Abaqus Analysis User's Manual, Vol4

Abaqus Analysis User’s Manual
Abaqus 6.12
Analysis User’s Manual
Volume IV: Elements
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Abaqus Analysis
User’s Manual
Volume IV
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Preface
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CONTENTS
Contents
Volume I
PART I INTRODUCTION, SPATIAL MODELING, AND EXECUTION
1. Introduction
Introduction: general 1.1.1
Abaqus syntax and conventions
Input syntax rules 1.2.1
Conventions 1.2.2
Abaqus model definition
Defining a model in Abaqus 1.3.1
Parametric modeling
Parametric input 1.4.1
2. Spatial Modeling
Node definition
Node definition 2.1.1
Parametric shape variation 2.1.2
Nodal thicknesses 2.1.3
Normal definitions at nodes 2.1.4
Transformed coordinate systems 2.1.5
Adjusting nodal coordinates 2.1.6
Element definition
Element definition 2.2.1
Element foundations 2.2.2
Defining reinforcement 2.2.3
Defining rebar as an element property 2.2.4
Orientations 2.2.5
Surface definition
Surfaces: overview 2.3.1
Element-based surface definition 2.3.2
Node-based surface definition 2.3.3
Analytical rigid surface definition 2.3.4
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Eulerian surface definition 2.3.5

Operating on surfaces 2.3.6
Rigid body definition
Rigid body definition 2.4.1
Integrated output section definition
Integrated output section definition 2.5.1
Mass adjustment
Adjust and/or redistribute mass of an element set 2.6.1
Nonstructural mass definition
Nonstructural mass definition 2.7.1
Distribution definition
Distribution definition 2.8.1
Display body definition
Display body definition 2.9.1
Assembly definition
Defining an assembly 2.10.1
Matrix definition
Defining matrices 2.11.1
3. Job Execution
Execution procedures: overview
Execution procedure for Abaqus: overview 3.1.1
Execution procedures
Obtaining information 3.2.1
Abaqus/Standard, Abaqus/Explicit, and Abaqus/CFD execution 3.2.2
SIMULIA Co-Simulation Engine controller execution 3.2.3
Abaqus/Standard, Abaqus/Explicit, and Abaqus/CFD co-simulation execution 3.2.4
Abaqus/CAE execution 3.2.5
Abaqus/Viewer execution 3.2.6
Python execution 3.2.7
Parametric studies 3.2.8
Abaqus documentation 3.2.9
Licensing utilities 3.2.10
ASCII translation of results (.fil) files 3.2.11
Joining results (.fil) files 3.2.12
Querying the keyword/problem database 3.2.13
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Fetching sample input files 3.2.14

Making user-defined executables and subroutines 3.2.15
Input file and output database upgrade utility 3.2.16
Generating output database reports 3.2.17
Joining output database (.odb) files from restarted analyses 3.2.18
Combining output from substructures 3.2.19
Combining data from multiple output databases 3.2.20
Network output database file connector 3.2.21
Mapping thermal and magnetic loads 3.2.22
Fixed format conversion utility 3.2.23
Translating Nastran bulk data files to Abaqus input files 3.2.24
Translating Abaqus files to Nastran bulk data files 3.2.25
Translating ANSYS input files to Abaqus input files 3.2.26
Translating PAM-CRASH input files to partial Abaqus input files 3.2.27
Translating RADIOSS input files to partial Abaqus input files 3.2.28
Translating Abaqus output database files to Nastran Output2 results files 3.2.29
Translating LS-DYNA data files to Abaqus input files 3.2.30
Exchanging Abaqus data with ZAERO 3.2.31
Encrypting and decrypting Abaqus input data 3.2.32
Job execution control 3.2.33
Environment file settings
Using the Abaqus environment settings 3.3.1
Managing memory and disk resources
Managing memory and disk use in Abaqus 3.4.1
Parallel execution
Parallel execution: overview 3.5.1
Parallel execution in Abaqus/Standard 3.5.2
Parallel execution in Abaqus/Explicit 3.5.3
Parallel execution in Abaqus/CFD 3.5.4
File extension definitions
File extensions used by Abaqus 3.6.1
FORTRAN unit numbers
FORTRAN unit numbers used by Abaqus 3.7.1
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PART II OUTPUT
4. Output
Output 4.1.1
Output to the data and results files 4.1.2
Output to the output database 4.1.3
Error indicator output 4.1.4
Output variables
Abaqus/Standard output variable identifiers 4.2.1
Abaqus/Explicit output variable identifiers 4.2.2
Abaqus/CFD output variable identifiers 4.2.3
The postprocessing calculator
The postprocessing calculator 4.3.1
5. File Output Format

Accessing the results file
Accessing the results file: overview 5.1.1
Results file output format 5.1.2
Accessing the results file information 5.1.3
Utility routines for accessing the results file 5.1.4
OI.1 Abaqus/Standard Output Variable Index
OI.2 Abaqus/Explicit Output Variable Index
OI.3 Abaqus/CFD Output Variable Index
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Volume II
PART III ANALYSIS PROCEDURES, SOLUTION, AND CONTROL
6. Analysis Procedures
Introduction
Solving analysis problems: overview 6.1.1
Defining an analysis 6.1.2
General and linear perturbation procedures 6.1.3
Multiple load case analysis 6.1.4
Direct linear equation solver 6.1.5
Iterative linear equation solver 6.1.6
Static stress/displacement analysis
Static stress analysis procedures: overview 6.2.1
Static stress analysis 6.2.2
Eigenvalue buckling prediction 6.2.3
Unstable collapse and postbuckling analysis 6.2.4
Quasi-static analysis 6.2.5
Direct cyclic analysis 6.2.6
Low-cycle fatigue analysis using the direct cyclic approach 6.2.7
Dynamic stress/displacement analysis
Dynamic analysis procedures: overview 6.3.1
Implicit dynamic analysis using direct integration 6.3.2
Explicit dynamic analysis 6.3.3
Direct-solution steady-state dynamic analysis 6.3.4
Natural frequency extraction 6.3.5
Complex eigenvalue extraction 6.3.6
Transient modal dynamic analysis 6.3.7
Mode-based steady-state dynamic analysis 6.3.8
Subspace-based steady-state dynamic analysis 6.3.9
Response spectrum analysis 6.3.10
Random response analysis 6.3.11
Steady-state transport analysis
Steady-state transport analysis 6.4.1
Heat transfer and thermal-stress analysis
Heat transfer analysis procedures: overview 6.5.1
Uncoupled heat transfer analysis 6.5.2
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Fully coupled thermal-stress analysis 6.5.3

Adiabatic analysis 6.5.4
Fluid dynamic analysis
Fluid dynamic analysis procedures: overview 6.6.1
Incompressible fluid dynamic analysis 6.6.2
Electromagnetic analysis
Electromagnetic analysis procedures 6.7.1
Piezoelectric analysis 6.7.2
Coupled thermal-electrical analysis 6.7.3
Fully coupled thermal-electrical-structural analysis 6.7.4
Eddy current analysis 6.7.5
Magnetostatic analysis 6.7.6
Coupled pore fluid flow and stress analysis
Coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress analysis 6.8.1
Geostatic stress state 6.8.2
Mass diffusion analysis
Mass diffusion analysis 6.9.1
Acoustic and shock analysis
Acoustic, shock, and coupled acoustic-structural analysis 6.10.1
Abaqus/Aqua analysis
Abaqus/Aqua analysis 6.11.1
Annealing
Annealing procedure 6.12.1
7. Analysis Solution and Control

Solving nonlinear problems
Solving nonlinear problems 7.1.1
Analysis convergence controls
Convergence and time integration criteria: overview 7.2.1
Commonly used control parameters 7.2.2
Convergence criteria for nonlinear problems 7.2.3
Time integration accuracy in transient problems 7.2.4
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PART IV ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
8. Analysis Techniques: Introduction

Analysis techniques: overview 8.1.1
9. Analysis Continuation Techniques

Restarting an analysis
Restarting an analysis 9.1.1
Importing and transferring results
Transferring results between Abaqus analyses: overview 9.2.1
Transferring results between Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard 9.2.2
Transferring results from one Abaqus/Standard analysis to another 9.2.3
Transferring results from one Abaqus/Explicit analysis to another 9.2.4
10. Modeling Abstractions

Substructuring
Using substructures 10.1.1
Defining substructures 10.1.2
Submodeling
Submodeling: overview 10.2.1
Node-based submodeling 10.2.2
Surface-based submodeling 10.2.3
Generating global matrices
Generating matrices 10.3.1
Symmetric model generation, results transfer, and analysis of cyclic symmetry models
Symmetric model generation 10.4.1
Transferring results from a symmetric mesh or a partial three-dimensional mesh to
a full three-dimensional mesh 10.4.2
Analysis of models that exhibit cyclic symmetry 10.4.3
Periodic media analysis
Periodic media analysis 10.5.1
Meshed beam cross-sections
Meshed beam cross-sections 10.6.1
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Modeling discontinuities as an enriched feature using the extended finite element method
Modeling discontinuities as an enriched feature using the extended finite element
method 10.7.1
11. Special-Purpose Techniques

Inertia relief
Inertia relief 11.1.1
Mesh modification or replacement
Element and contact pair removal and reactivation 11.2.1
Geometric imperfections
Introducing a geometric imperfection into a model 11.3.1
Fracture mechanics
Fracture mechanics: overview 11.4.1
Contour integral evaluation 11.4.2
Crack propagation analysis 11.4.3
Surface-based fluid modeling
Surface-based fluid cavities: overview 11.5.1
Fluid cavity definition 11.5.2
Fluid exchange definition 11.5.3
Inflator definition 11.5.4
Mass scaling
Mass scaling 11.6.1
Selective subcycling
Selective subcycling 11.7.1
Steady-state detection
Steady-state detection 11.8.1
12. Adaptivity Techniques

Adaptivity techniques: overview
Adaptivity techniques 12.1.1
ALE adaptive meshing
ALE adaptive meshing: overview 12.2.1
Defining ALE adaptive mesh domains in Abaqus/Explicit 12.2.2
ALE adaptive meshing and remapping in Abaqus/Explicit 12.2.3
Modeling techniques for Eulerian adaptive mesh domains in Abaqus/Explicit 12.2.4
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Output and diagnostics for ALE adaptive meshing in Abaqus/Explicit 12.2.5

Defining ALE adaptive mesh domains in Abaqus/Standard 12.2.6
ALE adaptive meshing and remapping in Abaqus/Standard 12.2.7
Adaptive remeshing
Adaptive remeshing: overview 12.3.1
Selection of error indicators influencing adaptive remeshing 12.3.2
Solution-based mesh sizing 12.3.3
Analysis continuation after mesh replacement
Mesh-to-mesh solution mapping 12.4.1
13. Optimization Techniques

Structural optimization: overview
Structural optimization: overview 13.1.1
Optimization models
Design responses 13.2.1
Objectives and constraints 13.2.2
Creating Abaqus optimization models 13.2.3
14. Eulerian Analysis

Eulerian analysis 14.1.1
Defining Eulerian boundaries 14.1.2
Eulerian mesh motion 14.1.3
Defining adaptive mesh refinement in the Eulerian domain 14.1.4
15. Particle Methods

Smoothed particle hydrodynamic analyses
Smoothed particle hydrodynamic analysis 15.1.1
Finite element conversion to SPH particles 15.1.2
16. Sequentially Coupled Multiphysics Analyses

Predefined fields for sequential coupling 16.1.1
Sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis 16.1.2
Predefined loads for sequential coupling 16.1.3
17. Co-simulation
Co-simulation: overview 17.1.1
Preparing an Abaqus analysis for co-simulation
Preparing an Abaqus analysis for co-simulation 17.2.1
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Co-simulation between Abaqus solvers

Abaqus/Standard to Abaqus/Explicit co-simulation 17.3.1
Abaqus/CFD to Abaqus/Standard or to Abaqus/Explicit co-simulation 17.3.2
18. Extending Abaqus Analysis Functionality

User subroutines and utilities
User subroutines: overview 18.1.1
Available user subroutines 18.1.2
Available utility routines 18.1.3
19. Design Sensitivity Analysis

Design sensitivity analysis 19.1.1
20. Parametric Studies

Scripting parametric studies
Scripting parametric studies 20.1.1
Parametric studies: commands
aStudy.combine(): Combine parameter samples for parametric studies. 20.2.1
aStudy.constrain(): Constrain parameter value combinations in parametric studies. 20.2.2
aStudy.define(): Define parameters for parametric studies. 20.2.3
aStudy.execute(): Execute the analysis of parametric study designs. 20.2.4
aStudy.gather(): Gather the results of a parametric study. 20.2.5
aStudy.generate(): Generate the analysis job data for a parametric study. 20.2.6
aStudy.output(): Specify the source of parametric study results. 20.2.7
aStudy=ParStudy(): Create a parametric study. 20.2.8
aStudy.report(): Report parametric study results. 20.2.9
aStudy.sample(): Sample parameters for parametric studies. 20.2.10
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Volume III
PART V MATERIALS
21. Materials: Introduction

Introduction
Material library: overview 21.1.1
Material data definition 21.1.2
Combining material behaviors 21.1.3
General properties
Density 21.2.1
22. Elastic Mechanical Properties

Overview
Elastic behavior: overview 22.1.1
Linear elasticity
Linear elastic behavior 22.2.1
No compression or no tension 22.2.2
Plane stress orthotropic failure measures 22.2.3
Porous elasticity
Elastic behavior of porous materials 22.3.1
Hypoelasticity
Hypoelastic behavior 22.4.1
Hyperelasticity
Hyperelastic behavior of rubberlike materials 22.5.1
Hyperelastic behavior in elastomeric foams 22.5.2
Anisotropic hyperelastic behavior 22.5.3
Stress softening in elastomers
Mullins effect 22.6.1
Energy dissipation in elastomeric foams 22.6.2
Viscoelasticity
Time domain viscoelasticity 22.7.1
Frequency domain viscoelasticity 22.7.2
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Nonlinear viscoelasticity
Hysteresis in elastomers 22.8.1
Parallel network viscoelastic model 22.8.2
Rate sensitive elastomeric foams
Low-density foams 22.9.1
23. Inelastic Mechanical Properties

Overview
Inelastic behavior 23.1.1
Metal plasticity
Classical metal plasticity 23.2.1
Models for metals subjected to cyclic loading 23.2.2
Rate-dependent yield 23.2.3
Rate-dependent plasticity: creep and swelling 23.2.4
Annealing or melting 23.2.5
Anisotropic yield/creep 23.2.6
Johnson-Cook plasticity 23.2.7
Dynamic failure models 23.2.8
Porous metal plasticity 23.2.9
Cast iron plasticity 23.2.10
Two-layer viscoplasticity 23.2.11
ORNL – Oak Ridge National Laboratory constitutive model 23.2.12
Deformation plasticity 23.2.13
Other plasticity models
Extended Drucker-Prager models 23.3.1
Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap model 23.3.2
Mohr-Coulomb plasticity 23.3.3
Critical state (clay) plasticity model 23.3.4
Crushable foam plasticity models 23.3.5
Fabric materials
Fabric material behavior 23.4.1
Jointed materials
Jointed material model 23.5.1
Concrete
Concrete smeared cracking 23.6.1
Cracking model for concrete 23.6.2
Concrete damaged plasticity 23.6.3
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Permanent set in rubberlike materials

Permanent set in rubberlike materials 23.7.1
24. Progressive Damage and Failure

Progressive damage and failure: overview
Progressive damage and failure 24.1.1
Damage and failure for ductile metals
Damage and failure for ductile metals: overview 24.2.1
Damage initiation for ductile metals 24.2.2
Damage evolution and element removal for ductile metals 24.2.3
Damage and failure for fiber-reinforced composites
Damage and failure for fiber-reinforced composites: overview 24.3.1
Damage initiation for fiber-reinforced composites 24.3.2
Damage evolution and element removal for fiber-reinforced composites 24.3.3
Damage and failure for ductile materials in low-cycle fatigue analysis
Damage and failure for ductile materials in low-cycle fatigue analysis: overview 24.4.1
Damage initiation for ductile materials in low-cycle fatigue 24.4.2
Damage evolution for ductile materials in low-cycle fatigue 24.4.3
25. Hydrodynamic Properties

Overview
Hydrodynamic behavior: overview 25.1.1
Equations of state
Equation of state 25.2.1
26. Other Material Properties

Mechanical properties
Material damping 26.1.1
Thermal expansion 26.1.2
Field expansion 26.1.3
Viscosity 26.1.4
Heat transfer properties
Thermal properties: overview 26.2.1
Conductivity 26.2.2
Specific heat 26.2.3
Latent heat 26.2.4
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Acoustic properties
Acoustic medium 26.3.1
Mass diffusion properties
Diffusivity 26.4.1
Solubility 26.4.2
Electromagnetic properties
Electrical conductivity 26.5.1
Piezoelectric behavior 26.5.2
Magnetic permeability 26.5.3
Pore fluid flow properties
Pore fluid flow properties 26.6.1
Permeability 26.6.2
Porous bulk moduli 26.6.3
Sorption 26.6.4
Swelling gel 26.6.5
Moisture swelling 26.6.6
User materials
User-defined mechanical material behavior 26.7.1
User-defined thermal material behavior 26.7.2
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Volume IV
PART VI ELEMENTS
27. Elements: Introduction

Element library: overview 27.1.1
Choosing the element’s dimensionality 27.1.2
Choosing the appropriate element for an analysis type 27.1.3
Section controls 27.1.4
28. Continuum Elements

General-purpose continuum elements
Solid (continuum) elements 28.1.1
One-dimensional solid (link) element library 28.1.2
Two-dimensional solid element library 28.1.3
Three-dimensional solid element library 28.1.4
Cylindrical solid element library 28.1.5
Axisymmetric solid element library 28.1.6
Axisymmetric solid elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation 28.1.7
Fluid continuum elements
Fluid (continuum) elements 28.2.1
Fluid element library 28.2.2
Infinite elements
Infinite elements 28.3.1
Infinite element library 28.3.2
Warping elements
Warping elements 28.4.1
Warping element library 28.4.2
Particle elements
Particle elements 28.5.1
Particle element library 28.5.2
29. Structural Elements

Membrane elements
Membrane elements 29.1.1
General membrane element library 29.1.2
Cylindrical membrane element library 29.1.3
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Axisymmetric membrane element library 29.1.4

Truss elements
Truss elements 29.2.1
Truss element library 29.2.2
Beam elements
Beam modeling: overview 29.3.1
Choosing a beam cross-section 29.3.2
Choosing a beam element 29.3.3
Beam element cross-section orientation 29.3.4
Beam section behavior 29.3.5
Using a beam section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior 29.3.6
Using a general beam section to define the section behavior 29.3.7
Beam element library 29.3.8
Beam cross-section library 29.3.9
Frame elements
Frame elements 29.4.1
Frame section behavior 29.4.2
Frame element library 29.4.3
Elbow elements
Pipes and pipebends with deforming cross-sections: elbow elements 29.5.1
Elbow element library 29.5.2
Shell elements
Shell elements: overview 29.6.1
Choosing a shell element 29.6.2
Defining the initial geometry of conventional shell elements 29.6.3
Shell section behavior 29.6.4
Using a shell section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior 29.6.5
Using a general shell section to define the section behavior 29.6.6
Three-dimensional conventional shell element library 29.6.7
Continuum shell element library 29.6.8
Axisymmetric shell element library 29.6.9
Axisymmetric shell elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation 29.6.10
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30. Inertial, Rigid, and Capacitance Elements

Point mass elements
Point masses 30.1.1
Mass element library 30.1.2
Rotary inertia elements
Rotary inertia 30.2.1
Rotary inertia element library 30.2.2
Rigid elements
Rigid elements 30.3.1
Rigid element library 30.3.2
Capacitance elements
Point capacitance 30.4.1
Capacitance element library 30.4.2
31. Connector Elements

Connector elements
Connectors: overview 31.1.1
Connector elements 31.1.2
Connector actuation 31.1.3
Connector element library 31.1.4
Connection-type library 31.1.5
Connector element behavior
Connector behavior 31.2.1
Connector elastic behavior 31.2.2
Connector damping behavior 31.2.3
Connector functions for coupled behavior 31.2.4
Connector friction behavior 31.2.5
Connector plastic behavior 31.2.6
Connector damage behavior 31.2.7
Connector stops and locks 31.2.8
Connector failure behavior 31.2.9
Connector uniaxial behavior 31.2.10
32. Special-Purpose Elements

Spring elements
Springs 32.1.1
Spring element library 32.1.2
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Dashpot elements
Dashpots 32.2.1
Dashpot element library 32.2.2
Flexible joint elements
Flexible joint element 32.3.1
Flexible joint element library 32.3.2
Distributing coupling elements
Distributing coupling elements 32.4.1
Distributing coupling element library 32.4.2
Cohesive elements
Cohesive elements: overview 32.5.1
Choosing a cohesive element 32.5.2
Modeling with cohesive elements 32.5.3
Defining the cohesive element’s initial geometry 32.5.4
Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a continuum approach 32.5.5
Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-separation
description 32.5.6
Defining the constitutive response of fluid within the cohesive element gap 32.5.7
Two-dimensional cohesive element library 32.5.8
Three-dimensional cohesive element library 32.5.9
Axisymmetric cohesive element library 32.5.10
Gasket elements
Gasket elements: overview 32.6.1
Choosing a gasket element 32.6.2
Including gasket elements in a model 32.6.3
Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry 32.6.4
Defining the gasket behavior using a material model 32.6.5
Defining the gasket behavior directly using a gasket behavior model 32.6.6
Two-dimensional gasket element library 32.6.7
Three-dimensional gasket element library 32.6.8
Axisymmetric gasket element library 32.6.9
Surface elements
Surface elements 32.7.1
General surface element library 32.7.2
Cylindrical surface element library 32.7.3
Axisymmetric surface element library 32.7.4
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Tube support elements

Tube support elements 32.8.1
Tube support element library 32.8.2
Line spring elements
Line spring elements for modeling part-through cracks in shells 32.9.1
Line spring element library 32.9.2
Elastic-plastic joints
Elastic-plastic joints 32.10.1
Elastic-plastic joint element library 32.10.2
Drag chain elements
Drag chains 32.11.1
Drag chain element library 32.11.2
Pipe-soil elements
Pipe-soil interaction elements 32.12.1
Pipe-soil interaction element library 32.12.2
Acoustic interface elements
Acoustic interface elements 32.13.1
Acoustic interface element library 32.13.2
Eulerian elements
Eulerian elements 32.14.1
Eulerian element library 32.14.2
User-defined elements
User-defined elements 32.15.1
User-defined element library 32.15.2
EI.1 Abaqus/Standard Element Index
EI.2 Abaqus/Explicit Element Index
EI.3 Abaqus/CFD Element Index
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Volume V
PART VII PRESCRIBED CONDITIONS
33. Prescribed Conditions

Overview
Prescribed conditions: overview 33.1.1
Amplitude curves 33.1.2
Initial conditions
Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit 33.2.1
Initial conditions in Abaqus/CFD 33.2.2
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit 33.3.1
Boundary conditions in Abaqus/CFD 33.3.2
Loads
Applying loads: overview 33.4.1
Concentrated loads 33.4.2
Distributed loads 33.4.3
Thermal loads 33.4.4
Electromagnetic loads 33.4.5
Acoustic and shock loads 33.4.6
Pore fluid flow 33.4.7
Prescribed assembly loads
Prescribed assembly loads 33.5.1
Predefined fields
Predefined fields 33.6.1
PART VIII CONSTRAINTS
34. Constraints
Overview
Kinematic constraints: overview 34.1.1
Multi-point constraints
Linear constraint equations 34.2.1
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General multi-point constraints 34.2.2

Kinematic coupling constraints 34.2.3
Surface-based constraints
Mesh tie constraints 34.3.1
Coupling constraints 34.3.2
Shell-to-solid coupling 34.3.3
Mesh-independent fasteners 34.3.4
Embedded elements
Embedded elements 34.4.1
Element end release
Element end release 34.5.1
Overconstraint checks
Overconstraint checks 34.6.1
PART IX INTERACTIONS
35. Defining Contact Interactions

Overview
Contact interaction analysis: overview 35.1.1
Defining general contact in Abaqus/Standard
Defining general contact interactions in Abaqus/Standard 35.2.1
Surface properties for general contact in Abaqus/Standard 35.2.2
Contact properties for general contact in Abaqus/Standard 35.2.3
Controlling initial contact status in Abaqus/Standard 35.2.4
Stabilization for general contact in Abaqus/Standard 35.2.5
Numerical controls for general contact in Abaqus/Standard 35.2.6
Defining contact pairs in Abaqus/Standard
Defining contact pairs in Abaqus/Standard 35.3.1
Assigning surface properties for contact pairs in Abaqus/Standard 35.3.2
Assigning contact properties for contact pairs in Abaqus/Standard 35.3.3
Modeling contact interference fits in Abaqus/Standard 35.3.4
Adjusting initial surface positions and specifying initial clearances in Abaqus/Standard
contact pairs 35.3.5
Adjusting contact controls in Abaqus/Standard 35.3.6
Defining tied contact in Abaqus/Standard 35.3.7
Extending master surfaces and slide lines 35.3.8
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Contact modeling if substructures are present 35.3.9

Contact modeling if asymmetric-axisymmetric elements are present 35.3.10
Defining general contact in Abaqus/Explicit
Defining general contact interactions in Abaqus/Explicit 35.4.1
Assigning surface properties for general contact in Abaqus/Explicit 35.4.2
Assigning contact properties for general contact in Abaqus/Explicit 35.4.3
Controlling initial contact status for general contact in Abaqus/Explicit 35.4.4
Contact controls for general contact in Abaqus/Explicit 35.4.5
Defining contact pairs in Abaqus/Explicit
Defining contact pairs in Abaqus/Explicit 35.5.1
Assigning surface properties for contact pairs in Abaqus/Explicit 35.5.2
Assigning contact properties for contact pairs in Abaqus/Explicit 35.5.3
Adjusting initial surface positions and specifying initial clearances for contact pairs
in Abaqus/Explicit 35.5.4
Contact controls for contact pairs in Abaqus/Explicit 35.5.5
36. Contact Property Models

Mechanical contact properties
Mechanical contact properties: overview 36.1.1
Contact pressure-overclosure relationships 36.1.2
Contact damping 36.1.3
Contact blockage 36.1.4
Frictional behavior 36.1.5
User-defined interfacial constitutive behavior 36.1.6
Pressure penetration loading 36.1.7
Interaction of debonded surfaces 36.1.8
Breakable bonds 36.1.9
Surface-based cohesive behavior 36.1.10
Thermal contact properties
Thermal contact properties 36.2.1
Electrical contact properties
Electrical contact properties 36.3.1
Pore fluid contact properties
Pore fluid contact properties 36.4.1
37. Contact Formulations and Numerical Methods

Contact formulations and numerical methods in Abaqus/Standard
Contact formulations in Abaqus/Standard 37.1.1
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Contact constraint enforcement methods in Abaqus/Standard 37.1.2

Smoothing contact surfaces in Abaqus/Standard 37.1.3
Contact formulations and numerical methods in Abaqus/Explicit
Contact formulation for general contact in Abaqus/Explicit 37.2.1
Contact formulations for contact pairs in Abaqus/Explicit 37.2.2
Contact constraint enforcement methods in Abaqus/Explicit 37.2.3
38. Contact Difficulties and Diagnostics

Resolving contact difficulties in Abaqus/Standard
Contact diagnostics in an Abaqus/Standard analysis 38.1.1
Common difficulties associated with contact modeling in Abaqus/Standard 38.1.2
Resolving contact difficulties in Abaqus/Explicit
Contact diagnostics in an Abaqus/Explicit analysis 38.2.1
Common difficulties associated with contact modeling using contact pairs in
Abaqus/Explicit 38.2.2
39. Contact Elements in Abaqus/Standard

Contact modeling with elements
Contact modeling with elements 39.1.1
Gap contact elements
Gap contact elements 39.2.1
Gap element library 39.2.2
Tube-to-tube contact elements
Tube-to-tube contact elements 39.3.1
Tube-to-tube contact element library 39.3.2
Slide line contact elements
Slide line contact elements 39.4.1
Axisymmetric slide line element library 39.4.2
Rigid surface contact elements
Rigid surface contact elements 39.5.1
Axisymmetric rigid surface contact element library 39.5.2
40. Defining Cavity Radiation in Abaqus/Standard

Cavity radiation 40.1.1
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Part VI: Elements
• Chapter 27, “Elements: Introduction”
• Chapter 28, “Continuum Elements”
• Chapter 29, “Structural Elements”
• Chapter 30, “Inertial, Rigid, and Capacitance Elements”
• Chapter 31, “Connector Elements”
• Chapter 32, “Special-Purpose Elements”
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ELEMENTS: INTRODUCTION
27. Elements: Introduction
Introduction 27.1
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INTRODUCTION
27.1 Introduction
• “Element library: overview,” Section 27.1.1

• “Choosing the element’s dimensionality,” Section 27.1.2
• “Choosing the appropriate element for an analysis type,” Section 27.1.3
• “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4
27.1–1
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ELEMENT LIBRARY
27.1.1 ELEMENT LIBRARY: OVERVIEW
Abaqus has an extensive element library to provide a powerful set of tools for solving many different problems.
Characterizing elements
Five aspects of an element characterize its behavior:

• Family
• Degrees of freedom (directly related to the element family)
• Number of nodes
• Formulation
• Integration
Each element in Abaqus has a unique name, such as T2D2, S4R, C3D8I, or C3D8R. The element
name identifies each of the five aspects of an element. For details on defining elements, see “Element
definition,” Section 2.2.1.
Family
Figure 27.1.1–1 shows the element families that are used most commonly in a stress analysis; in addition,
continuum (fluid) elements are used in a fluid analysis. One of the major distinctions between different
element families is the geometry type that each family assumes.
Continuum Shell Beam Rigid

(solid and fluid) elements elements elements
elements
Membrane Infinite Connector elements Truss

elements elements such as springs elements
and dashpots
Figure 27.1.1–1 Commonly used element families.
The first letter or letters of an element’s name indicate to which family the element belongs. For
example, S4R is a shell element, CINPE4 is an infinite element, and C3D8I is a continuum element.
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ELEMENT LIBRARY
Degrees of freedom
The degrees of freedom are the fundamental variables calculated during the analysis. For a
stress/displacement simulation the degrees of freedom are the translations and, for shell, pipe, and
beam elements, the rotations at each node. For a heat transfer simulation the degrees of freedom are
the temperatures at each node; for a coupled thermal-stress analysis temperature degrees of freedom
exist in addition to displacement degrees of freedom at each node. Heat transfer analyses and coupled
thermal-stress analyses therefore require the use of different elements than does a stress analysis since
the degrees of freedom are not the same. See “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a summary of the
degrees of freedom available in Abaqus for various element and analysis types.
Number of nodes and order of interpolation

Displacements or other degrees of freedom are calculated at the nodes of the element. At any other point
in the element, the displacements are obtained by interpolating from the nodal displacements. Usually
the interpolation order is determined by the number of nodes used in the element.
• Elements that have nodes only at their corners, such as the 8-node brick shown in Figure 27.1.1–2(a),
use linear interpolation in each direction and are often called linear elements or first-order elements.
• In Abaqus/Standard elements with midside nodes, such as the 20-node brick shown in
Figure 27.1.1–2(b), use quadratic interpolation and are often called quadratic elements or
second-order elements.
• Modified triangular or tetrahedral elements with midside nodes, such as the 10-node tetrahedron
shown in Figure 27.1.1–2(c), use a modified second-order interpolation and are often called
modified or modified second-order elements.
(a) Linear element (b) Quadratic element (c) Modified second-order element
(8-node brick, C3D8) (20-node brick, C3D20) (10-node tetrahedron, C3D10M)
Figure 27.1.1–2 Linear brick, quadratic brick, and modified tetrahedral elements.
Typically, the number of nodes in an element is clearly identified in its name. The 8-node brick
element is called C3D8, and the 4-node shell element is called S4R.
The beam element family uses a slightly different convention: the order of interpolation is identified
in the name. Thus, a first-order, three-dimensional beam element is called B31, whereas a second-order,
three-dimensional beam element is called B32. A similar convention is used for axisymmetric shell and
membrane elements.
27.1.1–2
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ELEMENT LIBRARY
Formulation
An element’s formulation refers to the mathematical theory used to define the element’s behavior. In the
Lagrangian, or material, description of behavior the element deforms with the material. In the alternative
Eulerian, or spatial, description elements are fixed in space as the material flows through them. Eulerian
methods are used commonly in fluid mechanics simulations. Abaqus/Standard uses Eulerian elements
to model convective heat transfer. Abaqus/Explicit also offers multimaterial Eulerian elements for use
in stress/displacement analyses. Adaptive meshing in Abaqus/Explicit combines the features of pure
Lagrangian and Eulerian analyses and allows the motion of the element to be independent of the material
(see “ALE adaptive meshing: overview,” Section 12.2.1). All other stress/displacement elements in
Abaqus are based on the Lagrangian formulation. In Abaqus/Explicit the Eulerian elements can interact
with Lagrangian elements through general contact (see “Eulerian analysis,” Section 14.1.1).
To accommodate different types of behavior, some element families in Abaqus include elements
with several different formulations. For example, the conventional shell element family has three
classes: one suitable for general-purpose shell analysis, another for thin shells, and yet another for thick
shells. In addition, Abaqus also offers continuum shell elements, which have nodal connectivities like
continuum elements but are formulated to model shell behavior with as few as one element through the
shell thickness.
Some Abaqus/Standard element families have a standard formulation as well as some alternative
formulations. Elements with alternative formulations are identified by an additional character at the end
of the element name. For example, the continuum, beam, and truss element families include members
with a hybrid formulation (to deal with incompressible or inextensible behavior); these elements are
identified by the letter H at the end of the name (C3D8H or B31H).
Abaqus/Standard uses the lumped mass formulation for low-order elements; Abaqus/Explicit uses
the lumped mass formulation for all elements. As a consequence, the second mass moments of inertia
can deviate from the theoretical values, especially for coarse meshes.
Abaqus/CFD uses hybrid elements to circumvent well known div-stability issues for incompressible
flow. Abaqus/CFD also permits the addition of degrees of freedom based on procedure settings such as
the optional energy equation and turbulence models.
Integration
Abaqus uses numerical techniques to integrate various quantities over the volume of each element,
thus allowing complete generality in material behavior. Using Gaussian quadrature for most elements,
Abaqus evaluates the material response at each integration point in each element. Some continuum
elements in Abaqus can use full or reduced integration, a choice that can have a significant effect on the
accuracy of the element for a given problem.
Abaqus uses the letter R at the end of the element name to label reduced-integration elements. For
example, CAX4R is the 4-node, reduced-integration, axisymmetric, solid element.
Shell, pipe, and beam element properties can be defined as general section behaviors; or each cross-
section of the element can be integrated numerically, so that nonlinear response associated with nonlinear
material behavior can be tracked accurately when needed. In addition, a composite layered section can
27.1.1–3
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ELEMENT LIBRARY
be specified for shells and, in Abaqus/Standard, three-dimensional bricks, with different materials for
each layer through the section.
Combining elements
The element library is intended to provide a complete modeling capability for all geometries. Thus, any
combination of elements can be used to make up the model; multi-point constraints (“General multi-point
constraints,” Section 34.2.2) are sometimes helpful in applying the necessary kinematic relations to form
the model (for example, to model part of a shell surface with solid elements and part with shell elements
or to use a beam element as a shell stiffener).
Heat transfer and thermal-stress analysis
In cases where heat transfer analysis is to be followed by thermal-stress analysis, corresponding heat
transfer and stress elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard. See “Sequentially coupled thermal-stress
analysis,” Section 16.1.2, for additional details.
Information available for element libraries
The complete element library in Abaqus is subdivided into a number of smaller libraries. Each library
is presented as a separate section in this manual. In each of these sections, information regarding the
following topics is provided where applicable:
• conventions;
• element types;
• degrees of freedom;
• nodal coordinates required;
• element property definition;
• element faces;
• element output;
• loading (general loading, distributed loads, foundations, distributed heat fluxes, film conditions,
radiation types, distributed flows, distributed impedances, electrical fluxes, distributed electric
current densities, and distributed concentration fluxes);
• nodes associated with the element;
• node ordering and face ordering on elements; and
• numbering of integration points for output.
For element libraries that are available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit, individual
element or load types that are available only in Abaqus/Standard are designated with an (S) ; similarly,
individual element or load types that are available only in Abaqus/Explicit are designated with an (E) .
Element or load types that are available in Abaqus/Aqua are designated with an (A) .
Most of the element output variables available for an element are discussed. Additional variables
may be available depending on the material model or the analysis procedure that is used. Some elements
have solution variables that do not pertain to other elements of the same type; these variables are specified
explicitly.
27.1.1–4
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ELEMENT DIMENSIONALITY
27.1.2 CHOOSING THE ELEMENT’S DIMENSIONALITY
Products: Abaqus/Standard Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/CFD Abaqus/CAE
References

