death and witchcraft and nyangas.

(c).How important was social organisation in the political system of the Rozvi State? (8)

 Religion was a unifying force

 King was chosen by spirit mediums
 King led traditional ceremonies
 Cattle loaning system helped to maintain influence and peace
 Polygamy used by ruling class to maintain alliances and important lineages

Other factors

 Tribute as a sign of loyalty

 Army for law and order, and suppressing rebellions

27
  A strong economy ensured stability

[June 2011]

24[a].Name any three ethnic groups and their respective leaders who fought the Rozvi
between 1800 and 1890 [6]

 Khumalo- Mziikazi
 Jere –Ngoni- Zwangendaba
 Ngoni- Nyamazana
 Shangane- Soshangane
 Msene-Ngoni- Nxaba

[b].Describe the duties of the Rozvi Mambo. [11]

 Controlled trade, Recived visitors.

 Commander in Chief of the Rozvi army
 Mambo was the head of state, distributed land
 Was the chief judge, selected provincial chiefs, district chiefs and sub-chiefs
 Received and handled reports from various parts of the kingdom
 Appointed the Council of Advisors, sanctioned ritual ceremonies
 Mambo was the religious leader, sent the army for raiding expeditions
 Received tribute from the chiefs, appointed army generals
 Worked hand in hand with religious leaders
 Had power to relieve his appointees of their duties
 Duty to defend the state from enemy attacks
 Had custody over captives
 Distributed food in times of drought, declared wars, signed treaties, and distributed
looty.

[c].Was the Mambo’s leadership to blame for the decline of the Rozvi kingdom?
Explain your answer. [8]

Mambo’s weaknesses

 Other leaders were less charismatic than Dombo Changamire

 Appointed incompetent subordinates
 Appointments of officials were on a kinship basis
 Failed to rule the vast empire as well as failure to repel Nguni incursions.
 Failed to properly de-centralise his political powers
Other factors
 Succession disputes /collateral system of succession
 Serious droughts, Civil wars
 Economic decline e,g mining, trade
 Disputes with Chikanga and Barwe chiefs
 Nguni incursions e,gMzilikazi’s Ndebele, Zwangendaba’s Ngoni and Nyamazana’s
Ngoni.
 Clashes with the Portuguese left the Rozvi state weakened
 Break away, Tumbare became too powerful, Hiya effects.

28
 Mfecane and the Zulu State
[Specimen 2003]
25.[a].state six factors that caused the Mfecane in Nguniland [6]
 Growth in population and pressure on land
 Desire to control trade, especially with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay
 Importance of cattle in society and desire to acquire more
 Desire to control hunting grounds especially where ivory was concerned
 Desire to control the grazing lands for the increasing number of cattle
 Development of advanced military tactics which promoted aggression
 Emergence of ambitious African leaders who desired to dominate others
 Famine [Madlatule Famine] that occurred caused rivalry as food shortage spread
 Creation of large powerful kingdoms supported by smaller ones, e g The
Mthethwa; the Ndwandwe; the Ngwane; etc, the small Zulu ethnic group sided
with the Mthethwa
[b].Describe the fighting that took place between the ethnic groups in Nguniland during
Mfecane from 1818 to 18123.
[11]
1816 rivalry of the Ndwandwe and Ngwane began over land the latter were defeated and
pushed away north
1818 Ndwandwe under Zwide attacked Mthethwa of Dingiswayo
Dingiswayo was captured and killed and the Mthethwa were defeated and scattered
Ndwandwe attacked the other groups in the area east of the Drankensburg
Some remnants of the Mthethwa fled giving Zwide free reign in the area of Nguniland
Zwide then decided to fight the small Zulu tribe now under Tshaka
The military tactics he developed in the early stages of the mfecane gave Tshaka a
decisive advantage over the Ndwandwe
Tshaka then reassembled the Mthethwa and the Zulus into a powerful military machine
Weaker tribes who could not flee decided to seek refuge under Tshaka and became part of
the empire
Threat of the whites from the south also helped the people to rally behind the most
powerful leader, thus becoming part of an enlarged state
Tshaka adopted new fighting methods, like the cow-horn formation and began to attack
his neighbours. His small Zulu kingdom began to expand and be a challenge to the
Ndwandwe
1818 Zwide decided to crush the emerging Zulu state. In the first battle the Ndwandwe
were defeated and driven off
End of 1818 he sent a full army across the Mfolozi River. Tshaka at first he withdrew his
whole population and wealth. Zwide followed across deserted country with no food.
Ndwandwe army became weakened and began to retreat. Tshaka then attacked and
drove the Ndwandwe back to their capital which he ransacked. Ndwandwe were
defeated.
Tshaka drove the Ndwandwe generals-Zwangendaba and Sotshangana away. They fled
after Zwide was defeated
Zwide fled to the region of upper Nkomati River
Soshangana left in 1821 attacking tribes to the North and ended up in Gaza land, near
modern-day Chipinge/chirinda.

29
 Other smaller tribes fled to the west into the Sotho and Tswana area I terror and in turn
spread the terror on their way
Tshaka proceeded to attack tribes between 1819 and 1822 and subdued them and
incorporated to form a large Zulu kingdom
[c].How far did the Mfecane lead to the rise of the Zulu state?
Mfecane wars allowed Tshaka to develop the Zulu state
.Desertion by the key rivals, e,g Mzilikazi of the Khumalo.
[JUNE 2004]
26.[a].State any three states and their respective leaders which emerged amongst the
Northern Nguni in the early 19th century.
[11]
The Mthethwa under Dingiswayo
The Ndwandwe under Zwide
The Ngwane under Sobhuza
The Ngwane under Matiwane
[b].Outline the military reforms introduced by Tshaka in the Zulu Kingdom.
[11]
Tshaka gained control of the Zulu clan on the death of Senzangakhona in 1816.
Adopted and perfected military innovations by Dingiswayo such as banning of
circumcision and drafting boys into age-set regiments
Each regiment had distinct dress and color
Tshaka banned the use of sandals in the army; soldiers were to walk barefoot for speed
Equipped his soldiers with the short stabbing spear [assegai] for hand-to- hand fighting
and large man-size shields
Soldiers were punished by death for losing weapons especially the assegai
Tshaka’s armies employed the cow-horn battle formation
Adopted surprise attack on enemy as a strategy
Employed spies to gather information about his enemies
Made use of smoke signals for communication
Banned married of all men before the age of 40 or before military service
Employed young boys as baggage carriers for soldiers
Isolated soldiers from community and fed soldiers on beef
Believed in total destruction of the enemy, killing the ruling family of defeated tribes and
totally incorporating defeated tribes.
[c].Explain why Shaka was assassinated in 1828.
[i].Reasons for Shaka’s assassination
Shaka became dictatorial.
Did not consult traditional council of advisors on national issues
Nor did he consult his indunas frequently
Maintained a cruel system even when it was no longer justified
Shaka’s strict discipline- and cruelty killing of subjects for minor offences
[ii].Shaka’s also kept his soldiers on ceaseless campaigns

30
 Army became exhausted
However, Shaka success made his relative such as half brothers, Dingane and Mhlangana,
aunt Mkabayi jealous and ambitious to rule.
Mkabayi-suspected Shaka of having killed his own mother
Subsequently killed large numbers of people for failing to mourn his mother Nandi
Shaka’s brothers were also quite ambitious.
[NOV 2004]by njanji

27.[a].List any six military reforms introduced by Tshaka.

[6]
Use of long shields-cowardice punished by death
Use of a short-stabbing spear [assegai]
Conscription of all men under 40 years into the army-runners to relay messages
Going to war barefooted
Young boys to carry baggage for soldiers
Creation of a standing army
Total destruction of enemies
Improvement of the cow-horn formation
Use of female regiments
Banned circumcision ceremonies
Used spies, nyanga/sangomas-to treat soldiers
Use of smoke signals for communication
Used mock battles as training
[b].Outline the problems faced by Tshaka as king of the Zulu State
[11].
Expansion policy characterized by violent warfare, plundering and raiding other states
thus creating hatreds
The death of Nandi, his mother, created problems for him as he killed many people. Even
his sister suspected that Tshaka was responsible for Nandi’s death. Tshaka’s mother
was his advisor.
Jealous relatives who ultimately assassinated him
High rate of executions created enemies for Tshaka among the army
Mzilikazi’s rebellion in 1822.
Threat from the expansionist Boers and British
Battled to control the Delagoa trade route
Shortage of resources-e g land
Lack of trust by commanders
[c].Is it true that Tshaka was responsible for his own downfall? Explain your answer.
[i].Tshaka’s own responsibility for downfall:
 Was a dictator-all power in his hands
 Ignored traditional chiefs
 Failed to work with brothers and sisters who should have assisted him
 Frequent raids exposed him-not enough protection

31
  Rather cruel, e g is said to have killed many people when his mother died
especially those not showing enough signs of grief
 Allowed Khumalo to remain autonomous
[ii].other factors
 Jealous brothers and sisters-envied Tshaka’s success
 Ambitious leaders who also wanted to rule
 Soldiers tired of continuous raids
 Tshaka was an illegitimate child
 Usurped power from brother Sigujana
 Threats of whites
[NOV 2009]
28.[a].Identify any three Northern Nguni leaders and their respective chiefdoms who
were involved in the Mfecane wars.
[6]
 Dingiswayo –Mthethwa
 Sobhuza-Ngwane
 Zwide-Ndwandwe
 Tshaka-Zulu
 Dingane-Zulu
 Mzilikazi-Ndebele
 Nxaba-Ngoni
 Soshangane-Shangane
 Zwangendaba-Ngoni
[b].Describe the political organization of the Zulu State [11]
 King was the supreme ruler
 King was commander in chief
 Controller of labour, religion, trade and land
 King assisted by chiefs and councillors most of whom were relatives and those he
trusted
Power distributed at three levels, the king at the top; members of the ruling Zulu lineage;
the incorporated trusted chiefs
 Below them were other smaller chiefs who were supposed to regard themselves as
Zulu and would be allowed to be councillors
 Other chiefs were those not related to the Zulu-had privileges but had to pay
tribute, excluded from making important decisions
 Army used by the king to control the state. Had a standing army
 Zulu was the official language
 State divided into regimental towns under izinduna
 The inkatha was a symbol of unity
 Religious leaders installed chiefs
[c].How important was the army in the Zulu political system?
[i].importance of army in political system
 Used to expand the state
 Used to collect tribute
32
  Used to raid other states
 Protected the king and the state
 Used to protect trade routes/hunting grounds
 Used to punish rebellious chiefs
[ii].others also important:
 Chiefs ,councillors and king’s relatives helped to administer the state
 Traders were the source of foreign goods
 Tribute payment by subjects
 Religion used as a unifying force e g Inxwala festival
 Intermarriages
 The king’s personality
[JUNE2006]
29.[a].State any three leaders and their respective groups whom Zwide fought during
the Mfecane [6].
 Sobhuza-Ngwane
 Dingiswayo-Mthethwa
 Tshaka - Zulu
[b].Outline the causes of the Mfecane in Northern Nguniland
[11]
 Population explosion in Nguniland
 Competition for pastures, fertile soils
 Creation of larger chiefdoms for protection
 Trade in skins with Portuguese at Delagoa Bay-to get cloth, beads ,guns
 Need to control areas rich in ivory, access to trade routes caused conflicts
 Creation of age-set regiments
 Amabutho for hunting, farming and raiding for cattle and grain
 The Madlatule and long drought precipitated conflicts over pasture, grain and cattle
 European expansion into interior
 Demand for labour led to raids for slaves by Boers, Korans, Portuguese
 Expansion of Zulu kingdom under Tshaka created chain reaction of conflicts in
Nguniland
 Civil wars and ambitious leaders
[c].Is it true that the Mfecane was caused by the Europeans? Explain your answer.
[i].European influence on Mfecane;
 Mfecane largely attributable to white expansion into interior.
 Boer demand for labour in interior
 Portuguese also raiding for slaves for export-chiefdoms fought to get people to
sell as slaves
[ii].other factors;
 However, Mfecane also traceable to problems like population explosion-with
resultant competition for scarce resources such as pastures fertile land
 Mfecane precipitated creation of age regiments for raids on neighbours

33
  Madlatule/drought
 Tshaka and the rise of the Zulu nation

[Nov 2007].
30.[a].List any six reasons for the rise of the Zulu State.
[6].
Main Nguni kingdoms fought and destroyed each other giving a chance to the Zulu
 Influence of Dingiswayo on Tshaka
 Shaka’s able leadership
 Shaka’s reorganization of defeated Mthethwa and his Zulu state into a war
machine
 The defeat of the Ndwandwe by the combined Mthethwa/Zulu armies [now called
the Zulu].
 Conquest of all surrounding ethnic groups and chiefdoms by Zulu armies
 New military innovations introduced by Tshaka
 Role of trade
 Population pressure,
 Madlatule/famine
[b].Outline the military reforms introduced by Tshaka.
[11]
 The use of long shields
 The use of short spears[assegai]
 Conscription until 40 years of age
 Standings armies in different in different areas of kingdom away from society
 Strict military discipline
 Use of the death penalty for minor/major offences
 Mock battles and military drills
 Use of the cow-horn battle tactics
 Female regiments
 Youths carried for soldiers
 Use of total war in which enemy structures were completely destroyed, including
royal family
 Use of spies and smoke signals for information
 Military demands led to banning of circumcision because it took long to heal
 The use of speed in war[fighting barefooted]
 Use of traditional healers
 War cry
 Fed soldiers on beef
 Use of surprise attacks
 Mfasimba [distinct head dress]
 Perennial warfare
[c].How effective was Shaka in his use of these reforms?
[i]The tactics brought successes: Effectiveness
 Succeeded in building a very strong/powerful Zulu kingdom –feared throughout
Southern Africa

34
  Conquered and controlled many other states for his own personal glory
 Managed to become the king of the Zulu state from the status of a small chiefdom
at the beginning of Mfecane
 Managed to build a very strong economy based on cattle
 The Zulu culture and tactics of survival were adopted in the area and other regions
in Southern Africa
[ii].The reforms had negative effects;
 Created a very big state which he failed to keep together
 His dictatorial tendencies created more enemies. Tshaka’ s half –brother and
sister plotted his downfall
 The military reforms led to massive exodus of experienced and skilled personnel
 He maintained a cruel system when it was no longer necessary as a result of the
effectiveness of the reforms
 Depopulation
 The army no longer enjoyed military campaigns
 Led to death of many people and destruction of property
[NOV 2006]
31.[a].Identify any three people who plotted the assassination of Shaka and any three
reason for his assassination
[6]
[i].Dingane, -Mbopha, -Mhlangana, -Mkabayi
[ii].-Tshaka’s autocratic rule
-jealous
-Tshaka’s endless warfare
-Strict discipline
-Increased execution for petty offences
-Execution of people for not mourning Tshaka’s mother/his cruelty
[b].Outline the political and social organization of the Zulu state during Tshaka’s reign.
[11]
[i] Political organization
 Tshaka created a centralized state
 Defeated chiefs were often deposed and replaced by Tshaka’s appointees
 Kingdom was organized on military lines
 Age-regiments accommodated in regimental towns
 Regimental towns administered by an induna helped by a female member of the
royal family
 Regimental towns allocated royal cattle to look after
 King was the chief judge
 Council of advisors rendered irrelevant as Tshaka became autocratic
 King was army commander

35
  Traditional chiefs reduced to administration of local affairs
 Inkatha a symbol of unity
[ii]Social organization
 Marriage was only allowed to men after retiring from army
 Females organized into regiments
 Regiments of women –used to cultivate land and for ceremonial dances and
displays
 Division of labour
 Society was patrilineal
 The king officiated at the Inxwala ceremony, King’s spiritual power was renewed
through traditional medicines
 Settlement set up
[c].Did the political organization of the Zulu state benefit the Zulu nation? Explain your
answer.
[i].Benefits of Tshaka’s political organization;
 Organization on military lines strengthened state against external aggression
during Mfecane
 Military power also necessary for raids on neighbours
 Fostered unity amongst young adults recruits/raided people
 It incapacitated vassal chiefs from rebelling thwarting civil wars
[ii].Disadvantages/Non-Benefits;
 Regimental/ibutho system resented by young men for delaying marriage and for
perennial warfare
 Political system made king an autocratic ruler who ignored indunas, traditional
chiefs’ advice
[June 2011]
32[a].Identify any six ethnic groups that existed south of the Limpopo. [6]
 Zulu, Khumalo, Qhwabe
 Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, Swazi
 Hlubi, Ngwane, Mpondo.
[b].Describe the effects of the Mfecane south of the Limpopo. [11]
 Depopulation- large areas of NATAL, Orange Free state and Transvaal were left
depopulated as people sought security elsewhere
 Loss of lives – many people lost their lives as warfare was the order of the day
 Hunger and starvation –farming was disrupted and people resorted to survival
techniques such as feeding on game meat and wild fruits
 Destruction of property –most of the affected groups lost their valuable properties
including livestock as raiding took its toll
 Uninhabited lands- attracted Boer trekkers from the Cape Colony
 Cannibalism- cases of cannibalism increased due to shortage of food
 Destruction of states –new and old states were destroyed

36
  Empire building- ethnic groups which fled the Mfecane built new empires e,g
Sobhuza
 Emergency of defensive kingdoms such as Swazi, Bapedi and Basotho
 Spread of Nguni religion e,g Inxwala
 Disruption of Delagoa Bay trade with the Portuguese
 Spread of NNguni warfare tactics
 Spread of Nguni language
[c].To what extent was the Mfecane responsible for the fall of kingdoms in Central
Africa? Explain your answer. [8]
Effects of Mfecane wars
 Movements of various groups in search of land
 Better fighting methods, better leadesrship qualities
 Use of Assegai and long shield spread
 Establishment of military towns, better leadesrship methods
 Raiding and incorporation of defeated people
 Hunger and starvation, widespread deaths and destruction of property
 Constant faer of rebellious elements, better fighting methods
Other effects
 Succession disputes, Civil wars
 Weak leadership, drought
 Decline in trade, colonialism
 Disunity, military weakness

The Ndebele State

[NOV2003]
33.[a].Identify any three groups and their respective leaders that fled from Tshaka
during the Mfecane [6]
 Ndebele-Mzilikazi
 Ngoni-Zwangendaba-Jere-Ngoni
 Shangane-Soshangane
 Ngoni-Msene-Nxaba
[b].Describe Mzilikazi’s journey from Zululand to Zimbabwe.
[11]
 Mzilikazi was a chief of the Khumalo under the leadership of Shaka, the Zulu
 He fled Zululand after he was attacked by Tshaka’s army for failing to surrender
looty to the king
 In 1822 Mzilikazi crossed the Drakensburg mountains with about 300 men and
women
 On their way they established settlements and fought various groups
;incorporating some of them
 Ekuphumuleni-incorporated and raided local people. Moved from this place
around 1826 because of attacks by the Pedi, nearness to Zulu and droughts

37
  Mhlahlandlela in the kwena land raided Sotho for people and domestic animals.
Also raided the Tswana .Met R .Moffat of the London Missionary Society and the
two became friends
 Left Mhlahlandlela because of external threats from Dingane, Kora Khoisan,
Griqua andRolong, and settled around the Marico River in about 1832.
 In 1837Mzilikazi‘s capital Mosega was attacked by many groups such as the
Griquas, Kora and Boers. This forced the Ndebele to move northwards across the
Limpopo, after dividing up into two groups.
 The Ndebele moved in two groups; main group led by a senior induna Gundwane
Ndiweni together with Mzilikazi’s son Nkulumane; the smaller group led by
Mzilikazi travelled westwards via the Tswana land. The main group crossed the
Limpopo River and settled in the Rozvi country at Danangombe [Dlodlo today]
after little resistance.
 In 1840 the two groups rejoined when the indunas of the main group had decided
to install Nkulumane as their new king. Mzilikazi regarded this as an act of
treason and killed those involved. Mzilikazi was a no –nonsense bloody leader
 Mzilikazi established his new capital at Inyathi and absorbed the Shona people
[c].Explain why Mzilikazi was able to lead the Ndebele for so long
Factors why Mzilikazi was able to lead for so long:
[i].-Superior military tactics
-Military leadership of Mzilikazi
-A strong military set up that emphasized loyalty to Mzilikazi
-Defeated groups were incorporated into Ndebele society
-Had superior weapons
-A no nonsense strongman of unparalleled abilities
[II].-Had friendly relations with Robert Moffat
- Trusted by his people whom he led for many years and experienced problems together
- Threats from enemies kept them together
[NOV 2003]
34.[a].List six activities that formed the basis of the Ndebele economy. [6]
 Crop cultivation
 Rearing of cattle
 Trade
 Raiding the neighbouring areas
 Tribute payment
 Mining
 Hunting
 Craftwork-[blacksmithing, pottery]
[b].Describe the economic and social structure of the Ndebele state. [11]

38
[i]Economic
 Crop cultivation practiced especially by former Shona members of the society
 Grew millet, rapoko and latter maize. Each village had a common field for the king
whose produce went straight to the royal granary
 Rearing of cattle played a major role in the economy. a person’s wealth was measured
by the number of cattle they possessed. Most cattle belonged to the king
 Trade-ivory, gold, cattle and grain exchanged for cloth, beads and guns
 Raids of neighbouring areas yielded wealth such as grain and cattle
 Tribute paid by subjects and subdued states who paid to avoid being raided
 Mining of gold and iron also important/blacksmithing
[ii].Social
 Ndebele society had 3 classes
 Zansi-pure Nguni
 Enhla-Sotho, Tswana who were incorporated while in South Africa
 Hole-Shona who were conquered and incorporated into the Ndebele society
 Form of caste system practiced-lower class men prohibited to marry upper class
women
 Religious system/polygamy/ukulagisa
 Zansi provided the ruling class
 Intermarriage practiced, language and intermarriage promoted unity, age-sets
 Lower class people were not allowed to rise in the military ranks
[c].Was the social structure beneficial to all the people in the Ndebele state? Explain
your answer.
[i]BENEFITS:
 Ukulagisa –forged unity and allegiance
 Language and intermarriage promoted unity
 All people in the expected to follow Ndebele customs and speak Ndebele language
 Ndebele adopted Shona religion
 Age-sets-also promoted unity
[ii]NON-BENEFITS:
 Caste system was divisive
 Raiding was divisive
 Shona/Hole not allowed to rise to high military ranks
 Hole prohibited to marry class women
[NOV2004]
35.[a].Identify any six groups which the Ndebele fought on their way to western
Zimbabwe. [6]
-Zulu, -Kora, -Griqua, -Taung, -Tswana, -Boers, -Kololo, -Sotho.
[b].Give an account of the Ndebele migration to western Zimbabwe between 1822 and
1840.[11]
 Mzilikazi was leader of the Khumalo within the Zulu state

