NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Nervous system is the most complex system of the human body

• Responsible for voluntary as well as involuntary activities

• Microscopic nerve cells (neurons) collected into macroscopic bundles called nerves carry
electrical messages all over the body

• External or internal stimuli activate the cell membrane of the nerve cells to release stored
electrical energy within the cells.

• This energy passed through the length of the nerve is called nerve impulse.

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous
System

Central Nervous Peripheral

System Nervous System

Spinal Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves Autonomic

Brain (12 pairs) (31 pairs) Nerves
Cord

Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Nerves Nerves

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Consists of brain and spinal cord

BRAIN

• Controls body activities and weighs about 3 pounds

• Cerebrum – largest part of the brain (thinking area)

1. Cerebral cortex – sheets of nerve cells on the surface of the cerebrum

2. Gyri – sheets of nerve cells arranged in folds

3. Sulci – grooves that separate the gyri

4. Cerebral hemispheres – brain is divided in half, right and left called cerebral hemispheres
- subdivided into four major lobes, frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal.

5. Ventricles – spaces or canals in the middle of the cerebrum.

- produce and contain a watery fluid that flows throughout the brain and around the spinal cord,
called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
- CSF acts like a cushion in protecting the brain and spinal cord

6. Other important part of the brain are called thalamus and hypothalamus.

7. Structures that lie below the cerebrum and connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord,
a. cerebellum
b. pons
c. medulla oblangata

8. Pons and medulla oblangata are collectively called brain stem

9. Connects the spinal cord with the rest of the brain.

10. Medulla Oblangata:

Contains 3 important vital centers that regulate internal activities of the body.
1. Respiratory center - controls muscles of respiration in response to chemicals or other stimuli
2. Cardiac center - slows the heart rate when the heart is beating rapidly
 3. Vasomotor center - constricts or dilates the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels, thus
influencing the blood pressure

FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN:

 Cerebrum •Thinking, personality, sensations, movements, memory

•Relay station (“triage center”) for sensory impulses

Thalamus •Controls awareness and consciousness

•Body temperature, sleep, appetite, emotions, control of

the pituitary gland
Hypothalamus •Integrates the activities of sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system

Cerebellum •Co-ordination of voluntary movements and balance

•Connection of nerves from cerebellum and cerebrum to the rest

Pons of the brain
•Contains the nerves of the eye and face

Medulla •Nerve fibers cross over, left to right and right to left
•Contains centers to regulate heart, blood vessels and respiratory
oblongata system

SPINAL CORD
 • Column of nervous tissue extending from the medulla oblongata to the second lumbar vertebra
within the vertebral column.

• Below the spinal cord is the fan of nerve fibers called cauda equina.

• Pathway for impulses going to and from the brain

• Inner region contains cell bodies (grey matter) and outer region contain nerve fibers (white
matter)

Meninges

• Three layers of connective tissue membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord.

• Dura mater: outer, thick, tough membrane

- contains channels called dural sinuses that has blood
- sub dural space lies beneath the dura mater

• Arachnoid membrane: loosely attached to other membranes

-sub arachnoid space contains CSF

• Pia mater: lies closest to the brain and spinal cord

- contains delicate connective tissue with a rich supply of blood vessels.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

• Consists of the cranial nerves, spinal nerves and autonomic nerves

CRANIAL NERVES

• Carry impulses between the brain, head and neck

• Except the vagus nerve, which carries messages to and from the neck, chest and abdomen.
SPINAL NERVES

• Spinal Nerves carry messages between the spinal cord and the chest, abdomen and extremities.

PLEXUS:

• A plexus is a large network of nerves in the peripheral nervous system.

• Examples are cervical, brachial and lumbosacral plexus.

SENSORY AND MOTOR NERVES:

• Spinal nerves and cranial nerves are composed of nerves that help the body respond to changes
in the outside world.

• They have sense receptors for sight (eye), hearing and balance (ear), smell (olfactory) and touch
(skin sensation)

• Sensory (afferent) nerves carry messages from the receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

• Motor (efferent) nerves travel from the brain and spinal cord to muscles of the body, to make
them respond.

Touch a hot stove

Temperature and pain receptors in the skin

stimulates the afferent nerves

Afferent nerves carry the message to the brain and

spinal cord

Message is conveyed to the efferent nerve cells in

the spinal cord

Efferent nerves activates the voluntary muscles to

pull your hand away from the stove

AUTONOMIC NERVES:

• Part of the peripheral nervous system

• Large group of nerve cells that function automatically or involuntarily, without conscious
control.

• Carries impulses AWAY from the CNS to the glands, heart, blood vessels, and involuntary
muscles found in the walls of the internal viscera.

• Autonomic nerves are either sympathetic or parasympathetic

• Sympathetic nerves stimulate the body in terms of crisis and stress.

• Parasympathetic nerves act as a balance for the sympathetic nerves.

