Inverted Pyramid: Writing for Comprehension

Summary: Start content with the most important piece of

information so readers can get the main point, regardless of how
much they read. This style of writing is perfectly suited to writing
for the web.
In journalism, the inverted pyramid refers to a story structure
where the most important information (or what might even be
considered the conclusion) is presented first. The who, what,
when, where and why appear at the start of a story, followed by
supporting details and background information. This writing style
is different than, for example, academic writing, where an abstract
may summarize the main findings, but the content typically
focuses first on the details, leading to the conclusion which
appears at the end of the article.
The name “inverted pyramid” comes from picturing the broad
facts at the top of the story, followed by smaller and smaller
details, like a triangle balanced on one corner.
The writing style can be depicted as a triangle balanced on a
single point, representing the fact that content goes from the
broadest facts to the smaller details.
This writing style gets to the point quickly and supports all types
of readers. Even those who have the time or inclination to read
only a single paragraph, or even single sentence will still know
what the story is about. The inverted pyramid also helps editors
when they need to cut a piece at a certain length to fit a
publication: if the paragraphs get less and less important as you
advance in the article, the article can easily be trimmed at
practically any point.
Benefits of the Inverted-Pyramid Style for Web Writing
The inverted pyramid is perfectly suited for the web - on any
screen size. We know that users don’t read carefully online. They
have little patience for content that doesn’t engage them. Users
scroll, but only when they think that the content they want or need
will appear on that page. The inverted pyramid style addresses all
of these aspects of user behavior.
Using the inverted pyramid style can:
 Improve comprehension: Users can quickly form a mental
model and a general understanding of the article, making it
easier to understand the details that follow.
 Decrease interaction cost: Users can understand the main
point of the page without having to spend a lot of time
reading.
  Encourage scrolling: This structure can encourage scrolling
by engaging the audience with the main point, and drawing
them in to the details that follow.
 Structure content logically: Starting with broad information
sets the stage for what follows. Elements like anchor or jump
links can become unnecessary when content is structured to
draw the user down the page.
 Support readers who skim: Readers can stop reading at any
point on the page and still come away with the main point.
How to Write in the Inverted Pyramid Style
1. Identify your key points. What piece of information is the
key fact you want your readers to know, even if they only
read a single paragraph or sentence on the page? What
effectively summarizes all the information that will follow?
2. Rank secondary information. Outline the story details and
supporting information, prioritizing the information that is
most likely to be of interest to the broadest audience, and
moving down the list to the smaller and more nuanced details.
3. Write well and concisely. The structure only helps readers if

the content is strong. Cut unnecessary information. Get to the

point quickly. Use straightforward language. Use short
paragraphs and bulleted lists.
4. Frontload all elements of content with important
information. The main headline should be descriptive. The
story should start with the main point. Each heading or
subheading should be descriptive. The first sentence of every
 paragraph should be the most important. The first words in
each sentence should be information-carrying and indicate
what content will follow.
5. Consider adding a summary or list of highlights. Some
sites go a step beyond and add a summary (like this article
does) or a bulleted list of key points to further emphasize the
main takeaways of the content.
Conclusion
The inverted-pyramid style matches how web users read content.
Using this style on the web, whether for B2B service descriptions,
ecommerce product descriptions or company or world news, helps
engage and inform users effectively.
INVESTIGATION REPORTING
Making findings
The panel is tasked with making findings of fact and it is crucial that the
panel concludes its investigation and its report with clear findings or a
conclusion that the evidence did not permit the panel to make findings of
fact. These conclusions must be based on the evidence the panel has
found in the course of its investigation: the documents, the statements etc.
The investigation report must explain how the panel came to its findings.
There are essentially three findings that the panel will need to make in
relation to each of the incidents/events under investigation: 

 There is no evidence to substantiate the allegations, meaning that the

panel can say that the incidents did not happen
 There is insufficient evidence to substantiate the allegations,
meaning that the panel cannot say whether the incidents did or did
not happen
 There is sufficient evidence to substantiate the allegations, meaning
that the panel can say that the incidents happened
Assessing credibility
In some cases, the findings of fact will depend on the credibility of the
witnesses. Determining the credibility of a witness’s testimony must be
based on objective criteria. Here are some factors a panel may use to
assess credibility:

 any internal inconsistencies or inconsistencies with other statements

made by the witness, taking account of whether the inconsistencies
are on a material point
  whether the facts proffered as true by the witness are supported by
the evidence, in particular any documentary evidence. Consideration
can also be given to the inherent probability of the account (i.e. does
the account require the panel to assume facts that are unlikely)
 the demeanour of the witness however remain mindful that an
inability to recollect may not indicate lack of truthfulness, in contrast
to a deliberate attempt to avoid answering direct questions,
answering without any clarity, responding with evasiveness, or lack
of responsiveness.
 the extent of the capacity of the witness to perceive, to recollect or to
communicate the matters about which they are providing an account
 the witnesses’ ability to observe what they state they observed (were
they actually present, are they in a position to know what they say
they know, were they paying attention)
 the existence or nonexistence of a bias, interest or other motive
 any admission of untruthfulness.
The panel should assess witnesses’ evidence, using the factors above.
Ultimately, the panel will make an assessment as to their credibility and
therefore which account is credible. Corroborative statements made by a
complainant to others after an incident can be relevant.
Assessing evidence
When assessing the evidence, it is important for the panel to distinguish
between direct and circumstantial evidence. All this evidence is relevant,
but not all evidence has the same weight.