39
  In 1821 Mzilikazi refused to hand handover booty to Tshaka as required. Tshaka sent
an army to punish Mzililkazi which resulted in a war. Mzilikazi fled into the interior
crossing the Drakensburg with a Khumalo group of not more than 300 people.
 Settled at Ekuphumuleni in about 1824,raided local people, capturing women and
children in order to increase his people
 Sotho referred to them as matabele-origin of their name
 Between 1825 and1829 Mzilikazi moved from ekuphumuleni to Central Transvaal,
settled at Emhlahlandlela
 Fought with the Zulu sent by Dingane, Griqua, Boers and other groups
 Met Robert Moffat at Kuruman
 Settled at Mosega between 1833 and 1837.Forced to flee because of attacks by Boers,
Tswana, Griquas and Zulu in 1838
 Before crossing the Limpopo River, the Ndebele split into two groups, one group led
by Mzilikazi which went via the Tswana country, and the second group led by an
induna Ndiweni Gundwane was the bigger with Nkulumane ,heir apparent
 The group led by Ndiweni arrived in western Zimbabwe in 1840 and subdued the
local people-Rozvi of the Moyo totem
 Mzilikazi’s group arrived later after about a year and reunited with the other group
after a bitter civil war, execution of rebels
 Established new capital at Inyathi
[c].To what extent were the Khumalo affected by this migration?
 Marriage-women of other groups joined them
 Collective name of the state became Ndebele from the name given to them by Sotho.
This avoided division and fostered unity
 Wars with many –became aware of the effects of guns
 Established friendship with Robert Moffat-a Christian missionary
 Adapted to cultural patterns of other people especially the shona
 Language kept intact, with minor additions
 Maintained their superiority-the Zansi group, but created two other groups
 Army tactics and type of weapons still used when they arrived in western Zimbabwe
 Mzilikazi still the leader, and remained one until 1868
 Became less and less dependent on raiding and settled down to subsistence farming
 Trade disrupted/disturbed
 Constant fear of rebellions from the absorbed groups
 Execution of rebels
[NOV 2005]
36.[a].List any six groups that Mzilikazi fought South of the Limpopo River up to 1836.
[6]
-Dzudza, -Kwena, -Pedi, -Hurutse, -Griqua, -Boer, -Sotho, -Tswana, -Kora, -Tlapini
[b].Outline the factors which led Mzilikazi to abandon the various settlements south of
the Limpopo River [11]
 Ndebele settlements at ekuphumuleni
 Was near the upper Olifants River
 In Ndzundza area
 Ekuphumuleni was too near the Zulu and the Pedi
 Was meant as resting place

40
  Lacked enough pasture especially after drought of 1823
 Also abandoned because it was too close to Zululand. Zulu warriors attacked Ndebele
in 1830
 Other Ndebele enemies included Kora, Griqua, and Rolong who had guns
 Next Ndebele settlements was Mosega around the Marico R, Place was close to
Mzilikazi’s friend Robert Moffat
 Was good cattle country, here Ndebele were attacked by Griqua and Kora as well as
trek Boers-under Hedrick Potgieter-1837
 Finally attacks from Boers, Griqua, Tlokwa, Rolong-forced Mzilikazi and the
Ndebele to cross Limpopo into modern Zimbabwe.
[c].To what extent did these settlements contribute to the building of the Ndebele
nation?
[i].Important of settlements in building of Ndebele nation.
 Around the settlements Mzilikazi had defeated local inhabitants-Hurutse, Kwena,
Sotho-Ndzundza absorbed them to swell up numbers of his group.
 Khumalo-given Ndebele by Sotho-Tswana
 Raids on neighbours yielded cattle, grain for Ndebele economy
 Boys of military age for his age-regiments
[ii].Other factors;
 Mzilikazi was a genius as a military leader
 Also had political wisdom
 Weaknesses of other group incorporated
 Marriage alliances, language united the people
 Continuous hardships helped them to build unity
 His friendship with R. Moffat
[JUNE 2006]
37.[a].Name the three Ndebele social classes and the groups of people which
belonged to each of them.
[6]
 Zansi-original Nguni or Khumalo from Zululand
 Enhla-Sotho –Tswana absorbed south of Limpopo River
 Hole-Kalanga/Shona/Rozvi absorbed in Zimbabwe
[b].Describe the Shona-Ndebele relations between 1840 and 1868.
[11].
 Tributary relations-Shona chiefdoms –semi independent paid tribute as security to
prevent raids
 Wars of conquests-Ndebele exploited Shona divisions-but also traded with Shona to
get grain
 Shone in Ndebele central state identified with Ndebele, were regarded as low class
servants of Ndebele
 Cattle alliances-Ndebele king loaned cattle to Shona chiefs to maintain peace/ensure
access to trade routes in Zambezi Valley
 Tributary chiefdoms also supplied Ndebele with labour and boys of military age as
well as beautiful women
41
  Ndebele governors-put in charge of tributary chiefdoms
 In rare cases trusted tributary chiefs recognized as indunas
 Intermarriage
Raiding area-Shona chiefs;
 Raided in areas of Mangwende ,Mashayamombe,Chinamora,Masvingo etc for booty
such as grain, cattle, women
 1850-Mutinhima-Rozvi heir rallied Shona to resist Ndebele demands for labour
 1868-Mzilikazi finally subdued Rozvi capturing Sibambamu, the last Rozvi heir
 Ndebele adopted Shona religion
[c].How farwere the relations between the Shona and the Ndebele determined by
Ndebele economic needs?
Ndebele Shona relations and Ndebele economy
 Ndebele-Shona relations largely dictated by Ndebele economic needs e,g tributary
chiefdoms paid tribute, supplied labour to Ndebele, boys of military age
 Cattle alliances ensured pastures for Ndebele cattle
 Annual raids on Shona for booty, cattle, women, grain
 Access to trade routes
Other factors
 Cattle alliances served to prevent conflict/peaceful coexistence
 Tributary chiefdoms spared raids
 Raids on Shona also meant to remove threats of attack
 Shone economic needs also necessited raids of Ndebele
 Cattle –religious needs, Ndebele adopted Shona religion, eg rainmaking ceremonies
[NOV 2006]
38. (a) List any six items that the Ndebele King received as tribute from neighbouring
chiefdoms. (6)
 Grain, gold, skins, cattle, goats, iron tools, guns, cloth, labour, ostrich feathers, beads,
women, boys, chinaware, ivory
(b) Describe the social and religious practices of the Ndebele up to 1893.
(11)
Social
 Marriage- polygamy practiced. Men allowed to marry after being successful in war.
Cattle used in marriage
 Inxwala- a 0thanksgiving ceremony for good crops to be observed by everyone in the
state
 Society divided into classes- Zansi Enhla and Amahole
 People in the state encouraged to speak the Ndebele language
 Marriage between the Zansi and other classes not allowed, but in practice people
married across classes
 Ukusisa
 Settlement pattern
 Patrilineal society[lineage],extended family
 Division of labour
Religious
42
  Believed in ancestral spirits (amadlozi) which they believed looked after them and
brought rain
 Believed in the Great God, Mlimo or Mwari
 Senior members of the Khumalo believed to be important rain makers
 Ndebele respected mediums of the great Shona spirits-paid tribute to them
 Inxwala ceremonies
 King as a religious leader
 Khumalo adopted and made use of the Shona rainmaking
 Traditional would fortify the army before going to war
(c )How far did the Ndebele religious practices contribute to the Unity of the state?
Explain your Answer.
(8)
(i) Religious practices contribution to unity
 Inxwala ceremonies brought people
 Able to renew the power of the king with traditional mediums
 Common beliefs in Mlimo brought people together
 Ndebele and Shona worked together as a result of common belief and respect for great
Shona spirits
(ii) Other factors also contributed
 Political organization
 Ukusisa
 Local trade
 intermarriages
 Age set regiments
 Speaking of Ndebele language
 Distribution of tribute and raided items [booty]
[NOV 2009]
39 (a) Identify any six groups which clashed with the Ndebele during their movement
from Zululand.(6)
(a) Zulu, Hurutshe, Sotho, Khoisan, Boers, Kora, Tswana, Thlapin, Griguas, Kwena, Pedi,
TLokwa, Rolong, Ndzundza
(b) Describe the Ndebele movement from Mosega to western Zimbabwe
(11)
(b) Movement
 Ndebele at Mosega advised by Moffat to move North
 Ndebele were attacked by a combined force of Boers, Griguas and Sotho, Zulu
 To protect his people, Mzilikazi moved away
 Ndebele split into two; one group led by Mzilikazi went via present day Botswana
 The second group led by Gundwane travelled N/E crossing the Limpopo(1838)
 Mzilikazi and his people went as far as Zambezi
 Group decided not to proceed: difficult to cross the Zambezi; fear of the kololo and
attacks by tsetse fly

43
  Gundwane’s group settled in Western Zimbabwe among the Shona who did not resist
much
 After more than two years of separation, Gundwane’s group thought Mzilikazi would
not come back so it was decided to choose another king. Nkulumane , Mzilikazi’s
eldest son became
 When Mzilikazi rejoined the group in 1840, he regarded this act as treason. He killed
those responsible
 Mzilikazi settled at Inyathi
(c )Why did the Ndebele settle in Western Zimbabwe? (8)
(c ) i. Pull factors
 Tsetse free area
 Weak shone
 Good pastures
 Internal trade
 Availability of resources e.g wildlife
Ii Push factors
 Driven away by enemies e.g Boers, Korana, Griguas, Zulu etc
 Exhaustion from previous wars
 Advised by Robert Moffat
[NOV2007]
40.[a].List any six items used by the Shona to pay tribute to the Ndebele King.
[6]
Livestock[cattle , goats], grain, animal skins, iron tools, tobacco, firewood, labour, gold,
ivory, pottery, copper, young boys and girls cloth, sea shells
[b].Describe the political and social systems of the Ndebele State
[11]
[i].Political system;
 Ndebele state highly centralized ,less vast in area
 The king was an absolute ruler, highest judge, commander –in-chief of the army,
religious leader and distributor of land
 King ruled with help of two advisory councils-the Mphakathi of selected chiefs and
royal family members and the izikhulu consisting of all chiefs
 State divided into regimental settlements or districts each under an induna. Districts-
fell under control of one of the four provincial induna enkulu
 Regional governors informed king on affairs of provinces
 Conquered Shona groups paid tribute
 There was a standing army ,200 wives, elected as his eyes ears
[ii].Ndebele Social system
 Ndebele society was divided into three classes/casts:

44
 The Zansi-the highest class –the original Nguni from Nguniland; the Enhla-consisting
of the Sotho and Tswana from the Transvaal and the lowest class-the Hole-captured in
Zimbabwe [Shona/Rozvi]
 Marriage across caste line discouraged but marriage took place
 Ndebele believed in High God-Nkulunkulu
 Also began to worship Sotho-god Mlimo and their ancestors-Madlozi
 Adopted Shona Mhondoro rainmaking religious practices
 Practiced Inxwala- first fruits ceremony
 Ukusisa
 Ownership of cattle was a status symbol, payment of lobola, ear piercing
 Ndebele recognized as the official language
 Division of labour
 Patrilineal society
 Polygamy
[c].To what extent did the Ndebele social system contributes to the unity of the state?
[i].Contribution of social system to unity
 Inxwala ceremony-attended by representatives from all groups, was a unifying
ceremony
 Mafias cattle ensured loyalty of defeated Shona chiefs to Ndebele king
 Adopting of Shona Mhondoro cult system also united Ndebele and Shona
 Intermarriages
 Use of Ndebele language
[ii].Other factors:
 Age-set regiments-united all boys of military age as soldiers of the king
 Tribute payment
 Speaking of Ndebele language made all people to regard themselves as Ndebele
 Trade
(Nov 2010)
41.(a).Name any six groups that the Ndebele fought south of the Limpopo River. (6)
 Zulu, Pedi, Boers, Griqua, Hurutse
 Taung, Kora, Sotho, Tlokwa
 Tswana, Rolong, Khoisan,
 Kwena, Tlapin, Gwaketse.
(b).Describe the Ndebele migration from the Transvaal and their settlement in
Western Zimbabwe between 1837 and 1840. (11)

 Ndebele defeated by a combined force of Boers, Griqua, Kora and Tlokwa.

 Raided by Dingane’s Zulu
 Mzilikazi divided his people into two groups; main group led by Induna
Gundwane Ndiweni, included old people, children, Mzilikazi’s wives and
livestock. It also included Mzilikazi’s sons-Nkulumane, the heir apparent and
Lobengula. The group followed a shorter route, crossing the Macloutsi River,
and Shashe River, and followed Mzingwane River valley. Settled at Gibixhegu

45
 near Matopos Hills. Having despaired of finding Mzilikazi the group installed
Nkulumane as king.
 The smaller group was led by Mzilikazi and Maqhekeni Sthole and other
chiefs. Travelled westwards through Ngwato territory. They turned northwards
to the Zambezi in pursuit of the Kololo. Failed to defeat the Kololo. Turned
southwards in order to meet the main group. Mzilikazi heard of installation
of Nkulumane as king. He rushed to Gibixhegu. Ndiweni and other chiefs
responsible for installing were executed for treason. Nkulumane’s fate is
unclear but some say he was exiled.
 Mzilikazi established his capital at Inyathi near modern Bulawayo.
 Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had broken away from
Zwangendaba.
 Blow to Rozvi, the local Shona people offered less resistance and fell under
Mzilikazi’s control.
(c).Did the Ndebele settlement in western Zimbabwe bring security to the Ndebele
state? Explain your answer. (8)
Security
 Settled in the Rozvi country where there was little resistance
 Married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had killed the Rozvi king, Chirisamuru ii
 Able to crush internal rebellions
 Neighbouring Tswana were weak
 Trade with the local people
 Far away from Boers, Griqua or Zulus.
 Availability of resources, pastures, favourable climate, fertile soils.
 Free from tsetse flies
Insecurity
 Rozvi resisted Ndebele intrusion- some moved away.
 Independent Shona chiefdoms to the east resisted Ndebele raids.
 Conflicts with the Ngwato over pastures.
 Ndebele were raided by the Boers from Transvaal
 Area was prone to drought
 Infiltration of traders, hunters, explorers and concession seekers.
 Invasion by BSAC.
[Nov 2011]
42.[a].Name three settlements established by the Ndebele south of the Limpopo river,
and any one group of people they fought at each of these settlements. [6]
 Ekuphumuleni—Ndzudza, Pedi
 Mhlahlandlela—Sotho, Tswana, Kora, Kwena, Griqua, Rolong, Zulu
 Mosega---------Hurutse, Boers, Griqua, Zulu, Khoisan
 Enqugwini----Zulu, Hurutse, Griqua, Boers
 Eninaneni---Zulu, Hurutse, Griqua, Boers
 Egabeni—Kkora, Sotho, Tswana, Zulu.
 Tswenyane—Hurutse, Boers, Griqua, Zulu, Kora, Khoisan.

46
[b].Outline the problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration from Nguniland
to western Zimbabwe.
[11]
 Lack of grazing areas
 Lack of food
 Droughts
 Wars with the Pedi,Zulu, Griqua, Rolong, Boers etc
 Loss of livestock eg Cattle
 Loss of lives. Many people were killed during wars
 Ndebele homes were burnt
 Rebellions
 Diseseases e,g Malaria
 Tsetsefly problem
 Attacks from wild animals
 Distruption of trade and farming activities
 Drinking water
 Lived in constant fear of attacks
 Population reduced
 Long distances led to fatigue
 Crossing mountains e,g Drakensburg was a problem
 Capture of women , Children by other groups
 Languge problems due to incorporation of many groups
 Inferiority of weapons to other groups eg Boers.
 Problems crossing large rivers
 Cultural dilution- language problems on mixing with others.
[c].To what extent did wars with other groups unite the Ndebele? [8]
Unity as a result of war
 Create a formidable defence
 Protect their property
 Create a strong raiding army
 Fear of attacks from the Zulu
 Establish a strong nation
Unity caused by other factors
 Few in numbers/ numerical inferiority brought unity
 Inxwala festival
 Fear of Mzilikazi
 Language
 Able leadership of Mzilikazi
 Weakness of conquered local groups
 Intermarriages
 Tribute
 Hardships that they faced
 Trade mafias system
PORTUGUESE IN ZIMBABWE
[Specimen]

47
43.[a].Identify six trade centres established by the Portuguese on the Mozambican coast
and in the interior of the Mutapa State. [6].
 Sofala
 Beira
 Quelimane
 Luanze
 Bukutu
 Sena
 Tete
[b]. Describe the trade between the Portuguese and the Zimbabwean societies in the
th
16 and 17 th centuries. [11].
 Portuguese traders made contact with Mutapa state in 1505 when they built fort
Sofala.
 At first trade was through the Swahili or their agents, thevashambadzi.
 Gold was main export from Mutapa kingdom
 Portuguese developed interest to enter the interior to control the sources of the gold
trade
 Portuguese traded with the king of Mutapa controlled trade.
 Portuguese brought cloth, beads and ceramics, which were desired in the interior.
 Portuguese then went into the interior to establish the own trade centres like Sena and
Tete in the 1830s.
 Later trade goods were expanded to include salt, copper iron, maize seed.
 Trade bazaars were established were sometimes private trade took place behind the
Mutapa’s back.
 Later Portuguese began to offer guns to sub-chiefs who later turned against the
Mutapa
 In the 17th century the Mutapas were beginning to be reluctant with their
goodsespecially gold, and the Portuguese had to resort to use force.
[c].To what extent was the political stability of the Zimbabwean societies affected by
this trade?
 Portuguese activities led some sub-chief to be disloyal to the Mutapa
 Introduction of guns gave power to the wrong people who began to rebel against the
king
 Competition for foreign goods also caused ethnic wars as Africans fought for the
lion’s share of the trade
 Portuguese also created some puppet chiefs e,g Mamvura which led to the decline of
the state.
 Portuguese warlords emerged who created states within the state using Achikundas
 Break away also occurred as a result of Portuguese interference in the interior
 The ambition of certain groups eg the Rozvi also created instability as they led
rebellion and attack on the Mutapa state.
 Calibre of leaders who ruled the state in the 17th century was poor and they lacked
character to hold the state together.
[Nov 2003]

48
44.[a].List the names of three Portuguese people who visited the Mutapa kingdom and
three trade commodities that the Portuguese brought into the Mutapa Kingdom in the
16th century.
 Antonio Fernadez, Gonzalo da Silveira, Francisco Barreto, Vasco Homen. Dona
Katarino, Antonio Caido, Diogo Madeira, Pereira, Gasper Bocarro.
 Guns,cloth,beads, jewellery,knives, maize seed, alcohol/spirits, fruit trees, rice.
[b].Describe the economic activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa kingdom during
the 16th and 17 centuries. [11].
 Trade- brought guns, cloth, beads, jewellery, knives, ceramics in exchange for gold
ivory, cattle, goats, sheep, grain, etc
 Used paid African labour in mining and agriculture
 Portuguese introduced the prazo system, new crops were introduced such as
maize/fruits
 Forced Africans to pay tribute to them and introduced forced labour
 Initially Portuguese paid tribute curva to the Mutapa
 Mining gold, hunting for ivory.
 Slavery
[c].To what extent did the people of the Mutapa kingdom benefit from Portuguese
activities in this period? [8].
[i].Benefits:
 New crops
 New weapons
 New goods, clothes
 New farming and mining methods
[ii].Demerits:
 Political interference
 Africans were exploited during trade
 Depletion of African resources
 African culture disturbed
 Loss of land
 Forced labour
 Abuse of African women
 Slavery
[June 2004]
45.[a].Give six aims of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State. [6].
 To check the spread of Islam.
 To establish trading centres/markets/feiras
 To replace Swahili as trading partners of the Shona
 To spread Christianity
 To colonise the Mutapa State
 To mine gold
 To make contact with legendary Christian ruler Prester John

49
[b].Describe the political and social activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State up
to the 17 th century. [11].
[i] Political
 Increase of Portuguese involvement in the Mutapa State’s affairs-especially
followingdeath of Father Gonsalo da Silveira-1561
 Punitive expedition sent 1569—1572-under Fransisco Barreto
 Settled in Mutapa after being granted prazos
 Intervened in succession disputes in Mutapa State
 1628 fought and defeated Mutapa Kapararidze
 Installed puppet rulers like Mamvura on the throne –provoking opposition from the
Rozvi
 Refused to pay tribute as Mutapa lost political power
 Had increased power through training private armies with guns e,g warlords like
Gouveia with big chikunda army
[ii].Social:
 Introduction of Christianity-Silveira baptised Mutapa Mapuzuguta and some
followers-but this did not last long
 Portuguese practised slavery to obtain labour for their prazos
 Practised forced labour
 Intermarriages between Portuguese men and African women producing people called
Mulatos[in Shona vana Sinyoro]
 Abuse of African women by Portuguese men
[c].Were the Portuguese to blame for the decline of the Mutapa State?Explain your
answer. [8]
[i].Portuguese largely to blame for the decline of the Mutapa Empire
 Interfered in local politics supporting rival claimants to the throne
 This caused disputes and civil wars e,g Gatsi Rusere ,Kapararidze
 Created puppet rulers like Mamvura
 Refused to pay tribute- forced the Mutapa to pay tribute to them
 Raided African villages for slaves
 Undermining African self-respect
 Availability of guns brought by the Portuguese greatly weakened Mutapa State
[ii].However,the Mutapa state’s decline
 Was also engendered by its vast size which made communication difficult.
 Succession disputes inherent in the ruling family
 Rise of new and powerful Rozvi State
 Also succession to throne by weak leaders
 Natural disasters e,g series of drought leading to poor harvests, attacks from
neighbours such as the Sotho –Tswana.
 Swahili influence was also detrimental to unity in the Empire.
[Nov 2004]
46.[a].State any six reasons for Portuguese penetration of the Zambezi valley.[6]

50
  Control mining of gold
 Control trade routes into the interior
 Establish trading posts
 To spread Christianity
 To control land in the Zambezi valley for agricultural purposes
 To control the Mutapa state
 To search for the legendry Prester John
 To avenge the death of Goncalo da Silveira
 To dislodge Moslems from the interior
 Invitation by Gatsi Rusere
[b].Describe the prazo system introduced by the Portuguese in the Zambezi valley.
[11].
 Land taken by Portuguese using treaties with the Mutapa, and by force
 Africans used as labourers on the prazos
 The Portuguese living in luxury
 Slave labour common on the prazos
 The Portuguese co-habitation with Africans was common on the farms which resulted
in a coloured population –the mulatos
 Portuguese on the prazos also controlled trade—use of professional traders-
vashambadzi.
 Portuguese on the prazos used private armies known as chikunda
 Prazos also a source of slaves during the slave trade
 Prazeros-taking over roles of traditional leaders
[c].To what extent did the prazo system assist the Portuguese to control the area? [8]
[i] Prazo system used to control the Mutapa state:
 Reduced lands controlled by Mutapa state
 Many people now owed allegiance to the prazeros, so weakened the Mutapa state
 Prazeros controlled gold production and trade –sources of wealth in the Mutapa
 Private armies Achikundas now powerful in the Zambezi valley so reduced power of
the Mutapa
 Slave trade weakened the Mutapa state
[ii].Other factors also important in the control of the Mutapa state:
 Direct political interference by Portuguese in the Mutapa state
 The introduction of Christianity
 Weak political leaders in the Mutapa state
 Succession disputes
 The Mutapa state now too big to be controlled by the Mutapa
 Influence of Swahili/Arabs
[Nov 2005]
47.[a].List any six crops that were grown in the prazos in the Zambezi valley from the
16th century. [6]
 Sorghum, Millet, Maize, Beans, Squash, Melons, Pepper, Cassava, Rice, Sugar cane,
Coffee

51
[b].Describe the development of the prazo system in the Zambezi valley in the 16th and
17th century. [11]
Prazo system:
 Prazo holders called prazeros/senhors
 Some Portuguese got land from weak Mutapas as reward for helping them in
succession disputes and civil wars.
 Mutapa Nogomo gave Portuguese captain land on the Zambezi valley before death in
1589
 Gatsi Rusere gave land to Tete trader Diogo Madeira in 1607.Became a powerful
settler with 4000 Achikundas
 Mamvura was a Portuguese puppet and was forced to give his whole kingdom to
Portuguese crown in 1629 as prize for Portuguese help.
 Ruler of Uteve gave large areas to Dias Bayao-area stretched from Pungwe to
Zambezi
 Portuguese confirmed prazo system by giving official land titles to individual
prazeros. Portuguese wanted prazeros to be centres of Portuguese civilisation and
commercial agriculture
 Traditional pattern of shifting agriculture was practised
 There was limited use of land and low output
 They cultivated sorghum, millet maize, etc
 Coffee grew wild in forests and was used to pay tribute by the African population
 Gold, copper and iron mined and exported by prazeros
 Slaves also exported to Brazil
 Portuguese failed to establish a thriving economy
 Africanisation of the European institutions
[c].To what extent did the Shona people benefit from the Prazo system? [8]
[i]Benefits:
 Introduction of new crops-maize etc
 New materials e,g cloth,beads,etc
 Manyika copied Portuguese words like “Wada’’
 Very few Africans became Christians
[ii].Negative effects:
 Christianity brought divisions among Shona
 Prazeros used Achikundas to raid African kingdoms for slaves
 Prazeros participated in civil wars and succession disputes in the Mutapa and caused
instability
 Loss of land
 Loss of political power
 Destruction of African culture
 Abuse of African women
[June 2006]
48 [a].State any six reasons for the Portuguese penetration into the area between the
Zambezi and Limpopo rivers during the 16th centuries. [6]