SYMPATHETIC STIMULATION PARASYMPATHETIC STIMULATION

 Pupils dilated Pupils constricted
Salivation inhibited Salivation stimulated
Increase respiration Decreased respiration
Bronchial passages dilated Bronchial passages constricted
Increased heart rate Decreased heart rate
Secretion of adrenal hormones
Increased secretion by sweat glands
Hair follicles raised: goose bumps
Digestion inhibited Digestion stimulated
Bladder sphincter relaxed Bladder sphincter contracted

NEURONS

• Neurons: individual nerve cell, a microscopic structure.

- impulses pass along the parts of a nerve cell in a definite manner and direction.

• Dendrites: branching fibers of the neuron where the stimulus begins an impulse.
- electrical charge in the dendrite membranes changes and the impulse moves along the
dendrites.

• Cell body: the impulses from the dendrites reaches the cell body which contains the nucleus
- small collection of nerve cell bodies outside the brain and spinal cord are called ganglia
(singular: ganglion)

• Axon: extending from the cell body is the axon

- carries the impulses away from the cell body
 - covered with the fatty tissue called myelin sheath.
- myelin sheath insulates the axon and the speed transmission of the electrical impulse.
- myelin sheath gives the white appearance to the nerve fiber (white matter)
- cell bodies are not white as there is no myelin sheath (grey matter – e.g., spinal cord)

• The impulse passes through the axon to leave the cell via the terminal end fibers of the neuron.

• Synapse: the space where the nerve impulse jumps from one neuron to another.

• Neurotransmitter: the transfer of the impulse cross the synapse depends on the release of a
chemical substance called a neurotransmitter, by the neuron that brings the impulse to the
synapse.
- tiny sacs (vesicles) containing the NT are located at the ends of the neuron and they release
the NT into the synapse.
NT: acetyl choline, norepinephrine, epinephrine, adrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, endorphin

NERVES

• Nerve is the macroscopic structure, able to be seen with the naked eye.
 • Consists of a bundle of dendrites and axons that travel together like strands of rope.

• Afferent or sensory nerves : peripheral nerves that carry impulses to the brain and spinal cord
from stimulus receptors like the skin, eye, ear and nose.

• Efferent or motor nerves: carry impulse from the CNS to organs that produce responses
(muscles or glands)

PARENCHYMA Vs STROMA

• Parenchyma is the essential distinguishing tissue of an organ.

• Stroma is the connective non essential tissue of an organ.

• Neurons and nerves are the parenchyma of the nervous system.

• Glial or neuroglial cells is the stromal tissue of the nervous system.

GLIAL CELLS

• Stromal tissue of the nervous system

• Supportive frame work and ward off infection

• Do not transmit impulses

• Far more numerous than neurons

• Can reproduce

• Four types of glial cells

1. astrocytes (astroglial cells)
2. microglial cells
3. oligodendroglial cells (oligodendrocytes)
4. ependymal cells

• Astrocytes – star like appearance

- transports water and salts between capillaries and neurons

• Microglial cells – small cells with many branching process (dendrites)

- protects neurons in response to inflammation

• Oligodendroglial cells – have few dendrites

- forms the myelin sheath in the CNS

• Ependymal cells – lines membranes within the brain and spinal cord where CSF circulates
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER

• Glial cells, particularly astrocytes regulate the passage of potentially harmful substance from the
blood into the nerve cells of the brain.

• Protective barrier between the blood and the brain is called blood brain barrier.