• “Part modeling space,” Section 11.4.1 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
• “Assigning Abaqus element types,” Section 17.5 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
The Abaqus element library contains the following for modeling a wide range of spatial dimensionality:
• one-dimensional elements;
• two-dimensional elements;
• three-dimensional elements;
• cylindrical elements;
• axisymmetric elements; and
• axisymmetric elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation.
One-dimensional (link) elements
One-dimensional heat transfer, coupled thermal/electrical, and acoustic elements are available only in
Abaqus/Standard. In addition, structural link (truss) elements are available in both Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit. These elements can be used in two- or three-dimensional space to transmit loads or
fluxes along the length of the element.
Two-dimensional elements
Abaqus provides several different types of two-dimensional elements. For structural applications these
include plane stress elements and plane strain elements. Abaqus/Standard also provides generalized
plane strain elements for structural applications.
Plane stress elements

Plane stress elements can be used when the thickness of a body or domain is small relative to its lateral
(in-plane) dimensions. The stresses are functions of planar coordinates alone, and the out-of-plane
normal and shear stresses are equal to zero.
Plane stress elements must be defined in the X–Y plane, and all loading and deformation are also
restricted to this plane. This modeling method generally applies to thin, flat bodies. For anisotropic
materials the Z-axis must be a principal material direction.
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Plane strain elements

Plane strain elements can be used when it can be assumed that the strains in a loaded body or domain are
functions of planar coordinates alone and the out-of-plane normal and shear strains are equal to zero.
Plane strain elements must be defined in the X–Y plane, and all loading and deformation are also
restricted to this plane. This modeling method is generally used for bodies that are very thick relative to
their lateral dimensions, such as shafts, concrete dams, or walls. Plane strain theory might also apply to
a typical slice of an underground tunnel that lies along the Z-axis. For anisotropic materials the Z-axis
must be a principal material direction.
Since plane strain theory assumes zero strain in the thickness direction, isotropic thermal expansion
may cause large stresses in the thickness direction.
Generalized plane strain elements

Generalized plane strain elements provide for the modeling of cases in Abaqus/Standard where the
structure has constant curvature (and, hence, no gradients of solution variables) with respect to one
material direction—the “axial” direction of the model. The formulation, thus, involves a model that
lies between two planes that can move with respect to each other and, hence, cause strain in the axial
direction of the model that varies linearly with respect to position in the planes, the variation being due to
the change in curvature. In the initial configuration the bounding planes can be parallel or at an angle to
each other, the latter case allowing the modeling of initial curvature of the model in the axial direction.
The concept is illustrated in Figure 27.1.2–1. Generalized plane strain elements are typically used to
model a section of a long structure that is free to expand axially or is subjected to axial loading.
Each generalized plane strain element has three, four, six, or eight conventional nodes, at each
of which x- and y-coordinates, displacements, etc. are stored. These nodes determine the position and
motion of the element in the two bounding planes. Each element also has a reference node, which is
usually the same node for all of the generalized plane strain elements in the model. The reference node of
a generalized plane strain element should not be used as a conventional node in any element in the model.
The reference node has three degrees of freedom 3, 4, and 5: ( , , and ). The first degree
of freedom ( ) is the change in length of the axial material fiber connecting this node and its image
in the other bounding plane. This displacement is positive as the planes move apart; therefore, there is a
tensile strain in the axial fiber. The second and third degrees of freedom ( , ) are the components
of the relative rotation of one bounding plane with respect to the other. The values stored are the two
components of rotation about the X- and Y-axes in the bounding planes (that is, in the cross-section of the
model). Positive rotation about the X-axis causes increasing axial strain with respect to the y-coordinate
in the cross-section; positive rotation about the Y-axis causes decreasing axial strain with respect to
the x-coordinate in the cross-section. The x- and y-coordinates of a generalized plane strain element
reference node ( and discussed below) remain fixed throughout all steps of an analysis. From the
degrees of freedom of the reference node, the length of the axial material fiber passing through the point
with current coordinates (x, y) in a bounding plane is defined as
27.1.2–2
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Bounding planes
y
(x,y)
(X0 ,Y0 ) x
Conventional element node

Reference node
Length of line through the thickness at (x,y) is
t0 + Δuz + Δφx (y - Y0) - Δφy (x - X0)
where quantities are defined in the text.
Figure 27.1.2–1 Generalized plane strain model.
where
t is the current length of the fiber,
is the initial length of the fiber passing through the reference node (given as part
of the element section definition),
is the displacement at the reference node (stored as degree of freedom 3 at the
reference node),
and are the total values of the components of the angle between the bounding
planes (the original values of , are given as part of the element
section definition—see “Defining the element’s section properties” in “Solid
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(continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1: the changes in these values are the
degrees of freedom 4 and 5 of the reference node), and
and are the coordinates of the reference node in a bounding plane.
The strain in the axial direction is defined immediately from this axial fiber length. The strain
components in the cross-section of the model are computed from the displacements of the regular nodes
of the elements in the usual way. Since the solution is assumed to be independent of the axial position,
there are no transverse shear strains.
Three-dimensional elements
Three-dimensional elements are defined in the global X, Y, Z space. These elements are used when
the geometry and/or the applied loading are too complex for any other element type with fewer spatial
dimensions.
Cylindrical elements
Cylindrical elements are three-dimensional elements defined in the global X, Y, Z space. These elements
are used to model bodies with circular or axisymmetric geometry subjected to general, nonaxisymmetric
loading. Cylindrical elements are available only in Abaqus/Standard.
Cylindrical elements are useful in situations where the expected solution over a relatively large
angle is nearly axisymmetric. In this case a very coarse mesh of cylindrical elements is often sufficient.
Footprint and steady-state rolling analyses of tires are good examples of where cylindrical elements
have distinct advantages over conventional continuum elements (see “Steady-state rolling analysis of a
tire,” Section 3.1.2 of the Abaqus Example Problems Manual). If, however, the expected solution has
significant non-axisymmetric components, a finer mesh of cylindrical elements will be needed and it may
be more economical to use conventional continuum elements.
Axisymmetric elements
Axisymmetric elements provide for the modeling of bodies of revolution under axially symmetric loading
conditions. A body of revolution is generated by revolving a plane cross-section about an axis (the
symmetry axis) and is readily described in cylindrical polar coordinates r, z, and . Figure 27.1.2–2
shows a typical reference cross-section at . The radial and axial coordinates of a point on this
cross-section are denoted by r and z, respectively. At , the radial and axial coordinates coincide
with the global Cartesian X- and Y-coordinates.
Abaqus does not apply boundary conditions automatically to nodes that are located on the symmetry
axis in axisymmetric models. If required, you should apply them directly. Radial boundary conditions at
nodes located on the z-axis are appropriate for most problems because without them nodes may displace
across the symmetry axis, violating the principle of compatibility. However, there are some analyses,
such as penetration calculations, where nodes along the symmetry axis should be free to move; boundary
conditions should be omitted in these cases.
If the loading and material properties are independent of , the solution in any r–z plane completely
defines the solution in the body. Consequently, axisymmetric elements can be used to analyze the
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z (Y)
cross-section
at θ = 0
l k
i j
r (X)
Figure 27.1.2–2 Reference cross-section and element in an axisymmetric solid.
problem by discretizing the reference cross-section at . Figure 27.1.2–2 shows an element of an

axisymmetric body. The nodes i, j, k, and l are actually nodal “circles,” and the volume of material
associated with the element is that of a body of revolution, as shown in the figure. The value of a
prescribed nodal load or reaction force is the total value on the ring; that is, the value integrated around
the circumference.
Regular axisymmetric elements

Regular axisymmetric elements for structural applications allow for only radial and axial loading
and have isotropic or orthotropic material properties, with being a principal direction. Any radial
displacement in such an element will induce a strain in the circumferential direction (“hoop” strain);
and since the displacement must also be purely axisymmetric, there are only four possible nonzero
components of strain ( , , , and ).
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Generalized axisymmetric stress/displacement elements with twist

Axisymmetric solid elements with twist are available only in Abaqus/Standard for the analysis of
structures that are axially symmetric but can twist about their symmetry axis. This element family is
similar to the axisymmetric elements discussed above, except that it allows for a circumferential loading
component (which is independent of ) and for general material anisotropy. Under these conditions,
there may be displacements in the -direction that vary with r and z but not with . The problem remains
axisymmetric because the solution does not vary as a function of so that the deformation of any r–z
plane characterizes the deformation in the entire body. Initially the elements define an axisymmetric
reference geometry with respect to the r–z plane at , where the r-direction corresponds to the
global X-direction and the z-direction corresponds to the global Y-direction. Figure 27.1.2–3 shows an
axisymmetric model consisting of two elements. The figure also shows the local cylindrical coordinate
system at node 100.
Y (z at θ = 0) Y
ez φ100 ez
eθ 100 e θ 100 er
er
X (r at θ = 0) X
(a) (b)
Figure 27.1.2–3 Reference and deformed cross-section

in an axisymmetric solid with twist.
The motion at a node of an axisymmetric element with twist is described by the radial displacement
, the axial displacement , and the twist (in radians) about the z-axis, each of which is constant in
the circumferential direction, so that the deformed geometry remains axisymmetric. Figure 27.1.2–3(b)
shows the deformed geometry of the reference model shown in Figure 27.1.2–3(a) and the local
cylindrical coordinate system at the displaced location of node 100, for a twist .
The formulation of these elements is discussed in “Axisymmetric elements,” Section 3.2.8 of the
Abaqus Theory Manual.
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Generalized axisymmetric elements with twist cannot be used in contour integral calculations and
in dynamic analysis. Elastic foundations are applied only to degrees of freedom and .
These elements should not be mixed with three-dimensional elements.
Axisymmetric elements with twist and the nodes of these elements should be used with caution
within rigid bodies. If the rigid body undergoes large rotations, incorrect results may be obtained. It
is recommended that rigid constraints on axisymmetric elements with twist be modeled with kinematic
coupling (see “Kinematic coupling constraints,” Section 34.2.3).
Stabilization should not be used with these elements if the deformation is dominated by twist, since
stabilization is applied only to the in-plane deformation.
Axisymmetric elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation
These elements are intended for the linear or nonlinear analysis of structures that are initially
axisymmetric but undergo nonlinear, nonaxisymmetric deformation. They are available only in
Abaqus/Standard.
The elements use standard isoparametric interpolation in the r–z plane, combined with Fourier
interpolation with respect to . The deformation is assumed to be symmetric with respect to the r–z
plane at .
Up to four Fourier modes are allowed. For more general cases, full three-dimensional modeling or
cylindrical element modeling is probably more economical because of the complete coupling between
all deformation modes.
These elements use a set of nodes in each of several r–z planes: the number of such planes depends
on the order N of Fourier interpolation used with respect to , as follows:
Number of Number Nodal plane locations

Fourier modes N of nodal with respect to
planes
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
Each element type is defined by a name such as CAXA8RN (continuum elements) or SAXA1N
(shell elements). The number N should be given as the number of Fourier modes to be used with the
element (N=1, 2, 3, or 4). For example, element type CAXA8R2 is a quadrilateral in the r–z plane with
biquadratic interpolation in this plane and two Fourier modes for interpolation with respect to . The
nodal planes associated with various Fourier modes are illustrated in Figure 27.1.2–4.
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π
2
Y (z at θ = 0)
ez π 0 π 0
y x
y
eθ
er
(a) (b)
π
2π π 2
3π π
3 3
4 4
π 0 π 0
y x x
y
X (r at θ = 0)
(c) (d)
Figure 27.1.2–4 Nodal planes of a second-order axisymmetric element with nonlinear,

asymmetric deformation and (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, or (d) 4 Fourier modes.
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27.1.3 CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE ELEMENT FOR AN ANALYSIS TYPE
Products: Abaqus/Standard Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/CFD Abaqus/CAE
References

• “Element type assignment,” Section 17.5.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
The Abaqus element library contains the following:

• stress/displacement elements, including contact elements, connector elements such as springs, and
special-purpose elements such as Eulerian elements and surface elements;
• pore pressure elements;
• coupled temperature-displacement elements;
• coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements;
• coupled temperature–pore pressure displacement elements;
• heat transfer or mass diffusion elements;
• forced convection heat transfer elements;
• incompressible flow elements;
• coupled thermal-electrical elements;
• piezoelectric elements;
• electromagnetic elements;
• acoustic elements; and
• user-defined elements.
Each of these element types is described below.
Within Abaqus/Standard or Abaqus/Explicit, a model can contain elements that are not appropriate
for the particular analysis type chosen; such elements will be ignored. However, an Abaqus/Standard
model cannot contain elements that are not available in Abaqus/Standard; likewise, an Abaqus/Explicit
model cannot contain elements that are not available in Abaqus/Explicit. The same rule applies to
Abaqus/CFD.
Stress/displacement elements
Stress/displacement elements are used in the modeling of linear or complex nonlinear mechanical
analyses that possibly involve contact, plasticity, and/or large deformations. Stress/displacement
elements can also be used for thermal-stress analysis, where the temperature history can be obtained
from a heat transfer analysis carried out with diffusive elements.
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Analysis types
Stress/displacement elements can be used in the following analysis types:
• static and quasi-static analysis (“Static stress analysis procedures: overview,” Section 6.2.1);
• implicit transient dynamic, explicit transient dynamic, modal dynamic, and steady-state dynamic
analysis (“Dynamic analysis procedures: overview,” Section 6.3.1);
• “Acoustic, shock, and coupled acoustic-structural analysis,” Section 6.10.1; and
• “Fracture mechanics: overview,” Section 11.4.1.
Active degrees of freedom

Stress/displacement elements have only displacement degrees of freedom. See “Conventions,”
Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the degrees of freedom in Abaqus.
Choosing a stress/displacement element

Stress/displacement elements are available in several different element families.
Continuum elements
• “Solid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1; and
• “Infinite elements,” Section 28.3.1.
Structural elements
• “Membrane elements,” Section 29.1.1;
• “Truss elements,” Section 29.2.1;
• “Beam modeling: overview,” Section 29.3.1;
• “Frame elements,” Section 29.4.1;
• “Pipes and pipebends with deforming cross-sections: elbow elements,” Section 29.5.1; and
• “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1.
Rigid elements
• “Point masses,” Section 30.1.1;
• “Rotary inertia,” Section 30.2.1; and
• “Rigid elements,” Section 30.3.1.
Connector elements
• “Connector elements,” Section 31.1.2;
• “Springs,” Section 32.1.1;
• “Dashpots,” Section 32.2.1;
• “Flexible joint element,” Section 32.3.1;
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• “Tube support elements,” Section 32.8.1; and

• “Drag chains,” Section 32.11.1.
Special-purpose elements
• “Cohesive elements: overview,” Section 32.5.1;
• “Gasket elements: overview,” Section 32.6.1;
• “Surface elements,” Section 32.7.1;
• “Line spring elements for modeling part-through cracks in shells,” Section 32.9.1;
• “Elastic-plastic joints,” Section 32.10.1; and
• “Eulerian elements,” Section 32.14.1.
Contact elements
• “Gap contact elements,” Section 39.2.1;
• “Tube-to-tube contact elements,” Section 39.3.1;
• “Slide line contact elements,” Section 39.4.1; and
• “Rigid surface contact elements,” Section 39.5.1.
Pore pressure elements
Pore pressure elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard for modeling fully or partially saturated fluid
flow through a deforming porous medium. The names of all pore pressure elements include the letter P
(pore pressure). These elements cannot be used with hydrostatic fluid elements.
Analysis types
Pore pressure elements can be used in the following analysis types:
• soils analysis (“Coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress analysis,” Section 6.8.1); and
• geostatic analysis (“Geostatic stress state,” Section 6.8.2).

Pore pressure elements have both displacement and pore pressure degrees of freedom. In second-order
elements the pore pressure degrees of freedom are active only at the corner nodes. See “Conventions,”
Interpolation
These elements use either linear- or second-order (quadratic) interpolation for the geometry and
displacements in two or three directions. The pore pressure is interpolated linearly from the corner
nodes. Curved element edges should be avoided; exact linear spatial pore pressure variations cannot be
obtained with curved edges.
For output purposes the pore pressure at the midside nodes of second-order elements is determined
by linear interpolation from the corner nodes.
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Choosing a pore pressure element

Pore pressure elements are available only in the following element family:
• “Solid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1.
Coupled temperature-displacement elements
Coupled temperature-displacement elements are used in problems for which the stress analysis depends
on the temperature solution and the thermal analysis depends on the displacement solution. An example
is the heating of a deforming body whose properties are temperature dependent by plastic dissipation or
friction. The names of all coupled temperature-displacement elements include the letter T.
Analysis types
Coupled temperature-displacement elements are for use in fully coupled temperature-displacement
analysis (“Fully coupled thermal-stress analysis,” Section 6.5.3).

Coupled temperature-displacement elements have both displacement and temperature degrees of
freedom. In second-order elements the temperature degrees of freedom are active at the corner nodes.
In modified triangle and tetrahedron elements the temperature degrees of freedom are active at every
node. See “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the degrees of freedom in Abaqus.
Interpolation
Coupled temperature-displacement elements use either linear or parabolic interpolation for the geometry
and displacements. The temperature is always interpolated linearly. In second-order elements curved
edges should be avoided; exact linear spatial temperature variations for these elements cannot be obtained
with curved edges.
For output purposes the temperature at the midside nodes of second-order elements is determined
by linear interpolation from the corner nodes.
Choosing a coupled temperature-displacement element

Coupled temperature-displacement elements are available in the following element families:
• “Solid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1;

• “Truss elements,” Section 29.2.1;
• “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1;
• “Gap contact elements,” Section 39.2.1; and
• “Slide line contact elements,” Section 39.4.1.
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Coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements
Coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements are used when a solution for the displacement, electrical
potential, and temperature degrees of freedom must be obtained simultaneously. In these types
of problems, coupling between the temperature and displacement degrees of freedom arises from
temperature-dependent material properties, thermal expansion, and internal heat generation, which
is a function of inelastic deformation of the material. The coupling between the temperature and
electrical degrees of freedom arises from temperature-dependent electrical conductivity and internal
heat generation (Joule heating), which is a function of the electrical current density. The names of the
coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements begin with the letter Q.
Analysis types
Coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements are for use in a fully coupled thermal-electrical-structural
analysis (“Fully coupled thermal-electrical-structural analysis,” Section 6.7.4).

Coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements have displacement, electrical potential, and temperature
degrees of freedom. In second-order elements the electrical potential and temperature degrees of freedom
are active at the corner nodes. In modified tetrahedron elements the electrical potential and temperature
degrees of freedom are active at every node. See “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the
degrees of freedom in Abaqus.
Interpolation
Coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements use either linear or parabolic interpolation for the
geometry and displacements. The electrical potential and temperature are always interpolated linearly.
In second-order elements curved edges should be avoided; exact linear spatial electrical potential and
temperature variations for these elements cannot be obtained with curved edges.
For output purposes the electrical potential and temperature at the midside nodes of second-order
elements are determined by linear interpolation from the corner nodes.
Choosing a coupled thermal-electrical-structural element

Coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements are available only in the following element family:
Coupled temperature–pore pressure elements
Coupled temperature–pore pressure elements are used in Abaqus/Standard for modeling fully or partially
saturated fluid flow through a deforming porous medium in which the stress, fluid pore pressure, and
temperature fields are fully coupled to one another. The names of all coupled temperature–pore pressure
elements include the letters T and P. These elements cannot be used with hydrostatic fluid elements.
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Analysis types
Coupled temperature–pore pressure elements are for use in fully coupled temperature–pore pressure
analysis (“Coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress analysis,” Section 6.8.1).

Coupled temperature–pore pressure elements have displacement, pore pressure, and temperature degrees
of freedom. See “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the degrees of freedom in Abaqus.
Interpolation
These elements use either linear- or second-order (quadratic) interpolation for the geometry and
displacements. The temperature and pore pressure are always interpolated linearly.
Choosing a coupled temperature–pore pressure element

Coupled temperature–pore pressure elements are available in the following element family:
Diffusive (heat transfer) elements
Diffusive elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard for use in heat transfer analysis (“Uncoupled heat
transfer analysis,” Section 6.5.2), where they allow for heat storage (specific heat and latent heat effects)
and heat conduction. They provide temperature output that can be used directly as input to the equivalent
stress elements. The names of all diffusive heat transfer elements begin with the letter D.
Analysis types
The diffusive elements can be used in mass diffusion analysis (“Mass diffusion analysis,” Section 6.9.1)
as well as in heat transfer analysis.

When used for heat transfer analysis, the diffusive elements have only temperature degrees of freedom.
When they are used in a mass diffusion analysis, they have normalized concentration, instead of
temperature, degrees of freedom. See “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the degrees of
freedom in Abaqus.
Interpolation
The diffusive elements use either first-order (linear) interpolation or second-order (quadratic)
interpolation in one, two, or three dimensions.
Choosing a diffusive element

Diffusive elements are available in the following element families:
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• “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1 (these elements cannot be used in a mass diffusion
analysis); and
• “Gap contact elements,” Section 39.2.1.
Forced convection heat transfer elements
Forced convection heat transfer elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard to allow for heat storage
(specific heat) and heat conduction, as well as the convection of heat by a fluid flowing through the mesh
(forced convection). All forced convection heat transfer elements provide temperature output, which
can be used directly as input to the equivalent stress elements. The names of all forced convection heat
transfer elements begin with the letters DCC.
Analysis types
The forced convection heat transfer elements can be used in heat transfer analyses (“Uncoupled
heat transfer analysis,” Section 6.5.2), including cavity radiation modeling (“Cavity radiation,”
Section 40.1.1). The forced convection heat transfer elements can be used together with the diffusive
elements.

The forced convection heat transfer elements have temperature degrees of freedom. See “Conventions,”
Interpolation
The forced convection heat transfer elements use only first-order (linear) interpolation in one, two, or
three dimensions.
Choosing a forced convection heat transfer element

Forced convection heat transfer elements are available only in the following element family:
Incompressible flow elements
Hybrid elements suitable for incompressible flow are available in Abaqus/CFD. These elements permit
the automatic addition of degrees of freedom for the optional energy equation and turbulence models.
The names of all fluid elements begin with the letters FC.
Analysis types
The incompressible flow elements can be used in a variety of flow analyses (“Incompressible fluid
dynamic analysis,” Section 6.6.2), including laminar or turbulent flows, heat transfer, and fluid-solid
interaction.
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The incompressible flow elements provide primarily pressure and velocity degrees of freedom. See
“Fluid element library,” Section 28.2.2, for more information on the degrees of freedom in Abaqus/CFD.
Interpolation
The incompressible flow elements use only first-order (linear) interpolation in one, two, or three
dimensions.
Choosing an incompressible flow element

The incompressible flow elements are available only in the following element family:
• “Fluid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.2.1.
Coupled thermal-electrical elements
Coupled thermal-electrical elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard for use in modeling heating that
arises when an electrical current flows through a conductor (Joule heating).
Analysis types
The Joule heating effect requires full coupling of the thermal and electrical problems (see
“Coupled thermal-electrical analysis,” Section 6.7.3). The coupling arises from two sources:
temperature-dependent electrical conductivity and the heat generated in the thermal problem by electric
conduction.
These elements can also be used to perform uncoupled electric conduction analysis in all or part of
the model. In such analysis only the electric potential degree of freedom is activated, and all heat transfer
effects are ignored. This capability is available by omitting the thermal conductivity from the material
definition.
The coupled thermal-electrical elements can also be used in heat transfer analysis (“Uncoupled heat
transfer analysis,” Section 6.5.2), in which case all electric conduction effects are ignored. This feature is
quite useful if a coupled thermal-electrical analysis is followed by a pure heat conduction analysis (such
as a welding simulation followed by cool down).
The elements cannot be used in any of the stress/displacement analysis procedures.

Coupled thermal-electrical elements have both temperature and electrical potential degrees of freedom.
See “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the degrees of freedom in Abaqus.
Interpolation
Coupled thermal-electrical elements are provided with first- or second-order interpolation of the
temperature and electrical potential.
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Choosing a coupled thermal-electrical element

Coupled thermal-electrical elements are available only in the following element family:
Piezoelectric elements
Piezoelectric elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard for problems in which a coupling between the
stress and electrical potential (the piezoelectric effect) must be modeled.
Analysis types
Piezoelectric elements are for use in piezoelectric analysis (“Piezoelectric analysis,” Section 6.7.2).

The piezoelectric elements have both displacement and electric potential degrees of freedom. See
“Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the degrees of freedom in Abaqus. The piezoelectric
effect is discussed further in “Piezoelectric analysis,” Section 6.7.2.
Interpolation
Piezoelectric elements are available with first- or second-order interpolation of displacement and
electrical potential.
Choosing a piezoelectric element

Piezoelectric elements are available in the following element families:
• “Solid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1; and
• “Truss elements,” Section 29.2.1.
Electromagnetic elements
Electromagnetic elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard for problems that require the computation
of the magnetic fields (such as a magnetostatic analysis) or for problems in which a coupling between
electric and magnetic fields must be modeled (such as an eddy current analysis).
Analysis types
Electromagnetic elements are for use in magnetostatic and eddy current analyses (“Magnetostatic
analysis,” Section 6.7.6, and “Eddy current analysis,” Section 6.7.5).

Electromagnetic elements have magnetic vector potential as the degree of freedom. See “Conventions,”
Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the degrees of freedom in Abaqus. Magnetostatic analysis is discussed
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further in “Magnetostatic analysis,” Section 6.7.6, while the electromagnetic coupling that occurs in an
eddy current analysis is discussed further in “Eddy current analysis,” Section 6.7.5.
Interpolation
Electromagnetic elements are available with zero-order element edge–based interpolation of the
magnetic vector potential.
Choosing an electromagnetic element

Electromagnetic elements are available in the following element family:
Acoustic elements
Acoustic elements are used for modeling an acoustic medium undergoing small pressure changes. The
solution in the acoustic medium is defined by a single pressure variable. Impedance boundary conditions
representing absorbing surfaces or radiation to an infinite exterior are available on the surfaces of these
acoustic elements.
Acoustic infinite elements, which improve the accuracy of analyses involving exterior domains, and
acoustic-structural interface elements, which couple an acoustic medium to a structural model, are also
provided.
Analysis types
Acoustic elements are for use in acoustic and coupled acoustic-structural analysis (“Acoustic, shock, and
coupled acoustic-structural analysis,” Section 6.10.1).

Acoustic elements have acoustic pressure as a degree of freedom. Coupled acoustic-structural elements
also have displacement degrees of freedom. See “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, for a discussion of the
degrees of freedom in Abaqus.
Choosing an acoustic element

Acoustic elements are available in the following element families:
• “Infinite elements,” Section 28.3.1; and
• “Acoustic interface elements,” Section 32.13.1.
The acoustic elements can be used alone but are often used with a structural model in a coupled
analysis. “Acoustic interface elements,” Section 32.13.1, describes interface elements that allow this
acoustic pressure field to be coupled to the displacements of the surface of the structure. Acoustic
elements can also interact with solid elements through the use of surface-based tie constraints; see
“Acoustic, shock, and coupled acoustic-structural analysis,” Section 6.10.1.
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Using the same mesh with different analysis or element types
You may want to use the same mesh with different analysis or element types. This may occur, for
example, if both stress and heat transfer analyses are intended for a particular geometry or if the effect
of using either reduced- or full-integration elements is being investigated. Care should be taken when
doing this since unexpected error messages may result for one of the two element types if the mesh is
distorted. For example, a stress analysis with C3D10 elements may run successfully, but a heat transfer
analysis using the same mesh with DC3D10 elements may terminate during the datacheck portion of
the analysis with an error message stating that the elements are excessively distorted or have negative
volumes. This apparent inconsistency is caused by the different integration locations for the different
element types. Such problems can be avoided by ensuring that the mesh is not distorted excessively.
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SECTION CONTROLS
27.1.4 SECTION CONTROLS
Products: Abaqus/Standard Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/CAE
References
• *SECTION CONTROLS
• *HOURGLASS STIFFNESS
• “Element type assignment,” Section 17.5.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
Section controls in Abaqus/Standard:
• choose the hourglass control formulation for most first-order elements with reduced integration;
• define the distortion control for C3D10I elements;
• select the hourglass control scale factors for all elements with reduced integration; and
• select the choice of element deletion and the value of maximum degradation for cohesive elements,
connector elements, elements with plane stress formulations (plane stress, shell, continuum shell,
and membrane elements) with constitutive behavior that includes damage evolution, any element
that can be used with damage evolution models for ductile metals, and any element that can be used
with the damage evolution law in a low-cycle fatigue analysis.
Section controls in Abaqus/Explicit:
• choose the hourglass control formulation or scale factors for all elements with reduced integration;
• define the distortion control for solid elements;
• select the scale factors for the drill stiffness of shell elements or deactivate the drill stiffness for
small-strain shell elements S3RS and S4RS;
• select an amplitude for ramping of any initial stresses in membrane elements;
• select the kinematic formulation for hexahedron solid elements;
• select the accuracy order of the formulation for solid and shell elements;
• select the scale factors for linear and quadratic bulk viscosity parameters;
• select the choice of element deletion and the value of maximum degradation for elements with
constitutive behavior that includes damage evolution; and
• control many aspects related to a smoothed particle hydrodynamic (SPH) analysis.
In Abaqus/CAE section controls are specified when you assign an element type to particular mesh regions
and are referred to as element controls.
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Using section controls
In Abaqus/Standard section controls are used to select the enhanced hourglass control formulation for
solid, shell, and membrane elements. This formulation provides improved coarse mesh accuracy with
slightly higher computational cost and performs better for nonlinear material response at high strain
levels when compared with the default total stiffness formulation. Section controls can also be used to
select some element formulations that may be relevant for a subsequent Abaqus/Explicit analysis.
In Abaqus/Explicit the default formulations for solid, shell, and membrane elements have been
chosen to perform satisfactorily on a wide class of quasi-static and explicit dynamic simulations.
However, certain formulations give rise to some trade-off between accuracy and performance.
Abaqus/Explicit provides section controls to modify these element formulations so that you can
optimize these objectives for a specific application. Section controls can also be used in Abaqus/Explicit
to specify scale factors for linear and quadratic bulk viscosity parameters. You can also control the
initial stresses in membrane elements for applications such as airbags in crash simulations and introduce
the initial stresses gradually based on an amplitude definition.
In addition, section controls are used to specify the maximum stiffness degradation and to choose
the behavior upon complete failure of an element, once the material stiffness is fully degraded,
including the removal of failed elements from the mesh. This functionality applies only to elements
with a material definition that includes progressive damage (see “Progressive damage and failure,”
Section 24.1.1; “Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7; and “Defining the constitutive response
of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6). In Abaqus/Standard this
functionality is limited to
• cohesive elements with a traction-separation constitutive response that includes damage evolution,
• any element with a plane stress formulation that can be used with the damage evolution model for
fiber-reinforced composites,
• any element that can be used with the damage evolution models for ductile metals,
• any element that can be used with the damage evolution law in a low-cycle fatigue analysis, and
• connector elements with a constitutive response that includes damage evolution.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a section controls definition:
*SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name
This option is used in conjunction with one or more of the following options to
associate the section control definition with an element section definition:
*COHESIVE SECTION, CONTROLS=name
*CONNECTOR SECTION, CONTROLS=name
*EULERIAN SECTION, CONTROLS=name
*MEMBRANE SECTION, CONTROLS=name
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, CONTROLS=name
*SHELL SECTION, CONTROLS=name
*SOLID SECTION, CONTROLS=name
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You can apply a single section control definition to several element section
definitions.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Element Controls
Methods for suppressing hourglass modes
The formulation for reduced-integration elements considers only the linearly varying part of the
incremental displacement field in the element for the calculation of the increment of physical strain. The
remaining part of the nodal incremental displacement field is the hourglass field and can be expressed
in terms of hourglass modes.
Excitation of these modes may lead to severe mesh distortion, with no stresses resisting the
deformation. Similarly, the formulation for element type C3D4H considers in the constraint equations
only the constant part of the incremental pressure Lagrange multiplier field. The remaining part of the
nodal incremental pressure Lagrange multiplier interpolation is comprised of hourglass modes.
Hourglass control attempts to minimize these problems without introducing excessive constraints
on the element’s physical response.
Several methods are available in Abaqus for suppressing the hourglass modes, as described below.
Integral viscoelastic approach in Abaqus/Explicit