52
  Control trade in gold and ivory with African Chiefs
 To verify rumours of king Solomon’s mines.
 To spread Christianity and displace Islamic religion
 To look for the legendary [Prester John]
 To revenge murder of Goncalo da Silveira
 To create prazos
 To colonise the interior
[b].Outline Portuguese penetration into the area between the Zambezi and Limpopo
rivers during the 16th and 17th centuries. [11].
 Missionary Goncalo da Silveira reached Chitako Changonyo [mt Fura] during Mutapa
Nogomo’s reign. Converted Nogomo, wife and 500 Shona.Killed and thrown into
Msengezi river
 Military expeditions despatched to revenge Silveira’s death
 Francisco Barreto’s expedition of 1569 failed due to nagana fever.Little food supplies
 Expedition of Vasco Fernadez Homen 1574 also failed
 Portuguese sent forces to help Gatsi Rusere in succession disputes
 Bocarro’s journey[1616] in search of silver mines-did not find valuable silver deposits
 Joao dos Santos a Dominican priest came after da Silveira to Zambezi Valley.Spent
10 years
 Jesuits came in 1607- expanded beyond Zambezi Valley into the interior
 Alliance system with Rusere and Mamvura
 Penetration of Fernadez
 Built Feiras at Dambarare,Masapa,Luanze and Masequese where Portuguese traders
settled
 Portuguese priests visited isolated churches of Mashonaland and Manicaland to
minister to followers and founded small schools
 Mid 17th –a Portuguese delegation to the Kingdom of Butua /Rozvi State
 Rozvi Mambo chose to deal with Portuguese via Vashambadzi
 Prazo system
[c].To what extent did Portuguese influence contribute to the decline of the Rozvi State?
 Little impact militarily. Rozvi actually drove the Portuguese from plateau. Rozvi
indirectly traded with Portuguese
 Rozvi declined mainly due to internal problems and external factors. Internal-drought,
succession disputes, decline in gold mining
 External factors-decline in trade with Portuguese as gold mining declined. goods to
Rozvi were of lower value
 Attack by Mfecane groups eg Ngoni,Ndebele, etc
 Portuguese incited vassal Chiefs to rebel
[Nov 2006]
49 [a].Name any six Portuguese nationals who penetrated the Zimbabwean plateau
between the 16th and 17th centuries. [6].
 Antonio Fernadez, Goncalo da Silveira, Francisco Barreto, Vasco Homen, Diogo
Madeira, Miguel Fernandez,Antonio Caiada,Gasper Bocarro, Joao dos Santos,Diago
de Menesis, Dona Katarina

53
[b].Outline the Political and social activities of the Portuguese in the Zimbabwean
Plateau during the 16th and 17th centuries.
[11]
[i] Social
 The Jesuits Father Goncalo da Silveira visited Mutapa Negomo converted him, his
wife and 500 others. Murdered at the instigation of Moslems
 A Dominican priest called Joao dos Santos spent 10 years in Zambezi Region after
Silveira’s death
 Missionary work spread widely after 1627 when Portuguese assisted a convert of the
royal family called Mamvura to become Mutapa
 He encouraged Missionary work
 A few priests came to isolated churches of Mashonaland and Manicaland, preaching
and running small schools.Sons of Mutapa and Senior Chiefs sent to larger schools at
Sena and Tete or Theological College at Mozambique Island
 Abuse of women
 Practised slavery
 Degradados eg Antonio Fernandez married African wives
[ii] Political
 Death of Silveira provoked military expeditions
 Participated in civil wars
 1569 expedition under Francisco Barreto
 Raised private armies
 1574-expedition under Vasco Fernandez Homen
 Refused to pay tribute
 Interfered in succession disputes.e,g Assisted Gatsi Rusere to power in 1596
 Prazos became independent chiefs and did pay tribute but refused latter
 Also helped Mamvura to power in 1628
 Chiefs became puppets of Portuguese
[c].Did the Political activities of the Portuguese contribute to the decline of their
influence in the region? Explain your answer.
[8]
 Participation in civil wars
 Succession disputes
 Slavery and slave trade
 Refused to pay curva
 Abuse of African women
 Prazo system
 Prazeros rebelled against port authority
 Led to increase of influence of Portuguese in the Mutapa State as they interfered in
succession disputes and installed puppet Mutapas.This led to them unpopular and led
to their ultimate expulsion
 Took land
 Got land concession to create prazos
 Political defeats in Rozvi State
 Political activities partly contributed to the decline of Portuguese influence as Rozvi
drove them away

54
Other factors:
 Rise of strong and powerful leaders of the Mutapa eg Mukumbire
 Revival of Mutapa authority
 Decline in gold trade
[Nov 2007]
50 [a].Name any six rulers of the Mutapa State who had contact with the Portuguese [6]
 Chikuyo Chisamarengu[a.k.a Kakuyo koMunyaka]
 Nenshangwe Munembire[nephew of Chikuyo]
 Chivhere Nyasoro[son of Chikuyo]
 Negondo Mapunzagutu[a.k.a Chirisamhuru or Sebastian][1543-1589]
 Nyambo Kapararidze[son of Gatsi Rusere][1623-29]
 Gatsi Rusere [succeeded Negomo]
 Mamvura[a.k.a Felipe or Mavura Mhande][1580s-1652]
 Mukombwe[Kamharapasu Mukobwe{Alfonso}]
 Nyakunembire
 Chioko
 Dambamutupe
 Mutapa Mukombo
[b].Describe the attempts by the Portuguese to gain control of the gold trade with the
Mutapa State during the 16th and 17th centuries. [11]
 1505 Portuguese captured coastal town of Sofala which was the outlet for Shona
exports. This severed the gold trade
 1507 Portuguese took control of Mozambique Island as gateway to the interior
 1511-15 Portuguese sent Antonio Fernandez –to Barwe, Manyika, Dande, Guruuswa,
Mbire, Harare, Chegutu to locate the source of gold
 1530 Portuguese established trading Feiras at Tete and Sena on the Zambezi river.
also opened some at Dambarare, Masekesa,Massapa,Luanze, Baccuto
 Driving away of the Swahili
 1560-61 Portuguese Catholic priest Goncalo da Silveira converted the Mutapa
[Negomo] and court officials
 1569-71 Portuguese armies under Barreto sent to avenge Silveira’s death and to take
control of gold trade.Expedition failed due to Malaria, Shona resistance and nagana as
well as Barreto’s death at Sena
 Another punitive mission under Vasco Fernandez Homen- conquered Manyika and
Uteve but found little gold
 Portuguese signed a treaty with Gatsi Rusere in 1607,given land and mining rights,
trade concessions
 Portuguese defeated Kapararidze in 1628, concluded treaty with Mavura-1632-given
trading and mining concessions
[c].To what extent were the rulers of the Mutapa State able to resist these attempts in
the period?
[8]
[i] Resistance to Portuguese attempts/Success:
 Murder of Silveira in 1561-precipitated repudiation of Christianity

55
  Lack of co-operation led to failure of Barreto’s expedition
 Homen-after conquering Manyika and Uteve was shown only worked out mines
[ii]Failure to resist Portuguese:
 1607-Portuguese treaty with Gatsi Rusere granted them land , trading rights, rights to
mine gold
 Also attempts to drive out the Portuguese by Mutapa Kapararidze led to the defeat of
Kapararidze in 1628
 1632 Treaty with Mavura Mhande made Mutapa –vassal of Portugal
 Treaty gave Portuguese complete freedom to mine ,preach and trade
[Nov 2008]
51 [a].Name any three Portuguese prazeros and any three trading posts in the Zambezi
Valley. [6]
[i] Prazeros
Vincente Jose Ribero, Manuel Antonio de souse, kuvheya, Diogo Simoes Madeira,Sisnando
Dias Bayao, Rodrigo Lobo,Matakenya, Dona Katarina
[ii] Posts
Luanze, Tete, Sena, Dambarare, Massapa, Zumbo, Manyika, Matekenya, Mukuto
[b].Describe the Prazo system in the Zambezi Valley. [11]
 Original prazos Portuguese men [some of Indian origin] given land as rewards of
military service
 Gained control of lower Zambezi through treaties or force
 ‘Owned’ gold mines near Zambezi river and land a long south bank from Tete down
the river
 Portuguese divided land into prazos[estates] sanhos/mazungu/lords
 Prazos given to settler owners called prazeros Portuguese grew dagga, tobacco, rice
on prazos
 Slavery began on prazos and mines
 Trusted slaves recruited into personal armies of prazeros[Achikundas]
 Armies used to raid chiefs to capture lands with minerals
 Traded with and raided African neighbours
 Male slaves used as soldiers and female slaves as cultivators/concubines
 Prazeros became African chiefs demanding tribute from people on their lands
 Original Europeans/Asian prazeros
 Supplanted by Mullatos/Eurafrican children as prazo chiefs
 Most Eurafrican prazeros were women called “black donnas”
 Portuguese used old feudal laws to govern prazos
 Portuguese performed rituals and were consulted by Africans
[c].To what extent did the prazo system contribute to the growth of slavery in the
Zambezi Valley?
[i].Contribution of Prazo system in growth of slavery

56
  Growth of plantations such as Zambezi prazos[rice, dagga, tobacco etc] which
demanded increasing numbers slave labourers
 Mining activities of gold in prazos required slave labour
 Need for slave armies [Achikundas]
 Portuguese superiority complex led to the growth of slaves
[ii].Other Factors:
 The institution of domestic slavery also existed in pre-colonial southern African
States e,g Mutapa State
 War captives became domestic slaves
 Criminals and witches also treated as domestic slaves before prazo system
 Ivory trade required slave labour to ferry ivory to the trade posts and coast
[Nov 2009]
52 [a].Name any six trading towns established by the Portuguese in the Zambezi Valley
up to the 18th century. [6]
 Tete, Massapa
 Sena, Luanze
 Masekesa,Dambarare
 Chicoa,Buccuto/Bukuto,Zumbo
[b].Describe the relations between the Mutapa State and the Portuguese up to the 18th
century. [11]
Mutapa-Portuguese relations:
 Trade –exchange goods eg cloth, guns, alcohol ,tobacco for gold, ivory, animal skins
 Establishment of trading centres
 Portuguese paid curva to the Mutapa
 Christianity –G.da Silveira came in 1560 to spread the word of God, some locals
baptised including the but this ended with the killing of Silveira in 1561
 Marrying and raping of African women
 War; Portuguese sent an army under F.Barreto and V.Homen to avenge the killing of
Silveira- The invasion was unsuccessful[Fernandez expeditions]
 Political interference: the Portuguese took advantage of succession disputes to align
themselves with some leaders. For eg they helped Gatsi Rusere and Mavura to
become kings. This caused these leaders to dependent on the Portuguese .The
Portuguese in return were given land and mines
 Portuguese controlled most trading activities
 Demand for tribute by the Portuguese
 Portuguese no longer respected the Mutapa
 Ordinary people forced to work for Portuguese in their prazos.
 Achikundas used for raiding slaves
 In 1663 Mukombwe made an effort to revive the power of the Mutapa with the help
of the Rozvi.The Mutapa was able to drive the Portuguese from the Highveld.
[c].To what extent was military power important in Portuguese control of the
Mutapa State? [8]
[i].Importance of military power.
 Portuguese used guns to instil fear

57
  Military power weakened the Mutapa state in the 1570S
 Able to control chiefs in the Zambezi valley
 Used to raid for manpower/slaves
 Used for protection from attacks
[ii].Other important factors:
 Christianity used to gain influence on the Mutapa
 Weak leaders who asked for Portuguese help during succession disputes and became
puppets
 State was too big ,so Portuguese were able to control distant chiefdoms
 Portuguese monopolised trade
 Prazo system where Chikunda were kept
 Portuguese now got tribute[curva]
(Nov 2010)
53.(a).Name any six Portuguese trading posts(feiras) in the Mutapa state. (6)
 Massapa, Bukutu, Dambarare.
 Zumbo, Maramuca\Remuka
 Chiramboruwizi, Luaze, Masekesa,
 Sena, Tete,
(b).Outline the terms of the alliances between the Portuguese and
(i) Mutapa Gatsi Rusere,
(ii) Mutapa Mmvura. (11)
(i).
 Portuguese helped Rusere to achieve the throne in 1596
 Banning of Muslim
 Portuguese to Rusere against attacks from the Maravi kingdom and to suppress
rebellions within the state.
 Rusere in return, gave the Portuguese the right to mine gold and to take land
 Portuguese to take the heir and followers for training in India
 Portuguese to trade freely
(ii)
 Portuguese helped Mamvura to the throne in 1629 after defeating his rival
Kapararidze in 1628
 Mamvura made land grants to the Portuguese
 Portuguese allowed to trade freely in the Mutapa state
 Portuguese missionaries were allowed to built churches and to preach wherever they
liked
 The Captain of Massapa was given authority over everyone in the area-black and
white
 The Portuguese would maintain Mamvura on the throne
 Opening of schools, Portuguese demanded tribute from Mamvura.
(c).Did the alliances benefit the people of the Mutapa state? (8)

58
 Benefits
 Protection from external attacks
 Temporary peace
 Portuguese goods from trade
 Protection from internal attacks
 Literacy
 Spread of Christianity
Non-Benefits
 Loss of cattle
 Loss of land
 Erosion of culture e,g spread of Christianity.
 Forced labour and slavery
 Forced payment of tribute to the Portuguese
 Loss of identity
 Loss of resources like Gold
 Loss of political independence
[June 2011]
54[a] List any six trade items brought by the Portuguese into the Mutapa State during
the 16thand 17th centuries.
 Guns, Cloth, Glassbeads
 Knives, Maize seed, Alcohol
 Cowrie shells, Sugar, Chinaware
 Tobacco, Jewellery, Fruits e,g mangoes, guavas
[b].Describe the economic and social activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State
during this period. [11]
Economic activities
 Credit system, creation of the prazoes
 Keeping livestock, grew crops, e,g maize and practised crop rotation
 Collected tribute from the Mutapa and his people
 Mining, especially gold
 Practised forced labour, hunting elephants for ivory
 Trade with the local s through the Vashambadzi agents
 Practised slavery and slave trade
 Fishing,established feiras
Social activities
 Spread of Christianity, Abuse of African women resulting in the birth of
Mulatoes(Portuguese coloureds)
 Private farms in which they illtreated Africans
 Disruption of African culture, Portuguese performed African rituals e,g rain making
ceremonies
 Opened small schools for children of Royal families
 Married African women, e,g Antonio Fernades
 Practised slavery, oferred medical services

59
 [c].To what extent did the people of the Mutapa State benefit from the Portuguese
activities during this period?
Positive effects
 Introduced new farming and mining methods
 New crops were also introduced e,g maize rice
 Received guns through trade, some Africans became Christians
 Africans benefited in form of new goods such as clothes, jewellery, ceremics etc from
trade
 Chiefs and middlemen benefited from slave trade,education, health services,
employment
Negative effects
 African culture was disrupted/distorted through Christianity
 Africans lost their land, Portuguese influenced civil wars, they also refused to pay
curva
 Portuguese undermined African authorities and obtained land by force
 Trade between Portuguese and Africans was unfair
 African resurces depleted, abuse of African women
 Africans were engaged in forced labour, imprisoned, illtreated

[Nov 2011]
55 [a].List any six duties of the Captain of the Gates in the Mutapa state. [6]
 Ensured that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa King by ensuring that the Portuguese
paid tribute
 Supervised paying of taxes on Portuguese goods
 Advised the Mutapa king on matters concerning the Portuguese
 Informed the Portuguese government on activites in the Mutapa State
 Controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa State
 Linked the Portuguese and the Mutapa
 Served as an interpreter
 Represented the Portuguese Government in the Mutapa
 Settled disputes between Portuguese and Africans
 Handing over gifts from Portuguese government to the Mutapa
[b].Outline the methods used by the Portuguese to gain control of the Mutapa state
[11]
 Displaced Arab traders
 Forced the king to expel the Swahili
 Established trade posts in the Mutapa State
 Took control of trade in the Mutapa State
 Controlled mining using forced labour
 Intrtoduced credit system
 Converted Mutapa Gatsi Rusere and some of his subjects

60
  Encouraged and intervened in civil wars
 Mutapa sons sent to Goa in India
 Use of brutality
 Helped Rusere to fight Marava
 Involved in slave trade and slavery
 Adoption of Mutapa religion
 Took over the role of religious leaders
 Helped to instal vassal chiefs
 Signed treaties and concessions
 Created private armies i,e Chikunda system
 Established private prisons
 Took large areas of land from Africans
 Took over administrative duties in the Mutapa state
 Latter refused to pay taxes
 Use of Portuguese names
 Married Mutapa women
 Forced Mutapa to pay tribute
 Forced labour.
[c].How far did these methods contribute to the fall of the Mutapa State? [8]
Contribution of Portugues methods
 Left Shona without enough land
 Caused decline in gold trade
 Mutapa’s wealth declined
 Encouraged civil wars which caused divisions and deaths
 Created puppet leaders who were not respected by most of their subjects
 Slavery prohibited Africans from engaging in their own economic activities to create
wealth
 Christianity caused divisions in the state
Contribution of other factors
 Influence of Islam
 Rise of the Rozvi
 Depletion of natural resources
 Succession disputes in the Mutapa State
 Nguni incursions
 Disunity among Mutapa people
 Loss of traditional authority
 Weakness of Mutapa leaders
 Droughts
 Diseases
 Zimba and Maravi attacks
 Vastness of the State militated against effective control
 Civil wars
Missionaries in Zimbabwe
[Specimen]

61
56 [a].List any six problems faced by missionaries in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900.
[6]
 Diseases
 Poor transport and communication
 Opposition of African leaders
 Opposition of Moslems/Swahili
 Language barrier
 Traditional religion
 Food supplies were scarce
[b].Describe the work of missionary organisations which operated in Zimbabwe 1850
and 1900. [11]
 London missionary society came to Matabeleland after some earlier contacts south of
Limpopo
 1859 J.S .Moffat established a mission at Inyathi
 Opened a church and a school to convert and teach the Ndebele Society
 1870 LMS opened another station at Hope Fountain for the same purposes
 Missionaries involved besides Moffat were Thompson, Sykes, Charles Helm and
David Carnegie
 1882 the Roman Catholics came to Matabeleland when the Jesuits opened Empandeni
under father Bartholomew knoot
 1879 a catholic mission was established by Fr Law at Mzila but it later failed
 1891 the Anglican Church led by Knight Bruce came to Mashonaland. Their first
mission station at St Augustines
 Later the Jesuits established a mission at Chishawasha
 The American Board of the church of Christ came to Eastern Zimbabwe and opened
a mission station at Mt Selinda[Chirinda]
 Other missionary groups who came were the Methodists, whose earliest mission was
Old Mutare.
 Between 1860 and 1890 missionaries representing the DRC, Paris Evangelical
Mission and the Berlin Missionary Society to work, e,g the DRC was well represented
in the Masvingo area.
 Main activities of the missionaries included conversion to Christianity, education
[3Rs], translations, medicine, technical work, mediating between Africans andother
Europeans.
[c].To what extent did the missionaries succeed in their work in this period?[8]
 Education developed in areas where the African society was not tightly controlled
 In Matabeleland missionaries only mad in-roads after Lobengula was crushed in the
1893 Anglo-Ndebele war
 As technicians they did much even in Matabeleland,e,g repair guns.
 At first few Africans accepted Christianity ,better reception in Mashonaland
 Many hospitals were opened and served Africans who were then sidelined by the
Government after 1890.
 Many Africans remained sceptical of the missionaries and in some areas they made no
progress.

62
  In Matabeleland they took their role as link people with other Europeans to an
extreme. They became main agents in the plots to dislodge the Ndebele and occupy
Zimbabwe.
[Nov 2003]
57. [a].List any six aims of missionaries who came into Zimbabwe between 1850 and
1900. [6]
 To spread Christianity
 To promote legitimate trade
 To end slavery, end civil wars
 To civilise the local people
 To teach people to read and write

To promote European rule

 To teach new farming methods, new skills e,g carpentry
[b].Describe the activities of the missionaries in achieving their aims? [11]
 The London Missionary Society established Inyathi Mission in 1859 led by J.s
Moffat
 In 1870 LMS opened another mission at Hope Fountain
 At the missions the missionaries taught and preached the gospel
 Books in Ndebele were printed
 They grew food crops
 The Roman Catholic Church also opened missions at Empandeni near Bulawayo
 African evangelists and catechists from Transvaal and Lesotho sent missionaries to
Mashonaland e,g the Dutch Reformed Church, Berlin Missionary Society and the
Paris Evangelical Mission. Some permanent mission stations were established e,g at
Chivi, Matibe, Mposi. At Chivi it was short lived.
 Anglican church established the Diocese of Mashonaland in 1882 led by Knight
Bruce
 After 1890 some stations were established along the eastern borders: Mt Chirinda
Mutambara Mission, Mary Mount, St Augustines, Nyanga [Marist Brothers]
Missions, Regina Coel Mission.
[c].How successful were these missionaries in achieving their aims? [8]
[i] Failures:
 Suspected converts were punished
 Yearned for destruction of Ndebele state which resisted Christianity
 Africans unwilling to abandon traditional religion
[ii].Successes
 J.S. Moffat and C. Helm helped C.J. Rhodes to colonise Mashonaland and
Matabeleland
 Promoted trade between Whites and Africans
 Between 1890 and 1900 converts started to increase in numbers

63
  Established few missions
 Taught few people to read and write
 Converted few to Christianity
[June 2004]
58. Namethree missionary organisations and their respective missions stations in
Zimbabwe in the 19th century. [6]
 London Missionary Society –Inyathi, Hope Fountain.
 Roman Catholic Church-Empandeni
 The Dutch Reformed Church-Morgenster Mission
[b].Describe the work of three missionary organisations in Zimbabwe in this period.[11]
 1859 J.S Moffat, son of Mzilikazi’s friend Robert Moffat, allowed to open Mission
station at Inyathi near Bulawayo. Lobengula later allowed the London Missionary
Society to further open another mission at Hope Fountain.
 Missionaries of the LMS engaged in teaching, preaching and literary work
 isiNdebele books were printed
 more LMS missionaries like Thompson, Sykes, Helm and Carnegie arrived
 LMS missionaries were given land to grow crops and to repair guns ,inoculate cattle,
treat the sick write Lobengula’s letters
 In turn missionaries were allowed to preach among the Ndebele
 The Roman Catholic Church‘s Jesuits missionaries founded a mission at Empandeni
un 1887 near present day Plumtree. Under the leadership of Peter Prestige and Andre
Hartmann, their mission struggled with very limited success. This forced it to close in
1889, only to re-open the mission in 1895 after defeat and conquest of the Ndebele
kingdom
 This followed Fr B Kroot’s visit to Lobengula in 1882
 The Jesuits subsequently established another mission station near Bulawayo
 The Jesuits also engaged in teaching, preaching and literary work
 The Dutch Reformed Church of South African evangelists- to the Eastern part of
Mashonaland between 1860 and 1890
 African evangelists were used because of fears that Lobengula would not welcome
whites
 DRC evangelists were Michael Buys –approached the Govera Chief, Zimuto [the
second].
 Subsequently established mission at Morgenster Mission near Masvingo
[c].How far were the missionaries successful in their work?
 Missionaries were largely unsuccessful in especially converting people to Christianity
 LMS missionaries in Matabeleland made little headway because Christianity was
incompatible with Ndebele culture and Ndebele religion was interwoven with politics
and military regiments
 Ndebele economy –partly sustained by raiding which also was incompatible with
Christianity preached by missions.
 Hence converts were suspected and often punished
 Ndebele society was organised on caste basis which militated against Christian
principle of equality, making the Christianity unacceptable
 Also in Mashonaland missionaries were not very successful