 Direct evidence is, as it suggests, direct. If I saw Fatima shout at and

insult Adrian, that is direct evidence of the fact that Fatima insulted
Adrian.
  Circumstantial evidence is evidence that supports a fact. If Maria
saw Adrian run and cry immediately after his meeting with Fatima,
that is circumstantial evidence which may support a conclusion that
Fatima did shout at and insult Adrian. In this case, this evidence is
corroborative evidence of the central allegation.
Hearsay evidence may be corroborative and is evidence of what a witness
heard others say: Sergio told Donough that he saw Sane at a restaurant
last Wednesday with a colleague. Donough has no direct evidence of
what Sane was doing last Wednesday; he can only give hearsay evidence
of what Sergio told him. Hearsay evidence may be considered by a panel
in the context of investigations of possible misconduct, but will have
limited probative value on its own. However, it may open new lines of
inquiry; in the example, the panel may want to interview Sergio to obtain
Sergio’s direct evidence.
Drawing adverse inferences
Adverse inferences may be drawn from a failure to cooperate or an
evasive response to questions.
Relevant provisions:

 ST/AI/2017/1: 6.2, 6.18

Standard of proof
Whether the evidence is sufficient to meet the requisite standard of proof
at the end of a disciplinary process is ultimately a decision of the Under-
Secretary-General for Management Strategy, Policy and Compliance. In
cases where separation or dismissal is a possible outcome, the evidence
must be clear and convincing, that is, the truth of the facts is highly
probable.  For any other disciplinary measure, the preponderance of the
evidence is required (more likely than not that the facts and circumstances
underlying the misconduct exist or have occurred).
Panels should not reference the burden of proof in making its findings,
and the assessment of sufficiency is for those who must take action on the
basis of the panel’s investigation. Instead, the panel must ensure that it
explains the evidence that it relies upon in making its findings of fact.
Relevant provisions:

 ST/AI/2017/1: 9.1
Reaching conclusions and disagreement among panel members
The panel must submit a report as the final product of the investigation.
The report is based on the evidence gathered during the investigation.
Disagreement amongst panel members can occur and can even persist
until the end of the investigation. If the panel cannot eliminate
disagreement through discussions, the disagreement should be reflected in
the findings and conclusions. The disagreement may also be documented
in more detail in a separate note-to-file.
Drafting the report 
The report is an official UN document and may become part of a
subsequent internal process. It should, therefore, be:

 Factually correct
 Impartial and objective
 Concise, clear and complete
 Logically organized
Top tips:
  Write in short and direct sentences
 Write in the active voice (e.g. “she instructed him to…” rather than
“he was instructed by her to …”)
 Use concise headings and subheadings to guide the reader
 Check grammar and spelling
 When setting out a fact, footnote the sources of evidence supporting
that fact
 If helpful, use images and charts
 Give documents a number so they are easier to refer to in the panel’s
report
 Label interview statements using initials, page numbers and/or line
numbering so it is easy for the reader to find the original statement
 Avoid moral, cultural, psychological analysis or speculation
 Check the alleged offender has had a chance to respond to facts the
panel is relying on in support of adverse findings against them
The exact structure of the report is for each panel to determine but every
report should ensure:

 It addresses all issues contained in the Terms of Reference with

factual statements supported by relevant evidence. This means each
factual statement is based on a piece of evidence referenced (usually
in footnotes).
 It contains consideration of any exculpatory evidence discovered
during the investigation.
 It refers to all written witness interviews/signed statements with
annexes/attachments and any other documents or records relevant to
the claimed prohibited conduct
 It includes the panel’s conclusions and an explanation of how these
conclusions were reached.
More tips on drafting reports are in the templates section, as well as a
checklist and a template report: see Templates 5.01 - Report Writing
Checklist, 5.02 - Report Writing Guide and 5.03 - Prohibited Conduct:
Panel Report Template.
The report should neither raise unanswered questions nor leave matters
open to interpretation.
A suggested structure would be to:

 First outline the terms of reference (this helps focus the report: what
exactly was being investigated)
 Set out the rules, norms relevant to the investigation (e.g. the
prescribed definition of harassment)
 Then succinctly explain the steps taken to gather evidence (who was
interviewed when, what documents were obtained etc.)
 Taking each allegation in turn, set out the evidence gathered (going
at this point into more detail on what evidence was obtained)
 Separately have a section containing the panel’s findings, setting out
the analysis and the conclusions reached in relation to each
allegation.
Once the report is completed
The investigation report and case file should be submitted to the
responsible official. It is possible that, due to the complexity of the case,
or for reasons beyond the panel’s expectations, the investigation is
delayed. The panel must make sure to keep a record of the reasons that
delay the investigation.
The panel members should remain available to explain the investigation
procedure and findings of fact, provide clarifications and additional fact-
finding where necessary, and possibly provide testimony in any legal
process that may follow.
The panel should not communicate the outcome of the investigation, or
the investigation findings, to the alleged offender or affected individual.
The appropriate communication will take place at a later stage depending
on what action is taken on the basis of the evidence contained in the
investigation report.