The integral viscoelastic approach available in Abaqus/Explicit generates more resistance to hourglass
forces early in the analysis step where sudden dynamic loading is more probable.
Let q be an hourglass mode magnitude and Q be the force (or moment) conjugate to q. The integral
viscoelastic approach is defined as
where K is the hourglass stiffness selected by Abaqus/Explicit, and s is one of up to three scaling factors
, , and that you can define (by default, ). The scale factors are dimensionless
and relate to specific displacement degrees of freedom. For solid and membrane elements scales
all hourglass stiffnesses. For shell elements scales the hourglass stiffnesses related to the in-plane
displacement degrees of freedom, and scales the hourglass stiffnesses related to the rotational degrees
of freedom. In addition, scales the hourglass stiffness related to the transverse displacement for small-
strain shell elements.
The integral viscoelastic form of hourglass control is available for all reduced-integration elements
and is the default form in Abaqus/Explicit, except for elements modeled with hyperelastic, hyperfoam,
and low-density foam materials. It is the most computationally intensive hourglass control method. It is
not supported for Eulerian EC3D8R elements.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name,
HOURGLASS=RELAX STIFFNESS
, ,
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Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Hourglass control:

Relax stiffness, Displacement hourglass scaling factor:
, Rotational hourglass scaling factor: , Out-of-plane
displacement hourglass scaling factor:
Kelvin viscoelastic approach in Abaqus/Explicit

The Kelvin-type viscoelastic approach available in Abaqus/Explicit is defined as
where K is the linear stiffness and C is the linear viscous coefficient. This general form has pure stiffness
and pure viscous hourglass control as limiting cases. When the combination is used, the stiffness term
acts to maintain a nominal resistance to hourglassing throughout the simulation and the viscous term
generates additional resistance to hourglassing under dynamic loading conditions.
Three approaches are provided in Abaqus/Explicit for specifying Kelvin viscoelastic hourglass
control.
Specifying the pure stiffness approach

The pure stiffness form of hourglass control is available for all reduced-integration elements and is
recommended for both quasi-static and transient dynamic simulations.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, HOURGLASS=STIFFNESS
, ,
Stiffness, Displacement hourglass scaling factor: , Rotational
hourglass scaling factor: , Out-of-plane displacement
hourglass scaling factor:
Specifying the pure viscous approach

The pure viscous form of hourglass control is available only for solid and membrane elements with
reduced integration and is the default form in Abaqus/Explicit for Eulerian EC3D8R elements. It is the
most computationally efficient form of hourglass control and has been shown to be effective for high-rate
dynamic simulations. However, the pure viscous method is not recommended for low frequency dynamic
or quasi-static problems since continuous (static) loading in hourglass modes will result in excessive
hourglass deformation due to the lack of any nominal stiffness.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, HOURGLASS=VISCOUS
, ,
Viscous, Displacement hourglass scaling factor: , Rotational
hourglass scaling factor: , Out-of-plane displacement
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Specifying a combination of stiffness and viscous hourglass control

A linear combination of stiffness and viscous hourglass control is available only for solid and membrane
elements with reduced integration. You can specify the blending weight factor ( ) to scale the
stiffness and viscous contributions. Specifying a weight factor equal to 0.0 or 1.0 results in the limiting
cases of pure stiffness and pure viscous hourglass control, respectively. The default weight factor is 0.5.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, HOURGLASS=COMBINED,
WEIGHT FACTOR=
, ,
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Hourglass control: Combined,
Stiffness-viscous weight factor: , Displacement hourglass scaling
factor: , Rotational hourglass scaling factor: , Out-of-plane
displacement hourglass scaling factor:
Total stiffness approach in Abaqus/Standard

The total stiffness approach available in Abaqus/Standard is the default hourglass control approach for
all first-order, reduced-integration elements in Abaqus/Standard, except for elements modeled with
hyperelastic, hyperfoam, or hysteresis materials. It is the only hourglass control approach available
in Abaqus/Standard for S8R5, S9R5, and M3D9R elements and the only hourglass control approach
available for the pressure Lagrange multiplier interpolation for C3D4H elements. Hourglass stiffness
factors for first-order, reduced-integration elements depend on the shear modulus, while factors for
C3D4H elements depend on the bulk modulus. A scale factor can be applied to these stiffness factors to
increase or decrease the hourglass stiffness.
Let q be an hourglass mode magnitude and Q be the force (moment, pressure, or volumetric flux)
conjugate to q. The total stiffness approach for hourglass control in membrane or solid elements or
membrane hourglass control in shell elements is defined as
where is a dimensionless scale factor (by default, ); is an hourglass stiffness factor

with units of stress; is the gradient interpolator used to define constant gradients in the element
( where the superscript P refers to an element node, the subscript refers to a
direction, and is a material coordinate); and V is the element volume. Similarly, the hourglass control
for the pressure Lagrange multiplier interpolation for C3D4H elements is defined as
where is a dimensionless scale factor (by default, ); is a volumetric gradient operator;

and is an hourglass stiffness factor with units of stress for compressible hyperelastic and hyperfoam
materials and units of stress compliance for all other materials. The total stiffness approach for bending
hourglass control in shell elements is defined as
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where is the scale factor (by default, ), is the hourglass stiffness factor, t is the thickness
of the shell element, and A is the area of the shell element.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, HOURGLASS=STIFFNESS
, , , , ,
Stiffness, Displacement hourglass scaling factor: , Rotational
Default hourglass stiffness values

Normally the hourglass control stiffness is defined from the elasticity associated with the material. In
most cases, the control stiffness of first-order, reduced-integration elements is based on a typical value
of the initial shear modulus of the material, which may, for example, be given as part of the elastic
material definition (“Linear elastic behavior,” Section 22.2.1). Similarly, hourglass control stiffness of
the reduced-integration pressure and volumetric Lagrange multiplier interpolations of C3D4H elements
is based on a typical value of the initial bulk modulus. For an isotropic elastic or hyperelastic material
G is the shear modulus. For a nonisotropic elastic material average moduli are used to calculate the
hourglass stiffness: for orthotropic elasticity defined by specifying the terms in the elastic stiffness matrix
or for anisotropic elasticity
and for orthotropic elasticity defined by specifying the engineering constants or for orthotropic elasticity
in plane stress
If the elastic moduli are dependent on temperature or field variables, the first value in the table is
used. The default values for the stiffness factors are defined below.
For membrane or solid elements
For membrane hourglass control in a shell
For control of bending hourglass modes in a shell
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For a general shell section defined by specifying the equivalent section properties directly, t is defined as
and an effective shear modulus for the section is used to calculate the hourglass stiffness:
where is the section stiffness matrix.
User-defined hourglass stiffness

When the initial shear modulus is not defined, you must define the hourglass stiffness parameters; an
example is when user subroutine UMAT is used to describe the material behavior of elements with
hourglassing modes. In some cases the default value provided for the hourglass control stiffness may
not be suitable and you should define the value.
In some coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress analyses the prevailing pore pressure in the medium
may approach the magnitude of the stiffness of the material skeleton, as measured by constitutive
parameters such as the elastic modulus. These cases are expected in some partial saturation evaluations
of the wetting of relatively compliant materials such as tissues or cloth. When reduced-integration or
modified tetrahedral or triangular elements are used in such analyses, the default choice of the hourglass
control stiffness parameter, which is based on a scaling of skeleton material constitutive parameters,
may not be adequate to control hourglassing in the presence of large pore pressure fields. An appropriate
hourglass control stiffness in these cases should scale with the expected magnitude of pore pressure
changes over an element.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify nondefault values for the hourglass stiffness
factors:
*HOURGLASS STIFFNESS
, , , drilling hourglass scaling factor for shells
This option must immediately follow one of the following options:
*MEMBRANE SECTION
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION
*SHELL SECTION
*SOLID SECTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Hourglass stiffness: Specify
or for shells Membrane hourglass stiffness: Specify , Bending
hourglass stiffness: Specify , and Drilling hourglass scaling
factor: Specify drilling hourglass scaling factor for shells
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Enhanced hourglass control approach in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
The enhanced hourglass control approach available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
represents a refinement of the pure stiffness method in which the stiffness coefficients are based on
the enhanced assumed strain method; no scale factor is required. It is the default hourglass control
approach for hyperelastic, hyperfoam, and low-density foam materials in Abaqus/Explicit and for
hyperelastic, hyperfoam, and hysteresis materials in Abaqus/Standard. This method gives more accurate
displacement solutions for coarse meshes with linear elastic materials as compared to other hourglass
control methods. It also provides increased resistance to hourglassing for nonlinear materials. Although
generally beneficial, this may give overly stiff response in problems displaying plastic yielding under
bending. In Abaqus/Explicit the enhanced hourglass method will generally predict a much better return
to the original configuration for hyperelastic or hyperfoam materials when loading is removed.
The enhanced hourglass control approach is compatible between Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit. It is recommended that enhanced hourglass control be used for both Abaqus/Standard
and Abaqus/Explicit for all import analyses. See “Transferring results between Abaqus/Explicit and
Abaqus/Standard,” Section 9.2.2.
The enhanced hourglass method is not supported for enriched elements (see “Modeling
discontinuities as an enriched feature using the extended finite element method,” Section 10.7.1).
Specifying the enhanced hourglass control approach
The enhanced hourglass control method is available for first-order solid, membrane, and finite-strain shell
elements with reduced integration. In Abaqus/Explicit it cannot be used for a hyperelastic or hyperfoam
material when adaptive meshing is used on that domain (see the discussion below).
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, HOURGLASS=ENHANCED
Any scaling factors specified on the data line following this option will be
ignored.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Hourglass control: Enhanced
Special considerations for hyperelastic and hyperfoam materials in an adaptive mesh domain in
Abaqus/Explicit
The enhanced hourglass method cannot be used with elements modeled with hyperelastic or hyperfoam
materials that are included in an adaptive mesh domain. Thus, if you decide to use hyperelastic or
hyperfoam materials in an adaptive mesh domain, you must specify section controls to choose a
different hourglass control approach. The use of adaptive meshing in domains modeled with finite-strain
elastic materials is not recommended since better results are generally predicted using the enhanced
hourglass method and, for solid elements, element distortion control (discussed below). Therefore, for
these materials it is recommended that the analysis be run without adaptive meshing but with enhanced
hourglass control.
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Use in coupled pore pressure analysis

When first-order, reduced-integration, or modified tetrahedral or triangular elements are used in coupled
pore fluid diffusion and stress analyses or coupled temperature–pore pressure analyses with enhanced
hourglass control, the hourglass control stiffness, which is based on skeleton material constitutive
parameters, may not be adequate to control hourglassing in the presence of large pore pressure fields.
Since enhanced hourglass control does not allow you to change the hourglass control stiffness, it is
recommended that total stiffness hourglass control be used in these cases with an appropriate hourglass
control stiffness scaled with the expected magnitude of pore pressure changes over an element.
Controlling element distortion for crushable materials in Abaqus/Explicit
Many analyses with volumetrically compacting materials such as crushable foams see large compressive
and shear deformations, especially when the crushable materials are used as energy absorbers between
stiff or heavy components. The material behavior for crushable materials usually stiffens significantly
under high compression. When a finer mesh is used, the stiffening behavior of the material model is
enough to prevent excessive negative element volumes or other excessive distortion from occurring under
high compressive loads. However, analyses may fail prematurely when the mesh is coarse relative to
strain gradients and the amount of compression.
Abaqus/Explicit offers distortion control to prevent solid elements from inverting or distorting
excessively for these cases. The constraint method used in Abaqus/Explicit prevents each node on an
element from punching inward toward the center of the element past a point where the element would
become non-convex. Constraints are enforced by using a penalty approach, and you can control the
associated distortion length ratio.
Distortion control is available only for solid elements and cannot be used when the elements are
included in an adaptive mesh domain. Distortion control is activated by default for elements modeled
with hyperelastic, hyperfoam, or low-density foam materials. Using adaptive meshing in a domain
modeled with hyperelastic or hyperfoam materials is not recommended since better results are generally
predicted using the enhanced hourglass method in combination with element distortion control. However,
if you decide to use hyperelastic or hyperfoam materials in an adaptive mesh domain, you must specify
section controls to deactivate distortion control.
If distortion control is used, the energy dissipated by distortion control can be output upon request
(see “Abaqus/Explicit output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.2, for details). Although developed for
analyses of energy absorbing, volumetrically compacting materials, distortion control can be used with
any material model. However, care must be used in interpreting results since the distortion control
constraints may inhibit legitimate deformation modes and lock up the mesh. Distortion control cannot
prevent elements from being distorted due to temporal instabilities, hourglass instabilities, or physically
unrealistic deformation.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to activate distortion control:
*SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, DISTORTION CONTROL=YES
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Use the following option to deactivate distortion control:

*SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, DISTORTION CONTROL=NO
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Distortion control: Yes or No
Controlling the distortion length ratio

By default, the constraint penalty forces are applied when the node moves to a point a small offset
distance away from the actual plane of constraint. This appears to improve the robustness of the method
and limits the reduction of time increment due to severe shortening of the element characteristic length.
This offset distance is determined by the distortion length ratio times the initial element characteristic
length. The default value of the distortion length ratio, r, is 0.1. You can change the distortion length
ratio by specifying a value for r, .
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, DISTORTION CONTROL=YES,
LENGTH RATIO=r
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Distortion control:
Yes, Length ratio: r
Selecting a scale factor for the drill stiffness in Abaqus/Explicit
A drill constraint acts to keep the element nodal rotations in the direction of the shell normal consistent
with the average in-plane rotation of the element. Lack of such a constraint can lead to large rotations at
these element nodes. Section controls can be used to select a scale factor for the default drill stiffness of
an individual element set.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to specify a scale factor for the drill stiffness:
, , , , , , , scale factor for drill stiffness
Drill constraint in small strain shell elements S3RS and S4RS in Abaqus/Explicit
The formulation of small strain shell elements S3RS and S4RS includes a drill constraint and does so by
default. Alternatively, you can deactivate the drill constraint for these elements. The drill constraint is
always active for the finite strain conventional shell elements such as S4R, but the default value of the
drill stiffness can be scaled as mentioned above.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to activate the drill constraint (default):
*SECTION CONTROLS, DRILL STIFFNESS=ON
Use the following option to deactivate the drill constraint:
*SECTION CONTROLS, DRILL STIFFNESS=OFF
Ramping of initial stresses in membrane elements in Abaqus/Explicit
For applications such as airbags in crash simulations the initial strains (hence, the initial stresses) are
introduced into the model through a reference configuration that is different from the initial configuration.
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Often the components that confine the airbag in the initial configuration are excluded from the numerical
model causing motion of the airbag under initial stresses at the beginning of the analysis. Abaqus/Explicit
provides a technique to introduce the initial stresses in the membrane elements gradually based on an
amplitude definition. This amplitude must be defined with its value starting from zero and reaching a
final value of one. The initial stresses will not be applied for the duration that the amplitude stays at zero.
Input File Usage: Use both of the following options:
*AMPLITUDE, NAME=name
*SECTION CONTROLS, RAMP INITIAL STRESS=name
Defining the kinematic formulation for hexahedron solid elements
The default kinematic formulation for reduced-integration solid elements in Abaqus (and the only
kinematic formulation available in Abaqus/Standard) is based on the uniform strain operator and the
hourglass shape vectors. Details can be found in “Solid isoparametric quadrilaterals and hexahedra,”
Section 3.2.4 of the Abaqus Theory Manual. These kinematic assumptions result in elements that pass
the constant strain patch test for a general configuration and give zero strain under large rigid body
rotation. However, the formulation is relatively expensive, especially in three dimensions.
Abaqus/Explicit offers two alternative kinematic formulations for the C3D8R solid element that
can reduce the computational cost. The performance for each kinematic formulation on the patch test
and under large rigid body rotation for various element configurations is summarized in Table 27.1.4–1.
Suitable applications for each kinematic formulation are summarized in Table 27.1.4–2.
Table 27.1.4–1 Element performance for patch test and large rigid
body rotations for various element configurations.
Element Kinematic formulation type

configuration
Average Orthogonal Centroid
strain
Satisfaction of the Parallelepiped Yes Yes Yes
three-dimensional
General Yes No No
patch test
Zero straining under Parallelepiped Yes Yes Yes
rigid body rotation
General Yes Yes No
You can specify the kinematic formulation for 8-node brick elements.
Default formulation
The default average strain formulation of uniform strain and hourglass shape vectors is the only
formulation available in Abaqus/Standard. This formulation is recommended for all problems and is
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Table 27.1.4–2 Different element formulations and their suitable

applications. The default formulation is highlighted below.
Kinematic Order of Suitable applications

formulation accuracy
Average strain Second-order All; recommended for problems involving
a large number of revolutions (>5).
Average strain First-order All; except those involving a large number
of revolutions (>5).
Orthogonal — All; except those involving high
confinement, very coarse meshes, or
highly distorted elements.
Centroid — Problems with little rigid body rotation
and reasonable mesh refinement.
particularly well suited for applications exhibiting high confinement, such as closed-die forming and
bushing analyses.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, KINEMATIC SPLIT=AVERAGE STRAIN
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Kinematic split: Average strain
Orthogonal formulation in Abaqus/Explicit

A noticeable reduction in computational cost can be obtained by using the orthogonal formulation
available in Abaqus/Explicit. This formulation is based on the centroidal strain operator and a slight
modification to the hourglass shape vectors. The centroidal strain operator requires three times fewer
floating point operations than the uniform strain operator. Elements formulated with an orthogonal
kinematic split pass the patch test only for rectangular or parallelepiped element configurations.
However, numerical experience has shown that the element converges on the exact solution for general
element configurations as the mesh is refined. It also performs well for large rigid body motions.
This formulation provides a good balance between computational speed and accuracy. It is
recommended for all analyses except those involving highly distorted elements, very coarse meshes, or
high confinement. Suitable applications for this formulation include elastic drop testing.
KINEMATIC SPLIT=ORTHOGONAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Kinematic split: Orthogonal
Centroid formulation in Abaqus/Explicit

The fastest formulation available in Abaqus/Explicit is specified by selecting the centroid formulation.
The centroid formulation is based on the centroidal strain operator and the hourglass base vectors. Using
the hourglass base vectors instead of the hourglass shape vectors reduces hourglass mode computations
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by a factor of three. However, the hourglass base vectors are not orthogonal to rigid body rotation for
general element configurations, so that hourglass strain may be generated with large rigid body rotations
with this formulation.
This formulation should be used only to improve computational performance on problems that have
reasonable mesh refinement and no significant amount of rigid body rotation (e.g., transient flat rolling
simulation).
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, KINEMATIC SPLIT=CENTROID
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Kinematic split: Centroid
Choosing the order of accuracy in solid and shell element formulations
Abaqus/Standard offers only a second-order accurate formulation for all elements.

Abaqus/Explicit offers both first- and second-order accurate formulations for solid and shell
elements. First-order accuracy is the default and yields sufficient accuracy for nearly all Abaqus/Explicit
problems because of the inherently small time increment size. Second-order accuracy is usually required
for analyses with components undergoing a large number of revolutions (>5). For three-dimensional
solids the second-order accuracy formulation is available only with the default average strain kinematic
formulation.
First-order accuracy
In Abaqus/Explicit the first-order accurate formulation for solid and shell elements is the default. This
formulation is not available in Abaqus/Standard.
SECOND ORDER ACCURACY=NO
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Second-order accuracy: No
Second-order accuracy
The second-order accurate element formulation is appropriate for problems with a large number of
revolutions (>5). This is the only formulation available in Abaqus/Standard. “Simulation of propeller
rotation,” Section 2.3.15 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, illustrates the performance of second-order
accurate shell and solid elements in Abaqus/Explicit as they undergo about 100 revolutions.
SECOND ORDER ACCURACY=YES
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Second-order accuracy: Yes
Selecting scale factors for bulk viscosity in Abaqus/Explicit
Bulk viscosity introduces damping associated with volumetric straining. Its purpose is to improve the
modeling of high-speed dynamic events. Abaqus/Explicit contains two forms of bulk viscosity, linear
and quadratic, which can be defined for the whole model at each step of the analysis, as discussed in
“Bulk viscosity” in “Explicit dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.3. Section controls can be used to select
scale factors for the linear and quadratic bulk viscosities of an individual element set.
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The pressure term generated by bulk viscosity may introduce unexpected results in the volumetric
response of highly compressible materials; therefore, it is recommended to suppress bulk viscosity for
these materials by specifying scale factors equal to zero.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to specify scale factors for the linear and quadratic
bulk viscosities:
, , , scale factor for linear bulk viscosity, scale factor for quadratic bulk viscosity
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Linear bulk viscosity scaling
factor or Quadratic bulk viscosity scaling factor
Controlling element deletion and maximum degradation for materials with damage evolution
Abaqus offers a general capability for modeling progressive damage and failure of materials
(“Progressive damage and failure,” Section 24.1.1). In Abaqus/Standard this capability is available
only for cohesive elements, connector elements, elements with plane stress formulations (plane stress,
shell, continuum shell, and membrane elements), any element that can be used with the damage
evolution models for ductile metals, and any element that can be used with the damage evolution law
in a low-cycle fatigue analysis. In Abaqus/Explicit this capability is available for all elements with
progressive damage behavior except connector elements. Section controls are provided to specify
the value of the maximum stiffness degradation, , and whether element deletion occurs when
the degradation reaches this level. By default, an element is deleted when it is fully damaged (i.e.,
). The choice of element deletion also affects how the damage is applied; details can be
found in the following sections:
• “Maximum degradation and choice of element removal” in “Damage evolution and element removal
for ductile metals,” Section 24.2.3;
• “Maximum degradation and choice of element removal in Abaqus/Standard” in “Connector damage
behavior,” Section 31.2.7;
• “Maximum degradation and choice of element removal” in “Defining the constitutive response of
cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6;
• “Maximum degradation and choice of element removal” in “Damage evolution and element removal
for fiber-reinforced composites,” Section 24.3.3; and
• “Damage evolution for ductile materials in low-cycle fatigue,” Section 24.4.3.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to delete the element from the mesh:
*SECTION CONTROLS, ELEMENT DELETION=YES
Use the following option to keep the element in the computation:
*SECTION CONTROLS, ELEMENT DELETION=NO
Use the following option to specify :
*SECTION CONTROLS, MAX DEGRADATION= .
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Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option to control whether completely damaged elements
remain in the computation:
Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Element deletion
Use the following option to determine when an element is considered
completely damaged:
Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Max degradation
Using viscous regularization with cohesive elements, connector elements, and elements
that can be used with the damage evolution models for ductile metals and fiber-reinforced
composites in Abaqus/Standard
Material models exhibiting softening behavior and stiffness degradation often lead to severe convergence
difficulties in implicit analysis programs, such as Abaqus/Standard. A common technique to overcome
some of these convergence difficulties is the use of viscous regularization of the constitutive equations,
which causes the tangent stiffness matrix of the softening material to be positive for sufficiently small
time increments.
The traction-separation laws used to describe the constitutive behavior of cohesive elements can be
regularized in Abaqus/Standard using viscosity, by permitting stresses to be outside the limits defined
by the traction-separation law. The details of the regularization procedure are discussed in “Viscous
regularization in Abaqus/Standard” in “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using
a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6. The same technique is also used to regularize the
following:
• damaged (softening) connector response (see “Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7),
• damaged response of elements with plane stress formulations when they are used with the damage
model for fiber-reinforced materials (see “Viscous regularization” in “Damage evolution and
element removal for fiber-reinforced composites,” Section 24.3.3), and
• damage response of elements used with the damage model for ductile metals (see “Damage
evolution and element removal for ductile metals,” Section 24.2.3).
You specify the amount of viscosity to be used for the regularization procedure. By default, no viscosity
is included so that no viscous regularization is performed.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, VISCOSITY=
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Viscosity
Using viscous damping with connector elements in Abaqus/Standard
Material failure in connector elements often causes convergence problems in Abaqus/Standard. To

avoid such convergence problems, you can introduce viscous damping into the connector components
by specifying the value of the damping coefficient as discussed in “Connector failure behavior,”
Section 31.2.9. By default, no damping is included.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, VISCOSITY=
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Viscosity
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Using section controls in an import analysis
The recommended procedure for doing import analysis is to specify the enhanced hourglass control
formulation in the original analysis. Once the section controls have been specified in the original analysis,
they cannot be modified in subsequent import analyses. This ensures that the enhanced hourglass control
formulation is used in the original as well as import analyses. The default values for other section controls
are usually appropriate and should not be changed. For further details on using section controls in an
import analysis, see “Transferring results between Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard,” Section 9.2.2.
Using section controls for flexion-torsion type connector
When the third axes of the two local coordinate systems for a flexion-torsion type connector are exactly
aligned, a numerical singularity occurs that may lead to convergence difficulties. To avoid this, a small
perturbation can be applied to the local coordinate system defined at the second connector node.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, PERTURBATION=small angle
Abaqus/CAE Usage: You cannot specify a perturbation for flexion-torsion type connectors in
Abaqus/CAE.
Using section controls for smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH)
You can control many aspects of the smoothed particle hydrodynamic (SPH) formulation implemented
in Abaqus/Explicit.
Using section controls for specifying the SPH kernel

For a smoothed particle hydrodynamic analysis, you can choose the order of the kernel used for
interpolation. For a list of references that discuss the various kernels that can be used, see “Smoothed
particle hydrodynamic analysis,” Section 15.1.1.
Input File Usage: Use one of the following options:
*SECTION CONTROLS, KERNEL=CUBIC
*SECTION CONTROLS, KERNEL=QUADRATIC
*SECTION CONTROLS, KERNEL=QUINTIC
Abaqus/CAE Usage: In Abaqus/CAE you can choose the order of the kernel used for interpolation
only in Abaqus/Explicit analyses involving the conversion of continuum
elements to SPH particles.
Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Conversion to particles:
Kernel: Cubic, Quadratic, or Quintic
Using section controls for specifying other SPH formulation parameters

You can control the way the smoothing length is computed (see “Smoothed particle hydrodynamic
analysis,” Section 15.1.1). You can specify the smoothing length (units of length) for precise control
of the radius of influence associated with a given particle. Alternatively, you can scale the default
smoothing length by specifying a dimensionless smoothing length factor. By default, the smoothing
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length is kept constant throughout the analysis. You can specify a variable smoothing length that will
increase or decrease during the analysis depending on the divergence of the velocity field, which is a
measure of compressive or expansive behavior.
By default, the maximum number of particles associated internally with a PC3D element cannot
exceed 140. You can modify this number; however, a large value leads to larger memory requirements
and, in most cases, to a significant degradation in performance.
You can specify a mean velocity filtering coefficient that is used for the modified coordinate updates
for particles. A zero value for this coefficient (default) leads to the classical SPH method. As discussed
in “Smoothed particle hydrodynamic analysis,” Section 15.1.1, a nonzero value for this coefficient leads
to the XSPH method.
By default, the SPH kernels satisfy the zero-order completeness requirement. A first-order
complete corrected (normalized) kernel is also available, which is sometimes referred in the literature
as the normalized SPH (NSPH) method. In high-deformation solid mechanics analyses the use of this
kernel may lead to more accurate results.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS
first data line
smoothing length, smoothing length factor, flag for variable smoothing length,
maximum number of neighboring particles, mean velocity filtering coefficient,
flag for corrected kernel
Abaqus/CAE Usage: In Abaqus/CAE you can only specify section controls for SPH parameters in
Abaqus/Explicit analyses involving the conversion of continuum elements to
SPH particles.
Using section controls for specifying the control box used for SPH particles
You can also control the rectangular region within which the particle search (finding all neighbors for
all particles) is performed. By default, a region that is 10% larger in all directions than the overall
model initial dimensions and is centered at the geometric center of the model is used. When a particle is
outside this box, it behaves like a free-flying point mass and does not contribute to the SPH calculations.
If necessary, you can enlarge (or shrink) this rectangular region by specifying the coordinates of two
opposite corners (lower left and upper right) of this box.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS
first data line
second data line
X, Y, and Z-coordinates (lower box corner) and X, Y, and Z-coordinates
(upper box corner)
Abaqus/CAE Usage: In Abaqus/CAE you can only specify section controls for SPH parameters in
Abaqus/Explicit analyses involving the conversion of continuum elements to
SPH particles.
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Using section controls to convert continuum elements to particles

Reduced-integration continuum elements can convert to particles if a certain criterion is met, as discussed
in “Finite element conversion to SPH particles,” Section 15.1.2. You can specify the number of particles
per parent element to be generated. Several criteria to trigger the conversion are available.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to prevent finite elements from converting to particles:
*SECTION CONTROLS, ELEMENT CONVERSION=NO (default)
Use the following option to trigger the conversion of finite elements to particles:
*SECTION CONTROLS, ELEMENT CONVERSION=YES
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Conversion to particles: No or Yes
Specifying the number of particles generated

You specify the number of particles to be generated per isoparametric direction. The number of particles
can range from 1 to 7.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, ELEMENT CONVERSION=YES
first data line
second data line
third data line
number of particles to be generated per isoparametric direction
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Conversion to particles: Yes,
PPD: number of particles to be generated per isoparametric direction
Specifying a time-based criterion

The time-based criterion is primarily intended as a modeling tool to allow all particles to convert from
the defined finite element mesh at the same time.
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, ELEMENT CONVERSION=YES,
CONVERSION CRITERION=TIME (default)
first data line
second data line
third data line
, time of conversion
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Conversion to particles:
Yes, Criterion: Time
Specifying a strain-based criterion

The strain-based criterion is primarily intended for cases in which you want to use a progressive
conversion approach. You specify the maximum principle strain (absolute value) when continuum
elements are to convert to SPH particles.
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SECTION CONTROLS

CONVERSION CRITERION=STRAIN
first data line
second data line
third data line
, maximum principle strain (absolute value)
Yes, Criterion: Strain
Specifying a stress-based criterion

Similar to the strain-based criterion, the stress-based criterion is primarily intended for cases in which
you want to use a progressive conversion approach. You specify the maximum principle stress (absolute
value) when continuum elements are to convert to SPH particles.
CONVERSION CRITERION=STRESS
first data line
second data line
third data line
, maximum principle stress (absolute value)
Yes, Criterion: Stress
Specifying a user subroutine–based criterion

The user subroutine–based criterion allows you to implement a user-defined conversion criterion. You
can control element conversion during the course of an Abaqus/Explicit analysis through any of the user
subroutines that can actively modify state variables associated with a material point, such as VUSDFLD
and VUMAT.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to trigger a user subroutine–based conversion
criterion:
*SECTION CONTROLS, ELEMENT CONVERSION=YES,
CONVERSION CRITERION=USER
(no data lines)
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Specifying a user subroutine–based criterion for element conversion is not
supported in Abaqus/CAE.
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28. Continuum Elements
General-purpose continuum elements 28.1

Fluid continuum elements 28.2
Infinite elements 28.3
Warping elements 28.4
Particle elements 28.5
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28.1 General-purpose continuum elements
• “Solid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1

• “One-dimensional solid (link) element library,” Section 28.1.2
• “Two-dimensional solid element library,” Section 28.1.3
• “Three-dimensional solid element library,” Section 28.1.4
• “Cylindrical solid element library,” Section 28.1.5
• “Axisymmetric solid element library,” Section 28.1.6
• “Axisymmetric solid elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation,” Section 28.1.7
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28.1.1 SOLID (CONTINUUM) ELEMENTS
References

• “One-dimensional solid (link) element library,” Section 28.1.2
• “Two-dimensional solid element library,” Section 28.1.3
• “Three-dimensional solid element library,” Section 28.1.4
• “Cylindrical solid element library,” Section 28.1.5
• “Axisymmetric solid element library,” Section 28.1.6
• “Axisymmetric solid elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation,” Section 28.1.7
• *SOLID SECTION
• “Creating homogeneous solid sections,” Section 12.13.1 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
online HTML version of this manual
• “Creating composite solid sections,” Section 12.13.4 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
• “Creating electromagnetic solid sections,” Section 12.13.5 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in
the online HTML version of this manual
• “Assigning a material orientation” in “Assigning a material orientation or rebar reference
orientation,” Section 12.15.4 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML version of
this manual
• Chapter 23, “Composite layups,” of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
Solid (continuum) elements:

• are the standard volume elements of Abaqus;
• do not include structural elements such as beams, shells, membranes, and trusses; special-purpose
elements such as gap elements; or connector elements such as connectors, springs, and dashpots;
• can be composed of a single homogeneous material or, in Abaqus/Standard, can include several
layers of different materials for the analysis of laminated composite solids; and
• are more accurate if not distorted, particularly for quadrilaterals and hexahedra. The triangular and
tetrahedral elements are less sensitive to distortion.
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Typical applications
The solid (or continuum) elements in Abaqus can be used for linear analysis and for complex nonlinear
analyses involving contact, plasticity, and large deformations. They are available for stress, heat transfer,
acoustic, coupled thermal-stress, coupled pore fluid-stress, piezoelectric, magnetostatic, electromagnetic,
and coupled thermal-electrical analyses (see “Choosing the appropriate element for an analysis type,”
Section 27.1.3).
Choosing an appropriate element
There are some differences in the solid element libraries available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Standard solid element library
The Abaqus/Standard solid element library includes first-order (linear) interpolation elements and
second-order (quadratic) interpolation elements in one, two, or three dimensions. Triangles and
quadrilaterals are available in two dimensions; and tetrahedra, triangular prisms, and hexahedra
(“bricks”) are provided in three dimensions. Modified second-order triangular and tetrahedral
elements are also provided.
Curved (parabolic) edges can be used on the quadratic elements but are not recommended for
pore pressure or coupled temperature-displacement elements. Cylindrical elements are provided
for structures with edges that are initially circular.
In addition, reduced-integration, hybrid, and incompatible mode elements are available in
Abaqus/Standard.
Electromagnetic elements, based on an edge-based interpolation of the magnetic vector
potential, are provided both in two and three dimensions.
Abaqus/Explicit solid element library

The Abaqus/Explicit solid element library includes first-order (linear) interpolation elements
and modified second-order interpolation elements in two or three dimensions. Triangular and
quadrilateral first-order elements are available in two dimensions; and tetrahedral, triangular
prism, and hexahedral (“brick”) first-order elements are available in three dimensions. The
modified second-order elements are limited to triangles and tetrahedra. The acoustic elements in
Abaqus/Explicit are limited to first-order (linear) interpolations. For incompatible mode elements
only three-dimensional elements are available.
Various two-dimensional models (plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric) are available in both
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit. See “Choosing the element’s dimensionality,” Section 27.1.2,
for details.
Given the wide variety of element types available, it is important to select the correct element
for a particular application. Choosing an element for a particular analysis can be simplified by
considering specific element characteristics: first- or second-order; full or reduced integration;
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hexahedra/quadrilaterals or tetrahedra/triangles; or normal, hybrid, or incompatible mode formulation.