64
  Missionaries were welcome in Mashonaland around Masvingo but later arrested by
Lobengula
 However, missionaries made some headway in literary work and teaching ,reading
and writing
 Missionary work began to make headway after colonisation.
[Nov 2004]
59 [a].Identify any six missionaries who worked in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900.
[6]
 Robert Moffat, J.S. Moffat, Charles Helm, Francois Coillard, William Sykes, Thomas
M Thomas, Fr Robert Laws, Knight Bruce, Fr Law, Fr Kroot.
[b].Describe the role played by missionaries in the colonisation of Zimbabwe.[11]
 1836-Mzilikazi signed a treaty with Robert Moffat- establishing a long term
friendship that helped the British in the 1880s
 The Moffat Agreement in 1888- in which Lobengula was persuaded to drop the
Grobler Treaty –Lobengula agreed to be a friend of the British Queen and not to enter
into any agreement without the knowledge of the British. Lobengula thought J.S.
Moffat was trustworthy. This treaty signed by a missionary led to the signing of the
Rudd Concession.
 During negotiations ,leading to the Rudd Concession, Rev Charles Helm played a
leading role in persuading Lobengula to sign the concession
 Missionaries usually played an important role in the link between concession seekers
as they spoke local languages.
 The establishment of missions, e,g Inyathi and Empandeni, helped those who visited
Zimbabwe to find a place to stay[flag followed cross]
 The failure of Missionaries to convert many local people to Christianity resulted in
some Missionaries e,g J.S. Moffat, to hate the Ndebele State ....”it will be a blessing
to the world when they are broken up”. So in a way encouraged the BSAC to use war
to destroy the Ndebele State in order to loosen grip on potential converts
 Missionary road to the north from South used by whites, trade –encouraged by
Missionary groups attracted whites.
[c].How important was the role played by Missionaries in the colonisation of
Zimbabwe? [8]
[i] Importance of Missionaries
 Helped in the signing of treaties
 Played as a link between Rhodes and Lobengula
 Establishment of missions which latter brought literacy
 Had knowledge of the culture of the local people
 Gave Africans false sense of security
[ii] Other important Factors:
 Role of traders ,hunters and explorers
 Rhodes and his BSAC regarded the Ndebele State as of strategic importance
 The scramble for Southern Africa increased competition for Zimbabwe as an area rich
in gold

65
  Lack of unity in the state[Ndebele]
 Weakness of the local people militarily
 Lack of unity among the Shona.
[Nov2005]
60 [a].Identify any six aims of Christian missionaries in Matabeleland in the 19th
century. [6]
 To convert heathen/spread Christianity
 To civilise the Africans
 To turn subsistence cultivators into independent commercial producers and craftsmen
 To develop an indigenous middle class to maintain and staff churches
 To promote legitimate trade
 To decampaign slave trade
 To promote equality/unity
 To colonise/pave way for colonisation
[b].Describe the work of Christian Missionaries in Matabeleland in the 19th century.[11]
 Mzilikazi allowed J.S. Moffat to establish a mission at Inyathi near Bulawayo[1859]
 Lobengula allowed L.MS to open Hope Fountain Mission[1870]
 Inyathi and Hope Fountain missionaries taught ,preached and wrote IsiNdebele books
 Cultivated crops on land given by Lobengula respectively
 Missionaries helped Mzilikazi and Lobengula to:
Repair guns
Inoculate cattle
Treat the sick
Write king’s diplomatic letters
 Opened Empandeni near Bulawayo
 Missionaries acted as interpreters and advisors
 Paved the way to colonisation e,g Charles Helm
[c].To what extent did the missionaries succeed in their work during this period?
[i]Successes[limited]:
 Set up mission stations
 Introduced literacy
 Introduced better farming methods
 Those who showed interest in message sent to distant places or punished
[ii] Failures:
 Till 1894 when Matabeleland was colonised by B.S.A C, missionaries produced no
following among Ndebele after 30 years effort.
 Ndebele had own religion
 Ndebele economy based on raiding yet Christianity promoted peace
 Ndebele society had castes yet missionaries preached equality
 Potential converts punished/sent to remote areas/those who showed interest in
Christian message were sent to distant places or punished
 LMS and Jesuits then campaigned for destruction of Ndebele State

66
 [Nov 2007]
61[a].Name six early missionary organisations in Zimbabwe during the 19th century [6]
 London Missionary Society
 Roman Catholic Church
 Dutch Reformed Church
 The Anglican Church
 The Paris Evangelical Church
 The Berlin Missionary Church
 American Board of Foreign Missionary
 Methodist Church of Zimbabwe
[b].Describe the work of the missionary organisation in Mashonaland between 1850 and
1900.
[11]
Dutch Reformed Church
 African evangelists were trained
 Francois Coillard of the P.E.M. with evangelist Sehahabane /set up a permanent
station at Chivi but was short lived
Berlin Missionary Society
 Matibe and Mposi stations- set up by evangelists Madzima and Samuel who did the
ground work
 In 1886/7 German missionaries were Knothe and Schellnus later came and enjoyed
some successes, preaching, teaching skills such as reading and writing, agriculture,
carpentry
 Building of hospitals
 Translating the bible into local languages
 Inoculating cattle, repairing guns, crop production, trading, letter writing
 Publishing books
 Paved way for colonisation
 Discouraging traditional practices
Roman Catholic Church
 In 1879, Fr Law , tried to establish a mission station in Chief Mzila ‘s land in the
border region between Zimbabwe and Mozambique ,these were asked to convert other
Africans
 Michael Buys opened a station at Zimuto near Masvingo under Chief Mugabe
[Morgenster]
 Another station was opened at Chief Chivi’s capital and a resident missionary was
appointed
 They managed to preach ,teach and did literary work
Paris Evangelical Mission
 African evangelists and catechists from Lesotho did much of the work ,because it was
feared Lobengula would not allow white missionaries to enter Mashonaland

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  Evangelist expeditions reached Matibe, Mposi, Mudavanhu, Chingoma, Nyamhondo,
Chivi, Mugabe, Chilimanzi and Dzike in south eastern Mashonaland stations were
opened at these places and preaching was done
Anglican Church
 Knight Bruce led an exploratory expedition to the Zambezi in 1888.He visited many
Shona chiefs .In 1891 established the Diocese of Mashonaland; a station was opened
at St Augustines.
Church of Christ
 Established a mission station at Chikore and Mt Selinda[Chirinda] in the eastern
province of Manicaland[Chipinge]
[C]. Were Missionaries successful in their work during this period? Explain your
answer.[8]
[i] Successes
 Managed to convert some Africans though to a limited extent
 Printed books
 Taught people to read and write, technical skills were imported e,g Mposi
,Morgenster, Mzila, St Augustine
 Traditional practices like polygamy etc were discouraged
 Introduction of new crops widened the economy
 Medical services were made available
[ii].Failures
 Some missionaries were attacked and left the area
 Only converted very few Africans
 Attacked African traditions and divided Africans- Christians and non-Christians
 Power of chiefs undermined because chiefs discouraged conversion to Christianity
 Famine
 diseases
[Nov 2008]
62[a]. Name any six mission stations established by early European missionaries in
Zimbabwe before 1900. [6]
Mission Station
Inyathi, Empandeni, Mzila, Hope Fountain, Mashayamombe, Chishawasha, St
Augustines,Mt Selinda, Old Mutare, Pendamatenka, Rusitu, Holy Cross, Zimuto,
Gokomere, Mposi, Chivi, Bernard Mizeki, Morgenster
[b].Outline the work of Catholic missionaries in Zimbabwe up to 1900.
 Jesuits led by Fr Bartholomew Kroot opened Mission at Empandeni and Bulawayo
 Used by Ndebele to repair guns, treat the sick and write the king’s letters
 Missionaries preached to the people
 Missionaries also taught and carried out literary work eg Sindebele books were
printed for Ndebele children to read

68
  Depelchin led Jesuits to Zambezi Valley and set up a station at Pandamatenka,he built
the “Residence of the Holy Cross”
 Chiwashawasha was founded near Salisbury in 1892
 Only in the 1895 when many more missions opened were many converts made, after
colonisation
 Built numerous churches and many converts made, built numerous churches and
many converts accepted Christian standards
 Built schools that taught reading and writing
 They produced grammar books, translated religious and educational books into
vernaculars
 New crops and vegetables were introduced and new crafts and skills practised e,g
carpentry at Chiwashawasha etc
 Traded with local people
 Paved way for colonisation
 Condemned African religion
 New farming methods
 Introduced livestock breeding
 Fr Prestige supported destruction of the Ndebele state
[c].How successful was the work of Catholic Missionaries in Zimbabwe in this period?
[8]
Successes:
 Established mission stations
 Inoculation of cattle transformed African language to written from [Sindebele and
Shona]
 Translated religions and educational books
 Introduced new crops vegetables
 New crafts and skills practised
 Knowledge to use new implements e,g Saints and ploughs
 Established schools
 Set up hospitals ,treated the sick
 Introduced livestock breeding
 Got some new converts
 Assisted in colonisation
Failures:
 Before colonisation in 1890 made little impact to convert Ndebele Shona
 Slave raiding and class system among Ndebele influenced Ndebele kings to
discourage conversion
 Problems of diseases and poor communication
 Opposition from Muslims
[Nov 2009]
63 [a].Name any three missionary societies and their respective leaders who came into
Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900. [6]
 London Missionary Society----J.S. Moffat, C Helm, Price, Sykes, Thomas
 Anglican-Knight Bruce
 Berlin Missionary Society-Madzima and Samuel

69
  Roman Catholic Church—Fr Bartholomew Kroot, Fr Law, Depelchin
 Dutch Reformed Church-Michael Buys
 Paris Evangelical Mission-Coillard and Sehahabane
[b] Outline the problems experienced by missionaries in Zimbabwe between 1850 and
1900. [11]
 Tropical diseases
 Language problems as they tried to communicate with locals/with their home
countries
 Attacks by animals
 Locals resisted Christianity
 Transport problems
 Shortage of food they were used to
 Pressure from political leaders to be involved in colonisation
 Caught up in the competition among the European countries
 Shortage of medicines
 Opposition from African rulers
 Human resource shortage[manpower]
 Accommodation problems/shelter
[c].To what extent had missionaries solved these problems by 1900? [8]
Methods to solve problems
 Missionaries brought medicine
 Use of sign language, interpreter from South Africa
 Set up schools
 Assisted in the colonisation so that their work to spread Christianity was made easy
 Created roads
 Grew their own crops
 Built mission stations
 Used African catechists and evangelists
 Friendship with African chiefs
 Cheated some chiefs
[I] Successes
 Had assisted in the colonisation of Zimbabwe
 Stations built and clinics built
 Were growing own crops
 Rapid success after Ndebele had fallen
 Appointed some African catechists at some Chiefs’ court
[ii] Failures
 Few people converted to Christianity
 Not many roads created
 Shortage of drugs
 Some chased out of the country-Coillard
 Some missions abandoned e,g Pandamatenka
 Some missionaries killed eg, Bernard Mizeki
 African religion remained strong
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 (Nov 2010)
64.(a)Name any three pioneer missionaries and any three pioneer mission stations in
Zimbabwe during the 19th century. (6)
Pioneer Missionaries:
 John Smith Moffat, M.Thomas Morgan, Father Bartholomew Kroot
 Charles Helm, Bernard Mizeki, Madzima Samuel
Pioneer Mission Stations:
 Inyathi, Hope Fountain
 Morgenster Mission, Empandeni
 chishawasha
(b).What problems were faced by pioneer missionaries in their work in Zimbabwe
during the 19th Century? (11)
 Cultural differences –e,g Christianity had difficulties in converting people
 Distrusted as they preached against customs such as killing twins, polygamy, caste
system and raiding system
 Communication problems-differences in language
 Lack of supplies of European goods-food, medicine, tools, clothes
 Tropical diseases such as malaria
 Hostility of local people
 Killing of converts or exiling them, eg in the Ndebele Kingdom
 Warfare and raiding created fear among the missionaries
 Lack of roads-transport difficulties
 Being embroiled in local politics e,g succession disputes
 Manpower shortages
 Associated with colonisers
 Climatic conditions
 Literacy
 Competition with other religions
 Attack from wild animals
 Communication with mother countries
 Killing of missionaries
(c).To what extent were the missionaries able to solve these problems at that time? (8)
 Teaching native children to read and write, learning native languages aided
communication and preaching
 Clearing roads
 Friendship with local chiefs
 Building clinics for curing tropical diseases
 Growing crops for food
 Training of African catechists
 Translating of books into vernacular
 Promoting colonisation
Unsolved
 Africans still attached to their traditional religion and culture
 Ndebele till cherished caste and raiding systems
 Roads and telephones still rare

71
  Africans suspicious of Europeans or Missionaries.
[June 2011]
65[a].Name any six mission stations established in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900.
[6]
 Empandeni, Hope Fountain, Inyathi, Chishawasha, Morgenster
 Chivi, Matibi, Mposi, Zimuto, Hartzel, Howard, Mount Selinda
 St Augustine, St Dominics, Mutambara, Nhowe, Bernad Mizeki
[b].Outline the work of the London Missionary Society (LMS) in Matabeleland in the
19th Century. [11]
 In 1859 J S Moffat established Inyathi mission
 LMS opened Hope Fountain in 1870, at the missions the missionaries taught and
preached, grew their own food
 J S Moffat signed the Moffat Treaty with Lobengula in Feb 1888
 Rev C Helm persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession in Oct 1888
 Missionaries in Matabeleland encouraged trade between Ndebele and whites
 Established schools, hospitals and churches
 Converted Ndebele into Christianity
 Repaired the king’s guns, wrote king’s letters, treated the sick
 Discouraged and undermined African religion and tradition
 Taught Ndebeles new skilss such as carpentry, woodwork, metalwork etc
 Acte as interpreters (translators)
 Promoted literacy (Ndebele were taught how to read and write)
[c].How important was the role played by the LMS in the colonisation of Zimbabwe?
Role played by LMS in colonisation of Zimbabwe.
 In Feb 188, J S Moffat signed the Moffat Treaty on behalf of Rhodes. Lobengula
agreed to cancel the Grobler treaty
 Oct 1888 Rev C Helm influenced Lobengula into signing the Rudd Concession
 C Helm recommende the destruction of the Ndebele state
 Missionaries hosted uropean visitors from Europe
 Missionary road became gateway into the interior of Southern Africa
Other factors
 Influence of explorers, hunters, traders and other ambitious people
 Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream
 To exploit mineral resources(second rand expectedin zim)
 Prestige, needs for markets and raw materials
 Need to invest surplus capital, new technology enabled the British to control foreign
lands
 Competition among the Boers, Portuguese and Germans
 Availability of cheap labour in Zimbabwe
 Fertile lands and favourable climatic conditions for European settlement

72
 [Nov 2011]
66.[a]. State any six reasons why the local people resisted missionary influence in
Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900. [6]
 Missionary formal education was meaningless to African way of life
 Lack of material gains
 Did not want to abandon their traditional religion
 Feared their trade would be disturbed
 Did not want to learn a new languge
 Christianity denounced aspects such as raiding
 Attacked African administrative systems
 Suspected missionaries of having colonial aims
 Influence from traditional leaders / religious leaders
 Influence of islam
 Whites blamed for natural calamities eg Drought, diseases,fever
[b].Outline the ways ised by local people to resist missionary influence in Zimbabwe
between 1850 and 1900. [11]
 Moved far away from missionary settlements
 Continued to practise traditional religion
 Raids continued
 Refused to attend schools
 Killed some missionaries
 Refused to give food to missionaries
 Accused some missionaries of spies
 Punished or killed potential converts
 Accused missionaries of using forbidden routes
 Expulsion of missionaries
 Some Africans continued to follow islam
 Some continued to trade with Muslims
 Movement of missionaries was restricted.
 Refused to work for the missionaries
 African leaders discouraged people from attending churches.
[c].Were these people successful in resisting missionary influence at that time?
Explain your answer. [8].
Successes
 Many people not converted
 Few people attended schools
 Killed some missionaries
 Some converts were killed
 Refused to learn the new language
 Expulsion of missionaries
 Some point s in B applies.
Failures

73
  Hospitals were built
 Some people were converted
 Other people were educated
 Mission stations were established
 Schools were built
 All missionary successes were failures by Africans to resist.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
[Nov 2003]
67 [a].State any six factors that made Britain to be the first country in the world to
industrialise. [6]
 Enclosure of land
 An increase in population
 Control of international trade
 The economy was strong
 The emergency of the middle class which had money to invest
 The government was stable and country enjoyed peace
 Availability of iron and coal in the country
 Possession of colonies for raw materials e,g cotton for textiles
[b]. What were the results of industrialisation in Britain? [11]
 Use of machines/accidents
 Goods were plenty and cheaper than before
 Many people began to live in urban areas
 Working class and capitalists became the main classes
 Many inventions made-telephone, motor cars, gramophones, radios,
 Working and living conditions were generally bad
 Improvement of transport-tarred roads and railways. Use of steam engines
 Need for colonies as sources of raw materials and markets
 A labour based political party was formed
 Better scientific knowledge was used
 Unemployment, Child labour
[c].How important was this industrialisation in the scramble for Southern Africa? [8]
[i] Importance of industrialisation to the scramble in Southern Africa
 Need for raw materials and markets
 New technology enabled them to conquer more lands
 Availability of funds to invest in new lands
 To control strategic areas for trade at the Cape
 The invention of stream ship made movement easier
 To resettle troublesome workers or citizens
[ii] Other factors for scramble
 Spread of Christianity
 Prestige
 To stop slavery and slave trade

74
  Political control of new lands as superior race
 Precious minerals like gold and diamonds
 Hunting expeditions
 Influence of explorers and ambitious people
 Good climatic conditions, fertile soils
[June 2004]
68[a].Mention any six inventions made during the Industrial revolution in Britain. [6]
 Seed drill, Railways, Spinning machines[flying shuttle, spinning jenny]
 Steam engine, telegraph.
 Motorcars
 Weaving machines
[b]. Describe the methods used by the working class in Britain to resist capitalist
exploitation up to 1870.
 Workers staged strikes and demonstrations
 Workers broke machines for taking away their work, e,g LUddtes-1813 broke
machines under leadership of Ned Ludd such as knitting frames shearing machines
and weaving machines.
Political protest
 After failure of machine breaking because of government repression,
 Workers used more powerful methods of protest such as the people’s Charter
 Petitioned government through collection of millions of signatures of people wanting
change in 1839,1842 and 1848
 Petitions were rejected
 Between 1850 and 1860 skilled workers began to organise trade unions –to fight for
improved conditions ,defend their rights for improved wages
 British trade unions were aggressive to capitalism
[c].Why were the workers largely unsuccessful in achieving their aims? [8]
Workers were largely unsuccessful in realising their aims mainly because:
 The government which included capitalists used force against workers who broke
machines to protect capitalist factories
 Arrested, imprisoned and executed machine breakers
 Government rejected demands of Chartists because some of the government were
factory owners
 Also government forbade formation of trade unions for some reasons
[i] Also initially workers were uneducated and not united
 Lacked ideas and programmes for change
 Workers lacked political power to force the government to make changes
 Hence government used repression against machine breakers
 Workers were not represented in parliament
[Nov 2005]
69 [a].Give any six factors that made Britain the first country in the world to
industrialise.[6]

75
  The enclosure system
 An increase in population
 Control of international trade
 A sound economy
 emergence of a middle class with surplus of raw materials
 A developed banking sector[loans]
 Important technological inventions
 Transport revolution
[b].Describe the economic effects of industrialisation on Britain which led to the
scramble for Southern Africa.
 Need for raw materials
 Need for markets
 Need for colonies to invest surplus capital
 To export troublesome workers
 Important technological innovations facilitated colonisation
 Faster steam ships
 Need to protect strategic areas
 Cheap labour
 Searching for land
 Population increase
 Maxim gun
 Medical advances[Quinine]
[c].How far did the effects of industrialisation in Britain contribute to the Scramble for
Southern Africa?
Above economic factors led to/contribute to the scramble for Southern Africa
Other factors
 To spread religion
 Strategic reasons
 Political rivalry
 Humanitarian reason
 Prestigious reasons
 Weaknesses of Africans
 Need to control gold and diamonds in Southern Africa etc
(Nov 2010)
70(a).State any three classes and their duties during the Industrial Revolution in
Britain.(6)
 Workers\Proletariat-------working in factories
 Peasants---------------working in fields
 Landlords-------------owned land
 Capitalists-------------owners of factories
 Aristocracy------- Ruling class.
(b).Describe the economic and social problems caused by he Industrial Revolution in
Britain. (11)

76
 Economic:
 Shortage of raw materials
 Peasants –were landless and poor\poverty
 Long working hours
 Low wages
 Strikes, demonstrations and riots by workers resisting capital exploitation
 Production in factories disrupted
 Child labour- exposed to unprotected machines and unventilated factories
 Women also worked in the harsh conditions
 Widespread unemployment and poverty
 Shortages of food, market, surplus capital, lack of investment opportunities
Social Problems:
 Workers were accommodated in poorly lit and uninventilated dormitories
 Crowded conditions-outbreak of diseases, prostitution and crime
 Insanitary conditions- lack of piped water, common toilets
 Pollution was high
 Unemployment
 Social inequalities between rich and poor
 Class struggles
 Lack of education and health facilities
 Poorly lit streets
 Increase in population
 High death rates
(c).To what extent did economic problems contribute to the Scramble for Southern
Africa? (8)
 Need for raw materials by industrialists
 Need for more land need for cheap labour
 Need for new areas for investment
 Need for markets, fertile soils
Other factors
 Strategic reasons
 Humanitarian reasons
 Prestige reasons
 Explorers encouraged colonisation
 Public opinion and pressure
 White regarded themselves as superior who should rule Africa
 Surplus population in Europe
 Spread of Christianity
 Weaknesses of Africans
 Climatic conditions
[June 2011]
71 [a].List any six problems which affected factory workers in Britain during the
Industrial Revolution. [6]

77
  Deaths, overcrowding, dust
 Low wages, loud noise,high temperatures
 Long working hours, lack of ventilation, Chimney smokes
 No protective clothing, operating dangerous machines leading to injuries
 Child labour,women labour, poor lighting
 No insurance cover against accidents, lack of education
[b].Describe the economic effects of the Industrial Revolution in Britain [11]
 Led to the scramble for southern Africa
 Production of plenty and cheaper goods
 Use of new invented machines
 High rate of unemployment
 Need for colnies as sources of raw materials, markets, new investment areas
 Transport improvements- roads, railway, canals
 Poor Working conditions
 Use of scientific methods e,g crop rotation
 New inventions-radios, cars, telephones
 Capitalist class and working class emrged as major classes
 Collapse of cottage industries
[c].How far was the Indusrtial RRevolution responsible for the colonization of Southern
Africa? [8]
Influence of Industrial Revolution
 Need for markets, raw materials
 Easier travelling due to the use of steamship
 New technology led to the conquest of new lands
 Discovery of quinine enabled Europeans to settle in malaria infested areas
 Need for lands to invest surplus capital
Othert factors
 Spread of Christianity
 Good climatic conditions, prestige reasons
 Stop slave trade and slavery, influence of individuals e,g Rhodes
 Strategic reasons, local weaknesses

[Nov 2011]
72[a].State any six economic benefits that the British got from the Industrial
Revolution.[6]
 Employment in the Industry
 Food became cheaper
 Standard of living improved
 Work became easier and faster
 There was development of better transport system,eg roads, railways
 Clothing became cheaper
 There was mass production of goods

