PAPER ASSIGNMENT

MODERN PHYSICS

“Atomic Stucture”

Group 6

MELIANA ECLESIA MANURUNG (4172121028)

NONI PRINCE JAWAK ()

FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCE

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN

2019
 In the universe there are several constituent particles of an element that we cannot see
and feel its presence but do exist. In arranging this element, there are many supporting particles
which are very small in size and cannot be seen with the naked eye or can be seen without the aid
of tools to see small objects.

Definition of Atom

The word atom is derived from the Greek "Atomos" which means it cannot be divided.
All material in this world has a very small part, so if the part is divided again, then there is the
smallest part that cannot be divided again, that is what is also called an atom.

Atom is a constituent of the smallest matter of all existing matter. This atom consists of a
nucleus (nucleus), and is surrounded by electrons which have a negative charge. In the nucleus
of this atom there are protons that are positively charged and neutrons which have no charge
(neutral).This atom has a diameter of around 6-30 nm. Particles such as protons, neutrons and
electrons are also bound to atoms because of an electromagnetic force. Because of the
electromagnetic force, atoms can join together with other atoms so that they can form a
molecule. Until now, there has not been a single tool or technology that can see an atom.

Definition of Atom According to Experts

1. Leucipus and Democritus said that the atom is the smallest part of a material that cannot
be divided into certain parts. This atom is a constituent of all matter that exists in this
world.
2. John Dalton said that the atom is a smallest particle than a substance that can not be
broken down again into smaller particles through ordinary chemical reactions.
3. Joseph John Thompson argues that the atom is a positively charged sphere surrounded by
electrons like raisin bread.
4. Ernest Rutherford believes that an atom is a particle consisting of neutrons and protons
and surrounded by electrons.
5. Demokritos argues that the atom is a collection of small particles in large quantities and
then clings and arranges almost all the material that exists in the universe. In other words,
this theory states that matter exists on earth and its contents are part of the atomic
element.
6. J. Desaulx is a physicist from Jean Perrin. He has conducted experiments on the mass of
the atom and also expressed his opinion about the atomic theory by using experiments
from Einstein's work which was then directly used to test the magnitude of the mass and
atoms at a cathode.
7. Lavoisier in 1789 Lavoiser put forward the notion of an atom in terms of an element
which is one of the basic ingredients which has the ability that cannot be divided even
though it is analyzed using chemical methods.
8. Robert Boyle according to Robert Boyle in 1661 he put forward the notion of atoms by
launching a book called "The Sceptical Chymist". In his book which contains the theory
of atoms where the world and its contents (the material contained therein) is the result of
the formation of a combination of a variety of different atoms.
9. Stern Gerlach's atomic theory continued to develop until in 1922, a scientist named Stern
Gerlach expressed his opinion about the understanding of an atom from the results of his
research proving that these atoms have properties that are incomplete. through a magnetic
field which then the data or object is moved separately to form a spin angle and the result
is that the beam is moving to spread erratically which can produce conclusions depending
on the spin of the atom across whether up or down. There is an emphasis that must be
understood by everyone that This atom cannot be divided anymore which means that the
atom can still be divided like an oxygen atom separated from proton, neutron and
electron elementary particles which are not an atom anymore, but have become ions. That
is, if the atom is separated by When a substance or particle is based, then the substance
cannot be said to be an atom anymore, it has become an ion.
10. Bohr argues from a failure of the Rutherford theory, inviting a scientist named Bohr to try
to complement and correct the weak side of the previous theory with three conditions,
namely:
 The first determination is about the rotation made by electrons which surround the
nucleus as stationary path.
 The second rule says that these electrons have the ability to move from one path
to another in accordance with the existing rotation.
 The paths that are allowed by electrons are those which have angular momentum
multiple of a round.
History of the Discovery of the Atom

The history of the discovery of atoms began when John Dalton initiated a theory of atoms
in 1803. Then, there were several studies that could support the atomic theory put forward by
John Dalton, such as Michael Faraday who discovered the theory of the breakdown of a
molecule using electrolysis in 1832, and J. Plucker who was able to find the cathode tube in
1839.

Then it was followed by Dmitri Mendelev's discovery of the periodic law in 1869, then
John C. Maxwell in 1873 who conducted research on an electric and electric field. After that
there was Sir Willian Crookes who in 1870 through an experimental study found that an electron
has a certain mass through a cathode ray shooting experiment.

Then there's another study from E.Goldstein that found positively charged protons. Then
G.J Stoney who managed to find a constituent of particles with negatively charged atoms,
electrons. And then a study by Wilhelm Roentgen who discovered X-Ray.

Rutherford also later made a hypothesis based on his research that said that there was an
atomic nucleus other than protons that maintained the balance of the atom. Rutherford's
hypothesis can then be proven by James Chadwik in 1932 by finding neutral-charged atomic
particles called neutrons.

Atomic Theory

Atomic theories are always experiencing developments from time to time in accordance
with new discoveries discovered by experts. The theory of the atom has begun since the century
BC. A Greek philosopher named Democritus also believes that a material is discontinuous, if the
material is divided continuously, then it will get a part that cannot be divided again. That part is
called an atom.