By considering each of these aspects carefully, the best element for a given analysis can be selected.
Choosing between first- and second-order elements

In first-order plane strain, generalized plane strain, axisymmetric quadrilateral, hexahedral solid
elements, and cylindrical elements, the strain operator provides constant volumetric strain throughout
the element. This constant strain prevents mesh “locking” when the material response is approximately
incompressible (see “Solid isoparametric quadrilaterals and hexahedra,” Section 3.2.4 of the Abaqus
Theory Manual, for a more detailed discussion).
Second-order elements provide higher accuracy in Abaqus/Standard than first-order elements for
“smooth” problems that do not involve severe element distortions. They capture stress concentrations
more effectively and are better for modeling geometric features: they can model a curved surface with
fewer elements. Finally, second-order elements are very effective in bending-dominated problems.
First-order triangular and tetrahedral elements should be avoided as much as possible in stress
analysis problems; the elements are overly stiff and exhibit slow convergence with mesh refinement,
which is especially a problem with first-order tetrahedral elements. If they are required, an extremely
fine mesh may be needed to obtain results of sufficient accuracy.
Choosing between full- and reduced-integration elements

Reduced integration uses a lower-order integration to form the element stiffness. The mass matrix and
distributed loadings use full integration. Reduced integration reduces running time, especially in three
dimensions. For example, element type C3D20 has 27 integration points, while C3D20R has only 8;
therefore, element assembly is roughly 3.5 times more costly for C3D20 than for C3D20R.
In Abaqus/Standard you can choose between full or reduced integration for quadrilateral and
hexahedral (brick) elements. In Abaqus/Explicit you can choose between full or reduced integration
for hexahedral (brick) elements. Only reduced-integration first-order elements are available for
quadrilateral elements in Abaqus/Explicit; the elements with reduced integration are also referred to as
uniform strain or centroid strain elements with hourglass control.
Second-order reduced-integration elements in Abaqus/Standard generally yield more accurate
results than the corresponding fully integrated elements. However, for first-order elements the accuracy
achieved with full versus reduced integration is largely dependent on the nature of the problem.
Hourglassing
Hourglassing can be a problem with first-order, reduced-integration elements (CPS4R, CAX4R, C3D8R,
etc.) in stress/displacement analyses. Since the elements have only one integration point, it is possible
for them to distort in such a way that the strains calculated at the integration point are all zero, which, in
turn, leads to uncontrolled distortion of the mesh. First-order, reduced-integration elements in Abaqus
include hourglass control, but they should be used with reasonably fine meshes. Hourglassing can also
be minimized by distributing point loads and boundary conditions over a number of adjacent nodes.
In Abaqus/Standard the second-order reduced-integration elements, with the exception of the
27-node C3D27R and C3D27RH elements, do not have the same difficulty and are recommended in all
cases when the solution is expected to be smooth. The C3D27R and C3D27RH elements have three
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unconstrained, propagating hourglass modes when all 27 nodes are present. These elements should
not be used with all 27 nodes, unless they are sufficiently constrained through boundary conditions.
First-order elements are recommended when large strains or very high strain gradients are expected.
Shear and volumetric locking

Fully integrated elements in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit do not hourglass but may suffer
from “locking” behavior: both shear and volumetric locking. Shear locking occurs in first-order, fully
integrated elements (CPS4, CPE4, C3D8, etc.) that are subjected to bending. The numerical formulation
of the elements gives rise to shear strains that do not really exist—the so-called parasitic shear. Therefore,
these elements are too stiff in bending, in particular if the element length is of the same order of magnitude
as or greater than the wall thickness. See “Performance of continuum and shell elements for linear
analysis of bending problems,” Section 2.3.5 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, for further discussion
of the bending behavior of solid elements.
Volumetric locking occurs in fully integrated elements when the material behavior is (almost)
incompressible. Spurious pressure stresses develop at the integration points, causing an element to
behave too stiffly for deformations that should cause no volume changes. If materials are almost
incompressible (elastic-plastic materials for which the plastic strains are incompressible), second-order,
fully integrated elements start to develop volumetric locking when the plastic strains are on the order of
the elastic strains. However, the first-order, fully integrated quadrilaterals and hexahedra use selectively
reduced integration (reduced integration on the volumetric terms). Therefore, these elements do not
lock with almost incompressible materials. Reduced-integration, second-order elements develop
volumetric locking for almost incompressible materials only after significant straining occurs. In this
case, volumetric locking is often accompanied by a mode that looks like hourglassing. Frequently, this
problem can be avoided by refining the mesh in regions of large plastic strain.
If volumetric locking is suspected, check the pressure stress at the integration points (printed output).
If the pressure values show a checkerboard pattern, changing significantly from one integration point to
the next, volumetric locking is occurring. Choosing a quilt-style contour plot in the Visualization module
of Abaqus/CAE will show the effect.
Specifying nondefault section controls

You can specify a nondefault hourglass control formulation or scale factor for reduced-integration
first-order elements (4-node quadrilaterals and 8-node bricks with one integration point). See “Section
controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more information about section controls.
In Abaqus/Explicit section controls can also be used to specify a nondefault kinematic formulation
for 8-node brick elements, the accuracy order of the element formulation, and distortion control for either
4-node quadrilateral or 8-node brick elements. Section controls are also used with coupled temperature-
displacement elements in Abaqus/Explicit to change the default values for the mechanical response
analysis.
In Abaqus/Standard you can specify nondefault hourglass stiffness factors based on the default total
stiffness approach for reduced-integration first-order elements (4-node quadrilaterals and 8-node bricks
with one integration point) and modified tetrahedral and triangular elements.
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There are no hourglass stiffness factors or scale factors for the nondefault enhanced hourglass
control formulation. See “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more information about hourglass
control.
Input File Usage: Use both of the following options to associate a section control definition with
the element section definition:
*SOLID SECTION, CONTROLS=name
Use both of the following options in Abaqus/Standard to specify nondefault
hourglass stiffness factors for the total stiffness approach:
*SOLID SECTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module:
Element Type: Element Controls
Element Type: Hourglass stiffness: Specify
Choosing between bricks/quadrilaterals and tetrahedra/triangles

Triangular and tetrahedral elements are geometrically versatile and are used in many automatic meshing
algorithms. It is very convenient to mesh a complex shape with triangles or tetrahedra, and the
second-order and modified triangular and tetrahedral elements (CPE6, CPE6M, C3D10, C3D10M,
etc.) in Abaqus are suitable for general usage. However, a good mesh of hexahedral elements usually
provides a solution of equivalent accuracy at less cost. Quadrilaterals and hexahedra have a better
convergence rate than triangles and tetrahedra, and sensitivity to mesh orientation in regular meshes
is not an issue. However, triangles and tetrahedra are less sensitive to initial element shape, whereas
first-order quadrilaterals and hexahedra perform better if their shape is approximately rectangular. The
elements become much less accurate when they are initially distorted (see “Performance of continuum
and shell elements for linear analysis of bending problems,” Section 2.3.5 of the Abaqus Benchmarks
Manual).
First-order triangles and tetrahedra are usually overly stiff, and extremely fine meshes are required
to obtain accurate results. As mentioned earlier, fully integrated first-order triangles and tetrahedra in
Abaqus/Standard also exhibit volumetric locking in incompressible problems. As a rule, these elements
should not be used except as filler elements in noncritical areas. Therefore, try to use well-shaped
elements in regions of interest.
Tetrahedral and wedge elements

For stress/displacement analyses the first-order tetrahedral element C3D4 is a constant stress tetrahedron,
which should be avoided as much as possible; the element exhibits slow convergence with mesh
refinement. This element provides accurate results only in general cases with very fine meshing.
Therefore, C3D4 is recommended only for filling in regions of low stress gradient in meshes of C3D8
or C3D8R elements, when the geometry precludes the use of C3D8 or C3D8R elements throughout the
model. For tetrahedral element meshes the second-order or the modified tetrahedral elements, C3D10
or C3D10M, should be used.
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Similarly, the linear version of the wedge element C3D6 should generally be used only when
necessary to complete a mesh, and, even then, the element should be far from any areas where accurate
results are needed. This element provides accurate results only with very fine meshing.
Modified triangular and tetrahedral elements

A family of modified 6-node triangular and 10-node tetrahedral elements is available that provides
improved performance over the first-order triangular and tetrahedral elements and that occasionally
provides improved behavior to regular second-order triangular and tetrahedral elements. In
Abaqus/Explicit these modified triangular and tetrahedral elements are the only 6-node triangular and
10-node tetrahedral elements available. Regular second-order triangular and tetrahedral elements are
typically preferable in Abaqus/Standard; however, regular second-order triangular and tetrahedral
elements may exhibit “volumetric locking” when incompressibility is approached, such as in problems
with a large amount of plastic deformation. As discussed in “Three-dimensional surfaces with
second-order faces and a node-to-surface formulation” in “Common difficulties associated with contact
modeling in Abaqus/Standard,” Section 38.1.2, regular second-order tetrahedral elements cannot
underly a slave surface for the node-to-surface contact formulation with strict enforcement of a “hard”
contact relationship. This limitation is typically not significant because the surface-to-surface contact
formulation and penalty contact enforcement are generally recommended.
Modified triangular and tetrahedral elements work well in contact, exhibit minimal shear and
volumetric locking, and are robust during finite deformation (see “The Hertz contact problem,”
Section 1.1.11 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, and “Upsetting of a cylindrical billet: coupled
temperature-displacement and adiabatic analysis,” Section 1.3.16 of the Abaqus Example Problems
Manual). These elements use a lumped matrix formulation for dynamic analysis. Modified triangular
elements are provided for planar and axisymmetric analysis, and modified tetrahedra are provided
for three-dimensional analysis. In addition, hybrid versions of these elements are provided in
Abaqus/Standard for use with incompressible and nearly incompressible constitutive models.
When the total stiffness approach is chosen, modified tetrahedral and triangular elements (C3D10M,
CPS6M, CAX6M, etc.) use hourglass control associated with their internal degrees of freedom. The
hourglass modes in these elements do not usually propagate; hence, the hourglass stiffness is usually not
as significant as for first-order elements.
For most Abaqus/Standard analysis models the same mesh density appropriate for the regular
second-order triangular and tetrahedral elements can be used with the modified elements to achieve
similar accuracy. For comparative results, see the following:
• “Geometrically nonlinear analysis of a cantilever beam,” Section 2.1.2 of the Abaqus Benchmarks
Manual
• “Performance of continuum and shell elements for linear analysis of bending problems,”
Section 2.3.5 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual
• “LE1: Plane stress elements—elliptic membrane,” Section 4.2.1 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual
• “LE10: Thick plate under pressure,” Section 4.2.10 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual
• “FV32: Cantilevered tapered membrane,” Section 4.4.7 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual
• “FV52: Simply supported “solid” square plate,” Section 4.4.10 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual
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However, in analyses involving thin bending situations with finite deformations (see “Pressurized rubber
disc,” Section 1.1.7 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual) and in frequency analyses where high bending
modes need to be captured accurately (see “FV41: Free cylinder: axisymmetric vibration,” Section 4.4.8
of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual), the mesh has to be more refined for the modified triangular and
tetrahedral elements (by at least one and a half times) to attain accuracy comparable to the regular second-
order elements.
The modified triangular and tetrahedral elements might not be adequate to be used in the coupled
pore fluid diffusion and stress analysis in the presence of large pore pressure fields if enhanced hourglass
control is used.
The modified elements are more expensive computationally than lower-order quadrilaterals and
hexahedron and sometimes require a more refined mesh for the same level of accuracy. However, in
Abaqus/Explicit they are provided as an attractive alternative to the lower-order triangles and tetrahedron
to take advantage of automatic triangular and tetrahedral mesh generators.
Compatibility with other elements
The modified triangular and tetrahedral elements are incompatible with the regular second-order solid
elements in Abaqus/Standard. Thus, they should not be connected with these elements in a mesh.
Surface stress output
In areas of high stress gradients, stresses extrapolated from the integration points to the nodes are
not as accurate for the modified elements as for similar second-order triangles and tetrahedra in
Abaqus/Standard. In cases where more accurate surface stresses are needed, the surface can be coated
with membrane elements that have a significantly lower stiffness than the underlying material. The
stresses in these membrane elements will then reflect more accurately the surface stress and can be used
for output purposes.
Fully constrained displacements
In Abaqus/Standard if all the displacement degrees of freedom on all the nodes of a modified element
are constrained with boundary conditions, a similar boundary condition is applied to an internal node in
the element. If a distributed load is subsequently applied to this element, the reported reaction forces at
the nodes you defined will not sum up to the applied load since some of the applied load is taken by the
internal node whose reaction force is not reported.
Choosing between regular and hybrid elements
Hybrid elements are intended primarily for use with incompressible and almost incompressible material
behavior; these elements are available only in Abaqus/Standard. When the material response is
incompressible, the solution to a problem cannot be obtained in terms of the displacement history only,
since a purely hydrostatic pressure can be added without changing the displacements.
Almost incompressible material behavior
Near-incompressible behavior occurs when the bulk modulus is very much larger than the shear
modulus (for example, in linear elastic materials where the Poisson’s ratio is greater than .48) and
exhibits behavior approaching the incompressible limit: a very small change in displacement produces
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extremely large changes in pressure. Therefore, a purely displacement-based solution is too sensitive to
be useful numerically (for example, computer round-off may cause the method to fail).
This singular behavior is removed from the system by treating the pressure stress as an
independently interpolated basic solution variable, coupled to the displacement solution through the
constitutive theory and the compatibility condition. This independent interpolation of pressure stress is
the basis of the hybrid elements. Hybrid elements have more internal variables than their nonhybrid
counterparts and are slightly more expensive. See “Hybrid incompressible solid element formulation,”
Section 3.2.3 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for further details.
Fully incompressible material behavior
Hybrid elements must be used if the material is fully incompressible (except in the case of plane stress
since the incompressibility constraint can be satisfied by adjusting the thickness). If the material is almost
incompressible and hyperelastic, hybrid elements are still recommended. For almost incompressible,
elastic-plastic materials and for compressible materials, hybrid elements offer insufficient advantage and,
hence, should not be used.
For Mises and Hill plasticity the plastic deformation is fully incompressible; therefore, the rate of
total deformation becomes incompressible as the plastic deformation starts to dominate the response.
All of the quadrilateral and brick elements in Abaqus/Standard can handle this rate-incompressibility
condition except for the fully integrated quadrilateral and brick elements without the hybrid formulation:
CPE8, CPEG8, CAX8, CGAX8, and C3D20. These elements will “lock” (become overconstrained) as
the material becomes more incompressible.
Elastic strains in hybrid elements
Hybrid elements use an independent interpolation for the hydrostatic pressure, and the elastic volumetric
strain is calculated from the pressure. Hence, the elastic strains agree exactly with the stress, but they
agree with the total strain only in an element average sense and not pointwise, even if no inelastic strains
are present. For isotropic materials this behavior is noticeable only in second-order, fully integrated
hybrid elements. In these elements the hydrostatic pressure (and, thus, the volumetric strain) varies
linearly over the element, whereas the total strain may exhibit a quadratic variation.
For anisotropic materials this behavior also occurs in first-order, fully integrated hybrid elements.
In such materials there is typically a strong coupling between volumetric and deviatoric behavior:
volumetric strain will give rise to deviatoric stresses and, conversely, deviatoric strains will give rise
to hydrostatic pressure. Hence, the constant hydrostatic pressure enforced in the fully integrated,
first-order hybrid elements does not generally yield a constant elastic strain; whereas the total volume
strain is always constant for these elements, as discussed earlier in this section. Therefore, hybrid
elements are not recommended for use with anisotropic materials unless the material is approximately
incompressible, which usually implies that the coupling between deviatoric and volume behavior is
relatively weak.
Using hybrid elements with material models that exhibit volumetric plasticity
If the material model exhibits volumetric plasticity, such as the (capped) Drucker-Prager model, slow
convergence or convergence problems may occur if second-order hybrid elements are used. In that case
good results can usually be obtained with regular (nonhybrid) second-order elements.
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Determining the need for hybrid elements

For nearly incompressible materials a displaced shape plot that shows a more or less homogeneous
but nonphysical pattern of deformation is an indication of mesh locking. As previously discussed,
fully integrated elements should be changed to reduced-integration elements in this case. If
reduced-integration elements are already being used, the mesh density should be increased. Finally,
hybrid elements can be used if problems persist.
Hybrid triangular and tetrahedral elements
The following hybrid, triangular, two-dimensional and axisymmetric elements should be used only for
mesh refinement or to fill in regions of meshes of quadrilateral elements: CPE3H, CPEG3H, CAX3H, and
CGAX3H. Hybrid, three-dimensional tetrahedral elements C3D4H and prism elements C3D6H should
be used only for mesh refinement or to fill in regions of meshes of brick-type elements. Since each
C3D6H element introduces a constraint equation in a fully incompressible problem, a mesh containing
only these elements will be overconstrained. Abutting regions of C3D4H elements with different material
properties should be tied rather than sharing nodes to allow discontinuity jumps in the pressure and
volumetric fields.
In addition, the second-order three-dimensional hybrid elements C3D10H, C3D10MH, C3D15H,
and C3D15VH are significantly more expensive than their nonhybrid counterparts.
Multi-purpose, improved surface stress visualization tetrahedra

The C3D10I tetrahedron has been developed for improved bending results in coarse meshes while
avoiding pressure locking in metal plasticity and quasi-incompressible and incompressible rubber
elasticity. These elements are available only in Abaqus/Standard. Internal pressure degrees of freedom
are activated automatically for a given element once the material exhibits behavior approaching the
incompressible limit (i.e., an effective Poisson’s ratio above .45). This unique feature of C3D10I
elements make it especially suitable for modeling metal plasticity, since it activates the pressure degrees
of freedom only in the regions of the model where the material is incompressible. Once the internal
degrees of freedom are activated, C3D10I elements have more internal variables than either hybrid or
nonhybrid elements and, thus, are more expensive. This element also uses a unique 11-point integration
scheme, providing a superior stress visualization scheme in coarse meshes as it avoids errors due to the
extrapolation of stress components from the integration points to the nodes.
Incompatible mode elements

Incompatible mode elements (CPS4I, CPE4I, CAX4I, CPEG4I, and C3D8I and the corresponding hybrid
elements) are first-order elements that are enhanced by incompatible modes to improve their bending
behavior; all of these elements are available in Abaqus/Standard and only element C3D8I is available in
Abaqus/Explicit.
In addition to the standard displacement degrees of freedom, incompatible deformation modes are
added internally to the elements. The primary effect of these modes is to eliminate the parasitic shear
stresses that cause the response of the regular first-order displacement elements to be too stiff in bending.
In addition, these modes eliminate the artificial stiffening due to Poisson’s effect in bending (which
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is manifested in regular displacement elements by a linear variation of the stress perpendicular to the
bending direction). In the nonhybrid elements—except for the plane stress element, CPS4I—additional
incompatible modes are added to prevent locking of the elements with approximately incompressible
material behavior. For fully incompressible material behavior the corresponding hybrid elements must
be used.
Because of the added internal degrees of freedom due to the incompatible modes (4 for CPS4I; 5 for
CPE4I, CAX4I, and CPEG4I; and 13 for C3D8I), these elements are somewhat more expensive than the
regular first-order displacement elements; however, they are significantly more economical than second-
order elements. The incompatible mode elements use full integration and, thus, have no hourglass modes.
Incompatible mode elements are discussed in more detail in “Continuum elements with
incompatible modes,” Section 3.2.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Shape considerations
The incompatible mode elements perform almost as well as second-order elements in many situations
if the elements have an approximately rectangular shape. The performance is reduced considerably if
the elements have a parallelogram shape. The performance of trapezoidal-shaped incompatible mode
elements is not much better than the performance of the regular, fully integrated, first-order interpolation
elements; see “Performance of continuum and shell elements for linear analysis of bending problems,”
Section 2.3.5 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, which illustrates the loss of accuracy associated with
distorted elements.
Using incompatible mode elements in large-strain applications
Incompatible mode elements should be used with caution in applications involving large compressive
strains. Convergence may be slow at times, and inaccuracies may accumulate in hyperelastic
applications. Hence, erroneous residual stresses may sometimes appear in hyperelastic elements that
are unloaded after having been subjected to a complex deformation history.
Using incompatible mode elements with regular elements
Incompatible mode elements can be used in the same mesh with regular solid elements. Generally
the incompatible mode elements should be used in regions where bending response must be modeled
accurately, and they should be of rectangular shape to provide the most accuracy. While these elements
often provide accurate response in such cases, it is generally preferable to use structural elements (shells
or beams) to model structural components.
Variable node elements
Variable node elements (such as C3D27 and C3D15V) allow midface nodes to be introduced on any
element face (on any rectangular face only for the triangular prism C3D15V). The choice is made by the
nodes specified in the element definition. These elements are available only in Abaqus/Standard and can
be used quite generally in any three-dimensional model. The C3D27 family of elements is frequently
used as the ring of elements around a crack line.
Cylindrical elements (CCL9, CCL9H, CCL12, CCL12H, CCL18, CCL18H, CCL24, CCL24H, and
CCL24RH) are available only in Abaqus/Standard for precise modeling of regions in a structure with
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circular geometry, such as a tire. The elements make use of trigonometric functions to interpolate
displacements along the circumferential direction and use regular isoparametric interpolation in the
radial or cross-sectional plane of the element. All the elements use three nodes along the circumferential
direction and can span angles between 0 and 180°. Elements with both first-order and second-order
interpolation in the cross-sectional plane are available.
The geometry of the element is defined by specifying nodal coordinates in a global Cartesian system.
The default nodal output is also provided in a global Cartesian system. Output of stress, strain, and other
material point output quantities are done, by default, in a fixed local cylindrical system where direction 1
is the radial direction, direction 2 is the axial direction, and direction 3 is the circumferential direction.
This default system is computed from the reference configuration of the element. An alternative local
system can be defined (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5). In this case the output of stress, strain, and
other material point quantities is done in the oriented system.
The cylindrical elements can be used in the same mesh with regular elements. In particular, regular
solid elements can be connected directly to the nodes on the cross-sectional plane of cylindrical elements.
For example, any face of a C3D8 element can share nodes with the cross-sectional faces (faces 1 and 2;
see “Cylindrical solid element library,” Section 28.1.5, for a description of the element faces) of a CCL12
element. Regular elements can also be connected along the circular edges of cylindrical elements by
using a surface-based tie constraint (“Mesh tie constraints,” Section 34.3.1) provided that the cylindrical
elements do not span a large segment. However, such usage may result in spurious oscillations in the
solution near the tied surfaces and should be avoided when an accurate solution in this region is required.
Compatible membrane elements (“Membrane elements,” Section 29.1.1) and surface elements with
rebar (“Surface elements,” Section 32.7.1) are available for use with cylindrical solid elements.
All elements with first-order interpolation in the cross-sectional plane use full integration for the
deviatoric terms and reduced integration for the volumetric terms and, thus, have no hourglass modes and
do not lock with almost incompressible materials. The hybrid elements with first-order and second-order
interpolation in the cross-sectional plane use an independent interpolation for hydrostatic pressure.
Summary of recommendations for element usage

The following recommendations apply to both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit:
• Make all elements as “well shaped” as possible to improve convergence and accuracy.
• If an automatic tetrahedral mesh generator is used, use the second-order elements C3D10 (in
Abaqus/Standard) or C3D10M (in Abaqus/Explicit). Use the modified tetrahedral element
C3D10M in Abaqus/Standard in analyses with large amounts of plastic deformation.
• If possible, use hexahedral elements in three-dimensional analyses since they give the best results
for the minimum cost.
Abaqus/Standard users should also consider the following recommendations:
• For linear and “smooth” nonlinear problems use reduced-integration, second-order elements if
possible.
• Use second-order, fully integrated elements close to stress concentrations to capture the severe
gradients in these regions. However, avoid these elements in regions of finite strain if the material
response is nearly incompressible.
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• Use first-order quadrilateral or hexahedral elements or the modified triangular and tetrahedral
elements for problems involving large distortions. If the mesh distortion is severe, use
reduced-integration, first-order elements.
• If the problem involves bending and large distortions, use a fine mesh of first-order,
reduced-integration elements.
• Hybrid elements must be used if the material is fully incompressible (except when using plane stress
elements). Hybrid elements should also be used in some cases with nearly incompressible materials.
• Incompatible mode elements can give very accurate results in problems dominated by bending.
Naming convention
The naming conventions for solid elements depend on the element dimensionality.
One-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and axisymmetric elements

One-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and axisymmetric solid elements in Abaqus are
named as follows:
C 3D 20 R H T
Optional:
heat transfer convection/diffusion with
dispersion control (D),
coupled temperature-displacement (T),
piezoelectric (E), or pore pressure (P)
hybrid (optional)
Optional:
reduced integration (R),
incompatible mode quad/bricks or
improved surface stress formulation tets (I), or modified (M)
number of nodes
link (1D), plane strain (PE), plane stress (PS),
generalized plane strain (PEG), two-dimensional (2D),
three-dimensional (3D), axisymmetric (AX), or
axisymmetric with twist (GAX)
continuum stress/displacement (C), heat transfer or mass diffusion (DC),
heat transfer convection/diffusion (DCC), acoustic (AC), electromagnetic (EMC),
or coupled thermal-electrical-structural (Q)
For example, CAX4R is an axisymmetric continuum stress/displacement, 4-node, reduced-integration

element; and CPS8RE is an 8-node, reduced-integration, plane stress piezoelectric element. The
exception for this naming convention is C3D6 and C3D6T in Abaqus/Explicit, which are 6-node linear
triangular prism, reduced integration elements.
The pore pressure elements violate this naming convention slightly: the hybrid elements have the
letter H after the letter P. For example, CPE8PH is an 8-node, hybrid, plane strain, pore pressure element.
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Axisymmetric elements with nonlinear asymmetric deformation

The axisymmetric solid elements with nonlinear asymmetric deformation in Abaqus/Standard are named
as follows:
C AXA 8 R H P N
number of Fourier modes
pore pressure (optional)
hybrid (optional)
reduced integration (optional)
number of nodes (in the reference plane)
axisymmetric with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation
continuum stress/displacement
For example, CAXA4RH1 is a 4-node, reduced-integration, hybrid, axisymmetric element with

nonlinear asymmetric deformation and one Fourier mode (see “Choosing the element’s dimensionality,”
Section 27.1.2).
The cylindrical elements in Abaqus/Standard are named as follows:
C CL 24 R H
hybrid (optional)
number of nodes
cylindrical
continuum stress/displacement
For example, CCL24RH is a 24-node, hybrid, reduced-integration cylindrical element.
Defining the element’s section properties
A solid section definition is used to define the section properties of solid elements.
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In Abaqus/Standard solid elements can be composed of a single homogeneous material or

can include several layers of different materials for the analysis of laminated composite solids. In
Abaqus/Explicit solid elements can be composed only of a single homogeneous material.
Defining homogeneous solid elements

You must associate a material definition (“Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2) with the solid section
definition. In an Abaqus/Standard analysis spatially varying material behavior defined with one or more
distributions (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1) can be assigned to the solid section definition. In
addition, you must associate the section definition with a region of your model.
In Abaqus/Standard if any of the material behaviors assigned to the solid section definition (through
the material definition) are defined with distributions, spatially varying material properties are applied to
all elements associated with the solid section. Default material behaviors (as defined by the distributions)
are applied to any element that is not specifically included in the associated distribution.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, MATERIAL=name, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of solid elements.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module:
Create Section: select Solid as the section Category and Homogeneous
or Electromagnetic, Solid as the section Type: Material: name
Assign→Section: select regions
Assigning an orientation definition

You can associate a material orientation definition with solid elements (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5).
A spatially varying local coordinate system defined with a distribution (“Distribution definition,”
Section 2.8.1) can be assigned to the solid section definition.
If the orientation definition assigned to the solid section definition is defined with distributions,
spatially varying local coordinate systems are applied to all elements associated with the solid section.
A default local coordinate system (as defined by the distributions) is applied to any element that is not
specifically included in the associated distribution.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, ORIENTATION=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Assign→Material Orientation
Defining the geometric attributes, if required

For some element types additional geometric attributes are required, such as the cross-sectional area for
one-dimensional elements or the thickness for two-dimensional plane elements. The attributes required
for a particular element type are defined in the solid element libraries. These attributes are given as part
of the solid section definition.
Defining composite solid elements in Abaqus/Standard

The use of composite solids is limited to three-dimensional brick elements that have only displacement
degrees of freedom (they are not available for coupled temperature-displacement elements, piezoelectric
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elements, pore pressure elements, and continuum cylindrical elements). Composite solid elements are
primarily intended for modeling convenience. They usually do not provide a more accurate solution than
composite shell elements.
The thickness, the number of section points required for numerical integration through each layer
(discussed below), and the material name and orientation associated with each layer are specified as part
of the composite solid section definition. In Abaqus/Standard spatially varying orientation angles can be
specified on a layer using distributions (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1).
The material layers can be stacked in any of the three isoparametric coordinates, parallel to opposite
faces of the isoparametric master element as shown in Figure 28.1.1–1. The number of integration
points within a layer at any given section point depends on the element type. Figure 28.1.1–1 shows
the integration points for a fully integrated element.
8
7
5
5 6
3
2
6 4
4 1
3
1
3 2
stack direction = 1 stack direction = 2 stack direction = 3

from face 6 to face 4 from face 3 to face 5 from face 1 to face 2
5 8 2 6 4 3
3 7 8 9 1 7 8 9 2 7 8 9
4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6
2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 4 1 5 1 2
face 6 face 3 face 1
Figure 28.1.1–1 Stacking direction and associated element faces and positions of element
integration point output variables in the layer plane.
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The element faces are defined by the order in which the nodes are specified when the element is defined.
The element matrices are obtained by numerical integration. Gauss quadrature is used in the plane
of the lamina, and Simpson’s rule is used in the stacking direction. If one section point through the layer
is used, it will be located in the middle of the layer thickness. The location of the section points in the
plane of the lamina coincides with the location of the integration points. The number of section points
required for the integration through the thickness of each layer is specified as part of the solid section
definition; this number must be an odd number. The integration points for a fully integrated second-order
composite element are shown in Figure 28.1.1–1, and the numbering of section points that are associated
with an arbitrary integration point in a composite solid element is illustrated in Figure 28.1.1–2.
15
layer 3
11 10
stack
layer 2
direction
5 6
layer 1
1
(5 section points per layer)
Figure 28.1.1–2 Numbering of section points in a three-layered composite element.
The thickness of each layer may not be constant from integration point to integration point within an
element since the element dimensions in the stack direction may vary. Therefore, it is defined indirectly
by specifying the ratio between the thickness and the element length along the stack direction in the
solid section definition, as shown in Figure 28.1.1–3. Using the ratios that are defined for all layers,
actual thicknesses will be determined at each integration point such that their sum equals the element
length in the stack direction. The thickness ratios for the layers need not reflect actual element or model
dimensions.
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composite solid section with the material

layers stacked in direction 3
z 3
y 2
stack
x 1 direction
8 7
0.10 8 7
0.25
0.20 5 6 0.50 thickness ratios
layer 3
5 0.25
6 0.10
layer 2
0.05 3 3
0.10 layer 1
0.05 1 2
1 2
(a) (b)
Figure 28.1.1–3 Lamina in (a) real space and (b) isoparametric space.
Unless your model is relatively simple, you will find it increasingly difficult to define your model
using composite solid sections as you increase the number of layers and as you assign different sections to
different regions. It can also be cumbersome to redefine the sections after you add new layers or remove
or reposition existing layers. To manage a large number of layers in a typical composite model, you may
want to use the composite layup functionality in Abaqus/CAE. For more information, see Chapter 23,
“Composite layups,” of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, COMPOSITE, STACK DIRECTION=1, 2, or 3,
ELSET=name
thickness, number of integration points, material name, orientation name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Abaqus/CAE uses a composite layup or a composite solid section to define the
layers of a composite solid.
Use the following option for a composite layup:
Property module: Create Composite Layup: select Solid as the
Element Type: specify stacking direction, regions, thicknesses, number
of integration points, materials, and orientations
Use the following options for a composite solid section:
Property module:
Create Section: select Solid as the section Category and Composite
as the section Type
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Assign→Material Orientation: select regions: Use Default Orientation

or Other Method: Stacking Direction: Element direction 1, Element
direction 2, Element direction 3, or From orientation
Output locations for composite solid elements