78
  Goods were readily available
 Technological improvement
 Markets
 Increased exports
[b]. Describe the social effects of the industrial revolution in Britain. [11]
 Workers were overcrowded at work and in their homes
 Diseases like T.B. were common place and would easily spread among workers
 Workers lived in shanties and slums
 Sanitary conditions were poor, eg the bucket system
 Factories were poorly ventilated
 Child labour was rampant
 There was high crime rate
 There was immorality –decay in morals as workers would engage in activities like
prostitution, theft, gambling, and alcoholism.
 Population increased
 There was improvement in medical facilities and medication
 There was reduction of infant infant mortality
 Improvement in education
 Women labour was rampant
 Development of social inequality
 Urbanisation/growth of cities and towns
 Peoples’ life expectancy wass improved
 Poor medication for poor society
 Unemployment
 Povert and destitution
[c].How far did these effects contribute to the scramble for Southern Africa? [8]
Contribution of Social Effects to Scramble for Southern Africa.
 Creatio of riff- raff (social misfits), eg Mozambique
 Need to find settlement areas for excess population
 Discovery of quinine enabled people to live in malaria infested areas of southern
Africa
 Medical recommendations for the ill to live in warm areas of Southern Africa than the
wet areas of Europe
Contribution of other factors
 Missionary request
 Need for raw materials
 Search for investment opportunities
 Seasrch for markets
 Ambitious individuals like Rhodes
 Fertile lands /soils
 Cheap labour, Prestige, Strategic reasons
 White supremacy
 Civilisation
 Slave trade, Suitable climate , role of hunters and traders
 Technological gap, weaknesses of locals

79
 Colonisation of Southern Africa
[Specimen]
73(a) List three political and three economic reasons why European countries
scrambled for territory in Southern Africa. [6]
 Strategic reasons
 Need for raw materials
 Need for markets
 Need for investment areas
 Power to influence events in Europe
 Influence of political and imperialists people like Rhodes
(b) Describe the part played by Cecil John Rhodes in the colonisation of Southern
Africa. [11]
 Rhodes spearheaded the British thrust to acquire territory
 He used his wealth from his Diamond/Gold adventure in South Africa
 He wanted the Cape to dominate a united South Africa which led to a clash with
the Boer states
 1881 he entered the Cape Parliament
 Used his time there to call for British expansion northwards
 Realised the barrier caused by the existence of the 2 Boer republics north of the
Vaal
 After failing to get ready co-operation from the Boer states he led a campaign to
establish British influence into Bechuanaland.
 Idea was to stop Boer northward expansion
 1886 the Bechuanaland Protectorate was established with Rhodes’ help.
 Rhodes also advanced the Cape to Cairo theme. Campaigned for British expansion
North of the Limpopo.
 Sent envoys to make negotiations with the Africans north of the Limpopo.
 1888 got the Rudd concession from Lobengula king of the Ndebele.
 1889 got a Royal Charter from the British Queen giving the right to occupy the
area of Zimbabwe.
 1890 the pioneer column was sent from Bechuanaland and the area was occupied
in September 1890.
 Thus kept corridor for British expansion open, i.e. closed from Portuguese
Westward expansion, German Eastward expansion and Boer Northward
expansion
 1890-1900 British increased their intention to control all South Africa with some
push from Rhodes whose B.S.A.Co was now running Rhodesia.
 1899-1901 the second Boer led to the union of S.A. in 1910 under British rule,
which had been Rhodes’ ambition
(c) How successful was he in gaining territory in this region? [8]
 He increased the British territorial interest in Southern Africa
 Got Bechuanaland ahead of the Germans and the Boers.
 Secured Rhodesia ahead of the Germans, Portuguese and Boers
 Used tact to out manoeuvre rivals, i.e. tricked local leaders and undermined
representatives of other nationalities.

80
  Strategy of enclosing the Boers worked when later these were dispossessed.
 His effort led British territory to expand even North of the Zambezi
 Germans ended up gaining German South West Africa only
 The Portuguese still managed to gain two large territories in Portuguese east
Africa and Portuguese West Africa
 These successes were an indirect result of Rhodes’ campaigns on behalf of the
British
[Specimen]
74[a]. Name six different professions of the early European settlers who came to
southern Africa [6].
 Doctors
 Missionaries
 Engineers
 Educators
 Traders
 Miners
 Farmers
[b].Describe the political, social and economic changes brought upon Africans in
Southern Africa by colonisation. [11]
 Africans lost territories eg Griqualand West was annexed; Germany W.A. west
colonisation, and Rhodesia was occupied.
 African chiefs were dethroned, either through treaties or through conquest[Khama
and Lobengula respectively]
 African people lost freedom because colonial rule was not as loose as the rule by
the African chiefs
 Africans were to some extent made into some kind of unity especially where they
sought to resist the push of colonisation.
 Africans in colonised areas lost economically e,g lost cattle, lost land, lost trade
freedom, lost their mines.
 They were displaced and families separated due to labour needs by colonisers
 They often received poor treatment, e,g low wages, bad living conditions, having
to work for long hours
 Under colonial governments the Africans suffered racial discrimination
 Many facets of European culture were introduced, e,g language, dress, education
and religion
 Colonisation also created the cash economy among the Africans which came with
the culture of having to pay taxes
 Africans were introduced to new ways of sustenance e,g new type of health
services
[c].Were these changes beneficial to the Africans? Explain your answer. [8]
Most changes were not beneficial to the Africans as the changes brought many new
problems and disadvantages.
 Politically handicapped e,g no parliamentary representation, no vote , no civil rights
 Cash economy caused labour migrations and breakdown of family unit, led to moral
decadence

81
  Unfair labour practices affected them adversely.
 Cultural changes were to some extent beneficial e,g new health facilities, better dress,
better food, better education system though limited
 Modern development through the work of people like engineers brought some
improvement for the Africans, e,g transport, houses.
 Farming methods were improved and later led to increased food supply
 The emphasis of the South African Government of a policy of discrimination caused
whatever benefits the Africans might have stood to gain to remain most limited
[Nov 2005]
75 [a]List any six wars of African resistance to colonialism in Southern Africa between
1870 and 1890.
 Anglo-Zulu war of 1879; Bambata rebellion; Herero Rising; Nama Rising;
 Anglo-Ndebele war; Ndebele-Shona; Sotho Rising; The gun war; Griqua-Tlhaping
rising; British-Pedi war; Portu-Gaza war 1895
[b].Outline giving examples, the methods used by colonial powers to partition Southern
Africa. [11]
 Wars of conquest e,g the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893 and the Anglo-Zulu war of
1879
 Treaties-e,g Rudd concession[1888]
 Offered protection e,g Sotho, Tswana, Swazi
 Deception-verbal and written terms of the Rudd concession
 The use of conferences eg the Berlin conferences
 Use of missionaries, hunters, traders, explorers
 Buying of concessions eg Lippert treaty
 Use of ambitious and powerful leaders e,g Rhodes
 Use of chartered companies
 Use of official agents
[c].How far did the effects of industrialisation on Britain contribute to the scramble for
Southern Africa?
African failure to resist partition
White strengths
 White invaders had superior weapons eg Maxim gun
 Better communication eg telegraph wires; horses
 Better defences e,g laagers
 A trained army
 White reinforcements
 Many resources
African weaknesses:
 Disunited, Some joined the invader and did not participate in fighting of the enemy
e,g Shona did not support Ndebele in 1893 war. Some Shona fought on side of whites
eg Mutasa/Khamas/Ngwato
 Poor weapons

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  Poor communication system e,g footing
 Misled by religious leaders
 Poor strategies
[June 2006]
76[a].Identify:
[i] thefour colonial powers involved in the scramble for Southern Africa, and [4]
[ii] any two local agents of colonialism in Southern Africa.
[2]
 Britain-Cecil John Rhodes, John Moffat
 Germany
 Portugal-Paul Kruger, Lippert
Shippard Launderettes
N.B. Accept Hunters Missionaries and Traders.
[b].Outline the British efforts to acquire colonies in Southern Africa between 1870 and
1890
Britain used the claim to diamond area of Kimberly to found their Griqualand West
Colony.
 Britain incorporated Basutoland into Cape Colony in 1871.Basutoland sought
protection due to missionary influence.
 Swaziland also sought British protection from Boers expansion eastwards from
Transvaal
 Natal annexed by British to protect it from Boer trekkers
 Defeat of the Zulus and incorporated into Natal (labour for mines and plantations)
 British secured road to Central Africa (1877-86) by securing protectorate over
Bechuanaland to stop Boers from Transvaal linking up with Germans from the
west(Role of Rhodes and Missionaries)
 Use of Moffat, Rudd, Charter and Missionaries
 Pioneer Column
 British conquest and disarmament of African States 1877-86,Anglo-Boer war,
 Anglo-Pedi war
 Zulu under Cetshwayo(1872-84)
[c].How far were the British efforts influenced by the discovery of minerals in South
Africa [8]
 Colonisation of Griqualand West, the second Anglo- Boer federation and occupation
of Mashonaland all influenced by desire to control gold and diamond resources.
 Crushing of the Zulu state ,Pedi, etc intended to enforce forced labour to mines in
South Africa by creating reserves
Other factors:
 Need to find raw materials and markets
 Prestige eg Rhodes Cape to Cairo vision
 To secure the missionary road to the north
 Strategic reasons-eg Rhodes wanted to encircle the Boers

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  Missionary influence
 Fertile soils and pastures
[Nov 2006]
77[a].Name:
[i]. The five territories that fell under British influence and, [5]
[ii].one territory that fell under German influence, during the scramble for
Southern Africa [1]

Britain : Lesotho, Swaziland; South Africa; Botswana; Zimbabwe; Zambia; Malawi

Germany : Namibia/S.W.A
[B].Outline the reasons for the colonisation of Southern Africa between 1870 and 1890.
 Desire for markets
 Demand for raw materials
 To invest surplus capital
 Need for land
 Need for cheap labour
 Germany and Italy wanted colonies for prestige
 Need for military bases
 To protect routes e,g missionary road
 Better communication; medicine; firearms
 Berlin conference precipitated the scramble
 Boer nationalism in S.A
 Desire to stop slave trade and slavery ,Christianity and western civilisation
 Africans militarily weak and disunited
 Role of local agents
 Germany’s participation for diplomatic reasons
 Room for surplus population
[c].To what extent were the Africans to blame for the colonisation of Southern Africa?
[8]
[i].African blameworthiness:
 Disunity
 Military weakness invited Europeans
 Tribal wars, e,g Tswana and Korana[both used Boer mercenaries against each other.
Boers finally gained Stella land to Goshen.
 Some asked for colonial power protection from raids by neighbours, e,g Ngwato got
British protection from Ndebele raids
 Illiteracy made Africans vulnerable during treaty negotiations
[ii] Other factors
 Forces of industrial capitalism too strong e,g Britain and Germany
 European determination to colonise helpless Africans
 Cheating during treaty negotiations

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  Illiteracy made Africans vulnerable during negotiations
 Role of missionaries, hunters, explorers and traders
[Nov 2007]
78[a].Identify
[i] anyfour areas colonised by Britain and
[ii] thetwo areas colonised by Portugal in Southern Africa [6]
 Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia, Malawi,
 Angola, Mozambique
[b]Outline the local factors that caused European powers to scramble for territory in
Southern Africa between 1870 and 1890.
 Weaknesses amongst Africans led to failure of resistance to colonisation
 Disunity
 Poor weapons
 Poor strategies
 Discovery of minerals such as diamonds and gold in South Africa precipitated
scramble for Zimbabwe between Boers and Britain
 Presence of European Christian missionaries in African states persuaded African
states to accept protection or sign treaties with European groups
 Signing of treaties
 Ban slavery
 Strategic reasons-Britain declared “Protectorate” over Botswana in 1885 to keep
missionary road to the north secure- as gateway into Central Africa
 Existence of people on the spot such as Rhodes, and Harry Johnson who used their
energies and wealth for colonisation of African states.
 Local rivalries between European powers
 Good climate, pastures, cattle, cheap labour, markets, minerals
[c].How far were African states to blame for thecolonisation? [8]
Blameworthiness of Africans
 Disunity which prevented collective action against European imperialism
 Acceptance of Christian missionaries in their territories who later acted as agents of
European colonisation
 Acceptance of traders who also persuaded them to sign treaties and knew the
geography of the land to be colonised
 Wars between African states weakened their capacity to resist
 Illiteracy ,acceptance of bribes
Other factors
 African states not as technologically advanced as Europeans in terms of weapons
 European forces were mobile as they used horses and chariots to carry weapons
 Africa leaders were not educated and were easily deceived by European agents
 Deceits by European agents
 Need for foreign goods such as cloth and jewellery forced African states to accept
traders and allow exploitation of their mineral wealth by Europeans

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  Fate of African states was decided at the Berlin West Africa Conference 1884-85
[Nov 2008]
79[a].Identify any six European agents who participated in the scramble for Southern
Africa [6]
 Rhodes; Herr Luderitz; John Smith Moffat; Charles Rudd; Piet Grobler,
Francis Thompson; Rochford Maguire ,Sydney Shippard.
[b].Outline the reasons for European scramble for Southern Africa. [11]
 Raw materials needed to sustain the expansion of European Industry
accelerated by the industrial revolution
 To ensure continued supply, colonisers scrambled for in Southern Africa
 Need for markets for processed goods. Southern Africa a potential market
 Need to invest surplus capital in Southern Africa
 Discovery of gold and diamonds sparked scramble for territories north of the
Limpopo[searched for second rand]
 Protectionist tendencies in Europe in 1885 made powers scramble for
territories before rivals grabbed them and exclude their traders
 Fertile soils
 Cheap labour
 Favourable climatic conditions
 Germans wanted a place in the sun
 Rhodes had the Cape to Cairo dream, all to be painted Red
 Boers sought to extend their territory beyond the Limpopo river to avoid being
encircled by the British
 British, who always tried to control them, attempted to stop them from doing
so
 Portuguese expansionist policy to the west
 British/Rhodes wanted to keep the “missionary road’
 Portuguese wanted to link Portuguese East Africa with Angola. Germans to
link South West Africa with Tanzania/Tanganyika.
 Control of the Cape of good Hope
 To bring western civilisation to Southern Africa and discourage evil practices
such as raiding
 Some Christians became agents of imperialism e,g Charles Helm and John
Smith Moffat
 Racism
 To spread Christianity
 To spread 3Rs
 To end slavery
[c].How important was industrialisation in the colonisation of Southern Africa? [8]
Importance of industrialisation
 Industrialisation in Europe led to demand for raw materials and markets in Southern
Africa. Colonies would supply raw materials e,g cotton, tobacco etc
 Excess capital would be invested in mining activities in South Africa
 Technological advancement
 Employment

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  Discovery of medicines
Other factors
 Political reasons for the scramble
 Disunity amongst Africans
 Humanitarian factors
 Poor weapons for defence
[Nov 2008]
80[a].Identify any six African chiefdoms colonised by the Europeans in Southern
Africa.[6]
 Ndebele, Makoni, Mashayamombe, Chinamhora, Chihota, Mangwende, Zvimba,
Mugabe, Mutasa, Zulu, Xhosa, Ngwato, Swazi, Gaza, Pedi, Sotho, Lozi.
[b].Outline the methods used by European powers to colonise chiefdoms in
Southern Africa during the scramble [11]

 Warfare-e,g 1893 Anglo-Ndebele War,1896/7 Ndebele –Shona uprisings, Anglo-Zulu

war, the war of gun between British and Sotho 1884-5,the Boer- Pedi war.
 Treaty-making/Diplomacy- e,g Moffat Treaty February 1888,Rudd Concession
October 1888 ,Lippert Concession 1890.Mutasa Treaty
 Granting of Charter-eg Rhodes granted Charter by Queen to authorise colonisation of
Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi
 Use of Chartered companies e,g Zambezi company, B.A.S.C
 Trickery-Lobengula given verbal promises in the Rudd Concession that were never
fulfilled
 The protectorate system in Barotseland Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland.
 Bribery-Lotshe was bribed to influence Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
 The use of traders e,g Baines
 The use of hunters e,g Selous
[c].Why were the Europeans successful in colonising the African chiefdoms during this
period? [8].
Advantages of Europeans /European strengths
 Superior weapons, better communication in war
 Used tricks
 Used bribery
 Used dynamite
 Use of agents
 Use of missionaries
 Use of traders
 Use of hunters
Disadvantages of Africans/Weaknesses
 Desire for foreign goods
 Inferior weapons

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  Poor war strategies
 Poor communication
 Illiteracy[could not interpret treaties]
 Disunity e,g among the Shona
[Nov 2009]
81[a].Identify any six whites that helped in the colonisation of Southern Africa. [6]
 Rhodes, Kruger
 Grobler, Duke of Abercorn
 J.S. Moffat, Queen Victoria
 Selous, Lord Salisbury.
 Helm, Penne-father, Bismarck, Jameson
[b].Describe the competition for the colonisation of southern Africa.
 British and Boers-competed for control of the Ndebele as shown by the signing of the
Grobler and Moffat Treaty. Britain ended up as the winners after the signing of the
Rudd Concession
 Britain and Boers competed for the control of the diamond wealth in Kimberly. This
led to British annexation of Orange Free State.
 British desire to access Nguni labour force and to encircle the Boers led to annexation
of Natal and to declare a protectorate over Bechuanaland so as to preserve the
‘missionary road’ and thwart Boer expansion westwards. Boers had declared two
republics of Stella land and Goshen.
 The second Anglo-Boer war was part of the struggle to control the gold wealth at the
Witwatersrand.
 Britain and Portugal competed for the control of Mashonaland which Ndebele
claimed to control
 Portuguese intended to join Portuguese East Africa[P.E.A] with Angola whilst
Rhodes had Cape to Cairo dream
 Expeditions to Mutasa and Gaza State
 Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1891 resolved boundaries between Rhodesia and P.E.A.
 Germany and Britain-British influence was spreading from the South to the North
whilst Germany was expanding eastwards from the area she had i,e S.W.A. Britain
declared a protectorate in Bechuanaland in 1885 to thwart German expansion and
preserve missionary road.
[c].To what extent were the people of Southern Africa affected by this competition up to
1900? [8]
Positive Effects
 Some states gained protection and remained intact e,g Lozi of Lewanika; Khama’s
Ngwato; Sotho of Moshoeshoe
 Some chiefs retained their power e,g Lewanika
 Many missionaries visited the state to convert people to Christianity
 Trade with foreigners increased
 End of ethnic wars(Ndebele vs Shona or Ngwato; Zulu-Pedi clashes, etc)
 Ndebele state remained intact up to 1893
Disadvantages
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  Loss of independence
 Erosion of African culture
 Loss of wealth e,g raw materials
 Colonial wars and wars of dispossessions
 High death rate(Maxim gun usage )
 Cheated in treaties
 Ndebele king spent time dealing with concession seekers
 Taxation
 Forced labour
 Causes of uprisings
[Nov 2003]
82[a]Namethree European countries that were involved in the scramble for Southern
Africa and the areas they occupied. [6]
[i]Germany-Namibia.
[ii]Britain—Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, South Africa, Malawi.
[iii]Portugal—Mozambique, Angola
[b]Describe the competition for the control of Southern Africa by the European powers
between 1870 and 1890. [11]
 Britain and Germany-Britain in South Africa and Germany in South West Africa
(Namibia) wanted control of Botswana and Ndebele country. Germany’s efforts
frustrated when Britain occupied Botswana- protectorate status. Britain occupied
Mashonaland and Matabeleland after the Rudd Concession and the Anglo Ndebele
War.
 Britain and Portugal competed for the control of Mashonaland and Manicaland.
Portugal had occupied Mozambique and wanted to use her long established
relationship with the Shona to control these areas. Britain from South Africa wanted
to realize her dreams of Cape to Cairo route
 Britain and the Boers competed for control in South Africa. The Boers had occupied
Transvaal so wanted to expand northwards, Britain was at the Cape, wanted
Zimbabwe, to realise Cape to Cairo dream. Competition shown by signing of the
Grobler Treaty in 1887-Boers,Lobengula and the Moffat Treaty in 1888 between the
British and Lobengula ,Boers failed to expand westwards because of Bechuanaland
Protectorate and the Rudd Concession.
[c].Was Cecil John Rhodes an important factor in the scramble for Southern Africa?
Explain your answer. [8]
His importance
 Rhodes –an ambitious and rich individual who wanted to promote British imperialism
 The hope to find the second rand (gold) to the north of the Limpopo
 Strategic importance of the Cape
 To get raw materials and have markets
 Political control of the region

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  Rhodes important in that he personally financed and encouraged the occupation of
areas north of the Limpopo.
Other factors
 Role of missionaries
 Portuguese
 Boers/Germans
[Nov 2004]
83[a] Name any six African kingdoms colonised by Europeans in Southern Africa
during the 19th century.
 Ndebele, Zulu, Sotho.
 Swazi, Ngwato, Kololo
 Tswana, Gaza, Xhosa, Pedi
[b].Describe the various methods used by the Europeans to colonise Southern Africa.
[11]
 Treaties and agreements-e,g Rudd Concession, Moffat Treaty
 Use of force and wars –Anglo-Zulu war 1879,Anglo-Ndebele war 1893
 Use of missionaries ,traders and explorers- Rev Helm, L.M.S.in the Zambezi valley
 Protectorate states-Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland
 Ambitious individuals- C.J. Rhodes
 Use of companies-B.S.S.C.
 Use of Concession –seekers and hunters and buying agreements.
 Bribery of African chiefs
 Trickery
[c].How effective were the methods used by Europeans in colonisation of Southern
Africa? [8]
[i] Effective as shown by the colonisation of the following kingdoms
 Treaties-Moffat, Rudd Concession
 Wars-Anglo-Zulu war 1897,Anglo-Ndebele war 1893
 Protectorates-Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland
 Use of chartered companies
[ii]Effective to a limited extent
 Rudd Concession which did not result in the colonisation of the Ndebele state, war
had to be fought to break up the state
 Protectorate status gave the countries some measure of autonomy
[Nov 2004]
84[a] List any six problems faced by Africans during the colonisation of Southern
Africa. [6]
 Wars which resulted in the death of many people
 Shortage of food as production of food was negatively affected

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  Health delivery services disrupted/ disruption of African culture
 Disruption of trade
 Families were disorganised
 Loss of land
 Loss of cattle
 Humiliation by whites
[b].Describe the methods used by African states in Southern Africa to resist colonisation
up to 1900. [11]
 Resisted by fighting colonisers, e,g Zulu, Ndebele
 Signed agreements with some countries against other possible colonisers, e,g the
Moffat Agreement, Lippert Concession
 Sought protectorate status for their states, e,g Bechuanaland
 Killed whites in isolated places, farms and mines
 Attempted to cancel Treaties-e,g Lobengula
 Resisted Christianity
 Mosheshoe needed Christianity to resist Boers
[c].How successful were the Africans in resisting colonisation in this period? [8]
Successful
 Protectorate status as some African states had some autonomy
 Treaties/ Agreements delayed the colonisation of some African states-e,g the Moffat
Agreement
Not successful
 Wars –the African states were defeated resulting in the colonisation of the state
e,g the Zulu state ,the Ndebele state
 Protectorate-lost independence
85.(a)State any six African Kingdoms colonised by the whites during the Scramble for
Southern Africa. (6)
 Sotho, Swazi, Gaza.
 Zulu, Ndebele, Pedi
(b).Describe the terms of the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885. (11)
 A inform other countries of its sphere of influence to prevent counter clashes
 Freedom of navigation on major rivers such as the Niger, Nile, Congo and Zambezi
 Recognition of existing spheres of influence by European countries,
e,g Congo and Niger delta.
 Africa divided into 20 territorial units
 Signing of treaties to legitimise occupation
 If any 2 countries quarrelled ,sign a treaty to solve the problem
 Hoisting of flag of the coloniser
 Agreed to ban slavery
 Independent witness, Defining of boundaries or spheres of influence
 Doctrine of effective occupation