 
1. Dalton's Atomic Theory
This theory was presented by John Dalton in 1803 AD He argues that based on
two laws taken, namely the law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier) and the law of
permanent arrangement (law of Prouts). In the law of conservation of mass, this lavosier
says that "the total mass of substances before the reaction is the same as the total mass of
the substances produced by the reaction".
Likewise with the fixed arrangement law, Prouts argues that "the mass ratio of the
elements in a compound is always fixed". From these two laws, Dalton draws his
conclusions:
Atom is the smallest part of matter that cannot be divided anymore. This atom is
shaped like a small solid ball which is very small. An atom has elements that have
identical and different atoms with different elements. These atoms if joined together will
form a compound with a ratio of integers and simple. Chemical reaction is a separation or
merging or rearrangement of atoms, so that atoms cannot be created or destroyed.

Pros: Can begin to arouse interest in research on atomic models

Strengths: Starting to generate interest in research on atomic models

 Weaknesses: Dalton's atomic theory cannot explain that a solution can conduct an electric
current. How could a solid ball be able to conduct an electric current, even though
electricity is an electron that moves. Means there is another particle that can conduct an
electric current.

2. Thomson's Theory of Atoms

This theory was also put forward by Joseph John Thomson. Starting from the
discovery of a cathode tube by William Crooker, then Thompson then researched more
about cathode rays. He discovered that a cathode ray is a particle, because this ray can
rotate a propeller placed between the cathode and anode. From this result he was able to
draw the conclusion that the cathode ray is a constituent of particles with negatively
charged atoms and hereinafter referred to as electrons.
Furthermore, he argues that the atom is a neutral particle, because electrons are
negatively charged. Then there must be another particle that is able to counteract this,
namely positive particles. Thomson's atomic theory reads "Atom is a particle shaped like
a solid ball with a positive charge, and in it a negative charge is spread". This atomic ball
can be fed like a guava peeled off. The electrons in an atom are exactly like guava seeds
that are spread evenly inside a guava. Thompson's theory has corrected the weaknesses of
Dalton's atomic theory.

Strength: Proves that there are other negatively charged particles in the atom. This means
that the atom is not the smallest part of an element.
 Weaknesses: Thomson's model cannot explain the arrangement of positive and negative
charges in the atomic sphere.

3. Rutherford's Atomic Theory

Rutherford was assisted by two of his students, Hans Geigerden and Erners
Masreden who conducted an experiment known as alpha light scattering on a thin gold
plate. Before this experiment was carried out, an alpha particle that was positive and
moving straight, was large and translucent in nature, so that it could penetrate thin sheets
of gold.
From the results of this study, they found that when alpha rays are fired into the
thin slab of gold, then some alpha particles will be continued (although there is an
angular deviation of less than 1`), but from Marsden's observations it was found that one
in 20,000 alpha particles will turn with angle of 90` or even more.
So, conclusions can be drawn namely:
 This atom is not a solid ball, because almost all alpha particles are passed
on.
 If the gold plate is considered to be a layer of gold atoms, then in the gold
atom we get very small particles with positive charges.
 The positive particle is a particle making up the nucleus, and the size of
the nucleus is 10,000 times smaller than the size of the atom.
 Strengths: Can hypothesize that atoms are made up of nuclei and electrons that surround
the nucleus. Rutherford's theory that these electrons surround the nucleus of the atom
which provided inspiration for the next new discovery that is about the path or position of
the electron, hereinafter known as the electron shell.

Weaknesses: Cannot explain why these electrons do not fall into the nucleus. Based on
the theory of motion, if the electrons that move around the nucleus are accompanied by
radiating energy, the electron energy will eventually decrease and the path will
increasingly approach the nucleus and fall into the nucleus.

4. Bohr's Atomic Theory

In 1913, a physicist named Neils Bohr attempted to refine the theory put forward
by Rutherford. He also conducted an experiment known as the hydrogen atom spectrum.
In this experiment, he managed to find a picture of how the state of electrons occupying
the nucleus of the atom. Bohr's theory combines the theory of quantum mechanics
discovered by Planck with the theory of Rutherford put forward by Rutherford.
Then, Bohr also revealed his four postulates, namely:
  Only a certain set of orbits is allowed for one electron in one hydrogen
atom. This orbit is also known as a stationary (settled) electron orbit and is
a circular path around the nucleus.
 As long as these electrons are in the stationary path, the energy of the
electrons will remain so that no energy in the form of radiation is emitted
or absorbed.
 These electrons can move from one stationary path to another stationary
path. This transfer will also consume an energy according to the Plank
equation E2-E1 = hf.
 This permissible stationary path has a magnitude of certain properties,
especially one called angular momentum.

Bohr also revealed that an electron surrounds the nucleus at certain paths called
electron shells or energy shells. The lowest energy level is the innermost electron shell,
and the greater the skin number, the greater the energy level.

Strength: The Bohr atom is an atom made up of several shells for the electrons to move.

Weaknesses: This atomic model is unable to explain the Zeeman effect and the Strack
effect.