You specify the location of the output variables in the plane of the lamina (layers) when you request output
of element variables. For example, you can request values at the centroid of each layer. In addition, you
specify the number of output points through the thickness of the layers by providing a list of the “section
points.” The default section points for the output are the first and the last section point corresponding
to the bottom and the top face, respectively (see Figure 28.1.1–2). See “Element output” in “Output
to the data and results files,” Section 4.1.2, and “Element output” in “Output to the output database,”
Section 4.1.3, for more information.
Modeling thick composites with solid elements in Abaqus/Standard
While laminated composite solids are typically modeled using shell elements, the following cases require
three-dimensional brick elements with one or multiple brick elements per layer: when transverse shear
effects are predominant; when the normal stress cannot be ignored; and when accurate interlaminar
stresses are required, such as near localized regions of complex loading or geometry.
One case in which shell elements perform somewhat better than solid elements is in modeling the
transverse shear stress through the thickness. The transverse shear stresses in solid elements usually do
not vanish at the free surfaces of the structure and are usually discontinuous at layer interfaces. This
deficiency may be present even if several elements are used in the discretization through the section
thickness. Since the transverse shear stresses in thick shell elements are calculated by Abaqus on the
basis of linear elasticity theory, such stresses are often better estimated by thick shell elements than by
solid elements (see “Composite shells in cylindrical bending,” Section 1.1.3 of the Abaqus Benchmarks
Manual).
Defining pressure loads on continuum elements
The convention used for pressure loading on a continuum element is that positive pressure is directed into
the element; that is, it pushes on the element. In large-strain analyses special consideration is necessary
for plane stress elements that are pressure loaded on their edges; this issue is discussed in “Distributed
loads,” Section 33.4.3.
Using solid elements in a rigid body
All solid elements can be included in a rigid body definition. When solid elements are assigned to a
rigid body, they are no longer deformable and their motion is governed by the motion of the rigid body
reference node (see “Rigid body definition,” Section 2.4.1).
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Section properties for solid elements that are part of a rigid body must be defined to properly account
for rigid body mass and rotary inertia. All associated material properties will be ignored except for the
density. Element output is not available for solid elements assigned to a rigid body.
Automatic conversion of certain element types in Abaqus/Standard
Element types C3D20 and C3D15 are converted automatically to the corresponding variable
node element types C3D27 and C3D15V, respectively, if they are adjacent to a slave surface in a
node-to-surface contact pair with strict enforcement of “hard” contact conditions.
Special considerations for various element types in Abaqus/Standard
The following considerations should be acknowledged in the context of the stress/displacement, coupled
temperature-displacement, and heat transfer elements in Abaqus/Standard.
Interpolation of temperature and field variables in stress/displacement elements
The value of temperatures at the integration points used to compute the thermal stresses depends on
whether first-order or second-order elements are used. An average temperature is used at the integration
points in (compatible) linear elements so that the thermal strain is constant throughout the element; in the
case of elements with incompatible modes the temperatures are interpolated linearly. An approximate
linearly varying temperature distribution is used in higher-order elements with full integration. Higher-
order reduced-integration elements pose no special problems since the temperatures are interpolated
linearly. Field variables in a given stress/displacement element are interpolated using the same scheme
used to interpolate temperatures.
Interpolation in coupled temperature-displacement elements
Coupled temperature-displacement elements use either linear or parabolic interpolation for the geometry
and displacements. Temperature is interpolated linearly, but certain rules can apply to the temperature
and field variable evaluation at the Gauss points, as discussed below.
The elements that use linear interpolation for displacements and temperatures have temperatures
at all nodes. The thermal strain is taken as constant throughout the element because it is desirable to
have the same interpolation for thermal strains as for total strains so as to avoid spurious hydrostatic
stresses. Separate integration schemes are used for the internal energy storage, heat conduction, and
plastic dissipation (coupling contribution) terms for the first-order elements. The internal energy storage
term is integrated at the nodes, which yields a lumped internal energy matrix and, thereby, improves
the accuracy for problems with latent heat effects. In fully integrated elements both the heat conduction
and plastic dissipation terms are integrated at the Gauss points. While the plastic dissipation term is
integrated at each Gauss point, the heat generated by the mechanical deformation at a Gauss point is
applied at the nearest node. The temperature at a Gauss point is assumed to be the temperature of its
nearest node to be consistent with the temperature treatment throughout the formulation. In reduced-
integration elements the plastic dissipation term is obtained at the centroid and the heat generated by the
mechanical deformation is applied as a weighted average at each node. The temperature at the centroid
of reduced-integration elements is a weighted average of the nodal temperatures to be consistent with
the temperature treatment throughout the formulation.
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The elements that use parabolic interpolation for displacements and linear interpolation for
temperatures have displacement degrees of freedom at all of the nodes, but temperature degrees of
freedom exist only at the corner nodes. The temperatures are interpolated linearly so that the thermal
strains have the same interpolation as the total strains. Temperatures at the midside nodes are calculated
by linear interpolation from the corner nodes for output purposes only. In contrast to the linear coupled
elements, all terms in the governing equations are integrated using a conventional Gauss scheme. For
these elements the stiffness matrix can be generated using either full integration (3 Gauss points in
each parametric direction) or reduced integration (2 Gauss points in each parametric direction). The
same integration scheme is always used for the specific heat and conductivity matrices as for the
stiffness matrix; however, because of the lower-order interpolation for temperature, this implies that we
always use a full integration scheme for the heat transfer matrices, even when the stiffness integration
is reduced. Reduced integration uses a lower-order integration to form the element stiffness: the
mass matrix and distributed loadings are still integrated exactly. Reduced integration usually provides
more accurate results (providing that the elements are not distorted) and significantly reduces running
time, especially in three dimensions. Reduced integration for the quadratic displacement elements is
recommended in all cases except when very sharp strain gradients are expected (such as in finite-strain
metal forming applications); these elements are considered to be the most cost-effective elements of
this class.
The value of field variables at the integration points depends on whether first-order or second-order
coupled temperature-displacement elements are used. An average field variable is used at the integration
points in linear elements. An approximate linearly varying field variable distribution is used in higher-
order elements with full integration. Higher-order reduced-integration elements pose no special problems
since the field variables are interpolated linearly.
Modified triangle and tetrahedron elements use a special consistent interpolation scheme for
displacement and temperature. Displacement and temperature degrees of freedom are active at all
user-defined nodes.
Integration in diffusive heat transfer elements

In all of the first-order elements (2-node links, 3-node triangles, 4-node quadrilaterals, 4-node tetrahedra,
6-node triangular prisms, and 8-node bricks) the internal energy storage term (associated with specific
heat and latent heat storage) is integrated at the nodes. This integration scheme gives a diagonal
internal energy matrix and improves the accuracy for problems with latent heat effects. Conduction
contributions in these elements and all contributions in second-order elements use conventional Gauss
schemes. Second-order elements are preferable for smooth problems without latent heat effects.
The one-dimensional element cannot be used in a mass diffusion analysis.

These elements are available with linear interpolation only. They use an “upwinding” (Petrov-Galerkin)
method to provide accurate solutions for convection-dominated problems (see “Convection/diffusion,”
Section 2.11.3 of the Abaqus Theory Manual). Consequently, the internal energy (associated with
specific heat storage) is not integrated at the nodes, which yields a consistent internal energy matrix
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and may cause oscillatory temperatures if strong temperature gradients occur along boundaries that are
parallel to the flow direction.
These elements are available with linear edge-based interpolation only. The user-defined nodes define
the geometry of the element but do not directly participate in the interpolation of the electromagnetic or,
in the case of a magnetostatic analysis, the magnetic fields. However, temperature and predefined field
variables are defined at the user-defined nodes and are interpolated to the integration points for evaluating
material properties that are temperature and predefined field variable dependent.
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28.1.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL SOLID (LINK) ELEMENT LIBRARY
Products: Abaqus/Standard Abaqus/CAE
References

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the one-dimensional solid (link) elements available in
Abaqus/Standard. For structural link (truss) elements, refer to “Truss elements,” Section 29.2.1.
Element types
Diffusive heat transfer elements

DC1D2 2-node link
DC1D3 3-node link
Active degree of freedom
11
Additional solution variables
None.
DCC1D2 2-node link
DCC1D2D 2-node link with dispersion control
11
None.
DC1D2E 2-node link
DC1D3E 3-node link
9, 11
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None.
Acoustic elements
AC1D2 2-node link
AC1D3 3-node link

8

None.
Nodal coordinates required
X, Y, Z
Element property definition
You must provide the cross-sectional area of the element; by default, unit area is assumed.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Solid as the section Category
and Homogeneous as the section Type
Element-based loading
Distributed heat fluxes

Distributed heat fluxes are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are
specified as described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.
Load ID Abaqus/CAE Units Description

(*DFLUX) Load/Interaction
BF Body heat flux JL−3 T−1 Heat body flux per unit volume.
−3 −1
BFNU Body heat flux JL T Nonuniform heat body flux per unit
volume with magnitude supplied via
user subroutine DFLUX.
S1 Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Heat surface flux per unit area into the
first end of the link (node 1).
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S2 Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Heat surface flux per unit area into
the second end of the link (node 2 or
node 3).
S1NU Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform heat surface flux per
unit area into the first end of the link
(node 1) with magnitude supplied via
S2NU Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform heat surface flux per unit
area into the second end of the link
(node 2 or node 3) with magnitude
supplied via user subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions
Film conditions are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are specified as
described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.

(*FILM) Load/Interaction
F1 Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1

Film coefficient and sink temperature
(units of ) at the first end of the link
(node 1).
F2 Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1

(units of ) at the second end of the
link (node 2 or node 3).
F1NU Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1

Nonuniform film coefficient and sink
temperature (units of ) at the first end
of the link (node 1) with magnitude
supplied via user subroutine FILM.
F2NU Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1

temperature (units of ) at the second
end of the link (node 2 or node 3)
with magnitude supplied via user
subroutine FILM.
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Radiation types
Radiation conditions are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are specified
as described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.
(*RADIATE) Load/Interaction
R1 Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) at the first end of the
link (node 1).
R2 Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature
(units of ) at the second end of the
link (node 2 or node 3).
Distributed impedances
Distributed impedances are available for elements with acoustic pressure degrees of freedom. They are
specified as described in “Acoustic and shock loads,” Section 33.4.6.
(*IMPEDANCE) Load/Interaction
I1 Not supported None Name of the impedance property that

defines the impedance at the first end
of the link (node 1).
I2 Not supported None Name of the impedance property that
defines the impedance at the second
end of the link (node 2 or node 3).
Distributed electric current densities

Distributed electric current densities are available for coupled thermal-electrical elements. They are
specified as described in “Coupled thermal-electrical analysis,” Section 6.7.3.
(*DECURRENT) Load/Interaction
CBF Body current CL−3 T−1 Volumetric current source density.

−2 −1
CS1 Surface current CL T Current density at the first end of the
link (node 1).
CS2 Surface current CL−2 T−1 Current density at the second end of
the link (node 2 or node 3).
28.1.2–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
1-D SOLIDS
Element output
Heat flux components

Available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom.
HFL1 Heat flux along the element axis.
Electrical potential gradient

Available for coupled thermal-electrical elements.
EPG1 Electrical potential gradient along the element axis.
Electrical current density components

ECD1 Electrical current density along the element axis.
Node ordering and face numbering on elements
2 2
end 2
3
end 2
1 end 1
1
end 1
2 - node element 3 - node element
Numbering of integration points for output
2 2
3
2
1 1
1
1
28.1.2–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
28.1.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL SOLID ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the two-dimensional solid elements available in Abaqus/Standard
and Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
Plane strain elements

CPE3 3-node linear
(S)
CPE3H 3-node linear, hybrid with constant pressure
CPE4(S) 4-node bilinear
(S)
CPE4H 4-node bilinear, hybrid with constant pressure
CPE4I(S) 4-node bilinear, incompatible modes
(S)
CPE4IH 4-node bilinear, incompatible modes, hybrid with linear pressure
CPE4R 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control
(S)
CPE4RH 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control, hybrid with constant
pressure
CPE6(S) 6-node quadratic
(S)
CPE6H 6-node quadratic, hybrid with linear pressure
CPE6M 6-node modified, with hourglass control
CPE6MH(S) 6-node modified, with hourglass control, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CPE8 8-node biquadratic
CPE8H(S) 8-node biquadratic, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CPE8R 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration
CPE8RH(S) 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration, hybrid with linear pressure
28.1.3–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

1, 2
The constant pressure hybrid elements have one additional variable relating to pressure, and the linear
pressure hybrid elements have three additional variables relating to pressure.
Element types CPE4I and CPE4IH have five additional variables relating to the incompatible modes.
Element types CPE6M and CPE6MH have two additional displacement variables.
Plane stress elements
CPS3 3-node linear
(S)
CPS4 4-node bilinear
(S)
CPS4I 4-node bilinear, incompatible modes
CPS4R 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control
CPS6(S) 6-node quadratic
CPS6M 6-node modified, with hourglass control
(S)
CPS8 8-node biquadratic
CPS8R(S) 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration
1, 2
Element type CPS4I has four additional variables relating to the incompatible modes.
Element type CPS6M has two additional displacement variables.
Generalized plane strain elements
CPEG3(S) 3-node linear triangle
(S)
CPEG3H 3-node linear triangle, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CPEG4 4-node bilinear quadrilateral
CPEG4H(S) 4-node bilinear quadrilateral, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CPEG4I 4-node bilinear quadrilateral, incompatible modes
(S)
CPEG4IH 4-node bilinear quadrilateral, incompatible modes, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CPEG4R 4-node bilinear quadrilateral, reduced integration with hourglass control
CPEG4RH(S) 4-node bilinear quadrilateral, reduced integration with hourglass control, hybrid with
constant pressure
28.1.3–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
CPEG6(S) 6-node quadratic triangle

(S)
CPEG6H 6-node quadratic triangle, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CPEG6M 6-node modified, with hourglass control
(S)
CPEG6MH 6-node modified, with hourglass control, hybrid with linear pressure
CPEG8(S) 8-node biquadratic quadrilateral
(S)
CPEG8H 8-node biquadratic quadrilateral, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CPEG8R 8-node biquadratic quadrilateral, reduced integration
(S)
CPEG8RH 8-node biquadratic quadrilateral, reduced integration, hybrid with linear pressure
1, 2 at all but the reference node
3, 4, 5 at the reference node
Element types CPEG4I and CPEG4IH have five additional variables relating to the incompatible modes.
Element types CPEG6M and CPEG6MH have two additional displacement variables.
Coupled temperature-displacement plane strain elements
CPE3T 3-node linear displacement and temperature
(S)
CPE4T 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature
CPE4HT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, hybrid with constant pressure
CPE4RT 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
control
CPE4RHT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
control, hybrid with constant pressure
CPE6MT 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control
CPE6MHT(S) 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control, hybrid with
constant pressure
CPE8T(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature
(S)
CPE8HT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CPE8RT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration
CPE8RHT(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration, hybrid
with linear pressure
28.1.3–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

1, 2, 11 at corner nodes
1, 2 at midside nodes of second-order elements in Abaqus/Standard
1, 2, 11 at midside nodes of modified displacement and temperature elements in Abaqus/Standard

Element types CPE6MT and CPE6MHT have two additional displacement variables and one additional
temperature variable.
Coupled temperature-displacement plane stress elements

CPS3T 3-node linear displacement and temperature
CPS4T(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature
CPS4RT 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
control
CPS6MT 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control
(S)
CPS8T 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature
(S)
CPS8RT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration

1, 2, 11 at midside nodes of modified displacement and temperature elements in Abaqus/Standard

Element type CPS6MT has two additional displacement variables and one additional temperature
variable.
Coupled temperature-displacement generalized plane strain elements

CPEG3T(S) 3-node linear displacement and temperature
CPEG3HT(S) 3-node linear displacement and temperature, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CPEG4T 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature
(S)
CPEG4HT 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, hybrid with constant pressure
CPEG4RT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
control
28.1.3–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
CPEG4RHT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
CPEG6MT(S) 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control
(S)
CPEG6MHT 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control, hybrid with
constant pressure
CPEG8T(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature
(S)
CPEG8HT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid with linear pressure
CPEG8RHT(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration, hybrid

1, 2 at midside nodes of second-order elements
1, 2, 11 at midside nodes of modified displacement and temperature elements
3, 4, 5 at the reference node

Element types CPEG6MT and CPEG6MHT have two additional displacement variables and one
additional temperature variable.
Diffusive heat transfer or mass diffusion elements

DC2D3(S) 3-node linear
(S)
DC2D4 4-node linear
(S)
DC2D6 6-node quadratic
DC2D8(S) 8-node biquadratic

11

None.
Forced convection/diffusion elements

DCC2D4(S) 4-node
DCC2D4D(S) 4-node with dispersion control
28.1.3–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

11

None.

DC2D3E(S) 3-node linear
DC2D4E(S) 4-node linear
(S)
DC2D6E 6-node quadratic
(S)
DC2D8E 8-node biquadratic

9, 11

None.
Pore pressure plane strain elements

CPE4P(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure
(S)
CPE4PH 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure, hybrid with constant pressure stress
CPE4RP(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure, reduced integration with hourglass
control
CPE4RPH(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure, reduced integration with hourglass
CPE6MP(S) 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure, with hourglass control
CPE6MPH(S) 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure, with hourglass control, hybrid with
linear pressure
CPE8P(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure
(S)
CPE8PH 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure, hybrid with linear pressure
stress
CPE8RP(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure, reduced integration
(S)
CPE8RPH 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure, reduced integration, hybrid
with linear pressure stress

28.1.3–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
1, 2 at midside nodes for all elements except CPE6MP and CPE6MPH, which also have degree of
freedom 8 active at midside nodes
The constant pressure hybrid elements have one additional variable relating to the effective pressure
stress, and the linear pressure hybrid elements have three additional variables relating to the effective
pressure stress to permit fully incompressible material modeling.
Element types CPE6MP and CPE6MPH have two additional displacement variables and one additional
pore pressure variable.
Acoustic elements
AC2D3 3-node linear
(S)
AC2D4 4-node bilinear
(E)
AC2D4R 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control
(S)
AC2D6 6-node quadratic
AC2D8(S) 8-node biquadratic
8
None.
Piezoelectric plane strain elements
CPE3E(S) 3-node linear
(S)
CPE4E 4-node bilinear
(S)
CPE6E 6-node quadratic
CPE8E(S) 8-node biquadratic
(S)
CPE8RE 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration
1, 2, 9
None.
Piezoelectric plane stress elements
CPS3E(S) 3-node linear
(S)
CPS4E 4-node bilinear
CPS6E(S) 6-node quadratic
28.1.3–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
CPS8E(S) 8-node biquadratic

(S)
CPS8RE 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration
1, 2, 9
None.
EMC2D3(S) 3-node zero-order
Magnetic vector potential (for more information, see “Boundary conditions” in “Eddy current analysis,”
Section 6.7.5, and “Boundary conditions” in “Magnetostatic analysis,” Section 6.7.6).
None.
X, Y
For all elements except generalized plane strain elements, you must provide the element thickness; by
default, unit thickness is assumed.
For generalized plane strain elements, you must provide three values: the initial length of the axial
material fiber through the reference node, the initial value of (in radians), and the initial value of
(in radians). If you do not provide these values, Abaqus assumes the default values of one unit
as the initial length and zero for and . In addition, you must define the reference point for
generalized plane strain elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the element properties for all elements except
generalized plane strain elements:
*SOLID SECTION
Use the following option to define the element properties for generalized plane
strain elements:
*SOLID SECTION, REF NODE=node number or node set name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Solid as the section
Category and Homogeneous, Generalized plane strain, or
Electromagnetic, Solid as the section Type
28.1.3–8
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
Generalized plane strain sections must be assigned to regions of parts that have
a reference point associated with them. To define the reference point:
Part module: Tools→Reference Point: select reference point
Distributed loads
Distributed loads are available for all elements with displacement degrees of freedom. They are specified
as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3.

(*DLOAD) Load/Interaction
BX Body force FL−3 Body force in global X-direction.

BY Body force FL−3 Body force in global Y-direction.
BXNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global
X-direction with magnitude supplied
via user subroutine DLOAD in
Abaqus/Standard and VDLOAD in
Abaqus/Explicit.
BYNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global
Y-direction with magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit.
CENT(S) Not supported FL−4 (ML−3 T−2 ) Centrifugal load (magnitude is input
as , where is the mass density
per unit volume, is the angular
velocity). Not available for pore
pressure elements.
CENTRIF(S) Rotational body T−2 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input
force as , where is the angular
velocity).
CORIO(S) Coriolis force FL−4 T Coriolis force (magnitude is input
(ML−3 T−1 ) as , where is the mass density
pressure elements.
28.1.3–9
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

GRAV Gravity LT−2 Gravity loading in a specified
direction (magnitude is input as
acceleration).
HPn(S) Not supported FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on face n, linear
in global Y.
Pn Pressure FL−2 Pressure on face n.
PnNU Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on face
n with magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit.
ROTA(S) Rotational body T−2 Rotary acceleration load (magnitude
force is input as , where is the rotary
acceleration).
SBF(E) Not supported FL−5 T2 Stagnation body force in global X-
and Y-directions.
SPn(E) Not supported FL−4 T2 Stagnation pressure on face n.
−2
TRSHRn Surface traction FL Shear traction on face n.
TRSHRnNU(S) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform shear traction on face
n with magnitude and direction
supplied via user subroutine
UTRACLOAD.
TRVECn Surface traction FL−2 General traction on face n.
(S) −2
TRVECnNU Not supported FL Nonuniform general traction on face
UTRACLOAD.
VBF(E) Not supported FL−4 T Viscous body force in global X- and
Y-directions.
VPn(E) Not supported FL−3 T Viscous pressure on face n, applying
a pressure proportional to the velocity
normal to the face and opposing the
motion.
28.1.3–10
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
Foundations
Foundations are available for Abaqus/Standard elements with displacement degrees of freedom. They
are specified as described in “Element foundations,” Section 2.2.2.

(*FOUNDATION) Load/Interaction
Fn(S) Elastic FL−3 Elastic foundation on face n.

foundation

Distributed heat fluxes are available for all elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are

BFNU(S) Body heat flux JL−3 T−1 Nonuniform heat body flux per unit
Sn Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Heat surface flux per unit area into
face n.
SnNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform heat surface flux per
unit area into face n with magnitude
Film conditions
Film conditions are available for all elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are specified

Fn Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1

condition (units of ) provided on face n.
FnNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1
temperature (units of ) provided on
face n with magnitude supplied via
user subroutine FILM.
28.1.3–11
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
Radiation types
Radiation conditions are available for all elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are

Rn Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) provided on face n.
Distributed flows
Distributed flows are available for all elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom. They are specified
as described in “Pore fluid flow,” Section 33.4.7.

(*FLOW) Load/Interaction
Qn(S) Not supported F−1 L3 T−1 Seepage coefficient and reference

sink pore pressure (units of FL−2 )
provided on face n.
QnD(S) Not supported F−1 L3 T−1 Drainage-only seepage coefficient

provided on face n.
QnNU(S) Not supported F−1 L3 T−1 Nonuniform seepage coefficient

and reference sink pore pressure
(units of FL−2 ) provided on face n
subroutine FLOW.

(*DFLOW) Load/Interaction
Sn(S) Surface pore LT−1 Prescribed pore fluid effective

fluid velocity (outward from the face) on
face n.
SnNU(S) Not supported LT−1 Nonuniform prescribed pore fluid

effective velocity (outward from
the face) on face n with magnitude
supplied via user subroutine DFLOW.
28.1.3–12
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
Distributed impedances are available for all elements with acoustic pressure degrees of freedom. They
are specified as described in “Acoustic and shock loads,” Section 33.4.6.

In Not supported None Name of the impedance property that

defines the impedance on face n.
Electric fluxes
Electric fluxes are available for piezoelectric elements. They are specified as described in “Piezoelectric
analysis,” Section 6.7.2.

(*DECHARGE) Load/Interaction
EBF(S) Body charge CL−3 Body flux per unit volume.

ESn(S) Surface charge CL−2 Prescribed surface charge on face n.

Distributed electric current densities are available for coupled thermal-electrical elements, coupled
thermal-electrical-structural elements, and electromagnetic elements. They are specified as described
in “Coupled thermal-electrical analysis,” Section 6.7.3; “Fully coupled thermal-electrical-structural
analysis,” Section 6.7.4; and “Eddy current analysis,” Section 6.7.5.

CBF(S) Body current CL−3 T−1 Volumetric current source density.

CSn(S) Surface current CL−2 T−1 Current density on face n.
CJ(S) Body current CL−2 T−1 Volume current density vector in an
density eddy current analysis.
Distributed concentration fluxes

Distributed concentration fluxes are available for mass diffusion elements. They are specified as
described in “Mass diffusion analysis,” Section 6.9.1.
28.1.3–13
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

BF(S) Body PT−1 Concentration body flux per unit

concentration volume.
flux
BFNU(S) Body PT−1 Nonuniform concentration body flux
concentration per unit volume with magnitude
flux supplied via user subroutine DFLUX.
Sn(S) Surface PLT−1 Concentration surface flux per unit
concentration area into face n.
flux
SnNU(S) Surface PLT−1 Nonuniform concentration surface
concentration flux per unit area into face n
flux with magnitude supplied via user
subroutine DFLUX.
Surface-based loading
Distributed loads
Surface-based distributed loads are available for all elements with displacement degrees of freedom.
They are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3.

(*DSLOAD) Load/Interaction
HP(S) Pressure FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the element

surface, linear in global Y.
P Pressure FL−2 Pressure on the element surface.
PNU Pressure FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on the element
surface with magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit.
SP(E) Pressure FL−4 T2 Stagnation pressure on the element
surface.
TRSHR Surface traction FL−2 Shear traction on the element surface.
TRSHRNU(S) Surface traction FL−2 Nonuniform shear traction on the
element surface with magnitude and
28.1.3–14
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

direction supplied via user subroutine
UTRACLOAD.
TRVEC Surface traction FL−2 General traction on the element
surface.
TRVECNU(S) Surface traction FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on the
UTRACLOAD.
VP(E) Pressure FL−3 T Viscous pressure on the element
surface. The viscous pressure is
proportional to the velocity normal to
the element surface and opposing the
motion.

Surface-based heat fluxes are available for all elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are

(*DSFLUX) Load/Interaction
S Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Heat surface flux per unit area into the
element surface.
SNU(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform heat surface flux per unit
area applied on the element surface
subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions
Surface-based film conditions are available for all elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They
are specified as described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.

(*SFILM) Load/Interaction
F Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1

condition (units of ) provided on the element
surface.
28.1.3–15
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

FNU(S) Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1

condition temperature (units of ) provided on
the element surface with magnitude
Radiation types
Surface-based radiation conditions are available for all elements with temperature degrees of freedom.
They are specified as described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.
(*SRADIATE) Load/Interaction
R Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) provided on the element
surface.
Distributed flows
Surface-based flows are available for all elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom. They are
specified as described in “Pore fluid flow,” Section 33.4.7.
(*SFLOW) Load/Interaction
Q(S) Not supported F−1 L3 T−1 Seepage coefficient and reference

provided on the element surface.
QD(S) Not supported F−1 L3 T−1 Drainage-only seepage coefficient
QNU(S) Not supported F−1 L3 T−1 Nonuniform seepage coefficient and
reference sink pore pressure (units
of FL−2 ) provided on the element
surface with magnitude supplied via
user subroutine FLOW.
(*DSFLOW) Load/Interaction
S(S) Surface pore LT−1 Prescribed pore fluid effective

fluid velocity outward from the element
surface.
28.1.3–16
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS

SNU(S) Surface pore LT−1 Nonuniform prescribed pore fluid

fluid effective velocity outward from the
element surface with magnitude
Surface-based impedances are available for all elements with acoustic pressure degrees of freedom. They
Incident wave loading

Surface-based incident wave loads are available for all elements with displacement degrees of freedom
or acoustic pressure degrees of freedom. They are specified as described in “Acoustic and shock loads,”
Section 33.4.6. If the incident wave field includes a reflection off a plane outside the boundaries of the
mesh, this effect can be included.
Electric fluxes
Surface-based electric fluxes are available for piezoelectric elements. They are specified as described in
“Piezoelectric analysis,” Section 6.7.2.

(*DSECHARGE) Load/Interaction
ES(S) Surface charge CL−2 Prescribed surface charge on the

element surface.

Surface-based electric current densities are available for coupled thermal-electrical elements, coupled

(*DSECURRENT) Load/Interaction
CS(S) Surface current CL−2 T−1 Current density applied on the

element surface.
CK(S) Surface current CL−1 T−1 Surface current density vector in an
28.1.3–17
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
Element output
For most elements output is in global directions unless a local coordinate system is assigned to the
element through the section definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) in which case output is in the local
coordinate system (which rotates with the motion in large-displacement analysis). See “State storage,”
Section 1.5.4 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details.
Stress, strain, and other tensor components

Stress and other tensors (including strain tensors) are available for elements with displacement degrees
of freedom. All tensors have the same components. For example, the stress components are as follows:
S11 , direct stress.
S33 , direct stress (not available for plane stress elements).
S12 , shear stress.

HFL1 Heat flux in the X-direction.
HFL2 Heat flux in the Y-direction.
Pore fluid velocity components

Available for elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom.
FLVEL1 Pore fluid effective velocity in the X-direction.
FLVEL2 Pore fluid effective velocity in the Y-direction.
Mass concentration flux components

Available for elements with normalized concentration degrees of freedom.
MFL1 Concentration flux in the X-direction.
MFL2 Concentration flux in the Y-direction.

Available for elements with electrical potential degrees of freedom.
EPG1 Electrical potential gradient in the X-direction.
EPG2 Electrical potential gradient in the Y-direction.
28.1.3–18
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
Electrical flux components
Available for piezoelectric elements.
EFLX1 Electrical flux in the X-direction.

EFLX2 Electrical flux in the Y-direction.
ECD1 Electrical current density in the X-direction.

ECD2 Electrical current density in the Y-direction.
Electrical field components
Available for electromagnetic elements in an eddy current analysis.
EME1 Electric field in the X-direction.

EME2 Electric field in the Y-direction.
Magnetic flux density components
Available for electromagnetic elements.
EMB3 Magnetic flux density in the Z-direction.
Magnetic field components
EMH3 Magnetic field in the Z-direction.
Electrical current density components in an eddy current analysis
EMCD1 Electrical current density in the X-direction.

EMCD2 Electrical current density in the Y-direction.
28.1.3–19
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
3 face 3 3
4
face 3 face 2 face 4 face 2
1 2 1 face 1 2
face 1
face 3
3 4 7 3
Y
face 3 6 5 face 2 face 4 6 face 2
8
X
1 4 2 5
face 1 1 2
face 1
For generalized plane strain elements, the reference node associated with each element (where the
generalized plane strain degrees of freedom are stored) is not shown. The reference node should be
the same for all elements in any given connected region so that the bounding planes are the same for
that region. Different regions may have different reference nodes. The number of the reference node is
not incremented when the elements are generated incrementally (see “Creating elements from existing
elements by generating them incrementally” in “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1).
Triangular element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 face
Face 2 2 – 3 face
Face 3 3 – 1 face
Quadrilateral element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 face
Face 2 2 – 3 face
Face 3 3 – 4 face
Face 4 4 – 1 face
28.1.3–20
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2-D SOLIDS
3 3
6 3 5
1 2
1
4
1 2 1 2
3 3
4 4
4
3
1
1 2
1 2 1 2
4 - node element 4-node reduced
integration element
4 7 3 4 7 3
7 8 9 3 4
8 4 5 6 6 8 6
1 2 3 1 2
1 5 2 1 5 2
8 - node element 8-node reduced
integration element
For heat transfer applications a different integration scheme is used for triangular elements, as described
in “Triangular, tetrahedral, and wedge elements,” Section 3.2.6 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
28.1.3–21
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
28.1.4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL SOLID ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the three-dimensional solid elements available in Abaqus/Standard
Element types
C3D4 4-node linear tetrahedron
(S)
C3D4H 4-node linear tetrahedron, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
C3D6 6-node linear triangular prism
C3D6(E) 6-node linear triangular prism, reduced integration with hourglass control
(S)
C3D6H 6-node linear triangular prism, hybrid with constant pressure
C3D8 8-node linear brick
C3D8H(S) 8-node linear brick, hybrid with constant pressure
C3D8I 8-node linear brick, incompatible modes
(S)
C3D8IH 8-node linear brick, incompatible modes, hybrid with linear pressure
C3D8R 8-node linear brick, reduced integration with hourglass control
C3D8RH(S) 8-node linear brick, reduced integration with hourglass control, hybrid with constant
pressure
C3D10(S) 10-node quadratic tetrahedron
(S)
C3D10H 10-node quadratic tetrahedron, hybrid with constant pressure
C3D10I(S) 10-node general-purpose quadratic tetrahedron, improved surface stress visualization
C3D10M 10-node modified tetrahedron, with hourglass control
(S)
C3D10MH 10-node modified tetrahedron, with hourglass control, hybrid with linear pressure
C3D15(S) 15-node quadratic triangular prism
28.1.4–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
C3D15H(S) 15-node quadratic triangular prism, hybrid with linear pressure

(S)
C3D20 20-node quadratic brick
(S)
C3D20H 20-node quadratic brick, hybrid with linear pressure
C3D20R(S) 20-node quadratic brick, reduced integration
(S)
C3D20RH 20-node quadratic brick, reduced integration, hybrid with linear pressure
1, 2, 3
pressure hybrid elements have four additional variables relating to pressure.
Element types C3D8I and C3D8IH have thirteen additional variables relating to the incompatible modes.
Element types C3D10M and C3D10MH have three additional displacement variables.
Stress/displacement variable node elements
C3D15V(S) 15 to 18-node triangular prism
(S)
C3D15VH 15 to 18-node triangular prism, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
C3D27 21 to 27-node brick
(S)
C3D27H 21 to 27-node brick, hybrid with linear pressure
C3D27R(S) 21 to 27-node brick, reduced integration
(S)
C3D27RH 21 to 27-node brick, reduced integration, hybrid with linear pressure
1, 2, 3
The hybrid elements have four additional variables relating to pressure.
C3D4T 4-node linear displacement and temperature
C3D6T(S) 6-node linear displacement and temperature
(E)
C3D6T 6-node linear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass control
C3D8T 8-node trilinear displacement and temperature
(S)
C3D8HT 8-node trilinear displacement and temperature, hybrid with constant pressure
C3D8RT 8-node trilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
control
28.1.4–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
C3D8RHT(S) 8-node trilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
C3D10MT 10-node modified displacement and temperature tetrahedron, with hourglass control
(S)
C3D10MHT 10-node modified displacement and temperature tetrahedron, with hourglass control,
hybrid with linear pressure
C3D20T(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear temperature
(S)
C3D20HT 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear temperature, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
C3D20RT 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear temperature, reduced integration
C3D20RHT(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear temperature, reduced integration, hybrid
1, 2, 3, 11 at corner nodes
1, 2, 3 at midside nodes of second-order elements in Abaqus/Standard
1, 2, 3, 11 at midside nodes of modified displacement and temperature elements in Abaqus/Standard
The constant pressure hybrid element has one additional variable relating to pressure, and the linear
Element types C3D10MT and C3D10MHT have three additional displacement variables and one
Coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements
Q3D4(S) 4-node linear displacement, electric potential and temperature
Q3D6(S) 6-node linear displacement, electric potential and temperature
(S)
Q3D8 8-node trilinear displacement, electric potential and temperature
(S)
Q3D8H 8-node trilinear displacement, electric potential and temperature, hybrid with constant
pressure
Q3D8R(S) 8-node trilinear displacement, electric potential and temperature, reduced integration
with hourglass control
Q3D8RH(S) 8-node trilinear displacement, electric potential and temperature, reduced integration
with hourglass control, hybrid with constant pressure
Q3D10M(S) 10-node modified displacement, electric potential and temperature tetrahedron, with
hourglass control
Q3D10MH(S) 10-node modified displacement, electric potential and temperature tetrahedron, with
hourglass control, hybrid with linear pressure
28.1.4–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
Q3D20(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential and trilinear temperature
(S)
Q3D20H 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential, trilinear temperature,
Q3D20R(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential, trilinear temperature,
reduced integration
Q3D20RH(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential, trilinear temperature,
reduced integration, hybrid with linear pressure
1, 2, 3, 9, 11 at corner nodes
1, 2, 3 at midside nodes of second-order elements in Abaqus/Standard
1, 2, 3, 9, 11 at midside nodes of modified displacement and temperature elements in Abaqus/Standard
The constant pressure hybrid element has one additional variable relating to pressure, and the linear
Element types Q3D10M and Q3D10MH have three additional displacement variables, one additional
electric potential variable, and one additional temperature variable.
DC3D4(S) 4-node linear tetrahedron
(S)
DC3D6 6-node linear triangular prism
(S)
DC3D8 8-node linear brick
(S)
DC3D10 10-node quadratic tetrahedron
DC3D15(S) 15-node quadratic triangular prism
(S)
DC3D20 20-node quadratic brick
11
None.
DCC3D8(S) 8-node
(S)
DCC3D8D 8-node with dispersion control
11
28.1.4–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

None.