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(c).To what extent did the Berlin Conference contribute to the scramble for Southern
Africa? (8)
As a catalyst to Scramble:
 European countries competed for unoccupied areas of Southern Africa
 Conference legitimised occupation of Southern Africa
 There was also scramble to define and extend boundaries of existing sphere of
influence by the British, Portuguese, Boers and Germans.
Other factors:
 Need for raw materials \markets\investments
 Strategic reasons
 Humanitarian reasons-spread of Christianity.
 Racial and prestige reasons
 Work of explorers who drew maps of Africa, revealed areas with valuable resources.
 Work of hunters, missionaries, Concession seekers.
[June 2011]
86[a].Identify any six areas colonized by Britain during the Scramble for Southern
Africa. [6]
 Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia
 Swaziland, Lesotho, South Africa.Botswana.
[b].Outline the economic factors which influenced the scramble for outhern Africa
between 1870 and 1900. [11]
 Need for cheap labour, need for markets
 Discovery of minerals such as gold, diamonds
 Need for raw materials, need to acquire protectorate for trade
 Need for wildlife, desire for fertile soils
 To invest surplus capital, good climatic conditions for some crops
 Strategic reasons e,g control of the Cape of Good Hope
 Desire for cattle
[c].To what extent were the Africans to blame for the colonisation of Southern
Africa? [8]
African blameworthiness
 Inferior military equipment, Disunity
 Some agreed to colonial protection to avoid raids from neighbours e,gNgwato.
 Tribal wars, acceptance of missionaries who latter facilitated colonisation
 Illiteracy- did not understand terms of treaties e,g Lobengula
 Some chiefdoms collaborated with colonial agents
Other factors
 Whites had superior weapons
 Industrial capitalism had strong needs
 Europeans tricked Africans during treaty negotiations

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  Berlin conference of 1884-85
 Influence of missionaries, traders and hunters
COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
[Specimen]
87[a]. Name six treaties that were signed between Lobengula and the Concession
seekers before 1893. [6]
 Tati Concession
 Baines treaty
 Grobler treaty
 Moffat treaty
 Rudd Concession
 Lippert Concession
[b].What problems did Lobengula face in dealing with Concession seekers [11]
 Opposition from his army who wanted all foreigners kicked out
 Language problem in communication
 Poor advice from his councillors
 Dishonest advice from white acquaintances e,g Missionaries and hunters
 The difficulty of judging which was the best European group to deal with
 Poor education level preventing him from fully understanding the implication of what
he was required to sign
 He was afraid of what might happen if he did not sign
 Concession seekers also cheated when sometimes they pretended to be working each
other to influence his decision, e,g Lippert sold his concession to Rhodes.
 He also had weaknesses for luxury goods and was easily influenced by receiving gifts
of no lasting value
 In Rudd Concession the imperialists fooled him by stressing only the verbal word
which they knew Africans valued most, and wrote something else down for
Lobengula to sign.
[c].How far was Lobengula successful in dealing with the Concession seekers? [8]
 Imperialists used bribery to get his officers to act on their side e,g Lotshe who was
later executed by the Ndebele
 Fear of the harm that might befall his kingdom made him make rush decisions to
sign
 Concession seekers showed such determination that unnerved Lobengula, once they
came they did not a ‘no’ for an answer.
 Used the delaying tactic by making them wait for long periods
 Made them perform tasks before dealing with them
 Though always advised to the contrary he always met next group of concession
seekers
 Idea was to play them one against the other
 He failed to ward them off and was always pushed into giving in more to each new
group in hope it would stop there

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  He also failed to seek the white man’s game of psychological war on him, where
they exaggerated the danger of his not coming to terms with them thus making him
sign treaties earlier than he should have
 The determination of the Europeans meant that Lobengula had no chance of
succeeding against the concession seekers. Colonialism/Imperialism was
unstoppable and either way, he was going to be absorbed.
[Nov 2003]
88 [a] Statesix terms of the Rudd Concession. [6]
 The Ndebele king to receive a monthly salary of 100 pounds.
 Ndebele ruler to receive 1000 rifles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition
 A gunboat to patrol the Zambezi river or €500 instead
 Metals and mineral rights granted to Rhodes and his group
 Power given to the British to do what they deem necessary to protect their interests
 Not to grant land or mineral rights without British concurrence
 Verbal terms:
 Not more than 10 unarmed men
 Notices to put in S. African papers
 Surrendering of firearms
[b].Describe the organisation and movement of the Pioneer column into the area
between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers.
[11]
[i] Organisation:
 After obtaining the royal charter ,Rhodes recruited pioneers to occupy Zimbabwe
 200 recruited, who represented various trades. Most were bellow 30 years ;South
African experience
 They were promised 300 acres of land and 15 gold claims each
 The Pioneers were accompanied by a police force for protection and to crush any
resistance. Commander of the police was Colonel Edward Graham Penne father
 The guide of the pioneers was F.C. Selous
 Goods were carried by ox wagons
 Formation of BASC which raised capital in London
[ii] Movement:
 The Pioneers grouped in Botswana to start their journey at the beginning of 1890.Got
help from Khama, established a laager left police to guard them
 The Pioneer Column crossed Matloutsie River in June 1890 and Shashi River in July
1890.
 The Pioneers avoided the Ndebele state where the Ndebele regiments wanted to attack
them
 Lobengula did not allow the regiments to attack the Pioneers
 On the way the Pioneers established forts: Fort Tuli (near Limpopo), Fort Victoria,
Fort Charter and Fort Salisbury. Arrived at Fort Salisbury on 12 September 1890.
 Raising the Union Jack

94
[c].Was the British South Africa Company responsible for the Anglo-Ndebele war of
1893? Explain your answer.
[8]
 BASC Actions:
 A boundary made;
 Political control of the Shona by the company
 Competition between the Ndebele and Company
 Desire for 2nd Rand
 Fall of company shares
 Other Reasons:
 Some shone leaders stopped paying tribute to Lobengula
 Victoria incident
 Ndebele raids disturbed labour on settler farms
 Settlers wanted to destroy the Ndebele state
[Jne2004]
89 [a].Identify any six forts built by the British South Africa Company in Zimbabwe,
1890-1896.
[6]
 Fort Tuli
 Fort Victoria
 Fort Charter
 Fort Salisbury
 Fort Martin
 Fort Usher
 Fort Rixon
 Fort Melsetter
[b].Describe the composition, organisation and movement of the Pioneer Column.[11]
 The Pioneer column consisted of both Afrikaner and English elements
 People with South African experience
 The group consisted of 200 settlers supported by 500 policemen
 There were also 1000 auxiliaries supplied by Khama the Ngwato king
 The Pioneer settlers were also to consist of different trades-bakers, miners,
builders, farmers etc
 A number of African servants accompanied Pioneer column
 Frank Johnson [Major] was the leader of the Pioneer corps whilst Colonel Penne
father was the leader of the mounted police
 Frederick Courtney Selous acted as the guide for the Pioneer Column
 The settlers were promised generous grants of land and gold claims
 The group were equipped with 117 wagons with herds of livestock being driven
along side
 Expedition set off from Matloutse River- June 1890
 Crossed the Shashi River in July
 Built Fort Tuli for defence against Ndebele attack
 Avoided Matabeleland for fear of war with the Ndebele

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  By August the expedition had reached Fort Victoria(Masvingo)-proceeded to
Fort Charter (Chivi)
 12th September 1890 the Pioneers reached Fort Salisbury-hoisted Union Jack.
 NB: The military invasion of Mashonaland as evidenced by Forts ,guns and
military leaders e,g Major F. Johnson and Colonel Penne father
[c].Is it true the British South Africa Company did not want war with the Ndebele?
Explain your answer.
[8]
[i].BSAC avoiding war with the Ndebele.
 The Pioneer column did not want war with Ndebele-Avoided Ndebele territory on
route to settlement area
 The settlers hoped to incorporate Matabeleland peacefully later
[ii].Pioneer settlers however, prepared for war,
 brought large armed force
 violated terms of the Rudd Concession
 Matabeleland was part of area covered by Rhodes’ Charter of 1889
 Matabeleland also part of the area covered by Rhodes’ dream of Cape to Cairo
 Proposed railway from South Africa to pass through Matabeleland
 Pioneers had more people than allowed by the Rudd concession
 Failure to find gold in Mashonaland
[Nov 2004]
90 [a].Name any six British nationals, other than Rhodes, who assisted in the
colonisation of Zimbabwe.
 L.S. Jameson; C. Rudd; J.S. Moffat; J. Thomson. R. Maguire. C. Helm; F.
Thompson; Major F.Johnson; F.C. Selous; Colonel Penne father; Allan Wilson
[b].What steps were taken by Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe?
[11]
 The Moffat Agreement in February 1888 initiated by Rhodes as a way of
reversing the Grobler Treaty
 The Rudd Concession, October 1888-a mineral concession which intended to
strengthen the Moffat Agreement
 The Royal charter granted in October 1889 which gave Rhodes permission to
colonise and administer Zimbabwe on behalf of Britain
 The British South Africa Company (1890)-to colonise and administer Zimbabwe
on behalf of Britain
 Rhodes sent a party ,led by L.S. Jameson ,to ask Lobengula to allow the BSAC
to go into Mashonaland
 Recruitment of the pioneers to colonise Zimbabwe to come from all over the
world –made up of 200
 The Pioneer Column-consisted of Pioneers, soldiers/policemen, African
auxiliaries, marched into Mashonaland despite verbal resistance from the
Ndebele. Raising of the Union Jack-Fort Salisbury
 Anglo-Ndebele war 1893-To take over Matabeleland

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  Ndebele and Shona uprisings 1896-7 crushing of resistance
[c]. Is it true that Rhodes contribute the most to the colonisation of Zimbabwe? Explain
your answer. [8]
[i] Rhodes’ contribution to colonisation:
 Financing of the colonisation process from the Moffat Agreement right up to the
1896-1897 uprisings
 Organisation of the colonisation process i,e B.S.A.C, recruitment of pioneers,
obtaining the Royal Charter and war.
[ii] Others also contributed
 British also gave support and helped to provide manpower for wars ;Royal Charter
 Other people also played important roles –missionaries like C. Helm, J.S Moffat,
individuals like Rudd, Thompson
 Lobengula and also local Ndebele leaders also indirectly assisted e,g Lotshe and
Sikhombo.
 British financers like Duke of Fife, Lord Salisbury, and Abercorn.
[Nov 2005]
91[a].Name any six leaders of the Pioneer column that moved to Mashonaland in 1890
[6]
 Colonel Edward Graham Penne father; F.C. Selous; Major Frank Johnson; Heany;
Borrow, Dr Leander Star Jameson; Colloquium
[b].Describe the recruitment of members of the Pioneer Column by Cecil John
Rhodes. [11]
 BSAC advertised for fit adventurous young men in English speaking world with
South African experience.
 Over 2000 applications
 Only 200 young men chosen
 Another 500 young men recruited into BSAC
 Members included blacksmiths, Carpenters, Builders, Printers, Bakers, Miners,
Farmers and Traders
 Were promised 300 acres of land and 1500 gold claims
 Each troop in the B S A C police to receive seven shillings and six pence for each day
spent with the pioneer police
 Each pioneer was armed
 Colonising party led by Major Frank Johnson and two deputies(Heany and Borrow)
 Each of 12 officers in Pioneer Column promised 20 gold claims
[b].To what extent did the Pioneers contribute to the successful occupation of
Mashonaland? [8]
Pioneers/Pioneer Corps:
 Selected to meet the basic services in a new community ,included Blacksmiths,
Carpenters, Builders, bakers, miners, farmers and traders

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  They constituted a self- sufficient community
 Pioneers trained for war, Participated in the 1893 Anglo-Ndebele war and
suppression of 1896-7 uprisings
Others
 Rhodes financial assistance
 B s ac police
 Disunity of Shona /lack of resistance
 African auxiliaries from S.A armed with axes and spears
 Khama’s men
 Support of the queen.
[June 2006]

92[a].Name the five Ndebele officials who were involved in negotiations for the Rudd
Concession with the British agents. [6]
 Lobengula, Lotshe, Sikhombo, Babiyane and Mtshede
[b].Describe the verbal and written terms of the Rudd Concession of October 1888.
Verbal Terms:
 Rhodes to protect Matabeleland from European colonisation
 To put notices in South African newspapers warning white people to keep out of
Matabeleland
 Whites in Matabeleland to obey Ndebele laws
 To surrender firearms to Ndebele King on arrival
 To dig one hole
 Bring not more ten men
Written Terms:
 Ndebele King to get €100 monthly
 100 rifles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition
 A gunboat to patrol the Zambezi or €500
In return Lobengula agreed to give the company
 Complete and exclusive charge over all metals and minerals in his kingdom and its
principals and dominions
 Full powers to do all things they may deem necessary to get the metals and minerals
 To give no concession of land or mining rights without consulting Rhodes.
[c].To what extent did Lobengula and his people benefit from the Rudd Concession
up to 1893? [8]
Benefits
Ndebele had short-term benefits:
 European support helped Lobengula to get stability and security of his throne and
leadership
 Gained money and weapons promised/received
 Gained protection against other external dangers e,g Boer/Portuguese

98
 Problems
 Treaty used to justify colonisation of Zimbabwe
 Most verbal terms left out from written treaty
 Land and minerals eventually taken by British South Africa Company
 Restriction of Lobengula powers in foreign policy
 Led to the invasion by Pioneer Column
 Lotshe executed
 1893 war of dispossession
[Nov 2006]
93[a].Name any six concession seekers who visited Matabeleland between 1870 and
1890 [6]
 Baines; Piet Grobler; J.S. Moffat; Charles Rudd; Francis Thompson; Rochfort
Maguire; Lippert; E.S. Maud.
[b].Describe the terms of the Grobler Treaty (1887) and the Moffat Treaty (1888).
Grobler Treaty:
A treaty of friendship between Lobengula and Boers
Terms:
 Everlasting peace between Ndebele and Transvaal Republic
 It recognised Lobengula as paramount chief
 Lobengula to provide assistance to the Boers whenever required
 To extradite all criminals who escaped from Transvaal
 To allow those with a pass into his country
 Hunters and traders from Transvaal to be allowed to operate in Lobengula’s
Kingdom
 The Transvaal to appoint a consul to settle in Lobengula’s Kingdom
 The consul to administer justice to citizens of the Boer Republic
The Moffat Treaty:
 Lobengula agreed to be a friend of the British Queen
 Promised not to enter into any agreement with any other country or groups without
the knowledge and approval of the British High Commissioner.
 Everlasting peace
 Cancellation of the Grobler Treaty
 Lobengula not to sell or cede any part of his kingdom to foreigners
[c].How far did the Grobler Treaty protect the Ndebele State from colonisation? [8]
Successes:
 Lobengula alliance with the Boers strengthened his position against internal elements
e,g he had friends with guns hence he was feared
 Initially delayed colonists on occupation of the Ndebele State

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  Lobengula succeeded in gaining security from Boer attacks by signing the Grobler
Treaty
 Treaty making used as diplomacy
 Lobengula’s friendship with the Boers used to deter attacks in the Ndebele state by
other groups
Limitations:
 He did not gain absolute security because there were other external dangers from
Portuguese or British represented by Rhodes, etc
 Grobler Treaty speeded up the competition or the scramble
 Lobengula had to fight a civil a war
[Nov 2007]
94[a].State any three economic and threepolitical factors that led to the colonisation of
Zimbabwe. [6]
 Economic:
 Need for markets
 Need for raw materials
 Rhodes believed that the gold belt from Transvaal stretched into
Zimbabwe(Second Rand)
 Wanted to invest surplus capital
 Pastures, cheap labour, livestock, Fertile soils, good climate,
 Political :
 Rhodes wanted to promote Britain imperialism
 Need to spread civilisation
 Agents signed friendship treaties with local rulers
 To prevent other countries from colonising Zimbabwe e,g Portuguese,
Germans and Boers
 To encircle the Boers
[b].Describe the steps taken by C.J. Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe. [11]
 February 1888 Moffat Treaty –to reverse the Grobler Treaty
 October 1888 Rudd Concession, Rudd, Helm etc tricked Lobengula to sign
treaty. Treaty strengthened Moffat Agreement
 Rhodes sought for British influential business people
 Rhodes sought and was granted the Royal charter by the Queen and had
permission to colonise and administer Zimbabwe on behalf of Britain
 Used his personal fortune to finance the occupations
 Formed B.S.A.C 1890 to colonise and administer Zimbabwe on behalf of Britain
 Recruited pioneers from all over the world i,e 200 people
 Movement of the pioneer column(NB Forts)
 Raised the union jack in September 1890 at Fort Salisbury
 Bought the Lippert Concession 1891
 Defeated Ndebele in the Anglo-Ndebele war (1893)and took over Matabeleland
 Publicised the Rudd concession in South African newspapers
 He bought Maud’s company
 He sent Dr Leander Star Jameson to treat Lobengula of gout

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  Bribery of Lotshe and Sikhombo
 Rhodes delayed Lobengula’s delegates to the Queen and the Charter was
granted
 Rhodes persuaded the British High Commissioner over Bechuanaland
[c].How important was Rhodes ‘role in the colonisation of Zimbabwe? [8].
Rhodes’ contribution
 Sent representatives to trick Lobengula into signing the Rudd Concession
 Bought the Lippert Concession
 Offered personal fortune to finance colonisation Process
 Obtained royal charter
 Formed the B.S.A.C and recruited the pioneers
Other factors:
 British supported move by Rhodes i,e Royal Charter
 Had British financers eg Dike of Abercorn and Duke of fife
 Missionaries helped e,g Rev C. Helm and J.S. Moffat
 Initial lack of resistance by Shona
 Ndebele indunas like Lotshe lobbied on behalf of whites
 Role of traders
 Role of hunters
[Nov2008]
95 [a].State any six reasons why Zimbabwe was colonised by the British in 1890. [6]
 Second rand ,raw materials, markets, Cape to Cairo dream,
 To encircle the Boers, cheap labour, to invest surplus capital
 Favourable climate, fertile soil, rich in wildlife, to spread Christianity
 Civilisation, Prestige, to breed livestock, racial superiority
[b].Outline the steps taken by the British to colonise Zimbabwe up to 1890. [11]
 Rhodes acted as local agent of British imperialism
 British declared protectorate over Botswana to keep the ‘missionary road ‘open(1885)
 Withdrawal of Grobler Treaty by Lobengula done under pressure from the British,
rivals of the Boer Republic
 Moffat Treaty professed everlasting peace and friendship between Lobengula and the
British whose real aim was to colonise Ndebele kingdom
 Lobengula urged to desist from entering any treaty with any foreign power or to sell
or cede any part of his kingdom
 British agents like Charles Helm, Charles Rudd, Rochfort Maguire and Francis
Thompson persuaded Lobengula to sign Rudd Concession, promising fictious
benefits
 Rudd Concession gave exclusive mineral rights to British
 Granted British power to do all things they deem necessary to promote mining
activities
 British Government granted Charter to authorise colonisation of Zimbabwe
 British aristocracy directors of BSAC that organised colonisation and the pioneer
column’s movement

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  The raising of the union jack
 The British delayed Lobengula’s indunas to meet the queen
 Recruited of pioneer column
[c].How important was the part played by the British government in the colonisation of
Zimbabwe? [8]
British role:
 Britain was interested party whose rivals were Boers, Portuguese and Germans
 Represented the mighty power that backed local agents against other Europeans
 British used treaties to grant Charter to authorise colonisation
 Establishment of a protectorate over Bechuanaland
 Britain gave financial and military support on the Anglo-Ndebele and 1st Chimurenga
Others:
 Rhodes financed colonisation using wealth from Debeers and Consolidated Goldfields
companies
 Put together Pioneer Column
 Missionaries ‘role e,g J.S. Moffat and Charles Helm
 Collaborators e,g Lotshe
 African disunity
 African illiteracy
 Support from the Ngwato
 Role of traders and hunters.
[Nov2008]
96 [a].Identify any three leading British citizens and any three companies that
supported the British South Africa Company financially. [6]
leading British citizens
 Duke of fife, Duke of Abercorn, Lord Grey, Prince of Wales
Sponsoring companies
 Rothschild Company, DeBeers and Consolidated Goldfields
[b].Describe the recruitment and the movement of the Pioneer Column to
Mashonaland. [11]
The recruitment process
 Recruitment and equipping of Pioneer corps delegated to Frank Johnson assisted by
Maurice and Heany Barrow
 Advertisement for people bellow 30 years to apply
 Pioneers to include English and Afrikaner elements and to have South Africa
experience
 Carefully chosen from several thousand applicants(2000 applications)
 Only 200 selected
 Pioneers came from many occupations e,g Blacksmiths, carpenters, builders,
Painters, miners, farmers and traders.
 Each promised 3000 acres of land and 15 gold claims

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  1000 Ngwato auxiliaries also hired
 500 mounted policemen
Movement:
 Crossed Matloutse river on 27.06 1890.,Shashi river on 11 July
 Covered 12 miles a day-18-20 km
 Avoided Ndebele territory
 Led by Penne-father
 Selous guided them
 Daily allowances of 5 shilling and 6 pence
 Supplies carried by 117 wagons
 Jameson accompanied the Pioneers
 Used laagers for security reasons
 Police left to guard the Forts
 Established Forts, e ,g Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria, Fort Charter, and Fort Salisbury
 Raised the Union jack
[c].To what extent did the recruitment of the Pioneer Column contribute to the success
oftheir settlement in Mashonaland? [8]
[i].Recruitment policy helped to create the nucleus of a complete society
 Economic activities were promoted by presence of skilled Personnel e,g miners,
farmers, blacksmiths, carpenters, bakers, traders etc
 Pioneers with South African experience could withstand hardships experienced in
interior
 Army and police provided security to Forts
 Promised incentives motivated pioneers.
 400 Ngwato helped make roads and to herd horses and cattle
 BAS C police offered protection
[ii].Other Factors
 Lobengula restrained amajaha from attacking
 Shona did not resist-expected Pioneers white to go back first like Portuguese who had
came earlier
 Welcomed whites for protection
 Presence of missionaries created false sense of security.
[Nov2009]
97 [a].Identify the three treaties and their respective years which were signed between
Lobengula and the foreigners between 1887 and 1890. [6]
 Grobler Treaty—1887
 Moffat Treat--- 1888
 Rudd Concession----1888.
[b].Describe the terms of any two of these treaties.
Grobler Treaty -1887.
 A treaty between the Boers and Ndebele

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  Transvaal and Ndebele States to be friends
 Ndebele were committed to providing military assistance to Transvaal if and when
asked to do so
 There was to be a permanent representative of the Transvaal in Bulawayo
 Lobengula to protect Transvaal citizens who visited his country
 Everlasting peace between Boers and Ndebele
 Lobengula to be recognised as a paramount chief
Moffat Treaty---1888
 British and the Ndebele or J.S. Moffat vs Lobengula
 Lobengula not to enter any treaty with other countries without the knowledge of the
British
 Ndebele and British to be friends
 Lobengula not to give any part of the Country to any other country without
permission from the British
 To cancel the Grobler Treaty
Rudd Concession—1888
 Between British and the Ndebele.
 Written Terms:
 All minerals granted to the British
 Power given to the British to do what they deemed necessary to protect their interests
 Lobengula not to grant land rights without British occurrence
 Ndebele ruler to receive 1000rifles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition
 A gunboat to patrol Zambezi river or €500
 He was also to receive €100 per month/ his successors were to receive €100 per
month
 Verbal Terms:
 Not more than 10 British men to come
 The few whites would not mine near towns
 No machinery and employees were to brought into the country before payment of the
first instalment of the rifles
 Notices in South African newspapers to warn other countries to keep out of Ndebele
country
 British visitors to surrender arms and obey Ndebele laws
 To dig one hole/ Not to dig near towns
 Whites promised that they had not come for settlement
[c].How far did the Ndebele benefit from the terms of the two treaties? [8]
[i] Benefits:
 Lobengula and Ndebele no longer bothered by other white people who wanted
control of the area
 Treaty controlled the influx of whites into the Ndebele State
 Received treatment from Jameson
 Understood white people as crooks who cheated to achieve their aims
 Established friendship
 Some material gains