NEUROLOGIC DISORDERS

Neurologic disorders can be classified into the following categories,

1. Congenital

2. Neoplastic

3. Degenerative, movement, seizure

4. Traumatic

5. Infectious

6. Vascular

CONGENITAL DISORDERS DESCRIPTION

Hydrocephalus Abnormal accumulation of fluid (CSF) in the brain
Spina bifida Congenital defects in the lumbar spinal column caused by imperfect
union of vertebral parts (neural tube defect)
DEGENERATIVE, MOVEMENT DESCRIPTION
AND SEIZURE DISORDERS
Alzheimer disease (AD) Brain disorder marked by gradual and progressive mental
deterioration (dementia), personality changes, and impairment of
daily functioning
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Degenerative disorder of motor neurons in the spinal cord and
(ALS) brainstem
Epilepsy Chronic brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizure activity
Huntington disease Hereditary disorder marked by degenerative changes in the cerebrum
leading to abrupt involuntary movements and mental deterioration
Multiple sclerosis (MS) Destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS and its
replacement
Myasthenia gravis (MG) Autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness of
voluntary muscles
Palsy Paralysis (partial or complete loss of motor function)
Parkinson disease Degeneration of neurons in the basal ganglia, occurring in later life
(parkinsonism) and leading to tremors, weakness of muscles and slowness of
movement
Tourette syndrome Involuntary, spasmodic, twitching movements, uncontrollable vocal
sounds and inappropriate words
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS DESCRIPTION
Herpes zoster (shingles) Viral infection affecting peripheral nerves
Meningitis Inflammation of the meninges: leptomeningitis
Human immunodeficiency virus Brain disease and dementia occurring with AIDS
(HIV) encephalopathy
NEOPLASTIC DISORDERS DESCRIPTION
Brain tumor Abnormal growth of brain tissue and meninges
TRAUMATIC DISORDERS DESCRIPTION
Cerebral concussion Temporary brain dysfunction (brief loss of consciousness) after injury,
usually clearing within 24 hours
Cerebral contusion Bruising of brain tissue as a result of direct trauma to the head:
neurologic deficits persist longer than 24 hours
VASCULAR DISORDERS DESCRIPTION
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) Disruption in the normal blood supply to the brain: stroke
Migraine Severe, recurring, unilateral, vascular headache
LABORATORY TESTS DESCRIPTION
Cerebrospinal fluid analysis Samples of CSF are examined
X-RAY TESTS DESCRIPTION
Cerebral angiography X-ray imaging of the arterial blood vessel in the brain after injection of
contrast material
Computed tomography of the X-ray technique that generates computerized multiple images of the
brain brain and spinal cord
Myelography X-ray imaging of the spinal canal after injection of contrast medium
into the subarachnoid space
MAGNETIC RESONANCE DESCRIPTION
TECHNIQUE
MRI Magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy create images of the
brain and spinal cord
RADIONUCLIDE STUDIES DESCRIPTION
Positron emission tomography Radioactive glucose is injected and then detected in the brain to
(PET) scan image the metabolic activity of cells
ULTRASOUND EXAMINATION DESCRIPTION
Doppler ultrasound studies Sound waves detect blood flow in the carotid and intracranial arteries
OTHER PROCEDURES DESCRIPTION
Electroencephalography (EEG) Recording of the electrical activity of the brain
Lumbar puncture (LP) CSF is withdrawn from between two lumbar vertebrae for analysis
Stereotactic radiosurgery Use of a specialized instrument to locate and treat targets in the brain

EXERCISE:

I MATCH THE FOLLOWING

Neurologic structures Description

Astrocyte Microscopic fiber leading from the cell body that carries the nervous
impulse along a nerve cell
Axon Large, interacting network of nerves
Cauda equine Three protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord
Cerebral cortex Microscopic branching fiber of a nerve cell that is the first part to receive
the nervous impulse
Dendrite Outer region of the largest part of the brain, composed of gray matter
Meninges Glial cell that transports water and salts between capillaries and nerve cells
Myelin sheath Glial cells that produced myelin
Neuron A nerve cell that transmits a nerve impulse
Oligodendroglial cell Collection of spinal nerves below the end of the spinal cord at the level of
the second lumbar vertebra
Plexus Fatty tissue that surrounds the axon of a nerve cell

II MATCH THE FOLLOWING

ABBREVIATIONS DESCRIPTION
EEG Gradually progressive dementia
PET Stroke; embolus, hemorrhage, or thrombosis are etiologic factors
AFP Intrathecal medications can be administered through the procedure
MS This fluid is analyzed for abnormal blood cells, chemicals and protein
MRI Procedure to diagnose abnormal electrical activity in the brain
LP Neurologic symptoms and/or signs due to temporary interference of blood
supply to the brain
CVA High levels in amniotic fluid and maternal blood are associated with spina
bifida
AD Diagnostic procedure that allows excellent visualization of soft tissue in the
brain
TIA Radioactive materials, such as glucose are taken up by the brain and images
recorded
CSF Destruction of the myelin sheath in the CNS occurs with plaques of hard scar
tissue

III MATCH THE FOLLOWING TERMS WITH THEIR MEANINS

TERMS MEANINGS
1. Apraxia lack of nerve strength
2. Ataxia inability to speak
3. Aphasia Inability to perform purposeful actions
4. Dyslexia Condition of insensitivity to pain
5. Neurasthenia Condition of loss of sensation
6. Anesthesia Sensation of tingling, numbness, or pins and
needles
7. Analgesia Lack of coordination
8. Paresthesia Excessive movement
9. Hyperkinesias Abnormal, involuntary, spasmodic movements
10. Dyskinesia Reading, writing and learning disorders
11. Paresis Partial paralysis

IV COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TERMS BASED ON THEIR MEANINGS

1. Part of the brain that controls sleep, appetite, temperature, and secretions of the pituitary
gland: hypo----------------
2. Pertaining to fainting: syn-------------------
3. Abnormal tingling sensations: par---------------------
4. Slight paralysis: par--------------------------
5. Inflammation of a spinal nerve root: --------------------it is
6. Inability to speak: a-------------------------
7. Movement and behavior that are not purposeful: a----------------------
8. Lack of muscular coordination: a--------------------
9. Reading, writing, and learning disorders: dys---------------------
10. Excessive movement: hyper-------------------
11. Paralysis in one half (right or left) of the body: ------------------plegia
12. Paralysis in the lower half of the body: ----------------------plegia
13. Paralysis in all four limbs: --------------------plegia
14. Nervous exhaustion and fatigue: neur---------------------------

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