DC3D4E(S) 4-node linear tetrahedron
(S)
DC3D6E 6-node linear triangular prism
DC3D8E(S) 8-node linear brick
(S)
DC3D10E 10-node quadratic tetrahedron
DC3D15E(S) 15-node quadratic triangular prism
(S)
DC3D20E 20-node quadratic brick

9, 11

None.

C3D4P(S) 4-node linear displacement and pore pressure
C3D6P(S) 6-node linear displacement and pore pressure
(S)
C3D8P 8-node trilinear displacement and pore pressure
C3D8PH(S) 8-node trilinear displacement and pore pressure, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
C3D8RP 8-node trilinear displacement and pore pressure, reduced integration
C3D8RPH(S) 8-node trilinear displacement and pore pressure, reduced integration, hybrid with
constant pressure
C3D10MP(S) 10-node modified displacement and pore pressure tetrahedron, with hourglass control
C3D10MPH(S) 10-node modified displacement and pore pressure tetrahedron, with hourglass control,
C3D20P(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure
C3D20PH(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
C3D20RP 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure, reduced integration
C3D20RPH(S) 20-node triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure, reduced integration, hybrid
28.1.4–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

1, 2, 3 at midside nodes for all elements except C3D10MP and C3D10MPH, which also have degree of
freedom 8 active at midside nodes

stress, and the linear pressure hybrid elements have four additional variables relating to the effective
Element types C3D10MP and C3D10MPH have three additional displacement variables and one
additional pore pressure variable.

C3D8PT(S) 8-node trilinear displacement, pore pressure, and temperature.
(S)
C3D8PHT 8-node trilinear displacement, pore pressure, and temperature; hybrid with constant
pressure
C3D8RPT(S) 8-node trilinear displacement, pore pressure, and temperature; reduced integration
C3D8RPHT(S) 8-node trilinear displacement, pore pressure, and temperature; reduced integration,
hybrid with constant pressure
C3D10MPT(S) 10-node modified displacement, pore pressure, and temperature tetrahedron, with
hourglass control

1, 2, 3, 8, 11

stress to permit fully incompressible material modeling.
Element type C3D10MPT has three additional displacement variables, one additional pore pressure
variable, and one additional temperature variable.
Acoustic elements
AC3D4 4-node linear tetrahedron
AC3D6 6-node linear triangular prism
(S)
AC3D8 8-node linear brick
(E)
AC3D8R 8-node linear brick, reduced integration with hourglass control
AC3D10(S) 10-node quadratic tetrahedron
28.1.4–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
AC3D15(S) 15-node quadratic triangular prism

(S)
AC3D20 20-node quadratic brick
8
None.
C3D4E(S) 4-node linear tetrahedron
(S)
C3D6E 6-node linear triangular prism
C3D8E(S) 8-node linear brick
(S)
C3D10E 10-node quadratic tetrahedron
(S)
C3D15E 15-node quadratic triangular prism
(S)
C3D20E 20-node quadratic brick
C3D20RE(S) 20-node quadratic brick, reduced integration
1, 2, 3, 9
None.
(S)
EMC3D8 8-node zero-order
Magnetic vector potential (for more information, see “Boundary conditions” in “Eddy current analysis,”
Section 6.7.5, and “Boundary conditions” in “Magnetostatic analysis,” Section 6.7.6).
None.
X, Y, Z
28.1.4–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Solid as the section Category and
Homogeneous or Electromagnetic, Solid as the section Type
Distributed loads

−3
BZ Body force FL Body force in global Z-direction.
−3
BXNU Body force FL Nonuniform body force in global
Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global
Z-direction with magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit.
pressure elements.
velocity).
28.1.4–8
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

pressure elements.
acceleration).
in global Z.
Abaqus/Explicit.
acceleration).
ROTDYNF(S) Not supported T−1 Rotordynamic load (magnitude is
input as , where is the angular
velocity).
SBF(E) Not supported FL−5 T2 Stagnation body force in global X-,
Y-, and Z-directions.
−2
TRSHRn Surface traction FL Shear traction on face n.
UTRACLOAD.
TRVECnNU(S) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on face
UTRACLOAD.
28.1.4–9
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

VBF(E) Not supported FL−4 T Viscous body force in global X-, Y-,
and Z-directions.
motion.
Foundations


foundation


face n.
Film conditions
28.1.4–10
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS



Radiation types


Distributed flows
as described in “Pore fluid flow,” Section 33.4.7.


provided on face n.

provided on face n.

subroutine FLOW.
28.1.4–11
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS


face n.

Electric fluxes

(S) −2
ESn Surface charge CL Prescribed surface charge on face n.

Distributed electric current densities are available for coupled thermal-electrical, coupled

28.1.4–12
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

CJ(S) Body current CL−2 T−1 Volume current density vector in an


flux
flux
subroutine DFLUX.
Distributed loads

surface, linear in global Z.
28.1.4–13
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

Abaqus/Explicit.
surface.
UTRACLOAD.
surface.
UTRACLOAD.
VP(E) Pressure FL−3 T Viscous pressure applied on the
element surface. The viscous pressure
is proportional to the velocity normal
to the element face and opposing the
motion.


element surface.
SNU(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform heat surface flux per
unit area into the element surface
subroutine DFLUX.
28.1.4–14
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
Film conditions


surface.
Radiation types


surface.
Distributed flows
Surface-based flows are available for all elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom. They are
specified as described in “Pore fluid flow,” Section 33.4.7.


28.1.4–15
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS



surface.

Electric fluxes


element surface.

Surface-based electric current densities are available for coupled thermal-electrical, coupled thermal-
electrical-structural, and electromagnetic elements. They are specified as described in “Coupled thermal-
electrical analysis,” Section 6.7.3, “Fully coupled thermal-electrical-structural analysis,” Section 6.7.4,
and “Eddy current analysis,” Section 6.7.5.
28.1.4–16
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

CS(S) Surface current CL−2 T−1 Current density on the element

surface.
CK(S) Surface current CL−1 T−1 Surface current density vector in an
Element output
For most elements output is in global directions unless a local coordinate system is assigned to the
element through the section definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) in which case output is in the local
coordinate system (which rotates with the motion in large-displacement analysis). See “State storage,”
Section 1.5.4 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details.

S12 , shear stress.
S13 , shear stress.
S23 , shear stress.
Note: the order shown above is not the same as that used in user subroutine VUMAT.
HFL3 Heat flux in the Z-direction.

Available for elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom.
FLVEL1 Pore fluid effective velocity in the X-direction.
FLVEL2 Pore fluid effective velocity in the Y-direction.
FLVEL3 Pore fluid effective velocity in the Z-direction.
28.1.4–17
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS

MFL1 Concentration flux in the X-direction.
MFL2 Concentration flux in the Y-direction.
MFL3 Concentration flux in the Z-direction.

EPG1 Electrical potential gradient in the X-direction.
EPG2 Electrical potential gradient in the Y-direction.
EPG3 Electrical potential gradient in the Z-direction.

EFLX1 Electrical flux in the X-direction.
EFLX2 Electrical flux in the Y-direction.
EFLX3 Electrical flux in the Z-direction.

Available for coupled thermal-electrical and coupled thermal-electrical-structural elements.
ECD1 Electrical current density in the X-direction.
ECD2 Electrical current density in the -direction.
ECD3 Electrical current density in the Z-direction.
Electrical field components

EME1 Electric field in the X-direction.
EME2 Electric field in the Y-direction.
EME3 Electric field in the Z-direction.
Magnetic flux density components

EMB1 Magnetic flux density in the X-direction.
EMB2 Magnetic flux density in the Y-direction.
EMB3 Magnetic flux density in the Z-direction.
28.1.4–18
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
Magnetic field components

EMH1 Magnetic field in the X-direction.
EMH2 Magnetic field in the Y-direction.
EMH3 Magnetic field in the Z-direction.
Electrical current density components in an eddy current analysis

EMCD1 Electrical current density in the X-direction.
EMCD2 Electrical current density in the Y-direction.
EMCD3 Electrical current density in the Z-direction.
28.1.4–19
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
All elements except variable node elements
4
face 4
4 10 face 3
face 4 face 3 face 2 8 9
face 2
7 3
3 1 5 6
1 face 1
2 2
face 1
face 5
face 2 face 2 12 6
face 5
4 6 4
face 3 face 4
face 3 15
face 4 10 9 11
5 13
3
1 3 5
1 face 1
face 1 8
7 14
2 2
face 2 face 5
face 5 face 2 8 15
7 7
8
face 6 16
20
face 6 4 13 6 14 19
5
3 face 4
face 4 12 11 3
5 6 17 4
18
10
1 face 3 9 2
1 2
Z 8 - node element 20 - node element
Y
X
28.1.4–20
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
Tetrahedral element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 face
Face 2 1 – 4 – 2 face
Face 3 2 – 4 – 3 face
Face 4 3 – 4 – 1 face
Wedge (triangular prism) element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 face
Face 2 4 – 6 – 5 face
Face 3 1 – 4 – 5 – 2 face
Face 4 2 – 5 – 6 – 3 face
Face 5 3 – 6 – 4 – 1 face
Hexahedron (brick) element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 face
Face 2 5 – 8 – 7 – 6 face
Face 3 1 – 5 – 6 – 2 face
Face 4 2 – 6 – 7 – 3 face
Face 5 3 – 7 – 8 – 4 face
Face 6 4 – 8 – 5 – 1 face
28.1.4–21
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
12 6
4
10
11
5
13 18 15
16
17
9 3
Z 1 14
8
7
Y
2
X
15 to 18 - node element
16–18 are midface nodes on the three rectangular faces (see below for faces 1 to 5). These nodes
can be omitted from an element by entering a zero or blank in the corresponding position when giving
the nodes on the element. Only nodes 16–18 can be omitted.
Face location of nodes 16 to 18

Face node number Corner nodes on face
16 1–4–5–2
17 2–5–6–3
18 3–6–4–1
28.1.4–22
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
8
15 7
16
23
5 13 14
6 20 19
26
27
21 25
17 24 18
4 3
11
12 10
Z 22
1 9 2
Y
X 21 to 27 - node element
Node 21 is located at the centroid of the element.
(nodes 22–27) are midface nodes on the six faces (see below for faces 1 to 6). These nodes can be
deleted from an element by entering a zero or blank in the corresponding position when giving the nodes
on the element. Only nodes 22–27 can be omitted.
Face location of nodes 22 to 27
Face node number Corner nodes on face

22 1–2–3–4
23 5–8–7–6
24 1–5–6–2
25 2–6–7–3
26 3–7–8–4
27 4–8–5–1
28.1.4–23
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
All elements except variable node elements
4
4
10
8 4
9
1
1 7 3 3
3 2
1 5 6
1 2 2
3
3
3
9
8
1
1 2
1 2 1 7
2
3 3
4 4
4
3
1
1 2
1 2 1 2
8 - node element 8 - node reduced
integration element
4 11 3 4 11 3
7 8 9 3 4
12 4 5 6 10 12 10
1 2 3 1 2
1 9 2 1 9 2
2 0 - node element 2 0 - node reduced
integration element
This shows the scheme in the layer closest to the 1–2–3 and 1–2–3–4 faces. The integration points in
the second and third layers are numbered consecutively. Multiple layers are used for composite solid
elements.
28.1.4–24
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3-D SOLIDS
For heat transfer applications a different integration scheme is used for tetrahedral and wedge elements, as
described in “Triangular, tetrahedral, and wedge elements,” Section 3.2.6 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
For linear triangular prisms in Abaqus/Explicit reduced integration is used; therefore, a C3D6 element
and a C3D6T element have only one integration point.
For the general-purpose C3D10I 10-node tetrahedra in Abaqus/Standard improved stress visualization is
obtained through an 11-point integration rule, consisting of 10 integration points at the elements’ nodes
and one integration point at their centroid.
For acoustic tetrahedra and wedges in Abaqus/Standard full integration is used; therefore, an AC3D4
element has 4 integration points, an AC3D6 element has 6 integration points, an AC3D10 element has
10 integration points, and an AC3D15 element has 18 integration points.

3 4 11 3
3 7 8 9
9
8 12 4 5 6 10
1 2 1 2 3
1 7 9
2 1 2
15 to 18 - node element 21 to 27 - node element
This shows the scheme in the layer closest to the 1–2–3 and 1–2–3–4 faces. The integration points in
the second and third layers are numbered consecutively. Multiple layers are used for composite solid
elements. The face nodes do not appear.
8 7
8
14 7
5 6 11
5 12 6
10
4 3
9 3
4
13
1 2
1 2
21 to 27 - node reduced
integration element
Node 21 is located at the centroid of the element.
28.1.4–25
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CYLINDRICAL SOLIDS
28.1.5 CYLINDRICAL SOLID ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the cylindrical solid elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
CCL9 9-node cylindrical prism, linear interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
interpolation along the circumferential direction
CCL9H 9-node cylindrical prism, linear interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
interpolation along the circumferential direction, hybrid with constant pressure in
plane and linear pressure in the circumferential direction
CCL12 12-node cylindrical brick, linear interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
CCL12H 12-node cylindrical brick, linear interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
interpolation along the circumferential direction, hybrid with constant pressure in plane
and linear pressure in circumferential direction
CCL18 18-node cylindrical prism, quadratic interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
CCL18H 18-node cylindrical prism, quadratic interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
interpolation along the circumferential direction, hybrid with linear pressure in plane
and linear pressure in the circumferential direction
CCL24 24-node cylindrical brick, quadratic interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
CCL24H 24-node cylindrical brick, quadratic interpolation in the radial plane and trigonometric
interpolation along the circumferential direction, hybrid with linear pressure in plane
and linear pressure in circumferential direction
CCL24R 24-node cylindrical brick, reduced integration, quadratic interpolation in the radial
plane and trigonometric interpolation along the circumferential direction
28.1.5–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CYLINDRICAL SOLIDS
CCL24RH 24-node cylindrical brick, reduced integration, quadratic interpolation in the radial
plane and trigonometric interpolation along the circumferential direction, hybrid with
linear pressure in plane and linear pressure in circumferential direction

1, 2, 3
The hybrid elements with constant pressure in plane have two additional variables relating to pressure,
and the linear pressure hybrid elements have six additional variables relating to pressure.
X, Y, Z

Distributed loads
Distributed loads are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3.
Load ID Units Description
(*DLOAD)
BX FL−3 Body force in global X-direction.

−3
BY FL Body force in global Y-direction.
BZ FL−3 Body force in global Z-direction.
−3
BXNU FL Nonuniform body force in global X-
direction with magnitude supplied via user
subroutine DLOAD.
BYNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global Y-
subroutine DLOAD.
BZNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global Z-
subroutine DLOAD.
28.1.5–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CYLINDRICAL SOLIDS

(*DLOAD)
CENT FL−4 (ML−3 T−2 ) Centrifugal load (magnitude is input as ,

where is the mass density per unit volume,
is the angular velocity).
CENTRIF FL−4 (ML−3 T−1 ) Centrifugal load (magnitude is input as ,
where is the angular velocity).
CORIO FL−4 T (ML−3 T−1 ) Coriolis force (magnitude is input as ,
GRAV LT−2 Gravity loading in a specified direction
(magnitude is input as acceleration).
HPn FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on face n, linear in
global Z.
Pn FL−2 Pressure on face n.
ROTA T−2 Rotary acceleration load (magnitude is input
as , where is the rotary acceleration).
ROTDYNF(S) T−1 Rotordynamic load (magnitude is input as
, where is the angular velocity).
TRSHRn FL−2 Shear traction on face n.
(S) −2
TRSHRnNU FL Nonuniform shear traction on face n with
magnitude and direction supplied via user
subroutine UTRACLOAD.
TRVECn FL−2 General traction on face n.
(S) −2
TRVECnNU FL Nonuniform general traction on face n with
magnitude and direction supplied via user
Foundations
Foundations are available for all cylindrical elements. They are specified as described in “Element
foundations,” Section 2.2.2.

(*FOUNDATION)
Fn FL−3 Elastic foundation on face n.
28.1.5–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CYLINDRICAL SOLIDS
Distributed loads
Surface-based distributed loads are available for elements with displacement degrees of freedom. They
are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3.
(*DSLOAD)
HP FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the element surface,

linear in global Z.
Pn FL−2 Pressure on the element surface.
−2
PnNU FL Nonuniform pressure on the element surface
with magnitude supplied via user subroutine
DLOAD.
TRSHR FL−2 Shear traction on the element surface.
TRSHRNU(S) FL−2 Nonuniform shear traction on the element
surface with magnitude and direction
supplied via user subroutine UTRACLOAD.
TRVEC FL−2 General traction on the element surface.
(S) −2
TRVECNU FL Nonuniform general traction on the element
surface with magnitude and direction
supplied via user subroutine UTRACLOAD.
Element output
Output is in a fixed cylindrical system (1=radial, 2=axial, 3=circumferential) unless a local coordinate
system is assigned to the element through the section definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) in which
case output is in the local coordinate system (which rotates with the motion in large-displacement
analysis). See “State storage,” Section 1.5.4 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details.

S11 Local 11 direct stress.
S12 Local 12 shear stress.
28.1.5–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CYLINDRICAL SOLIDS

face 1
3
face 1 15
4 3 4 14
face 5 11 face 5
23
16 2
12 22
13
1 12 2 11
1
10
24 21 7
face 4
8 7 face 4 19
face 3 18
face 6 9 10 8
9
face 6 20
6
face 3
17
5 6 face 2 5
face 2
12-node element 24-node element
3
face 1 3 face 5
1 face 1 9
9 12
face 4 11 face 4
2 face 5 18
1 10 17 6
7
8 6 2
7 15
face 3 8
16 14
4
face 2 face 3 4
face 2
13
5 5
12-node and 24-node cylindrical element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 face
Face 2 5 – 8 – 7 – 6 face
28.1.5–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CYLINDRICAL SOLIDS
Face 3 1 – 5 – 6 – 2 face
Face 4 2 – 6 – 7 – 3 face
Face 5 3 – 7 – 8 – 4 face
Face 6 4 – 8 – 5 – 1 face
9-node and 18-node cylindrical element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 face
Face 2 4 – 6 – 5 face
Face 3 1 – 4 – 5 – 2 face
Face 4 2 – 5 – 6 – 3 face
Face 5 3 – 6 – 4 – 1 face
4 15 3
4 3
7 8 9
3 4
16 4 5 6 14
1 2 1 2 3
1 2 1 13 2
12-node element 24-node full
integration element
4 15 3
3 4
16 14
1 2
1 13 2
24-node reduced
integration element
This shows the scheme in the layer closest to the 1–2–3–4 face. The integration points in the second and
third layers are numbered consecutively.
28.1.5–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
28.1.6 AXISYMMETRIC SOLID ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric solid elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Conventions
Coordinate 1 is , coordinate 2 is . At the r-direction corresponds to the global x-direction and

the z-direction corresponds to the global y-direction. This is important when data must be given in global
directions. Coordinate 1 must be greater than or equal to zero.
Degree of freedom 1 is , degree of freedom 2 is . Generalized axisymmetric elements with twist
have an additional degree of freedom, 5, corresponding to the twist angle (in radians).
Abaqus does not automatically apply any boundary conditions to nodes located along the symmetry axis.
You must apply radial or symmetry boundary conditions on these nodes if desired.
In certain situations in Abaqus/Standard it may become necessary to apply radial boundary conditions on
nodes that are located on the symmetry axis to obtain convergence in nonlinear problems. Therefore, the
application of radial boundary conditions on nodes on the symmetry axis is recommended for nonlinear
problems.
Point loads and moments, concentrated (nodal) fluxes, electrical currents, and seepage should be given
as the value integrated around the circumference (that is, the total value on the ring).
Element types
Stress/displacement elements without twist

CAX3 3-node linear
CAX3H(S) 3-node linear, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CAX4 4-node bilinear
(S)
CAX4H 4-node bilinear, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CAX4I 4-node bilinear, incompatible modes
CAX4IH(S) 4-node bilinear, incompatible modes, hybrid with linear pressure
28.1.6–1
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CAX4R 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control

(S)
CAX4RH 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control, hybrid with constant
pressure
CAX6(S) 6-node quadratic
CAX6H(S) 6-node quadratic, hybrid with linear pressure
CAX6M 6-node modified, with hourglass control
(S)
CAX6MH 6-node modified, with hourglass control, hybrid with linear pressure
CAX8(S) 8-node biquadratic
(S)
CAX8H 8-node biquadratic, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CAX8R 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration
(S)
CAX8RH 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration, hybrid with linear pressure
1, 2
The constant pressure hybrid elements have one additional variable and the linear pressure elements have
three additional variables relating to pressure.
Element types CAX4I and CAX4IH have five additional variables relating to the incompatible modes.
Element types CAX6M and CAX6MH have two additional displacement variables.
Stress/displacement elements with twist
CGAX3(S) 3-node linear
(S)
CGAX3H 3-node linear, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CGAX4 4-node bilinear
CGAX4H(S) 4-node bilinear, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CGAX4R 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control
(S)
CGAX4RH 4-node bilinear, reduced integration with hourglass control, hybrid with constant
pressure
CGAX6(S) 6-node quadratic
CGAX6H(S) 6-node quadratic, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CGAX6M 6-node modified, with hourglass control
(S)
CGAX6MH 6-node modified, with hourglass control, hybrid with linear pressure
CGAX8(S) 8-node biquadratic
28.1.6–2
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
CGAX8H(S) 8-node biquadratic, hybrid with linear pressure

(S)
CGAX8R 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration
(S)
CGAX8RH 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration, hybrid with linear pressure
1, 2, 5
Element types CGAX6M and CGAX6MH have three additional displacement variables.
DCAX3(S) 3-node linear
(S)
DCAX4 4-node linear
(S)
DCAX6 6-node quadratic
(S)
DCAX8 8-node quadratic
11
None.
DCCAX2(S) 2-node
DCCAX2D(S) 2-node with dispersion control
(S)
DCCAX4 4-node
(S)
DCCAX4D 4-node with dispersion control
11
None.
DCAX3E(S) 3-node linear
(S)
DCAX4E 4-node linear
DCAX6E(S) 6-node quadratic
28.1.6–3
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DCAX8E(S) 8-node quadratic

9, 11
None.
Coupled temperature-displacement elements without twist
CAX3T 3-node linear displacement and temperature
CAX4T(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature
(S)
CAX4HT 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, hybrid with constant pressure
CAX4RT 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
control
CAX4RHT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
CAX6MT 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control
(S)
CAX6MHT 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control, hybrid with
linear pressure
CAX8T(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature
CAX8HT(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CAX8RT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration
(S)
CAX8RHT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration, hybrid
1, 2, 11 at midside nodes of the modified displacement and temperature elements in Abaqus/Standard
Element types CAX6MT and CAX6MHT have two additional displacement variables and one additional
temperature variable.
Coupled temperature-displacement elements with twist
CGAX3T(S) 3-node linear displacement and temperature
28.1.6–4
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CGAX3HT(S) 3-node linear displacement and temperature, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CGAX4T 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature
(S)
CGAX4HT 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, hybrid with constant pressure
CGAX4RT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
control
CGAX4RHT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and temperature, reduced integration with hourglass
CGAX6MT(S) 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control
(S)
CGAX6MHT 6-node modified displacement and temperature, with hourglass control, hybrid with
constant pressure
CGAX8T(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature
CGAX8HT(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CGAX8RT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration
(S)
CGAX8RHT 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration, hybrid

1, 2, 5 at midside nodes of second-order elements
1, 2, 5, 11 at midside nodes of the modified displacement and temperature elements

Element types CGAX6MT and CGAX6MHT have two additional displacement variables and one

CAX4P(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure
CAX4PH(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure, hybrid with constant pressure
(S)
CAX4RP 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure, reduced integration with hourglass
control
CAX4RPH(S) 4-node bilinear displacement and pore pressure, reduced integration with hourglass
CAX6MP(S) 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure, with hourglass control
28.1.6–5
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
CAX6MPH(S) 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure, with hourglass control, hybrid with
linear pressure
CAX8P(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure
(S)
CAX8PH 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure, hybrid with linear pressure
(S)
CAX8RP 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure, reduced integration
CAX8RPH(S) 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure, reduced integration, hybrid
1, 2 at midside nodes
stress, and the linear pressure hybrid elements have three additional variables relating to the effective
Element types CAX6MP and CAX6MPH have two additional displacement variables and one additional
pore pressure variable.
CAX4PT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement, pore pressure, and temperature
(S)
CAX4RPT 4-node bilinear displacement, pore pressure, and temperature; reduced integration with
hourglass control
CAX4RPHT(S) 4-node bilinear displacement, pore pressure, and temperature; reduced integration with
hourglass control, hybrid with constant pressure
1, 2, 8, 11
stress to permit fully incompressible material modeling.
Acoustic elements
ACAX3 3-node linear
(E)
ACAX4R 4-node linear, reduced integration with hourglass control
(S)
ACAX4 4-node linear
(S)
ACAX6 6-node quadratic
ACAX8(S) 8-node quadratic
28.1.6–6
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8

None.
CAX3E(S) 3-node linear
CAX4E(S) 4-node bilinear
(S)
CAX6E 6-node quadratic
CAX8E(S) 8-node biquadratic
(S)
CAX8RE 8-node biquadratic, reduced integration

1, 2, 9

None.
r, z at
For element types DCCAX2 and DCCAX2D, you must specify the channel thickness of the element in
the (r–z) plane. The default is unit thickness if no thickness is given.
For all other elements, you do not need to specify the thickness.
Distributed loads
as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3. Distributed load magnitudes are per unit area or per
unit volume. They do not need to be multiplied by .
28.1.6–7
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS

BR Body force FL−3 Body force in radial direction.

BZ Body force FL−3 Body force in axial direction.
−3
BRNU Body force FL Nonuniform body force in radial
direction with magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in axial
Abaqus/Explicit.
CENT(S) Not supported FL−4 M−3 T−2 Centrifugal load (magnitude input
pressure elements.
velocity).
acceleration).
in global Y.
Abaqus/Explicit.
SBF(E) Not supported FL−5 T2 Stagnation body force in radial and
axial directions.
28.1.6–8
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS

TRSHRn Surface traction FL−2 Shear traction on face n.
UTRACLOAD.
TRVECnNU(S) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on face
UTRACLOAD.
VBF(E) Not supported FL−4 T Viscous body force in radial and axial
directions.
motion.
Foundations


foundation For CGAX elements the elastic
foundations are applied to degrees
of freedom and only.

specified as described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4. Distributed heat flux magnitudes are per unit
area or per unit volume. They do not need to be multiplied by .

28.1.6–9
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS

face n.
Film conditions


Radiation types


provided for face n.
Distributed flows
as described in “Pore fluid flow,” Section 33.4.7. Distributed flow magnitudes are per unit area or per
unit volume. They do not need to be multiplied by .
28.1.6–10
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provided on face n.

provided on face n.

subroutine FLOW.


face n.



Electric fluxes
28.1.6–11
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS

ESn(S) Surface charge CL−2 Prescribed surface charge on face n.
Distributed electric current densities are available for coupled thermal-electrical elements. They are



flux


flux

subroutine DFLUX.
28.1.6–12
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
Distributed loads
They are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3. Distributed load magnitudes are
per unit area or per unit volume. They do not need to be multiplied by .


surface, linear in global Y.

Abaqus/Explicit.

surface.

UTRACLOAD.

surface.

UTRACLOAD.

to the face and opposing the motion.
28.1.6–13
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS

specified as described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4. Distributed heat flux magnitudes are per unit
area or per unit volume. They do not need to be multiplied by .

element surface.
subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions


surface.
Radiation types


provided for the element surface.
28.1.6–14
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
Distributed flows
Surface-based distributed flows are available for all elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom.
They are specified as described in “Pore fluid flow,” Section 33.4.7. Distributed flow magnitudes are per
unit area or per unit volume. They do not need to be multiplied by .




surface.

28.1.6–15
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
Electric fluxes

element surface.

Surface-based electric current densities are available for coupled thermal-electrical elements. They are
CS(S) Surface current CL−2 T−1 Current density on the element

surface.
Element output
Output is in global directions unless a local coordinate system is assigned to the element through the
section definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) in which case output is in the local coordinate system
(which rotates with the motion in large-displacement analysis). See “State storage,” Section 1.5.4 of the
Abaqus Theory Manual, for details. For regular axisymmetric elements, the local orientation must be in
the –z plane with being a principal direction. For generalized axisymmetric elements with twist, the
local orientation can be arbitrary.

For elements with displacement degrees of freedom without twist:
S11 Stress in the radial direction or in the local 1-direction.
S22 Stress in the axial direction or in the local 2-direction.
S33 Hoop direct stress.
S12 Shear stress.
For elements with displacement degrees of freedom with twist:
28.1.6–16
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S33 Stress in the circumferential direction or in the local 3-direction.

S12 Shear stress.
S13 Shear stress.
S23 Shear stress.

HFL1 Heat flux in the radial direction or in the local 1-direction.
HFL2 Heat flux in the axial direction or in the local 2-direction.

Available for elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom, except for acoustic elements.
FLVEL1 Pore fluid effective velocity in the radial direction or in the local 1-direction.
FLVEL2 Pore fluid effective velocity in the axial direction or in the local 2-direction.

MFL1 Concentration flux in the radial direction or in the local 1-direction.
MFL2 Concentration flux in the axial direction or in the local 2-direction.

EPG1 Electrical potential gradient in the 1-direction.
EPG2 Electrical potential gradient in the 2-direction.

EFLX1 Electrical flux in the 1-direction.
EFLX2 Electrical flux in the 2-direction.

ECD1 Electrical current density in the 1-direction.
ECD2 Electrical current density in the 2-direction.
28.1.6–17
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
face 2
face 1
2
1
2 - node element
3 face 3 3
4
1 2 1 2
face 1 face 1
face 3
3 4 7 3
face 3 6 5 face 2 face 4 6 face 2

8
1 4 2 1 5 2
face 1
face 1
z 6 - node element 8 - node element
2-node element faces

Face 1 Section at node 1
Face 2 Section at node 2
28.1.6–18
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AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS
Triangular element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 face
Face 2 2 – 3 face
Face 3 3 – 1 face
Quadrilateral element faces

Face 1 1 – 2 face
Face 2 2 – 3 face
Face 3 3 – 4 face
Face 4 4 – 1 face
28.1.6–19
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2 3
1
1 1 2
3 3
4 4
4
3
1
1 2
1 2 1 2
3 integration element
6 3 5
1 2
4
1 2
6 - node element
4 7 3 4 7 3
7 8 9 3 4
8 4 5 6 6 8 6
1 2 3 1 2
1 5 2 1 5 2
integration element
For heat transfer applications a different integration scheme is used for triangular elements, as described
in “Triangular, tetrahedral, and wedge elements,” Section 3.2.6 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
28.1.6–20
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NONLINEAR ASYMM.-AXISYMMETRIC
28.1.7 AXISYMMETRIC SOLID ELEMENTS WITH NONLINEAR, ASYMMETRIC

DEFORMATION
Product: Abaqus/Standard
References

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric solid elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
These elements are intended for analysis of hollow bodies, such as pipes and pressure vessels. They
can also be used to model solid bodies, but spurious stresses may occur at zero radius, particularly if
transverse shear loads are applied.
Conventions
Coordinate 1 is r, coordinate 2 is z. Referring to the figures shown in “Choosing the element’s

dimensionality,” Section 27.1.2, the r-direction corresponds to the global X-direction in the
plane and the negative global Z-direction in the plane, and the z-direction corresponds to the
global Y-direction. Coordinate 1 must be greater than or equal to zero.
Degree of freedom 1 is , degree of freedom 2 is . The degree of freedom is an internal variable:
you cannot control it.
Element types
CAXA4N Bilinear, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z plane
CAXA4HN Bilinear, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z plane, hybrid with constant Fourier
pressure
CAXA4RN Bilinear, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z plane, reduced integration in r–z
planes with hourglass control
CAXA4RHN Bilinear, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z plane, reduced integration in r–z
planes, hybrid with constant Fourier pressure
CAXA8N Biquadratic, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z plane
CAXA8HN Biquadratic, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per –z plane, hybrid with linear Fourier
pressure
28.1.7–1
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CAXA8RN Biquadratic, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z plane, reduced integration in
r–z planes
CAXA8RHN Biquadratic, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z plane, reduced integration in
r–z planes, hybrid with linear Fourier pressure
1, 2
The bilinear elements have 4N and the biquadratic elements 8N additional variables relating to .
Element types CAXA4HN and CAXA4RHN have additional variables relating to the pressure
stress.
Element types CAXA8HN and CAXA8RHN have additional variables relating to the pressure
stress.
CAXA8PN Biquadratic, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z plane, bilinear Fourier pore
pressure
CAXA8RPN Biquadratic, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z plane, bilinear Fourier pore
pressure, reduced integration in r–z planes
1, 2 at midside nodes
8N additional variables relating to .
r, z
Even though the symmetry in the r–z plane at allows the modeling of half of the initially
axisymmetric structure, the loading must be specified as the total load on the full axisymmetric body.
Consider, for example, a cylindrical shell loaded by a unit uniform axial force. To produce a unit load
on a CAXA element with 4 modes, the nodal forces are 1/8, 1/4, 1/4, 1/4, and 1/8 at , , ,
, and , respectively.
28.1.7–2
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Distributed loads

(*DLOAD)
BX FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the global X-

direction.
BZ FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the

z-direction.
BXNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the global

X-direction with magnitude supplied via
user subroutine DLOAD.
BZNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the z-direction

DLOAD.
Pn FL−2 Pressure on face n.
PnNU FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on face n with

magnitude supplied via user subroutine
DLOAD.
HPn FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on face n, linear in the

global Y-direction.
Foundations
Foundations are specified as described in “Element foundations,” Section 2.2.2.