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  Peace for some time
 Delayed colonisation
[ii].Non-Benefits:
 Lost control of land and minerals
 Loss of independence and power
 Led to execution of Lotshe
 Lobengula stopped trusting his indunas and missionaries
 Lobengula never received the gunboat
 Verbal terms not fulfilled
 Ndebele were cheated by concession seekers
 British did not honour part of the terms
 Terms led to conflict
 Lobengula lost control of foreign policy
 Led to colonisation of the Ndebele state
(Nov 2010)
98.(a).State any six people who assisted Rhodes to get the British South Africa Royal
Charter in 1889. (6)
 Duke of Fife , Duke of Abercon
 Lord Grey, Lord Salisbury
 Baroness Burdette Coutts, Prince of Wales
 Queen Victoria.
(b).Describe the Pioneer Column’s march into Zimbabwe in 1890. (11)
 Pioneer Column set out from Macloutsie River in Botswana on 27 June, 1890.
 Selous led the Pioneers and was assisted by Barrow Heany.
 The first stop was at Shashe River where they built Fort Tuli
 Pioneers avoided the Ndebele state for fear of attacks
 Supplies were carried in 117 wagons
 Scouts patrolled the area ahead
 They travelled 12 miles per day and built a laager at the place of rest during the night
 Lobengula protested at the Pioneer invasion
 Pioneers often met small group of Ndebele warriors
 Crossing of rivers
 Dominican sisters ran a mobile clinic
 Penne father was the commander
 1000 auxiliaries from Khama
 By August 1890 the Pioneer Column was in Masvingo where they built Fort Victoria
 Part of the Pioneers branched to Melsetter while the other continued northwards and
built Fort Charter.
 Reached Fort Salisbury on 12 September 1890 where they hoisted the Union jack.
(c).Did the Pioneers find it easy to reach their destination? Explain your answer. (8)
Yes, they found it easy to reach their destination because they were:
 Led by F.Selous who knew the area/country
 Well equipped with provisions

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  Accompanied by police
 Reliable means of transport
 Auxiliary help
 No resistance from Ndebele and Shona
 Shonawere disunited
 Shona weakened by years of Ndebeel raids
Problems encountered:
 Long routes to avoid the Ndebele
 Attacked by diseases
 Crossed large rivers
 Insecturity from the Ndebele
 Land clearing
 Did not settle at intended destinations

[June 2011]
99[a] Identify (i) three individuals who were tasked to recruit and equip the Pioneer
Column and (Ii) three promises made to the pioneers. [6]
(i) F.Johnston, Heany, Borrow
(ii) Cash, gold, land
[b] Describe the security arrangements made by the Pioneer Column during its
movement into Mashonaland in 1890. [11]
 Pionners given military training
 Each pioneer member was armed
 500 policemen accompanied the column
 A lot of ammunition was provided, established forts on their way e,g max 3
 Left policemen to guard forts
 Heavy guns- maxims, two seven pounders
 Ise of laagers when they camped for the night
 Kept a big lamp burning when they camped for the night
 Maintained patrols on horseback
 Colonel Pennfather was Commander
 Souting parties(advance)
 Avoided Matebeleland
 Accompanied by Ngwato auxillaries
 Use of people who knew the terrain to avoid being lost
[c].How important was the pioneer Column in the colonisation of Zimbabwe? [8]
Importance of pioneers
 Pioneers included all trades such as farmers, bankers
 Well equipped and self- sufficient

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  Pioneers trained for war- fought in the 1893-94 Anglo-Ndebele War and 1896
uprisings
 Had enough labourers -, young and adventurers people
Other factors
 Favourable climatic conditions
 Shona were not united –lacked resistance
 Shona regarded Pioneers as trade partners and protected them from the Ndebele
 Shona thought Pioneers stay would be shortlived
 Whites had outside help- Ngwato, S.A
 BSAC support, Rhodes who financed the whole operation
 Queen and financers, missionaries, hunters, traders
 Poor weapons/ military weakness
[Nov 2011]
100 [a].Name any six whites who were involved in signing treaties and concessions in
Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1891. [6]
 Thomas Baines, Sydney Shipphard , Piet Grobler
 Rev Charles Helm, Rochfort Maguire, W. Graham
 C. Dreyer, F. Thompson, C.D Rudd, J.S. Moffat
 E. Lippert, Van Wyk.C.Rhodes, E.A. Maud, Paul Gruger, John Swinebourne
[b].Outline the written and Verbal terms of the Rudd Concession of 1888. [11]
Responses similar to Question 84[b].
[c].Did the Ndebele king benefit from the Rudd Concession? [8]
Responses similar to Question 84 [c].
Resistance to colonialisation in Zimbabwe.
[Nov 2003]
101.[a].Name six African leaders involved in the Shona Rising of 1896 to 1897. [6]
 Nehanda, Chihota, Mangwende,
 Kaguvi,Zvimba, Chinamora,Seke
 Mashayamombe,Hwata,Chiweshe,Nyamwenda
 Makoni
 Zhanda
 Mapondera,Kunzwi-Nyandoro
[b].Outline the reasons why the Shona went to war with the British settlers in 1896. [11]
 Loss of land
 Loss of cattle
 Ill-treatment of Shona workers
 Brutality of policeman
 Forced labour
 Payment of hut tax

107
  Natural disasters-rinderpest, drought and locusts
 Authority of African chiefs was under mined /loss of independence
 The settlers did not allow the Shona to trade with the Portuguese
 Abuse of Shona women by white men
 Role of spirit mediums
[c].Explain why the Shona were defeated in this war. [8]
Weaknesses of the Shona:
 Inferior weapons of the Shona ,capture of Shona leaders
 Shone not were united
 Did not have a single army and leader to co-ordinate all the shone
Other factors:
 Superior weapons of the whites
 Whites used a lot of brutality that frightened the Shona e,g dynamite
 Whites got help from outside e,g SA and Britain
 Hunger and starvation,
 Ndebele surrender
[Nov 2005]
102.[a]. State any six causes of the Ndebele uprising of 1896 [6]
 Loss of independence/Indunas lost power
 Loss of land [Gwaai& Shangani Reserves]
 Loss of Cattle
 Forced labour
 Harsh/oppressive administration
 Ndebele not disarmed
 Those who had not taken part not defeated
 Hatred of Shona police
 Abuse of women
 Not allowed to choose another king
 Influence of Spirit mediums[Mkwati]
 Loss of culture
 Natural disasters[Drought, locusts, rinderpest]
 Taxation
 Jameson raid
[b].Outline the events of the Ndebele uprising. [11]
 Began in March 1896
 Indunas acted as leaders
 Massacred whites in isolated farms, mines and stores
 Others escaped to town centres where they formed laagers,e,g Bulawayo,Gweru
Mberengwa
 Patrols dispatched to isolated areas to rescue survivors and bury corpses
 150 of Rhodesian horse under Colonel Beal left Salisbury to defend Bulawayo
 In S.A 500 European volunteers assembled at Mafeking to march to Rhodesia
 Another 600 African troops raised from Bechuanaland and Johannesburg
 British government chose Fredrick Carrington to be commander of all military forces
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  Whites started on Ndebele not just defend towns when Carrington arrived
 Ndebele by priests of umlimo to leave route to S.A open as escape route for whites
 Major Plumers forces used open route to bring reinforcements
 Ndebele large army defeated at Umgusa River.
 Remaining forces retreated into Matopo hills and started guerrilla warfare
 Rhodes arranged for Indaba in Matopos
[c].Did the Mlimo cult priests contribute to the defeat of the Ndebele? Explain your
answer. [8]
Positive influence:[Mkwati, Umlugulu etc]
 Influenced Ndebele to rebel against whites as a united force
 Gave a spiritual interpretation to disasters
 Boosted morale of forces by influencing the Shona to join risings
 Urged Ndebele forces to continue with guerrilla warfare using Matopo Hills as
hideout
 Stubbornness of Ndebele Rhodes grant concessions to Ndebele to end war
Other factors:
 Poor strategy/weapons
 White power/disunity
Negative influence:
 Deceived Ndebele to leave route to S.A open –used to bring whites reinforcements.
Led to Major defeat at Umgusa River
[Nov 2006]
103.[a].State any six causes of the Anglo-Ndebele War 1893 to 1894. [6]
 Boundary between Matabeleland and Mashonaland kept on shifting
 Lobengula was stopped from raiding the Shona
 Belief in the existence of gold in Matabeleland
 To grab Lobengula,s Cattle and land to save the B.S.A.Co from bankruptcy
 War to reduce transport costs and import costs[Railway line]
 Victoria incident[immediate cause]
 Failure of converts in the Ndebele state
 Cape to Cairo dream
 Jameson saw Ndebele as a military threat
[b].Describe the events of the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893 to 1894. [11]
 There were18000 Ndebele soldiers versus 3500[1 100 whites and 2000 auxiliaries and
about 400 Shona and Cape auxiliaries].
 Company .troops organized into Salisbury, Victoria and Tuli columns
 Columns met at Iron Hill Mine
 Lalapanzi battle[Sept.1893]
 Shangani Battle[1st major battle]
 Company suffered few casualties
 Many African refugees sleeping out of the laager killed
 About 500 Ndebele killed

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  Battle of Bembesi River 31 October 1893
 Ndebele repulsed with losses
 Ndebele regiment Ingubo, Imbizo and Nsukamini clashed with company soldiers
 7 pounder guns cost many Ndebele lives
 On 3 November the Southern column laagered at Singuesi River near Empandeni.
Ndebele under Gumbo attacked but repulsed by heavy gunfire
 Khama’s men returned to Botswana due to outbreak of smallpox
 Lobengula burnt down capital city and fled northwards.
 2nd Shangani Battle
 Wilson’s patrol
 2 bags of hidden by nearby troops
 Wilson’s troops were all killed
 Lobengula died on escape to the north
 Company forces took over burning city and raised Union Jack
[c].How far did the loss of the Mbembesi River Battle contribute to the defeat of the
Ndebele? [8]
Mbembesi battle’s contribution to the defeat of the Ndebele:
 Shangani Battle was the first major battle where 500 Ndebele were killed
A second major battle was fought at Mbembesi with similar results
 Many Ndebele now took their own lives than return defeated
 News of disaster caused consternation in Bulawayo
 Impi sent to guard route from Bechuanaland was withdrawn and the King’s capital set
on fire
Other factors:
 Use of traditional weapons
 Use of poor military strategies
 Use of guns by the whites
 There was disunity among the Ndebele e,g Nyenyezi guided the column
 Support from imperial government
 Superior war strategies of whites
[Nov 2007]
104[a].Name any six African spirit mediums who took part in the First Chimurenga
1896-97 [6]
 Nehanda/Chagwe, Kaguvi/Gumboreshumba, Mukwati, Umlugulu,
 Siginyamatshe, Mponga, Mpotshwane,
 Bonda, Tengera,
[b].Describe the part played by spirit mediums in the Shona uprising 1896-97 [11]
 Nehanda influenced the Shona in Mazoe-Chiweshe area to rise
 Rising spread to Central and Western Mashonaland
 Instructed the killing of District Administrator Pollard
 Mediums kept the Shona fighting
 Shone consulted spirit mediums before going to battle

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  Kaguvi and Mkwati co ordinate d movements of messengers e,g Bonda,Tshiva and
Zhanda
 Spirit mediums influenced Shona chiefs e,g Hwata, Nyamwenda, Makoni,Nyachuru
and Chiweshe to join the risings
 Kaguvi led chimurenga in Mashayamombe in June 1896
 Coordinated the risings
 Interpretation of the natural disasters was done by spirit mediums
 Gave confidence through war medicine
 Instilled discipline in the fighting through instruction /propaganda
[c].Was the extension of the rising to 1897 a result of the effectiveness of Shona tactics?
Explain your answer. [8]
Effectiveness
 Shone used guerrilla warfare
 Fought in small groups, it was a series of “Zvimurenga” and difficult to defeat across
the country, coordinated by spirit mediums
 Shona mobilized faster than the whites, had guns obtained from the Portuguese
 Influence of Mkwati
 Familiar with terrain
 They used nocturnal attacks
 Fighters disguised as ordinary hunters
 Used surprise attacks, war not limited to professional soldiers
 Shona stored grain as part of preparation
Other factors:
 Whites underestimated the Shona
 Initially had fewer troops
 Were easily misled by spirit mediums
 BSAC had financial problems
 Whites were not prepared
 The whites as enemy were easily indentified by skin colour
 Whites were unfamiliar to the terrain
 Whites were overstretched in terms of resources by war in Matabeleland
[Nov 2009]
105[a] State any six causes of the Shona Uprising of 1896.
 Loss of land
 Loss of cattle
 Ill-treatment of Shona workers
 Brutality of policemen
 Forced labour
 Payment of hut tax
 Natural disasters[rinderpest, drought, locust invasion]
 Loss of independence
 Abuse of Shona women
 End of Shona-Portuguese trade links
 Fear of the Ndebele punishment if they did not rise against the whites

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 [b].Outline the events of the Shona Uprising. [11]
 War stated in June 1896 with killing of whites in Mashayamombe area
 By end of June over 100 whites had been killed
 The whites taken by surprise. Responded by setting up laagers in big and centres as
protection
 The Shona fighters blocked roads using trees
 Used guerrilla warfare tactics
 The Shona chiefs fought the whites as separate entities; some did not join the war;
while others fought on the side of the whites
 The Shona hid in Caves
 Spread of chimurenga to other areas through spirit mediums and fire signals
 The whites used dynamite
 Nehanda and Kaguvi were important spirit mediums who encouraged the shone to
fight especially in the Mazoe area
 The settlers were assisted by reinforcements sent from South Africa
 War between Makoni and the BSAC forces –Gwindigwi and wasdefeated
 Defeated Shona leaders were executed e,g Makoni
 Capture and subsequent execution of Nehanda and Kaguvi brought the war to an end
 Mapondera continued to 1903
[c].To what extent did lack of unity contributes to the e\defeat of the Shona? [8]
Lack of Unity:
 No co-ordination among the Shona chiefs
 Some chiefs were neutral e,g Mutasa
 Some chiefs assisted the whites.
 No common military strategy or command
Other factors:
 Inferior weapons of the Shona
 Superior weapons of the whites
 White were better organised
 Whites had fast transport
 White settlers received assistance from outside
 Surrender of the Ndebele
[June 2011]
106[a].State any six economic causes of the Anglo- Ndebele war of 1893-94 [6]
 Need to establish rail link from Mafikeng to Salisbury
 Fall in value of BSAC shares
 Belief in the existence of the Second rand in Matabeleland
 BSAC envied Ndebele land
 Coveted Ndebele cattle
 Failure by Shona chiefs to pay tribute to Lobengula
 BSAC forbade Ndebele raids in Mashonaland
 BSAC wanted cheap labour
[b].Outline the results of the Anglo- Ndebele War. [11]

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  Ndebele surrendered, agreed to peace negotiations
 Matabeleland to be administered by Jameson
 Land commission set up to divide land between the BSAC and the Ndebele
 Led to another war (1896), Taxation 2 or e,gs
 Disbanding of age regiments
 Loss of lives, fertile lands taken by the whites and two reserves , Gwaai and Shangani
created for the Ndebele
 Over 200 000 Ndebele catle seized, Ndebele men to provide labour in white farms
and mines, introduction of forced labour
 White settler military rewarded with Lobengula’s catle and land
 1895, Matabeleland placed under British rule
 Matabeleland and Mashonaland were named Rhodesia
 Ndebele not allowed to choose another king
 Death of Lobengula
[c].Why were the Ndebele defeated in this war? [8]
Ndebele weaknesses
 Inferior weapons, disunity among Ndebele chiefs
 Most Ndebele amabutho were raiding across the Zambezi
 Ndebele charged directly towards guns leading to many deaths
 Poor communication network
 Lobengula’s flight and his subsequent death
Other factors
 Disunity amongst African societies
 Whites had superior weapons
 Whites had better fighting methods, had external support from South Africa and
Ngwato
 Better means of communication, continous supply of resources
 Mobility of the whites
[Nov 2011]

107[a].Name any six military leaders of the British South Africa Company (B.S.A.C)
forces during the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893-1894. [6]

 Major Forbes , Ca[tain Lendy, Lt Colonel Goold- Adams

 Captain Borrow, Captain Raaf, Major Heany, Allan Wilson

[b].Give an account of the pursuit of Lobengula by the B.S.A.C. forces after the fall
of Bulawayo. [11]

 3 Nov 1893 Bulawayo fell to company forces and King Lobengula fled Northwards
 Jameson assigned Major Forbes and Captain Raaf to purse and capture King
Lobenguala
 Forbes and his forces reached Lobengula’sd Shangani camp on 3 December
 They found signs that Lobengula had hurridly abandoned his Shangani camp and they
had just failed to catch up with him.

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  Onrealising that the settlers could just catch up with him, Lobengula sent two of his
indunas to hie pursuers with a peace message and a bag of gold
 Lobengula’s surrender message and the gold did not reach Forbes and the latter
continued searching for Lobengula’s party.
 Forbes and his forces camped at Shangani
 Forbes assigned Wilson and his team 18-21 men to find Lobengula’s direction
 Wilson’s forces caught up with Lobengula’s fleeing party on the western side of the
river
 Wilson requested reinforcements but Forbes did not comply
 Instead, he dispatched captain H.J.Borrow with 20 men without instructing them
whether they were a support unit or another attacking force
 Borrow’s forces joined Wilson’s group on 4 December
 Together, Wilson’s group and that of Borrow attacked Lobengula’s group
 Lobengula’s group defended itself well and they defeated the combined forces of
Borrow and Wilson
 Borrow and Wilson and a majority of their men were killed except 3 scouts who
escaped
 Forbes’ group could not assist them because the Shangani river was flooded
 On 5 December, Forbes and the rest of the expedition retreated
 They gave up, never captured Lobengula.

[c].Did this pursuit benefit the B.S.A.C? Explain your answer. [8].

Benefits to the B.S.A.C.

 ALLAN Wilson was regarded as a hero.

 Complted conquest and occupation of Zimbabwe.
 Gained complete control of Matabeleland
 Gained Lobengula’s cattle
 United settlers than ever before
 Gained mineral wealth
 Gained land, gained labour
 Led to Lobengula’s death, construction of the railway line through Matabeleland
became possible
 Weakened Ndrbele resistance

Disadvantages to the B.S.A.C

 Expedition was costly

 BB.S.A.C lost men.
 Company failed to dismantle all Ndebele regiments
 The bag of gold never reached them
 Company horses and cattle were killed
 Company lost ammunition
 Settlers failed to capture Lobengula
 The Company faced criticism from Britain
POST 1897 TO 1950S ZIMBABWE
[Nov 2003]

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108 [a].State six laws passed by the colonial government in Rhodesia to control African
economic activities before 1950. [6]
 Matabeleland order in council-1894
 Order in council-1898
 The Industrial Conciliation Act-1934
 Land Apportionment Act-1930
 Native Registration Act-1936
 The Native Passes Act-1937
 Maize Control Act-1931
 Cattle Levy Act-1934
 Land Commission Act
[b].What forms of action were taken by taken by workers in Rhodesia to protest against
exploitation before 1950 [11]
 Workers deliberately broke machines
 Absenteeism
 Desertion
 Workers caused accidents for whites
 Strikes e,g Shamva Mine strikes
 Refused to work
 Refused to carry passes
 Forged passes
 Formation of protest movements
 Formation of trade union movements
 Refused to pay tax
 Formation of African independent churches
 Formation of burial societies
 Held ammonites needed by whites
 Sabotage set crops on fire, refused orders from whites, faked illness
[c].How successful were the workers in fighting exploitation in this period? [8]
[i].Successful
 Shortage of labour in mines and farms
 Improvement of some working conditions
 Burial societies and African independent churches helped to unite Africans
 Protest movements highlighted problem of workers
[ii].Not successful
 Poor working conditions continued
 Not allowed to vote
 Accommodation continued to be a problem
 Whites continued to demand passes from workers.
[June 2004]
109[a].Identify any six minerals exploited by the settlers in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
between 1923 and 1969. [6]
 Gold; Copper; Coal; Iron
 Lead; Zinc; Asbestos; Tin; Chrome.
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 [B].Outline the effects of mining activities in the country at that time.
 Developments of towns at mining centres such as Kadoma(gold), Hwange,
Zvishavane, Shurugwi, Bindura, Mvura
 Development of infrastructure-roads/railways leading to mining centres
 Development of secondary industries –such as processing and food industries
 There was inflow of capital from abroad –e,g Rio Tinto, Anglo- American
Companies.
 Development of slums/compounds at mining centres/workers living in crowded
unhealthy conditions
 Some Africans came to live permanently at the compounds
 This also saw the development of the migrant labour system
 Extra labour imported from Malawi, Zambia
 Also most minerals were exported mostly to Britain- source of revenue
[c].How far did mining activities benefit Africans at that time? Explain your answer.[8]
[i].Benefits:
African workers were employed at the mining centres obtained:
 Got money for payment of taxes
 Got money to purchase goods of European origin such as clothes, blankets and guns
 Investment indirectly improved general living conditions in the country
 Some health and educational facilities were built later
[ii].African workers also suffered discrimination:
 However, Africans were largely exploited.
 They were paid low wages, and hence in crowded compounds were taken as cheap
labour-unskilled.
 Africans were subjected to forced labour as labour was scarce
 Africans were taxed to force them to take up employment at mining centres
 There were no recreational facilities for Africans except beer halls.
[Nov2004]
110[a].Name any three minerals mined and any three crops grown in colonial
Zimbabwe before 1923. [6]
 Gold; Iron; Copper; Lead; Coal; Zinc; Chrome; Asbestos
 Maize; Rapoko; Tobacco; Sorghum; Millet; Cotton; Groundnuts; Round nuts;
Cowpeas; Gourds; Pumpkins
[b].Describe the measures taken by the British South Africa Company (BSAC) to
deprive Africans of their land in colonial Zimbabwe before 1923. [11].
 Land given to Pioneers on arrival in 1890, volunteers of 1893 war
 Creation of reserves, land bank, loans for whites.
 The BSAC took land which it later sold to settlers
 Forced labour, taxation
 Absentee landlords, order in council- 1898
[c].How effective were the measures in depriving Africans of their land by 1923? [8]
[i].Effectiveness:

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  Africans forced to live in reserves
 Africans became squatters or became workers on farms or mines
 Managed to reduce competition between the white and black farmers in farming
[i].Not effective:
 Some Africans resisted eviction
 Some Africans able to purchase
 Africans continued to grow crops which they sold to settlers
 Settlers at first not really interested in agriculture.
] Nov 2004]
111 [a].List any six forms of ill-treatment of African mine workers by settlers in colonial
Zimbabwe between 1894 and 1932? [11]
 Paid very low wages
 Forced to live like prisoners in dirty, overcrowded and badly built accommodation
without lights
 Suffered from malnutrition as they were fed with bad and rotten food
 No system of medical treatment for mine workers
 Forced to work under the control of police/chibaro
 Many were killed or injured because they had no protective clothing
 No compensation for injuries
 Cheated or tricked so that they would not receive their salaries
 Sometimes they beaten by supervisors
 No pension schemes/terminal benefits
 No unions- outlawing of strikes
[b].What methods were used by the African mine workers to resist exploitation by
European settlers between 1894 and 1932.
 Fled from work places
 Cheated on passes –wrote on some of the passes even though they did not work
 Many people sold their cattle and grain in order to raise the taxes required
 Some left their homes to resist direct forced labour –e,g some fled to Mozambique
 Agents sent to look for labour were sometimes killed
 Burnt passes
 Machine breaking –sabotaging
 Accidentally injured their bosses
 Fled to work in South Africa mines
 Strikes and demonstrations
 Refusal to pay taxes
 Absenteeism/go slow
[c].Why did the African mine workers fail to achieve their objectives in this period? [8]
[i].failure to achieve objectives:
 Mine workers not united
 Mine workers were not educated/feared whites
 Forced to pay many taxes which forced them to work
 Africans had lost cattle and land hence had no means of survival