(*FOUNDATION)
Fn FL−3 Elastic foundation on face n.
Distributed flows
Distributed flows are available for elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom. They are specified
as described in “Coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress analysis,” Section 6.8.1.
28.1.7–3
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(*FLOW/
*DFLOW)
Qn F−1 L3 T−1 Seepage (outward normal flow)

proportional to the difference between
surface pore pressure and a reference sink
pore pressure on face n (units of FL−2 ).
QnD F−1 L3 T−1 Drainage-only seepage (outward normal

flow) proportional to the surface pore
pressure on face n only when that pressure
is positive.
QnNU F−1 L3 T−1 Nonuniform seepage (outward normal flow)

proportional to the difference between
surface pore pressure and a reference sink
pore pressure on face n (units of FL−2 ) with
FLOW.
Sn LT−1 Prescribed pore fluid velocity (outward

from the face) on face n.
SnNU LT−1 Nonuniform prescribed pore fluid velocity

(outward from the face) on face n with
DFLOW.
Element output
The numerical integration with respect to employs the trapezoidal rule. There are equally
spaced integration planes in the element, including the and planes, with N being the
number of Fourier modes. Consequently, the radial nodal forces corresponding to pressure loads applied
in the circumferential direction are distributed in this direction in the ratio of in the 1 Fourier mode
element, in the 2 Fourier mode element, and in the 4 Fourier mode element. The
sum of these consistent nodal forces is equal to the integral of the applied pressure over .
Output is as defined below unless a local coordinate system in the r–z plane is assigned to the element
through the section definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) in which case the components are in the
local directions. These local directions rotate with the motion in large-displacement analysis. See “State
storage,” Section 1.5.4 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details.
28.1.7–4
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S33 Hoop direct stress.
S12 Shear stress.
S13 Shear stress.
S23 Shear stress.
The node ordering in the first r–z plane of each element, at , is shown below. Each element must
have N more planes of nodes defined, where N is the number of Fourier modes. The node ordering is the
same in each plane. You can specify the nodes in each plane. Alternatively, you can specify the node
ordering in the first r–z plane of an element, and Abaqus/Standard will generate all other nodes for the
element by adding successively a constant offset to each node for each of the N planes of the element.
By default, Abaqus/Standard uses an offset of 100000 (see “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1).
face 3
face 3 4 3
3 7
4
face 4 face 2
z
face 4 face 2 8 6
r 1 2 1 5 2
face 1
face 1
Element faces
Face 1 1 – 2 face
Face 2 2 – 3 face
Face 3 3 – 4 face
Face 4 4 – 1 face
28.1.7–5
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The integration points in the first r–z plane of integration, at , are shown below. The integration
points follow in sequence at the r–z integration planes in ascending order of location.
3 3
4 4
4
3
1
1 2
1 2 1 2
integration element
4 7 3 4 7 3
7 8 9 3 4
8 4 5 6 6 8 6
1 2 3 1 2
1 5 2 1 5 2
integration element
28.1.7–6
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FLUID CONTINUUM ELEMENTS
28.2 Fluid continuum elements
• “Fluid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.2.1

• “Fluid element library,” Section 28.2.2
28.2–1
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FLUID ELEMENTS
28.2.1 FLUID (CONTINUUM) ELEMENTS
Products: Abaqus/CFD Abaqus/CAE
References
• “Fluid element library,” Section 28.2.2

• “Creating homogeneous fluid sections,” Section 12.13.13 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in
Overview
Fluid elements are provided to discretize the fluid domain.
Three-dimensional fluid elements are available.
Naming convention
Fluid elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
FC 3D 4
number of nodes
three-dimensional
fluid continuum
For example, FC3D8 is a three-dimensional, 8-node brick fluid element.
Active fields for fluid elements
The fields active in a fluid flow analysis are not determined by the element type but by the analysis
procedure and its options. The sole purpose of the element type is to define the shape of the element
used to discretize the continuum.
28.2.1–1
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FLUID ELEMENTS
28.2.2 FLUID ELEMENT LIBRARY
Products: Abaqus/CFD Abaqus/CAE
Reference
• “Fluid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.2.1
Overview
This section provides a reference to the fluid elements available in Abaqus/CFD.
Element types
Fluid elements
FC3D4 4-node tetrahedron
FC3D6 6-node prism
FC3D8 8-node brick

The active degrees of freedom depend on the analysis procedure and options, such as the energy equation
and turbulence model. For more information, see “Active degrees of freedom” in “Boundary conditions
in Abaqus/CFD,” Section 33.3.2.

None.
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: Use either of the following options:

*FLUID SECTION
*SOLID SECTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Fluid as the section
28.2.2–1
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FLUID ELEMENTS
Distributed loads
Distributed loads are available for all fluid element types. They are specified as described in “Distributed


−3
acceleration).
PDBF Porous drag None Porous drag body force load (specify
body force porosity as the input).

Distributed heat fluxes are available when the temperature equation is activated on the analysis procedure.


Surface-based heat fluxes are available for all elements when the temperature equation is activated on
the analysis procedure. They are specified as described in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.

element surface.
28.2.2–2
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FLUID ELEMENTS
Element output
Element output is always in the global directions.
All elements
face 2 face 5
4 4 6
face 4
face 2 5
1 3
3
1 face 1
2
face 1 2
face 2
face 5
8 7
face 6 4
3
6 face 4
5
Z
1 2
Y face 1 face 3
X 8 - node element
Tetrahedral element faces

Face 1 1 – 3 – 2 face
Face 2 1 – 2 – 4 face
Face 3 2 – 3 – 4 face
Face 4 1 – 4 – 3 face
28.2.2–3
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FLUID ELEMENTS
Wedge (triangular prism) element faces

Face 1 1 – 3 – 2 face
Face 2 4 – 5 – 6 face
Face 3 1 – 2 – 5 – 4 face
Face 4 2 – 3 – 6 – 5 face
Face 5 1 – 4 – 6 – 3 face
Hexahedron (brick) element faces

Face 1 1 – 4 – 3 – 2 face
Face 2 5 – 6 – 7 – 8 face
Face 3 1 – 2 – 6 – 5 face
Face 4 2 – 3 – 7 – 6 face
Face 5 3 – 4 – 8 – 7 face
Face 6 1 – 5 – 8 – 4 face
28.2.2–4
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INFINITE ELEMENTS
28.3 Infinite elements
• “Infinite elements,” Section 28.3.1

• “Infinite element library,” Section 28.3.2
28.3–1
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INFINITE ELEMENTS
28.3.1 INFINITE ELEMENTS
References
• “Infinite element library,” Section 28.3.2

• *SOLID SECTION
• “Creating acoustic infinite sections,” Section 12.13.17 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
Overview
Infinite elements:
• are used in boundary value problems defined in unbounded domains or problems in which the region
of interest is small in size compared to the surrounding medium;
• are usually used in conjunction with finite elements;
• can have linear behavior only;
• provide stiffness in static solid continuum analyses; and
• provide “quiet” boundaries to the finite element model in dynamic analyses.
A solid section definition is used to define the section properties of infinite elements.
The analyst is sometimes faced with boundary value problems defined in unbounded domains or
problems in which the region of interest is small in size compared to the surrounding medium. Infinite
elements are intended to be used for such cases in conjunction with first- and second-order planar,
axisymmetric, and three-dimensional finite elements. Standard finite elements should be used to model
the region of interest, with the infinite elements modeling the far-field region.
Plane stress, plane strain, three-dimensional, and axisymmetric infinite elements are available. Reduced-
integration elements are also available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element type CIN3D18R is intended for use with the three-dimensional variable-number-of-node
solids C3D15V, C3D27, and C3D27R in Abaqus/Standard.
Acoustic infinite elements are also available in Abaqus.
Naming convention
Infinite elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
28.3.1–1
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A CIN PS 5 R
number of user nodes
plane strain (PE), plane stress (PS), two-dimensional (2D)

three-dimensional (3D), or axisymmetric (AX)
continuum infinite element
acoustic (optional)
For example, CINAX4 is a 4-node, axisymmetric, infinite element.
You use a solid section definition to define the section properties. You must associate these properties
with a region of your model.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of infinite elements.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Only acoustic infinite sections are supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Property module:
Create Section: select Other as the section Category and
Acoustic infinite as the section Type
Defining the thickness for plane strain and plane stress elements
You define the thickness for plane strain and plane stress elements as part of the section definition. If
you do not specify a thickness, unit thickness is assumed.
thickness
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Structural infinite sections are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Defining the reference point and thickness for acoustic infinite elements
For acoustic infinite elements you specify the thickness and the reference point. The thickness is ignored
in three-dimensional and axisymmetric elements. You can prescribe the reference point either as a
reference node on the section definition (see below) or directly by giving its coordinates on the data
line following the thickness value. If both methods are used, the former takes precedence. If you do not
define the reference point at all, an error message is issued.
28.3.1–2
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The location of the reference point is used to determine the “radius” and “node ray” at each node of
acoustic infinite elements, as shown in Figure 28.3.1–1.
reference
point (X r )
node
radius (R j ) node ray (n j )
(X j )
Figure 28.3.1–1 Reference point and node rays for acoustic infinite elements.
Each node ray is a unit vector in the direction of the line between the reference point and the node. These
radii and rays are used in the formulation of acoustic infinite elements. The placement of the reference
point is not extremely critical as long as it is near the center of the finite region enclosed by the infinite
elements. If acoustic infinite elements are placed on the surface of a sphere, the optimal location for the
reference point is the center of the sphere.
Acoustic infinite elements whose section properties are defined using a particular solid section
definition should not have any nodes in common with acoustic infinite elements associated with a
different solid section definition. This is to ensure a unique reference point (and, therefore, a unique
“radius” and “node ray”) for each acoustic infinite element node.
The node rays are used to compute “cosine” values at each node of the infinite element interface.
The “cosine” is equal to the smallest dot product of the unit node ray and the unit normals of all acoustic
infinite element faces surrounding the node (see Figure 28.3.1–2). An error message is issued for negative
values of “cosine.” Both the “radius” and “cosine” for all nodes of acoustic infinite elements are printed to
the data (.dat) file as nodal (model) data. For details of how these quantities are used in the formulation,
see “Acoustic infinite elements,” Section 3.3.2 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, REF NODE=node number or node set name
thickness
28.3.1–3
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nj
n3 n1
n2
nj
n2
n3
y
cosine n1
3 x
XR
Figure 28.3.1–2 Defining the cosine for acoustic infinite elements.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Other as the section
Category and Acoustic infinite as the section Type: Plane
stress/strain thickness: thickness
Acoustic infinite sections must be assigned to regions of parts that have a
reference point associated with them. To define the reference point:
Part module or Property module: Tools→Reference Point:
select reference point
Defining the order of interpolation for acoustic infinite elements

For acoustic infinite elements the variation of the acoustic field in the infinite direction is given by
functions that are members of a set of 10 ninth-order polynomials (for further details, see “Acoustic
infinite elements,” Section 3.3.2 of the Abaqus Theory Manual). The members of this set are constructed
to correspond to the Legendre modes of a sphere; that is, if infinite elements are placed on a sphere and
if tangential refinement is adequate, an ith order acoustic infinite element will absorb waves associated
with the ( )th Legendre mode. The computational cost involved in using all 10 members in this set
of polynomials to resolve the variation of the acoustic field in the infinite direction may be significant
in certain applications in Abaqus/Explicit. In such cases you may wish to include only the first few
members of the set, although you should be aware of the possibility of degraded accuracy (i.e., increased
reflection at acoustic infinite elements) due to using a reduced set of polynomials. In Abaqus/Explicit
you can specify the number, N, of ninth-order polynomials to be used. By default, all 10 members of the
set will be used; all 10 are always used in Abaqus/Standard. Specifying a value less than 10 would result
in the first N members of the set being used to model the variation of the acoustic field in the infinite
direction.
28.3.1–4
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Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, ORDER=N

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Other as the section Category
and Acoustic infinite as the section Type: Order: N
Assigning a material definition to a set of infinite elements

You must associate a material definition with each infinite element section definition. Optionally, you
can associate a material orientation definition with the section (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5).
The solution in the far field is assumed to be linear, so that only linear behavior can be associated with
infinite elements (“Linear elastic behavior,” Section 22.2.1). In dynamic analysis the material response
in the infinite elements is also assumed to be isotropic.
In Abaqus/Explicit the material properties assigned to the infinite elements must match the material
properties of the adjacent finite elements in the linear domain.
Only an acoustic medium material (“Acoustic medium,” Section 26.3.1) is valid for acoustic infinite
elements.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, MATERIAL=name, ORIENTATION=name
Property module:
Create Section: select Other as the section Category and Acoustic
infinite as the section Type: Material: name
Assign→Material Orientation: select regions
Defining nodes for solid medium infinite elements
The node numbering for infinite elements must be defined such that the first face is the face that is
connected to the finite element part of the mesh.
The infinite element nodes that are not part of the first face are treated differently in explicit dynamic
analysis than in other procedures. These nodes are located away from the finite element mesh in the
infinite direction. The location of these nodes is not meaningful for explicit analysis, and loads and
boundary conditions must not be specified using these nodes in explicit dynamic procedures. In other
procedures these outer nodes are important in the element definition and can be used in load and boundary
condition definitions.
Except for explicit procedures, the basis of the formulation of the solid medium elements is that
the far-field solution along each element edge that stretches to infinity is centered about an origin, called
the “pole.” For example, the solution for a point load applied to the boundary of a half-space has its
pole at the point of application of the load. It is important to choose the position of the nodes in the
infinite direction appropriately with respect to the pole. The second node along each edge pointing in
the infinite direction must be positioned so that it is twice as far from the pole as the node on the same
edge at the boundary between the finite and the infinite elements. Three examples of this are shown in
Figure 28.3.1–3, Figure 28.3.1–4, and Figure 28.3.1–5. In addition to this length consideration, you must
specify the second nodes in the infinite direction such that the element edges in the infinite direction do
28.3.1–5
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not cross over, which would give nonunique mappings (see Figure 28.3.1–6). Abaqus will stop with an
error message if such problems occur. A convenient way of defining these second nodes in the infinite
direction is to project the original nodes from a pole node; see “Projecting the nodes in the old set from
a pole node” in “Node definition,” Section 2.1.1. The positions of the pole and of the nodes on the
boundary between the finite and the infinite elements are used.
L CAX8R
CINAX5R
L CL
Figure 28.3.1–3 Point load on elastic half-space.
CPE4R CINPE4
CL L L
Figure 28.3.1–4 Strip footing on infinitely extending layer of soil.
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L CPS4
CINPS4
L L
Figure 28.3.1–5 Quarter plate with square hole.
Figure 28.3.1–6 Examples of an acceptable and an unacceptable

two-dimensional infinite element.
28.3.1–7
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Defining nodes for acoustic infinite elements
The nodes of acoustic infinite elements need to be defined only for the face that is connected to the finite
element part of the mesh. Additional nodes are generated internally by Abaqus in the direction of the
“node ray” (see Figure 28.3.1–1). The node rays, which are discussed earlier in this section in the context
of defining the reference point, define the sides of the acoustic infinite elements.
Using solid medium infinite elements in plane stress and plane strain analyses
In plane stress and plane strain analyses when the loading is not self-equilibrating, the far-field
displacements typically have the form , where r is distance from the origin. This form
implies that the displacement approaches infinity as . Infinite elements will not provide a unique
displacement solution for such cases. Experience shows, however, that they can still be used, provided
that the displacement results are treated as having an arbitrary reference value. Thus, strain, stress, and
relative displacements within the finite element part of the model will converge to unique values as
the model is refined; the total displacements will depend on the size of the region modeled with finite
elements. If the loading is self-equilibrating, the total displacements will also converge to a unique
solution.
Using solid medium infinite elements in dynamic analyses
In direct-integration implicit dynamic response analysis (“Implicit dynamic analysis using direct
integration,” Section 6.3.2), steady-state dynamic frequency domain analysis (“Direct-solution
steady-state dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.4), matrix generation (“Generating matrices,”
Section 10.3.1), superelement generation (“Using substructures,” Section 10.1.1), and explicit
dynamic analysis (“Explicit dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.3), infinite elements provide “quiet”
boundaries to the finite element model through the effect of a damping matrix; the stiffness matrix of the
element is suppressed. The elements do not provide any contribution to the eigenmodes of the system.
The elements maintain the static force that was present at the start of the dynamic response analysis on
this boundary; as a consequence, the far-field nodes in the infinite elements will not displace during the
dynamic response.
During dynamic steps the infinite elements introduce additional normal and shear tractions on the
finite element boundary that are proportional to the normal and shear components of the velocity of
the boundary. These boundary damping constants are chosen to minimize the reflection of dilatational
and shear wave energy back into the finite element mesh. This formulation does not provide perfect
transmission of energy out of the mesh except in the case of plane body waves impinging orthogonally
on the boundary in an isotropic medium. However, it usually provides acceptable modeling for most
practical cases.
During dynamic response analysis the infinite elements hold the static stress on the boundary
constant but do not provide any stiffness. Therefore, some rigid body motion of the region modeled
will generally occur. This effect is usually small.
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Optimizing the transmission of energy out of the finite element mesh

For dynamic cases the ability of the infinite elements to transmit energy out of the finite element mesh,
without trapping or reflecting it, is optimized by making the boundary between the finite and infinite
elements as close as possible to being orthogonal to the direction from which the waves will impinge on
this boundary. Close to a free surface, where Rayleigh waves may be important, or close to a material
interface, where Love waves may be important, the infinite elements are most effective if they are
orthogonal to the surface. (Rayleigh and Love waves are surface waves that decay with distance from
the surface.)
For acoustic medium infinite elements, these general guidelines apply as well.
Defining an initial stress field and corresponding body force field
In many applications, especially geotechnical problems, an initial stress field and a corresponding
body force field must be defined. For standard elements you define the initial stress field as an initial
condition (“Defining initial stresses” in “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,”
Section 33.2.1) and the corresponding body force field as a distributed load (“Distributed loads,”
Section 33.4.3). The body force cannot be defined for infinite elements since the elements are of
infinite extent. Therefore, Abaqus automatically inserts forces at the nodes of the infinite elements that
cause those nodes to be in static equilibrium at the start of the analysis. These forces remain constant
throughout the analysis. This capability allows the initial geostatic stress field to be defined in the
infinite elements, but it does not check whether or not the geostatic stress field is reasonable. If the
initial stress field is due to a body force loading (such as gravity loading), this loading must be held
constant during the step. In multistep analyses it must be maintained constant over all steps.
You must remember that when infinite elements are used in conjunction with an initial stress
condition, it is essential that the initial stress field be in equilibrium. In Abaqus/Standard any procedure
that determines the initial static (steady-state) equilibrium conditions is suitable as the first step of the
analysis; for example, static (“Static stress analysis,” Section 6.2.2); geostatic stress field (“Geostatic
stress state,” Section 6.8.2); coupled pore fluid diffusion/stress (“Coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress
analysis,” Section 6.8.1); and steady-state fully coupled thermal-stress (“Fully coupled thermal-stress
analysis,” Section 6.5.3) steps can be used. To check for equilibrium in Abaqus/Explicit, perform an
initial step with no loading (except for the body forces that created the initial stress field) and verify
that the accelerations are small.
28.3.1–9
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28.3.2 INFINITE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Infinite elements,” Section 28.3.1

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the infinite elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
Plane strain solid continuum infinite elements

CINPE4 4-node linear, one-way infinite
(S)
CINPE5R 5-node quadratic, one-way infinite

1, 2

None.
Plane stress solid continuum infinite elements

CINPS4 4-node linear, one-way infinite
(S)
CINPS5R 5-node quadratic, one-way infinite

1, 2

None.
3-D solid continuum infinite elements

CIN3D8 8-node linear, one-way infinite
(S)
CIN3D12R 12-node quadratic, one-way infinite
CIN3D18R(S) 18-node quadratic, one-way infinite
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1, 2, 3
None.
Axisymmetric solid continuum infinite elements
CINAX4 4-node linear, one-way infinite
(S)
CINAX5R 5-node quadratic, one-way infinite
1, 2
None.
2-D acoustic infinite elements
ACIN2D2 2-node linear, acoustic infinite
(S)
ACIN2D3 3-node quadratic, acoustic infinite
8
3-D acoustic infinite elements
ACIN3D3 3-node linear, acoustic infinite triangular element
ACIN3D4 4-node linear, acoustic infinite quadrilateral element
(S)
ACIN3D6 6-node quadratic, acoustic infinite triangular element
ACIN3D8(S) 8-node quadratic, acoustic infinite quadrilateral element
8
Axisymmetric acoustic infinite elements
ACINAX2 2-node linear, acoustic infinite
ACINAX3(S) 3-node quadratic, acoustic infinite
8
Plane stress and plane strain solid continuum elements: X, Y
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2-D acoustic elements: X, Y

3-D solid continuum and acoustic elements: X, Y, Z
Axisymmetric solid continuum and acoustic elements: r, z
Normal directions are not specified at nodes used in acoustic infinite elements; they will be computed
automatically. See “Infinite elements,” Section 28.3.1, for details.
For two-dimensional, plane strain, and plane stress elements, you must provide the thickness of the
elements; by default, unit thickness is assumed.
For three-dimensional and axisymmetric solid elements, you do not need to specify a thickness.
For acoustic elements, you must specify the reference point in addition to the thickness.
Property module: Create Section: select Other as the section Category
and Acoustic infinite as the section Type
None.
Element output

No output is available from Abaqus/Explicit for infinite elements. Stress and other tensors (including
strain tensors) are available from Abaqus/Standard for infinite elements with displacement degrees of
freedom. All tensors have the same components. For example, the stress components are as follows:
S11 direct stress or radial stress for axisymmetric elements.
S22 direct stress or axial stress for axisymmetric elements.
S33 direct stress (not available for plane stress elements) or hoop stress for
axisymmetric elements.
S12 shear stress or shear stress for axisymmetric elements.
S13 shear stress (not available for plane stress, plane strain, and axisymmetric
elements).
S23 shear stress (not available for plane stress, plane strain, and axisymmetric
elements).
28.3.2–3
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Plane stress and plane strain solid continuum elements
4 3 4 3
Y
1 2 1 5 2
CINPS4 CINPS5R
X CINPE4 CINPE5R
Axisymmetric solid continuum elements
4 3 4 3
z
1 2 1 5 2
CINAX4 CINAX5R
r
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Three-dimensional solid continuum elements
8 12
7 11
5 9
6 10
4
4 8 7
3 3
1 1 6
5
2 2
CIN3D8 CIN3D12R
12 15
16
11
9 13 18 14
10
4
8 7
17
Z 3
Y 1 6
5
2
X CIN3D18R
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Two-dimensional and axisymmetric acoustic infinite elements
E1 E1
1 1
E2
SPOS 2 3 E2
SPOS
2
ACIN2D2 ACIN2D3
E1 E1
1 1
3
E2 E2
SPOS SPOS
2 2
ACINAX2 ACINAX3
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Three-dimensional acoustic infinite elements
3 E3
E3 4
E4 3
E2
SPOS SPOS
1
E2
1
E1
2 E1
2
ACIN3D3 ACIN3D4
E3
E3 3
4 7
6 E4
3
8
SPOS 5 E2 SPOS
1 6 E2
4 1
E1 5
2 E1
2
ACIN3D6 ACIN3D8
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Plane stress and plane strain solid continuum elements
3 4 3 4
4 3 4 3
1 2 1 2
Y
1 2 1 5 2
CINPS4 CINPS5R
X CINPE4 CINPE5R
Axisymmetric solid continuum elements
3 4 3 4
4 3 4 3
1 2 1 2
z
1 2 1 5 2
CINAX4 CINAX5R
r
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Three-dimensional solid continuum elements
4 7 3
3 3 4
4
4
3
8 6
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 5 2
CIN3D8 CIN3D12R
4 7 3
3 4
8 6
1 2
1 5 2
CIN3D18R
This shows the scheme in the layer closest to the 1–2–3–4 face. The integration points in the second
layer are numbered consecutively.
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WARPING ELEMENTS
28.4 Warping elements
• “Warping elements,” Section 28.4.1

• “Warping element library,” Section 28.4.2
28.4–1
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28.4.1 WARPING ELEMENTS
References
• “Meshed beam cross-sections,” Section 10.6.1

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
Warping elements:
• are used to model an arbitrarily shaped beam cross-section profile for use with Timoshenko beams;
• are used in conjunction with the beam section generation procedure described in “Meshed beam
cross-sections,” Section 10.6.1; and
• model linear elastic behavior only.
Warping elements are special-purpose elements that are used to discretize a two-dimensional model of a
beam cross-section. This two-dimensional cross-section model is used in Abaqus/Standard to calculate
the out-of-plane component of the warping function, as well as relevant sectional stiffness and mass
properties that are required in a subsequent beam analysis in either Abaqus/Standard or Abaqus/Explicit.
Applications include any structure whose overall behavior is beam-like, yet the cross-section is non-
standard or includes multiple materials. Examples include the cross-section of a ship for performing
whipping analysis, a beam model of an airfoil-shaped rotor blade or wing, a laminated I-beam, etc.
To mesh an arbitrarily shaped solid beam cross-section Abaqus/Standard offers two elements: a 3-node
linear triangle, WARP2D3, and a 4-node bilinear quadrilateral, WARP2D4. Adjacent elements in the
cross-sectional mesh must share common nodes; mesh refinement using multi-point constraints is not
allowed.
Naming convention
Warping elements are named as follows:
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WARP 2D 3
number of nodes
two-dimensional
warping elements
For example, WARP2D4 is 4-node warping element in two dimensions.
with a region of your model. No additional data are necessary.
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of warping elements.
Assigning a material definition to a set of warping elements

You must associate a linear elastic material definition with each warping element section definition.
Optionally, you can associate a material orientation definition with the section (see “Orientations,”
Section 2.2.5).
Only isotropic linear elasticity (“Defining isotropic elasticity” in “Linear elastic behavior,”
Section 22.2.1) or orthotropic linear elasticity for warping elements (“Defining orthotropic elasticity for
warping elements” in “Linear elastic behavior,” Section 22.2.1) are valid material models for warping
elements.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, ELSET=name, MATERIAL=name,
ORIENTATION=name
28.4.1–2
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28.4.2 WARPING ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the warping elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
WARP2D3 3-node linear two-dimensional warping element

WARP2D4 4-node bilinear two-dimensional warping element

3, representing the out-of-plane warping function

None.
X, Y
There is no loading for these element types.
Element output
No output is available for these element types. The two-dimensional warping elements are used to
calculate the out-of-plane warping function for beams using a meshed cross-section. This warping
function can be viewed in the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE. The derivatives of the warping
function are used to calculate the shear strain and stress at the integration points of the elements due
to torsion.
28.4.2–1
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Node ordering on elements
3 3
4
Y
X 2
1 2 1
3 3
4
4
3
1
1 2
1 2 1 2
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PARTICLE ELEMENTS
28.5 Particle elements
• “Particle elements,” Section 28.5.1

• “Particle element library,” Section 28.5.2
28.5–1
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28.5.1 PARTICLE ELEMENTS
Product: Abaqus/Explicit
References
• “Smoothed particle hydrodynamic analysis,” Section 15.1.1

• “Particle element library,” Section 28.5.2
• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
Continuum particle elements:

• can be used only in explicit dynamic analyses;
• must have one node only;
• have one integration point;
• can be initialized similarly to continuum elements; and
• are fully filled with material.
Continuum particle elements (PC3D) are useful for simulations involving material that undergoes
extreme deformation such as open-surface fluid flow or obliteration/fragmentation of solid structures.
They are defined using only one node; however, the element centered at a given node (particle) receives
contributions from all particles within a sphere of influence whose radius is commonly referred to as
the smoothing length. The smoothed particle hydrodynamic (SPH) formulation determines at every
increment of the analysis the connectivity associated with a given particle. Since nodal connectivity is
not fixed, severe element distortion is avoided and, hence, the formulation allows for very high strain
gradients.
The 1-node PC3D element is used to define points both on the surface and in the interior of the body
to be modeled. You define these nodes similarly to mass elements, and the nodes can be placed in space
the same as the nodes of a regular brick mesh. A smoothed particle hydrodynamic mesh is typically a
uniformly spaced grid of elements that conforms to the shape of the body being modeled.
For more information, see “Smoothed particle hydrodynamic analysis,” Section 15.1.1.
You must associate a solid section definition with a set of continuum particle elements. The section
definition provides the material associated with the PC3D elements.
28.5.1–1
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As part of the solid section definition, you can define a characteristic length. This characteristic
length, not to be confused with the smoothing length, is used to compute the particle volume. The volume
is assumed to be a cube whose sides are equal to twice the specified characteristic length.
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, ELSET=element_set_name
characteristic length associated with the particle volume
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of particle elements.
28.5.1–2
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28.5.2 PARTICLE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Smoothed particle hydrodynamic analysis,” Section 15.1.1

• “Particle elements,” Section 28.5.1
• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the particle elements available in Abaqus/Explicit.

Element type
Stress/displacement element
PC3D 1-node continuum particle
1, 2, 3
X, Y, Z
Distributed loads
Gravity loads as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3, are the only distributed loads that are
available for particle elements. You define gravity loading in a specified direction, and the magnitude is
input as acceleration.
Element output
Output is in global directions unless a local coordinate system is assigned to the element through the
section definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5), in which case output is in the local coordinate system
(which rotates with the motion in large-displacement analysis). See “State storage,” Section 1.5.4 of the
Abaqus Theory Manual, for details.
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PARTICLE ELEMENT LIBRARY

Stress, strain, and other tensors are available. All tensors have the same components. For example, the
stress components are as follows:
S12 , shear stress.
S13 , shear stress.
S23 , shear stress.
Note: the order shown above is not the same as that used in user subroutine VUMAT.
Nodes associated with the element
1 node.
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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
29. Structural Elements
Membrane elements 29.1

Truss elements 29.2
Beam elements 29.3
Frame elements 29.4
Elbow elements 29.5
Shell elements 29.6
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29.1 Membrane elements
• “Membrane elements,” Section 29.1.1

• “General membrane element library,” Section 29.1.2
• “Cylindrical membrane element library,” Section 29.1.3
• “Axisymmetric membrane element library,” Section 29.1.4
29.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES
29.1.1 MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
References
• “General membrane element library,” Section 29.1.2

• “Cylindrical membrane element library,” Section 29.1.3
• “Axisymmetric membrane element library,” Section 29.1.4
• *MEMBRANE SECTION
• *NODAL THICKNESS
• *DISTRIBUTION
• “Creating membrane sections,” Section 12.13.8 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
HTML version of this manual
Overview
Membrane elements:
• are surface elements that transmit in-plane forces only (no moments); and
• have no bending stiffness.
Membrane elements are used to represent thin surfaces in space that offer strength in the plane of the
element but have no bending stiffness; for example, the thin rubber sheet that forms a balloon. In addition,
they are often used to represent thin stiffening components in solid structures, such as a reinforcing layer
in a continuum. (If the reinforcing layer is made up of chords, rebar should be used. See “Defining rebar
as an element property,” Section 2.2.4.)
In addition to the general membrane elements available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,
cylindrical membrane elements and axisymmetric membrane elements are available in Abaqus/Standard
only.
General membrane elements

General membrane elements should be used in three-dimensional models in which the deformation of
the structure can evolve in three dimensions.
29.1.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES
Cylindrical membrane elements
Cylindrical membrane elements are available in Abaqus/Standard for precise modeling of regions in a
structure with circular geometry, such as a tire. The elements make use of trigonometric functions to
interpolate displacements along the circumferential direction and use regular isoparametric interpolation
in the radial or cross-sectional plane. They use three nodes along the circumferential direction and can
span a 0 to 180° segment. Elements with both first-order and second-order interpolation in the cross-
sectional plane are available.
The default nodal output is also provided in a global Cartesian system. Output of stress, strain, and other
material point quantities is done in a corotational system that rotates with the average material rotation.
The cylindrical elements can be used in the same mesh with regular elements. In particular, regular
membrane elements can be connected directly to the nodes on the cross-sectional edge of cylindrical
elements. For example, any edge of an M3D4 element can share nodes with the cross-sectional edges of
an MCL6 element.
Compatible cylindrical solid elements (“Cylindrical solid element library,” Section 28.1.5) and
surface elements with rebar (“Surface elements,” Section 32.7.1) are available for use with cylindrical
membrane elements.
Axisymmetric membrane elements
The axisymmetric membrane elements available in Abaqus/Standard are divided into two categories:
those that do not allow twist about the symmetry axis and those that do. These elements are referred to
as the regular and generalized axisymmetric membrane elements, respectively.
The generalized axisymmetric membrane elements (axisymmetric membrane elements with twist)
allow a circumferential component of loading or material anisotropy, which may cause twist about the
symmetry axis. Both the circumferential load component and material anisotropy are independent of
the circumferential coordinate . Since there is no dependence of the loading or the material on the
circumferential coordinate, the deformation is axisymmetric.
The generalized axisymmetric membrane elements cannot be used in dynamic or eigenfrequency
extraction procedures.
Naming convention
The naming convention for membrane elements depends on the element dimensionality.
General membrane elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
29.1.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES
M 3D 4 R
number of nodes
three-dimensional
membrane
For example, M3D4R is a three-dimensional, 4-node membrane element with reduced integration.

Cylindrical membrane elements in Abaqus/Standard are named as follows:
M CL 6
number of nodes
cylindrical
membrane
For example, MCL6 is a 6-node cylindrical membrane element with circumferential interpolation.