117
 [ii].The settler government also assisted the mine employers
 Mine owners had the support of police
 Use of passes forced black mine workers to work
 Use of passes by settler police
112 [a].List six results of the Ndebele/Shona Risings of 1896 to 1897 in colonial
Zimbabwe [6]
 Company introduced formal government
 Ndebele/Shona defeated
 Matabeleland and Mashonaland united into one area called Southern Rhodesia
 Africans stripped of all power
 Africans lost confidence and began to accept more western culture
 Southern Rhodesia became a British colony
 Most African leaders of the rising were hunted down and either killed or imprisoned
 The spirit of future African resistance was also sowed
[b].Describe the political and economic developments in Zimbabwe under company rule
between 1898 and 1923.
 1898 Orders In Council gave new constitution to the country
 Established an Executive Council, a legislative council, an Administrator and a
British resident
 Colonial rulers expanded control over the whole country e,g Police and Native
Commissioners
 Land division through the system of reserves for the whites
 1900 settlers given more say in the government
 1910 more elected members were added to Legislative Council
 System of franchise through qualification was introduced i,e 1898 vote given to
males over 21 earning 50 pounds or with property of 75 pounds; 1912 salary was 100
pounds and property of 150 pounds; 1919 white women got the vote
 1914 B.S.A Company rule was extended but settler began to call for its end
 1917 settlers formed the Responsible Government Association to call for responsible
Government
 1923 Britain granted the country Responsible Government
 Most land was brought under European control and large scale farming started
 Mining was introduced-Gold, coal, chrome, asbestos
 Led to development of a road and railway network
 In agriculture main crops were maize and tobacco. Cattle also played a part. Maize
and tobacco exported to South Africa.
 Land distributed to the settlers while Africans were deprived e,g by the Orders In
Council of 1920.
[c].Did the Africans benefit from these developments during this period? Explain your
answer. [8]
 Africans lost their country and political power to the whites they lost their wealth
when cattle were taken
 They were not included in the franchise
 They became economically dependent on the whites mainly as a labour force

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  They were ill-treated at work and underpaid; worked in harsh conditions in mines and
during the construction of railway lines
 They were introduced to the cash economy, but with little money on them
 They were taught new methods of farming and introduced to new crops
 Their mode of transport was improved though they stayed far from the main
roads/routes.
[Specimen]
113 [a]. List any six grievances of the African workers in colonial Zimbabwe between
1931 and 1953. [6]
 Forced labour
 Long working hours
 Low wages
 Poor accommodation
 Ill-treatment at work
 Lack of job security
 Racial discrimination at jobs
[b].What steps were taken by the settlers and their governments to exploit African
labour in colonial Zimbabwe between 1931 and 1953?
 1931 land apportionment act forced Africans to leave their land and drove them into
white-controlled areas to look for jobs
 Found jobs in mines, farms and factories
 1934 Industrial Conciliation Act, reserved high paying jobs for whites only
 Taxation i,e hut, dog taxes, forced Africans to go and look fro jobs
 A system of forced labour(Chibaro) was applied ruthlessly
 Whites used the compound system (komboni) to house many workers in a small place
to save on accommodation costs. Meant overcrowding and insanitary conditions
 Rhodesia Native Labour Recruitment Bureau- had authority to forcibly recruit African
labour and also import extra labour from Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique
 Individual white settlers evicted willy-nilly, Africans close to their newly acquired
farms, taking stray cattle, sheep, goats as punishment
 White also opened Domboshawa and Tsholotsho training centres with specific
purpose to create semi-skilled labour to serve the white employers.
[c].How effective were these steps in controlling Africans in colonial Zimbabwe during
this period?
 Government measures made sure Africans left their homes to go and work .Rural to
urban drift started, as young men became urban dwellers working in emerging
industries, retail shops, farms ,.and mines.
 Africans lost cattle, their basis for wealth, and they had to find alternative in the
labour market.
 African way of life was changed as families were separated, with husbands in the
urban areas while wives and children remained in the rural areas
 Africans who remained in expropriated land became squatters and had to work for the
new white owner or leave the place.
 Because of labour discrimination in salaries, Africans began to seek to improve
themselves in a bid to qualify for better paying jobs(i,e getting better education)

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  Africans were not blind to the idea of being exploited and often retaliated by
sabotaging the economy-striking ,machine breaking and deserting harsh companies
 Africans also took advantage and used their worker status and small wages to improve
themselves academically and socially and learn to politically challenge the whites.
[Nov 2005]
114 [a].Name any six resources which European settlers took from Africans in colonial
Zimbabwe. [6]
 Land for cultivation, grazing land , hunting grounds
 Trade routes/posts
 Minerals, iron ,gold copper
 Ivory
 Livestock, cattle, sheep and goats
 Grain or crops
 Crafts
 Labour
[b].Describe the economic developments which took place in colonial Zimbabwe up to
1923. [11]
 Land appropriation continued, reserves continuously created
 Settlers concentrated in gold mining at first
 BSAC invested heavily in the Railway projects- Mafeking to Bulawayo railway line
completed in 1897, extended to Wankie in 1903 and Livingstone in 1904.Bulawayo to
Salisbury railway line completed by 1902.Beira to Mutare 1897.
 By 1914, European farmers went in large scale production of Maize, tobacco and
beef.
 By 1900, BSAC took more land from the Africans
 1908 BSAC established a land bank
 Appointed agricultural experts to advise settlers on farming
 Introduction of forced labour
 Use of migrant labour
 Monetarisation of the economy
 Decline in African agriculture by 1920
 Technological improvements
 Coal mining began in Wankie in 1903
 Chrome mining started at Selukwe peak in 1906
 Development of infrastructure
 Asbestos mining started at Shabani in 1908
 Construction of banks
 Agriculture-forestry and citrus
[c].How far did these economic developments benefit Africans in colonial Zimbabwe up
to 1923.
[i] Benefits:
 Employment on mines and farms
 New farming techniques
 Improved mining
 Livestock vaccinated against many diseases

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  African farming enjoyed profits between 1898 and 1915.
[ii]Disadvantages:
Generally suffered economic oppression and exploitation.
 Loss of land
 Loss of livestock
 Forced labour was hard and dangerous especially in mines
 Workers’ living conditions were very poor
 Given low wages
[June 2006]
115 [a].Give any six results of the Shona Rising of 1896 to 1897 in colonial Zimbabwe.
[6]
 Shone were defeated
 Company introduced rule of law
 Matabeleland and Mashonaland united into Southern Rhodesia
 African rulers stripped of all powers
 Africans lost confidence in traditional religion
 Makoni captured at end of 1896
 Nehanda and Kaguvi tried and executed
 Attempts to restore Rozvi rule thwarted
 British involvement in government of colony increased
 Setting up of Shona reserves
 Spirit of African resistance sowed
 Completion of Beira- Mutare line
 Loss of lives
 Hunger and starvation.
 Poverty of the Shona people
 Destruction of property.
 Not allowed to build houses in kopjes
[b].Outline the political developments in Zimbabwe under BSAC rule from 1894 up to
1923. [11]
 1894 Order In Council gave Rhodes and Jameson freedom to rule Southern Rhodesia
at their expense on behalf of BSAC.
 Injustices and abuse of power by settlers was blamed by British government.
 A proper government was set up to make laws and these to be interpreted by law
courts
 1898 Southern Rhodesia order in council began the rule of law; it gave a new
constitution to the country.
 Southern Rhodesia became official name
 It established executive council, legislature, administrator and British resident.
 Control extended by use of police force and Native Commissioners
 A system of voting through property qualifications(only whites became voters)
 White women got vote in 1919
 Company rule extended in 1914 to 1923
 Responsible Government Association formed in 1917
 Responsible government granted by Britain in 1923

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  1923 constitution granted Britain right to approve laws affecting blacks only, a British
governor based at Salisbury
 Legislative council replaced by legislative assembly led by Prime Minster and
Cabinet
 Assembly had 30 members
 Elections to be held every 15years
 1896-7 risings
 Ndebele not allowed to choose another king to replace Lobengula
[c].How far did Africans benefit from these political developments in this period? [8]
[i]Benefits:
 Benefited from protection or law to some extent
 Britain reviewed laws affecting the Africans
[ii].Disadvantages:
 No vote was extended to Africans
 On farms and mines whites still largely beyond the law –ill-treated blacks
 To maximise gains profits were repatriated, Britain condoned laws restricting
movement of blacks, taxation. Such laws passed with British Approval.
[Nov 2006]
116 [a].Identify any six minerals produced in colonial Zimbabwe up to 1930. [6]
 Iron, Gold, Coal, Copper, Chrome, asbestos, Nickel, Tin.
[b].Describe the methods used by white settlers in colonial Zimbabwe to recruit labour
up to 1930.
 Recruitment of labour by agreement-targeted those willing to work. Africans
encouraged to work. Paid better wages.
 Forced labour –police used to round up men who worked for settlers by force. The
method was also used to get labour from neighbouring countries. Forced labourers
earned very little and usually worked on twelve month contracts.
 Whites refused to sign the passes
 Credit system[money deducted from salary]
 Squatters forced to work on the whites’ farms
 Taxation- people were forced to pay tax as a way to force them to work. Taxes were
to be in cash or labour. Failure to pay tax resulted in government confisticating
property such as cattle of the offender.
 Use of laws/legislation-e,g Masters’ and Servant Ordinance, Native Pass Ordinance.
Failure to produce passes would result in people being forced to work.
 False charges against Africans were also used to force Africans to work.
 Suppression of peasant agriculture so that they would not produce much, would end
up working in order to survive.
 Land of Africans was taken to force them to work. Forced to live in areas of low
rainfall and poor soils. Low production forced them to work.
[c].How did these methods affect the lives of Africans in colonial Zimbabwe at that
time? [8]

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 [i].Positive effects:
 Employment
 Gained new labour skills
 Able to pay taxes
 Unity among Africans
[ii].Negative effects
 Prostitution
 Social ills
 Theft
 Forced to work for low wages
 Separated families
 Oppression and exploitation
 Poor production of crops
 Loss of domestic animals
 Diseases in compounds.
[Nov 2007]
117 [a].List six aims of the Land Apportionment Act of 1930. [6]
 To avoid competition between African sand whites
 To create a pool of cheap labour
 To discriminate black farming areas and white farming areas
 To create arable land for white urban population
 To provide good transport to the Europeans
 To set aside national land for wild animals
 To reserve more land for the unborn white children
 By implication, to legalise land and stock theft
 To attract more white settlers
 To prevent Africans from uniting and rising against the whites.
[b].Outline the effects of the Land Apportionment Act of 1930. [11]
 Created cheap labour for whites in mines, farms and factories
 Zimbabwe divided along racial lines i,e Europeans rich soils and Africans poor
reserves
 Overcrowding in reserves and also overstocking
 Increased production of European agriculture compared to Africans placed in reserves
 Wages for Africans dropped especially in mines and farms
 Eviction became order of day from European assigned areas
 Whites reserved arable land for their unborn children- unassigned areas
 African cattle became weak and small due to lack of pastures
 Africans resettled far away from market centres and had no good transport network
 Many people migrated into urban areas
 It was illegal for Africans to buy land in European areas
 Reduced competition between blacks and whites .Europeans grew cash crops whilst
Africans practised subsistence farming
 Massive soil erosion
 Mass nationalism

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  Africans became squatters on white owned land.
 Two pyramid system
[c].Was the Land Apportionment Act fair to Africans? Explain your answer. [8]
[i].Fairness of L.A.A/Benefits.
 Some parts of Zimbabwe were preserved and saved from destruction by wanton fires
and tree cutting
 There was now land reserved for Africans which no whites could alienate/possess.
 Left Africans largely to their own cultural practices
 Game reserves were created to preserve animal life
 Africans purchased areas which they reserved for future use
[ii].Unfairness of L.A.A
 Unfair distribution of land (whites got plenty and fertile soils )
 It led to overcrowding and overstocking in reserves yet there was under utilised land
 It located Africans far from markets
 It did not allow Africans to buy land in white areas
 It turned blacks into workers exploited by whites.
[Nov 2007]
118 [a].List any six forms of ill-treatment of African farm and mine workers by settlers
in Southern Rhodesia between 1900 and 1950. [6]
 Poor working conditions
 Paid low wages
 Forced labour
 No pension schemes
 Overcrowded shanty towns
 Poor diet
 No health insurance
 beaten just before pay day to make them run away and leave their wage behind
 long working hours
 no leave days
 paid in kind
 inadequate protective clothes
 poor ventilation
[b].Describe the measures taken by the farm and mine workers to resist exploitation
during this period.
 Faked passes/altered passes
 Formation of trade unions
 Faked illness
 Some workers stole farm/mine produce
 Destruction of crops
 Destruction of machinery
 Abandoned work for South Africa
 Strike action e,g Shamva mine
 Roasted seeds
 Careless approach to work e,g fields were carelessly weeded
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  Absenteeism
 Broke machines/farm implements
 Gave employers nicknames warning to others e,g Pachayamatako/left signs on trees
–to potential employees
 Theft of livestock
 Desertions
 Workers organised accidents for the bosses
[c].Why were the African farm workers unable to solve their problems during this
period [8]
[i]Workers’ weaknesses
 Lack of unity
 Loss of land and cattle
 No trade unions
 Fear of the settlers
 Illiteracy
 Grinding poverty in the reserves
[ii].Other factors
 Forced to pay tax in cash
 Whites used force
 Absenteeism was punishable by forfeiting wage for two months
 Loss of wages
 Strikes were illegal
 Trade unions banned
 Deserters were imprisoned
 Use of force
 Lack of Government care and protective legislation.
[Nov 2008]
119 [a].Identify the early townships for Africans Workers in the following cities:
Harare; Bulawayo; Mutare; Gweru; Kadoma; Masvingo.
 Harare—Mbare, Mabvuku, Tafara; Mufakose; Highlands.
 Bulawayo—Makokoba; Luveve; Mpopoma ; Sizinda; Matshobane;
 Gweru-Mutapa; Senga; Mambo;
 Kadoma ---Rimuka.
 Masvingo-Mucheke.
 Mutare—Sakubva
[b].What methods were used by African industrial workers to solve their
grievances against white employers before 1950? [11]
 Boycotts-Men very careful on choice of mines to work in .Some mines with bad
safety records were boycotted. This means no one would work there
 Strike action –examples recorded: Wankie Collieries recorded strikes in 1912, 1919
and 1921.The Shamva Mine Strike of 1927 where 3500 workers downed tools for
better pay.
 Desertion.

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  Demonstration
 Stealing
 Faked illness
 Altered passes
 Injured supervisors
 Formed burial societies
 Absenteeism
 Sabotage –damaged machines, so as to undermine white profits and get time to rest
 Gave employers nicknames shayamatakho
 Formed African independent churches
 Hiding.
[c].To what extent had these grievances been addressed by 1950? [8]
[i].Benefits:
 Created conditions for stable labour by providing better housing, better educational
facilities and less official harassment about petty rules and regulations
 Living conditions and working conditions were improved
[ii].Limitations:
 To prevent an African proletariat fighting the conservative capitalists, they
encouraged the development of a buffer group- middle class of Africans.
 Used police to suppress strikes
 Some African trade were arrested and imprisoned.
 White continued to demand passes
 They passed harsher laws.
[Nov 2009]
120 [a].List any six crops grown at European farms in Southern Rhodesia between
1900 and 1953. [6].
 Maize; Tobacco; Wheat; Barley; cotton; Soya Beans;
 Grapes; Potatoes; Citrus; Sorghum; Groundnuts; Millet;
 Sugarcane ; Coffee; Tea; Rice; Sunflower
[b].What factors led to the development of European agriculture during the period
1900 to 1953?
 Availability of land –given at low fees by the government
 Cheap labour
 Establishment of the Estate Department in 1908
 Creation of the Department of Agriculture, and the setting of the Rhodesia
Agricultural Journal
 The setting up of the Land bank in 1912
 Various incentives given to whites e,g generous loans ,low prices of land
 Introduction of a number of taxes which forced Africans into wage labour ,so between
1918 and 1932 period of Great Depression ,European agriculture increased
 Laws/Acts used to assist whites into commercial agriculture e,g Land Apportionment
Act(1930), Maize Control Act(1931),and 1934, and Land Husbandry Act(1951),Cattle
Levy Act.

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  Government supplied financed and procured seeds, fertilisers and chemicals for white
farmers.
 Marketing boards set up to promote European agriculture e,g Tobacco Marketing
Board, Grain Marketing Board, Cotton Marketing Board, Tobacco Control Board, etc
 Increased demand for food in Europe after World War Two boosted European
agriculture
 Nearness to railway transport
 Contract farming
 Linked to major roads
 Research centres
[c].How far did the country benefit from the development of European agriculture?
[8]
[i]. Benefits:
 Country started exporting meat to South Africa; Belgian Congo; Germany and
Northern Rhodesia
 Self-sufficiency in food to feed people in towns ,mines and labour force
 During years of Great Depression country was not affected, because production of
crops on European farms increased
 Increased revenue
 Development of modern agriculture :-country became an agro- based economy
 Introduction of international varieties of cattle breeds e,g Hereford; Brahman and
Jersey
 Employment creation
 New skills were acquired
 Improved transport and communication
 Introduction of new crop varieties
 Construction of dams
[ii].Non Benefits:
 Exploitation of indigenous Africans as cheap labour
 Africans lost their lands
 Marginalisation of African agriculture
 African cattle taken
 Discrimination of the Africans
 African poverty- European agriculture centred on the export market
 Country became a source of raw agricultural produce and not finished or processed
goods- since European agriculture was export- centred
 Profit externalised to Europe
 Rise of bitter class conflict between the Africans and the Whites
 Introduction of migrant labour system leading to the disruption of the African
families.
(Nov 2010)
121 (a).Identify any six grievances of Africans in colonial Zimbabwe between
1897band 1923. [6]
 Forced labour

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  Low wages
 Loss of land ill-treatment by whites
 Forced to carry passes
 Unfair prices for agricultural produce
 Regarded as squatters by whites who occupied their land.
(b).Describe the methods used by the British South Africa Company to control Africans
up to 1923. [11]
 Use of force :police and military
 Legislation
 Use of local chiefs
 Farmers, traders used to control people
 Missionaries also controlled districts
 Compound system-farms, mines
 Used spies\informers
 Imprisonment
 Payment of taxes
 Magistrates
 District Administrators controlled districts.
[c].How far were Africans affected by these methods? [8]
Positive effects:
 Africans worked hard to be able to pay taxes
 Employment
 Enforced law and order
 Unity against unjust system
[ii]-Negative effects
 Less freedom
 Beaten and arrested
 Respect for chiefs now less
 Africans divided
 Forced employment.
[Nov 2010]
122.[a].List industries that employed Africans in colonial Zimbabwe before 1945. [6]
 Agriculture, Mining, Manufacturing,
 Construction, Electricity and water
 Commerce and Finance
 Transport and Communication
 Private domestic services.
[b]Outline the factors which made it difficult for African trade unions to achieve their
aims before 1945. [11]
 Trade unions not allowed to enter mining compounds to organise workers

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  No trade union for particular industries, so difficult to coordinate workers of different
industries
 Leaders of unions not able to articulate problems of different industries
 Union did not believe in organising strikes with the hope that peaceful means would
succeed
 Most workers were unskilled, so could easily be replaced if they were troublesome.
 Some workers were peasants who only worked to be able to pay taxes
 Workers were fragmented as industries were far apart.
 Forms of transport and communication were scarce at the time so leaders were not
mobile enough
 High illiteracy among African workers
 Early trade unions led by foreigners.
[c].Were the African trade unions to blame for failing to achieve their aims? [8]
Africans to blame:
 Less education so not able to effectively organise unions
 Failed to realise importance of strikes
 Lack o skills, so easily dispensable
 Working was part-time, so difficult to organise
Other factors:
 Employers were strict
 Not enough opportunities for education and training
 Threatened with dismissal.
[Nov 2011]

123 [a].State any six economic problems which the early BASC settlers faced in
Souhtern Rhodesia.
[6]

 Shortage of machinery, gold mining was unproductive ,Labour shortages

 Livestock diseases, Shortage of food, Africans withheld their goods
 Competition from African farmers, land quarrels with company officials
 Company heavily taxed early settlers

[b].Describe the system of forced labour in Southern Rhodesia before 1930.

[11]

 Failure of the Eldarado theory compelled settlers and the BSAC to focus on
agriculture
 Settlers and the B.S.A.C. required labour but this was difficult to get because locals
were unwilling to work for someone
 Company resolved to use forced labour
 Enforced labour provision by expropriating African land
 Also got labour by grabing African livestock, took African women and children
hostage to frce African men to look for work

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  Established the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau(RNLB) to recruit labour
 Settlers sent patrols to capture people for forced labour
 Chiefs contracted to supply labour and if they failed to do this, they were punished
 Introduced contractual labour e.g 12 months contract, introduced taxes, engaged
migrant labour
 Chibalo accounted for ½ the labour force used by settlers,monetarisation of the
economy e,g settlers stopped levying taxes in form of gods
 Enacted pass laws, introduced the compound system
 Used the credit system, labourerswere illtreated –beaten while at work, poorly paid,
worked long hours. Not given rations and also suffered poor living conditions –living
in dormitories and slums.

[c].How effective was the system of forced labour in the development of the country? [8]

Effectiveness of frced labour

 Half of mine and farm labour force was based on forced labour
 Forced labour was used to develop infrastructure e,g buildings,the tobacco industry
 Cheap labour gave farmers and miners large profit margins

Ineffectiveness of forced labour

 Absenteeism, strikes, nicknames to bosses as warning to others

 Chibaro workers feigned illness and this reduced production
 Sabotage was rife, caused marked losses, workers dam,aged machinery
 Chibaro workers usually wasteful wit hresources
 Chibaro encouraged resistance, frced labour also promoted racial discrimination and
hatred
 Caused accidents to bosses, desertion reduced production

[Nov 2011]

124 [a].List any six characteristics of the reserves for Africans in colonial Zimbabwe
before 1930. [6]

 Inhabitable, dry lands, hot lands, low rainfall areas, sandy soils
 Infertile lands, mosquito and tsetsefly infested areas
 Remote areas, far away from markets, roads and railway lines
 Mountaninous and rocky areas, overcrowded areas

[b].Ouline factors which enabled Africans in colonial Zimbabwe top expand their
agriculture before 1930.
[11]

 Initially settlers did not interfere with African agriculture

 Better, modern tools and methods of farming ,cash crop farming e,g tobacco, cotton
etc

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  Reduced tribal and clan rivalry e,g raiding ended , control of wild animals through
hunting by settlers
 Early settlers were a reliable market ,reasonable prices for agricultural produce
 Disruption of African traditional trade, most men joined their wives and children in
crop cultivation,most Africans preferd agriculture to working in whitemen’s farms
and mines
 Capitalist monetary economy, taxation, some Africans still controlled fertile lands.

[c].To what extent did settlers contribute to the expansion of African agriculture in
this period? [8]

Contribution of settlers

 Initial non involvement and inerference in agriculture, modern and better methods and
tools for farming
 Banning of raiding, control and hunting of wild animals
 Availability of markets in setters, reasonable prices, taxation, introduction of
monetary economy

Contribution of other factors

 African’s preference of agriculture to working in mine and industry, adequate rainfall

 Possessed a lot of cattle for draught power and trade,competition amongst Africans
 Availability of fertile solis
 Involvement of men in agriculture

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