Axisymmetric membrane elements in Abaqus/Standard are named as follows:
M G AX 2
order of interpolation
axisymmetric
generalized (optional)
membrane
For example, MAX2 is a regular axisymmetric, quadratic-interpolation membrane element.
Element normal definition
The “top” surface of a membrane is the surface in the positive normal direction (defined below) and is
called the SPOS face for contact definition. The “bottom” surface is in the negative direction along the
normal and is called the SNEG face for contact definition.
29.1.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES

For general membrane elements the positive normal direction is defined by the right-hand rule going
around the nodes of the element in the order that they are specified in the element definition. See
Figure 29.1.1–1.
n face SPOS
4 3
n 3
1 2
Z
Y
1
face SNEG
X 2
Figure 29.1.1–1 Positive normals for general membranes.

For cylindrical membrane elements the positive normal direction is defined by the right-hand rule going
around the nodes of the element in the order that they are specified in the element definition. See
Figure 29.1.1–2.

For axisymmetric membrane elements the positive normal is defined by a 90° counterclockwise rotation
from the direction going from node 1 to node 2. See Figure 29.1.1–3.
You use a membrane section definition to define the section properties. You must associate these
properties with a region of your model.
Input File Usage: *MEMBRANE SECTION, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of membrane elements.
Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and Membrane as the
section Type
29.1.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES
face SNEG
3
5 3
2 6
7
9 2
4
n 6 4 5
1 8
face SPOS
1
Figure 29.1.1–2 Positive normals for cylindrical membranes.
n face SPOS
face SNEG
z
1
Figure 29.1.1–3 Positive normals for axisymmetric membranes.
Defining a constant section thickness

You can define a constant section thickness as part of the section definition.
Input File Usage: *MEMBRANE SECTION, ELSET=name
thickness
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and
Membrane as the section Type: Membrane thickness: thickness
Defining a variable thickness using distributions

In Abaqus/Standard you can define a spatially varying thickness for membranes using a distribution
(“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1).
29.1.1–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES
The distribution used to define membrane thickness must have a default value. The default thickness
is used by any membrane element assigned to the membrane section that is not specifically assigned a
value in the distribution.
If the membrane thickness is defined for a membrane section with a distribution, nodal thicknesses
cannot be used for that section definition.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define a spatially varying thickness:
*MEMBRANE SECTION, MEMBRANE THICKNESS=distribution name
Defining a continuously varying thickness
Alternatively, you can define a continuously varying thickness over the element. In this case any constant
section thickness you specify will be ignored, and the section thickness will be interpolated from the
specified nodal values (see “Nodal thicknesses,” Section 2.1.3). The thickness must be defined at all
nodes connected to the element.
If the membrane thickness is defined for a membrane section with a distribution, nodal thicknesses
cannot be used for that section definition.
*MEMBRANE SECTION, NODAL THICKNESS
*NODAL THICKNESS
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Continuously varying membrane thicknesses are not supported in
Abaqus/CAE.
Assigning a material definition to a set of membrane elements
You must associate a material definition with each membrane section definition. Optionally, you can
associate a material orientation definition with the section (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5). An
arbitrary material orientation is valid only for general membrane elements and axisymmetric membrane
elements with twist. You can define other directions by defining a local orientation, except for MAX1
and MAX2 elements (“Axisymmetric membrane element library,” Section 29.1.4), which do not support
orientations.
In Abaqus/Standard if the orientation assigned to a membrane section is defined with distributions,
spatially varying local coordinate systems are applied to all membrane elements associated with the
membrane section. A default local coordinate system (as defined by the distributions) is applied to any
membrane element that is not specifically included in the associated distribution.
Input File Usage: *MEMBRANE SECTION, MATERIAL=name, ORIENTATION=name
Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and Membrane as the
section Type: Material: name
Assign→Material Orientation
29.1.1–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES
Specifying how the membrane thickness changes with deformation

You can define how the membrane thickness will change with deformation by specifying a nonzero value
for the section Poisson’s ratio that will allow for a change in the thickness of the membrane as a function
of the in-plane strains in geometrically nonlinear analysis (see “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2).
Alternatively in Abaqus/Explicit, you can choose to have the thickness change computed through
integration of the thickness-direction strain that is based on the element material definition and the plane
stress condition.
The value of the effective Poisson’s ratio for the section must be between −1.0 and 0.5. By default,
the section Poisson’s ratio is 0.5 in Abaqus/Standard to enforce incompressibility of the element; in
Abaqus/Explicit the default thickness change is based on the element material definition.
A section Poisson’s ratio of 0.0 means that the thickness will not change. Values between 0.0
and 0.5 mean that the thickness changes proportionally between the limits of no thickness change and
incompressibility, respectively. A negative value of the section Poisson’s ratio will result in an increase
of the section thickness in response to tensile strains.
*MEMBRANE SECTION, POISSON=
*MEMBRANE SECTION, POISSON=MATERIAL (available
in Abaqus/Explicit only)
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Shell as the section Category
and Membrane as the section Type: Section Poisson's ratio:
Use analysis default or Specify value:
Specifying nondefault hourglass control parameters for reduced-integration membrane elements
See “Methods for suppressing hourglass modes” in “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more
information about hourglass control.
Specifying a nondefault hourglass control formulation or scale factors

You can specify a nondefault hourglass control formulation or scale factors for reduced-integration
membrane elements. The nondefault enhanced hourglass control formulation is available only for
M3D4R elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a nondefault hourglass control formulation
in a section control definition:
*SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name,
HOURGLASS=hourglass_control_formulation
Use the following option to associate the section control definition with the
membrane section:
*MEMBRANE SECTION, CONTROLS=name
hourglass_control_formulation
29.1.1–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MEMBRANES
Specifying nondefault hourglass stiffness factors

In Abaqus/Standard you can specify nondefault hourglass stiffness factors based on the default total
stiffness approach for reduced-integration general membrane elements. These stiffness factors are
ignored for axisymmetric membrane elements. There are no hourglass stiffness factors or scale factors
for the nondefault enhanced hourglass control formulation.
*MEMBRANE SECTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Mesh module: Mesh→Element Type: Hourglass stiffness: Specify
Using membrane elements in large-displacement implicit analyses
Buckling can occur in Abaqus/Standard if a membrane structure is subject to compressive loading in

a large-displacement analysis, causing out-of-plane deformation. Since a stress-free flat membrane
has no stiffness perpendicular to its plane, out-of-plane loading will cause numerical singularities and
convergence difficulties. Once some out-of-plane deformation has developed, the membrane will be
able to resist out-of-plane loading.
In some cases loading the membrane elements in tension or adding initial tensile stress can overcome
the numerical singularities and convergence difficulties associated with out-of-plane loading. However,
you must choose the magnitude of the loading or initial stress such that the final solution is unaffected.
Using membrane elements in Abaqus/Standard contact analyses
Element types M3D8 and M3D8R are converted automatically to element types M3D9 and M3D9R,
respectively, if a slave surface on a contact pair is attached to the element.
29.1.1–8
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GENERAL MEMBRANE LIBRARY
29.1.2 GENERAL MEMBRANE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

Overview
This section provides a reference to the general membrane elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
M3D3 3-node triangle

M3D4 4-node quadrilateral
M3D4R 4-node quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass control
M3D6(S) 6-node triangle
(S)
M3D8 8-node quadrilateral
(S)
M3D8R 8-node quadrilateral, reduced integration
M3D9(S) 9-node quadrilateral
(S)
M3D9R 9-node quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass control
1, 2, 3
None.
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: *MEMBRANE SECTION

In addition, use the following option for variable thickness membranes:
29.1.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
*NODAL THICKNESS
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and
Membrane as the section Type
You cannot define variable thickness membranes in Abaqus/CAE.
Distributed loads

BX Body force FL−3 Body force in the global X-direction.

BY Body force FL−3 Body force in the global Y-direction.
−3
BZ Body force FL Body force in the global Z-direction.
BXNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the
global X-direction with magnitude
supplied via user subroutine DLOAD
in Abaqus/Standard and VDLOAD in
Abaqus/Explicit.
BYNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the
global Y-direction with magnitude
Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the
global Z-direction with magnitude
Abaqus/Explicit.
CENT(S) Not supported FL−4 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input
velocity).
velocity).
29.1.2–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:


velocity). The load stiffness due to
Coriolis loading is not accounted
for in direct steady-state dynamic
analysis.

acceleration).
HP(S) Not supported FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure applied to the

element reference surface and linear
in global Z. The pressure is positive in
the direction of the positive element
normal.
P Pressure FL−2 Pressure applied to the element

reference surface. The pressure is
positive in the direction of the positive
element normal.
PNU Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform pressure applied to

the element reference surface
with magnitude supplied via
user subroutine DLOAD in
Abaqus/Standard and VDLOAD
in Abaqus/Explicit. The pressure
is positive in the direction of the
positive element normal.

acceleration).

velocity).

29.1.2–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

SP(E) Not supported FL−4 T2 Stagnation pressure applied to the
element reference surface.
TRSHR Surface traction FL−2 Shear traction on the element
reference surface.
TRSHRNU(S) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform shear traction on the
element reference surface with
magnitude and direction supplied
via user subroutine UTRACLOAD.
reference surface.
TRVECNU(S) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on
the element reference surface with
magnitude and direction supplied via
user subroutine UTRACLOAD.
and Z-directions.
VP(E) Not supported FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure applied
to the element reference surface.
The pressure is proportional to the
velocity normal to the element face
and opposing the motion.
Foundations
Foundations are available only in Abaqus/Standard and are specified as described in “Element

F(S) Elastic FL−3 Elastic foundation.

foundation
Distributed loads
Surface-based distributed loads are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3.
29.1.2–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:


reference surface and linear in global
Z. The pressure is positive in the
direction opposite to the surface
normal.
P Pressure FL−2 Pressure on the element reference
surface. The pressure is positive in
the direction opposite to the surface
normal.
reference surface with magnitude
in Abaqus/Standard and VDLOAD
in Abaqus/Explicit. The pressure is
positive in the direction opposite to
the surface normal.
SP(E) Pressure FL−4 T2 Stagnation pressure applied to the
reference surface.
reference surface.
TRVECNU(S) Surface traction FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on
VP(E) Pressure FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure applied to
the element reference surface. The
pressure is proportional to the velocity
normal to the element surface and
opposing the motion.
29.1.2–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

Surface-based incident wave loads are available. They are specified as described in “Acoustic and shock
loads,” Section 33.4.6. If the incident wave field includes a reflection off a plane outside the boundaries
of the mesh, this effect can be included.
Element output
If a local orientation (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) is not used with the element, the stress/strain
components are in the default directions on the surface defined by the convention given in “Conventions,”
Section 1.2.2. If a local orientation is used with the element, the stress/strain components are in the
surface directions defined by the orientation. In large-displacement problems the local directions
defined in the reference configuration are rotated into the current configuration by the average material
rotation. See “State storage,” Section 1.5.4 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details.

Section thickness
STH Current thickness.
29.1.2–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3 3
4
1 2 1 2
3 4 7 3
6 5 8 6
4
1 2 1 5 2
4 7 3
9 6
8
1 5 2
9 - node element
29.1.2–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3 3
6 3 5
1 2
1
1 4 2
1 2
3 3
4 4
4
3
1
1 2
1 2 1 2
integration element
4 7 3 4 7 3
7 8 9 3 4
8 4 5 6 6 8 6
1 2 3 1 2
1 5 2 1 5 2
integration element
4 7 3 4 7 3
7 8 9 3 4
9
8 4 6 6 8 9 6
5
1 2 3 1 2
1 5 2 1 5 2
integration element
29.1.2–8
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CYLINDRICAL MEMBRANES
29.1.3 CYLINDRICAL MEMBRANE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

Overview
This section provides a reference to the cylindrical membrane elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
MCL6 6-node cylindrical membrane

MCL9 9-node cylindrical membrane
1, 2, 3
None.
X, Y, Z
Distributed loads
(*DLOAD)
BX FL−3 Body force in the global X-direction.

−3
BY FL Body force in the global Y-direction.
BZ FL−3 Body force in the global Z-direction.
29.1.3–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

(*DLOAD)
BYNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the global
Y-direction with magnitude supplied via
BZNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the global
Z-direction with magnitude supplied via
CENTRIF T−2 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input as ,
HP FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure applied to the element
reference surface and linear in global Z. The
pressure is positive in the direction of the
P FL−2 Pressure applied to the element reference
surface. The pressure is positive in the
direction of the positive element normal.
PNU FL−2 Nonuniform pressure applied to the element
reference surface with magnitude supplied
via user subroutine DLOAD. The pressure
is positive in the direction of the positive
element normal.
as , where is the rotary acceleration.
ROTDYNF(S) T−1 Rotordynamic load (magnitude is input as
, where is the angular velocity).
29.1.3–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

(*DLOAD)
TRSHR FL−2 Shear traction on the element reference
surface.
reference surface with magnitude and
UTRACLOAD.
TRVEC FL−2 General traction on the element reference
surface.
TRVECNU(S) FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on the element
UTRACLOAD.
Foundations
(*FOUNDATION)
F FL−3 Elastic foundation.
Distributed loads
(*DSLOAD)
HP FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the element

reference surface and linear in global Z.
The pressure is positive in the direction
opposite to the surface normal.
P FL−2 Pressure on the element reference surface.
PNU FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on the element
29.1.3–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

(*DSLOAD)
is positive in the direction opposite to the
surface normal.
surface.
UTRACLOAD.
surface.
UTRACLOAD.
Element output
If a local orientation (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) is not used with the element, the stress/strain
components are expressed in the default directions on the surface defined by the convention given
in “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2. If a local orientation is used with the element, the stress/strain
components are in the surface directions defined by the orientation. In large-displacement problems the
local directions defined in the reference configuration are rotated into the current configuration by the
average material rotation. See “State storage,” Section 1.5.4 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details.

S11 Local direct stress.

S12 Local shear stress.
Section thickness
29.1.3–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
3 3
5 6
2 7 2
9
4 5
4
6 8
1 1
3 3
5 6
6
3 2 7 4 2
2 9
1 5 2
3 5
4 4
6 1
8
1 1
29.1.3–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC MEMBRANE LIBRARY
29.1.4 AXISYMMETRIC MEMBRANE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric membrane elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Conventions
Coordinate 1 is r, coordinate 2 is z. At , the r-direction corresponds to the global X-direction and

the z-direction corresponds to the global Y-direction. This is important when data are required in global
directions. Coordinate 1 should be greater than or equal to zero.
Abaqus/Standard does not automatically apply any boundary conditions to nodes located along the
symmetry axis. You must apply radial or symmetry boundary conditions on these nodes if desired.
Point loads and moments should be given as the value integrated around the circumference; that is, the
total value on the ring.
Element types
Regular axisymmetric membranes

MAX1 2-node linear, without twist
MAX2 3-node quadratic, without twist
1, 2
None.
Generalized axisymmetric membranes
MGAX1 2-node linear, with twist
MGAX2 3-node quadratic, with twist
29.1.4–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

1, 2, 5
None.
R, Z

In addition, use the following option for variable thickness membranes:
*NODAL THICKNESS
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Shell as the section
Category and Membrane as the section Type
You cannot define variable thickness membranes in Abaqus/CAE.
Distributed loads
BR Body force FL−3 Body force in the radial (1 or r)

direction.
BZ Body force FL−3 Body force in the axial (2 or z)
direction.
BRNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the radial
direction with magnitude supplied via
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the axial
CENT Not supported FL−4 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input
29.1.4–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

velocity). Since only axisymmetric
deformation is allowed, the spin axis
must be the z-axis.
CENTRIF Rotational body T−2 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input
must be the z-axis.
direction (magnitude input as
acceleration).
HP Not supported FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure applied to the
normal.
element normal.
subroutine DLOAD. The pressure is
element normal.
reference surface.
reference surface.
29.1.4–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

Foundations
F Elastic FL−3 Elastic foundation. For MGAX

foundation elements the elastic foundations are
applied to degrees of freedom and
only.
Distributed loads
HP Pressure FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the element

normal.
normal.
supplied via user subroutine DLOAD.
The pressure is positive in the
direction opposite of the surface
normal.
reference surface.
29.1.4–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:



reference surface.


Surface-based incident wave loads are available. They are specified as described in “Acoustic and shock
loads,” Section 33.4.6. If the incident wave field includes a reflection off a plane outside the boundaries
of the mesh, this effect can be included.
Element output
The default local material directions are such that local material direction 1 lies along the line of the
element and local material direction 2 is the hoop direction.


S12 Local shear stress. Only available for generalized axisymmetric membrane
elements.
Section thickness
29.1.4–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2
2
3
1
1
2 2
3
2
1 1
1
1
29.1.4–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TRUSS ELEMENTS
29.2 Truss elements
• “Truss elements,” Section 29.2.1

• “Truss element library,” Section 29.2.2
29.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TRUSSES
29.2.1 TRUSS ELEMENTS
References
• “Truss element library,” Section 29.2.2

• *SOLID SECTION
• “Creating truss sections,” Section 12.13.12 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
version of this manual
Overview
Truss elements:
• are long, slender structural members that can transmit only axial force (nonstructural link elements
are presented in “One-dimensional solid (link) element library,” Section 28.1.2); and
• do not transmit moments.
Truss elements are used in two and three dimensions to model slender, line-like structures that support
loading only along the axis or the centerline of the element. No moments or forces perpendicular to the
centerline are supported.
The two-dimensional truss elements can be used in axisymmetric models to represent components,
such as bolts or connectors, where the strain is computed from the change in length in the r–z plane
only. Two-dimensional trusses can also be used to define master surfaces for contact applications in
Abaqus/Standard (see “Contact interaction analysis: overview,” Section 35.1.1). In this case the direction
of the master surface’s outward normal is critical for proper detection of contact.
The 3-node truss element available in Abaqus/Standard is often useful for modeling curved
reinforcing cables in structures, such as prestressed tendons in reinforced concrete or long slender
pipelines used in the off-shore industry.
A 2-node straight truss element, which uses linear interpolation for position and displacement and has a
constant stress, is available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit. In addition, a 3-node curved
truss element, which uses quadratic interpolation for position and displacement so that the strain varies
linearly along the element, is available in Abaqus/Standard.
Hybrid versions of the stress/displacement trusses, coupled temperature-displacement trusses, and
piezoelectric trusses are available in Abaqus/Standard.
29.2.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TRUSSES
Hybrid stress/displacement truss elements

Hybrid (mixed) versions of the stress/displacement trusses, in which the axial force is treated as an
additional unknown, are available in two and three dimensions in Abaqus/Standard. These elements
are useful (to offset the effects of numerical ill-conditioning on governing equations) when a truss
represents a very rigid link whose stiffness is much larger than that of the overall structural model.
In such a case a hybrid truss provides an alternative to a truly rigid link, modeled with multi-point
constraints (see “General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2) or rigid elements (see “Rigid
elements,” Section 30.3.1).
Coupled temperature-displacement truss elements

Coupled temperature-displacement truss elements are available in two and three dimensions in
Abaqus/Standard. These elements have temperature as an additional degree of freedom (11).
See “Fully coupled thermal-stress analysis,” Section 6.5.3, for information about fully coupled
temperature-displacement analysis in Abaqus/Standard.
Piezoelectric truss elements

Piezoelectric truss elements are available in two and three dimensions in Abaqus/Standard. These
elements have electric potential as an additional degree of freedom (9). See “Piezoelectric analysis,”
Section 6.7.2, for information about piezoelectric analysis.
Naming convention
Truss elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
T 3D 2 H
Optional: hybrid (H),
coupled temperature-displacement (T),
or piezoelectric (E)
number of nodes
two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D)
truss
For example, T2D3E is a two-dimensional, 3-node piezoelectric truss element.
For two-dimensional trusses the positive outward normal, , is defined by a 90° counterclockwise
rotation from the direction going from node 1 to node 2 or node 3 of the element, as shown.
29.2.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TRUSSES
n 2
2 3
1 1
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of truss elements.
Create Section: select Beam as the section Category and Truss as the
section Type
Defining the cross-sectional area of a truss element

You can define the cross-sectional area associated with the truss element as part of the section definition.
If you do not specify a value for the cross-sectional area, unit area is assumed.
When truss elements are used in large-displacement analysis, the updated cross-sectional area is
calculated by assuming that the truss is made of an incompressible material, regardless of the actual
material definition. This assumption affects cases only where the strains are large. It is adopted because
the most common applications of trusses at large strains involve yielding metal behavior or rubber
elasticity, in which cases the material is effectively incompressible. Therefore, a linear elastic truss
element does not provide the same force-displacement response as a linear SPRINGA spring element
when the axial strain is not infinitesimal.
cross-sectional area
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Beam as the section Category and
Truss as the section Type: Cross-sectional area: cross-sectional area
Assigning a material definition to a set of truss elements

You must associate a material definition with each solid section definition. No material orientation is
permitted with truss elements.
29.2.1–3
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TRUSSES
Input File Usage: *SOLID SECTION, MATERIAL=name

Any value given to the ORIENTATION parameter on the *SOLID SECTION
option will be ignored by truss elements.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Beam as the section Category
and Truss as the section Type: Material: name
Using truss elements in large-displacement implicit analysis
Truss elements have no initial stiffness to resist loading perpendicular to their axis. If a stress-free
line of trusses is loaded perpendicular to its axis in Abaqus/Standard, numerical singularities and lack
of convergence can result. After the first iteration in a large-displacement implicit analysis, stiffness
perpendicular to the initial line of the elements develops, sometimes allowing an analysis to overcome
numerical problems.
In some cases loading the truss elements along their axis first or including initial tensile stress can
overcome these numerical singularities. However, you must choose the magnitude of the loading or
initial stress such that the final solution is unaffected.
29.2.1–4
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TRUSS LIBRARY
29.2.2 TRUSS ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Truss elements,” Section 29.2.1

• *SOLID SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the truss elements available in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
2-D stress/displacement truss elements

T2D2 2-node linear displacement
(S)
T2D2H 2-node linear displacement, hybrid
(S)
T2D3 3-node quadratic displacement
T2D3H(S) 3-node quadratic displacement, hybrid
1, 2
Element type T2D2H has one additional variable and element type T2D3H has two additional variables
relating to axial force.
3-D stress/displacement truss elements
T3D2 2-node linear displacement
(S)
T3D2H 2-node linear displacement, hybrid
(S)
T3D3 3-node quadratic displacement
T3D3H(S) 3-node quadratic displacement, hybrid
1, 2, 3
Element type T3D2H has one additional variable and element type T3D3H has two additional variables
relating to axial force.
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TRUSS LIBRARY
2-D coupled temperature-displacement truss elements

T2D2T(S) 2-node, linear displacement, linear temperature
(S)
T2D3T 3-node, quadratic displacement, linear temperature
1, 2 at middle node for T2D3T
1, 2, 11 at all other nodes
None.
3-D coupled temperature-displacement truss elements
T3D2T(S) 2-node, linear displacement, linear temperature
(S)
T3D3T 3-node, quadratic displacement, linear temperature
1, 2, 3 at middle node for T3D3T
1, 2, 3, 11 at all other nodes
None.
2-D piezoelectric truss elements
T2D2E(S) 2-node, linear displacement, linear electric potential
T2D3E(S) 3-node, quadratic displacement, quadratic electric potential
1, 2, 9
None.
3-D piezoelectric truss elements
T3D2E(S) 2-node, linear displacement, linear electric potential
T3D3E(S) 3-node, quadratic displacement, quadratic electric potential
1, 2, 3, 9
None.
29.2.2–2
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TRUSS LIBRARY
2-D: X, Y
3-D: X, Y, Z
You must provide the cross-sectional area of the element. If no area is given, Abaqus assumes unit area.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Beam as the section
Category and Truss as the section Type
Distributed loads
Distributed loads are available for elements with displacement degrees of freedom. They are specified


−3
BY Body force FL Body force in global Y-direction.
BZ Body force FL−3 Body force in global Z-direction.
(Only for 3-D trusses.)
Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Explicit.
29.2.2–3
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TRUSS LIBRARY

Abaqus/Explicit. (Only for 3-D
trusses.)
velocity).
velocity).
velocity).
acceleration).
acceleration).
Abaqus/Aqua loads
Abaqus/Aqua loads are specified as described in “Abaqus/Aqua analysis,” Section 6.11.1. They are
available only for stress/displacement trusses.

(*CLOAD/ Load/Interaction
*DLOAD)
FDD(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse fluid drag load.

FD1(A) Not supported F Fluid drag force on the first end of the
truss (node 1).
FD2(A) Not supported F Fluid drag force on the second end of
the truss (node 2 or node 3).
FDT(A) Not supported FL−1 Tangential fluid drag load.
FI(A) Not supported FL−1 Fluid inertia load.
29.2.2–4
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TRUSS LIBRARY

*DLOAD)
FI1(A) Not supported F Fluid inertia force on the first end of
the truss (node 1).
FI2(A) Not supported F Fluid inertia force on the second end
of the truss (node 2 or node 3).
PB(A) Not supported FL−1 Buoyancy load (with closed end
condition).
WDD(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse wind drag load.
(A)
WD1 Not supported F Wind drag force on the first end of the
truss (node 1).
WD2(A) Not supported F Wind drag force on the second end of
the truss (node 2 or node 3).

Distributed heat fluxes are available for coupled temperature-displacement trusses. They are specified

BF(S) Body heat flux JL−3 T−1 Heat body flux per unit volume.
(S) −3 −1
BFNU Body heat flux JL T Nonuniform heat body flux per unit
S1(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Heat surface flux per unit area into the
first end of the truss (node 1).
S2(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Heat surface flux per unit area into
the second end of the truss (node 2 or
node 3).
S1NU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform heat surface flux per unit
area into the first end of the truss (node
1) with magnitude supplied via user
subroutine DFLUX.
S2NU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform heat surface flux per unit
area into the second end of the truss
29.2.2–5
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(node 2 or node 3) with magnitude
Film conditions
Film conditions are available for coupled temperature-displacement trusses. They are specified as

F1(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1

at the first end of the truss (node 1).
F2(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1
at the second end of the truss (node 2
or node 3).
F1NU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1
temperature at the first end of the truss
(node 1) with magnitude supplied via
F2NU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1
Nonuniform film coefficient and
sink temperature at the second end
of the truss (node 2 or node 3)
subroutine FILM.
Radiation types
Radiation conditions are available for coupled temperature-displacement trusses. They are specified as

R1(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature at the

first end of the truss (node 1).
R2(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature at the
second end of the truss (node 2 or
node 3).
29.2.2–6
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TRUSS LIBRARY
Electric fluxes
Electric fluxes are available for piezoelectric trusses. They are specified as described in “Piezoelectric

Element output

S11 Axial stress.

Available for coupled temperature-displacement trusses.
HFL1 Heat flux along the element axis.
2 2
end 2
3
end 2
1 end 1
1
end 1
29.2.2–7
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TRUSS LIBRARY
2 2
3
2
1 1
1
1
29.2.2–8
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BEAM ELEMENTS
29.3 Beam elements
• “Beam modeling: overview,” Section 29.3.1

• “Choosing a beam cross-section,” Section 29.3.2
• “Choosing a beam element,” Section 29.3.3
• “Beam element cross-section orientation,” Section 29.3.4
• “Beam section behavior,” Section 29.3.5
• “Using a beam section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.3.6
• “Using a general beam section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.3.7
• “Beam element library,” Section 29.3.8
• “Beam cross-section library,” Section 29.3.9
29.3–1
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BEAM MODELING: OVERVIEW
29.3.1 BEAM MODELING: OVERVIEW
Abaqus offers a wide range of beam modeling options.
Overview
Beam modeling consists of:

• choosing a beam cross-section (“Choosing a beam cross-section,” Section 29.3.2, and “Beam cross-
section library,” Section 29.3.9);
• choosing the appropriate beam element type (“Choosing a beam element,” Section 29.3.3, and
“Beam element library,” Section 29.3.8);
• defining the beam cross-section orientation (“Beam element cross-section orientation,”
Section 29.3.4);
• determining whether or not numerical integration is needed to define the beam section behavior
(“Beam section behavior,” Section 29.3.5); and
• defining the beam section behavior (“Using a beam section integrated during the analysis to define
the section behavior,” Section 29.3.6, or “Using a general beam section to define the section
behavior,” Section 29.3.7).
Determining whether beam modeling is appropriate
Beam theory is the one-dimensional approximation of a three-dimensional continuum. The reduction in

dimensionality is a direct result of slenderness assumptions; that is, the dimensions of the cross-section
are small compared to typical dimensions along the axis of the beam. The axial dimension must be
interpreted as a global dimension (not the element length), such as
• distance between supports,
• distance between gross changes in cross-section, or
• wavelength of the highest vibration mode of interest.
In Abaqus a beam element is a one-dimensional line element in three-dimensional space or
in the X–Y plane that has stiffness associated with deformation of the line (the beam’s “axis”).
These deformations consist of axial stretch; curvature change (bending); and, in space, torsion.
(“Truss elements,” Section 29.2.1, are one-dimensional line elements that have only axial stiffness.)
Beam elements offer additional flexibility associated with transverse shear deformation between the
beam’s axis and its cross-section directions. Some beam elements in Abaqus/Standard also include
warping—nonuniform out-of-plane deformation of the beam’s cross-section—as a nodal variable.
The main advantage of beam elements is that they are geometrically simple and have few degrees of
freedom. This simplicity is achieved by assuming that the member’s deformation can be estimated
entirely from variables that are functions of position along the beam axis only. Thus, a key issue in
using beam elements is to judge whether such one-dimensional modeling is appropriate.
29.3.1–1
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The fundamental assumption used is that the beam section (the intersection of the beam with a
plane that is perpendicular to the beam axis; see the discussion in “Choosing a beam cross-section,”
Section 29.3.2) cannot deform in its own plane (except for a constant change in cross-sectional area,
which may be introduced in geometrically nonlinear analysis and causes a strain that is the same in
all directions in the plane of the section). The implications of this assumption should be considered
carefully in any use of beam elements, especially for cases involving large amounts of bending or axial
tension/compression of non-solid cross-sections such as pipes, I-beams, and U-beams. Section collapse
may occur and result in very weak behavior that is not predicted by beam theory. Similarly, thin-walled,
curved pipes exhibit much softer bending behavior than would be predicted by beam theory because
the pipe wall readily bends in its own section—another effect precluded by this basic assumption of
beam theory. This effect, which must generally be considered when designing piping elbows, can be
modeled by using shell elements to model the pipe as a three-dimensional shell (see “Shell elements:
overview,” Section 29.6.1) or, in Abaqus/Standard, by using elbow elements (see “Pipes and pipebends
with deforming cross-sections: elbow elements,” Section 29.5.1).
In addition to beam elements, frame elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard. These elements
provide efficient modeling for design calculations of frame-like structures composed of initially straight,
slender members. They operate directly in terms of axial force, bending moments, and torque at the
element’s end nodes. They are implemented for small or large displacements (large rotations with small
strains) and permit the formation of plastic hinges at their ends through a “lumped” plasticity model that
includes kinematic hardening. See “Frame elements,” Section 29.4.1, for details.
In addition to the various beam elements, Abaqus also provides pipe elements to model beams with
pipe cross-sections that are subject to internal stress due to internal and/or external pressure loading.
Abaqus provides a choice of two formulations for pipe elements:
• the thin-walled formulation, where the hoop stress is assumed to be constant and the radial stress is
neglected, is available in Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard; and
• the thick-walled formulation, where the hoop and radial stress vary through the cross-section, is
available only in Abaqus/Standard.
The pipe elements are a specialized form of the corresponding beam elements that allow for internal
and/or external pressure load specification and take the resulting hoop stress (as well as radial stress for
thick-walled pipes) into account for the material constitutive calculations. Usage of the pipe elements
is identical to that of the corresponding beam elements with respect to the section definition, boundary
conditions at the element nodes, surface definitions, interactions such as tie constraints, etc.
Using beam elements in dynamic and eigenfrequency analysis
The rotary inertia of a beam cross-section is usually insignificant for slender beam structures, except for
twist around the beam axis. Therefore, Abaqus/Standard ignores rotary inertia of the cross-section for
Euler-Bernoulli beam elements in bending. For thicker beams the rotary inertia plays a role in dynamic
analysis, but to a lesser extent than shear deformation effects.
For Timoshenko beams the inertia properties are calculated from the cross-section geometry. The
rotary inertia associated with torsional modes is different from that of flexural modes. For unsymmetric
cross-sections the rotary inertia is different in each direction of bending. Abaqus allows you to choose
29.3.1–2
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the rotary inertia formulation for Timoshenko beams. When an approximate isotropic formulation is
requested, the rotary inertia associated with the torsional mode is used for all rotational degrees of
freedom in Abaqus/Standard, and a scaled flexural inertia with a scaling factor chosen to maximize the
stable time increment is used for all rotational degrees of freedom in Abaqus/Explicit. The center of mass
of the cross-section is taken to be located at the beam node. When the exact (anisotropic) formulation
is requested, the rotary inertia associated with bending and torsion differ and the coupling between the
translational and rotational degrees of freedom is included for beam cross-section definitions where the
beam node is not located at the center of mass of the cross-section. For Timoshenko beams with the exact
(default) rotary inertia formulation, you can define an additional mass and rotary inertia contribution to
the beam’s inertia response that does not add to its structural stiffness; see “Adding inertia to the beam
section behavior for Timoshenko beams” in “Beam section behavior,” Section 29.3.5.
29.3.1–3
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BEAM SECTIONS
29.3.2 CHOOSING A BEAM CROSS-SECTION
References

• “Defining profiles,” Section 12.2.2 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
The choice of cross-section is determined by the geometry of the cross-section and its behavior. A beam’s
cross-section:
• can be solid or thin-walled;

• if thin-walled, can be open or closed; and
• can be defined by choosing from the Abaqus cross-section library; by specifying geometric
quantities such as area, moments of inertia, and torsional constant; or by using a mesh of special
two-dimensional elements, for which geometric quantities are calculated numerically.
You must consider whether the section should be treated as a solid cross-section or as a thin-walled
cross-section. This choice determines the basis upon which Abaqus computes the axial and shear strains
at each point in the section.
Solid cross-sections
For solid sections under bending, plane (beam) sections remain plane. Under torsional loading any
noncircular beam section will warp: the beam section will not remain planar. However, for solid sections
the warping of the section is small enough so that the axial strain due to warping of the section can be
neglected and St. Venant warping theory can be used to construct a single component of shear strain
at each integration point in the section. This is done automatically for the rectangular and trapezoidal
sections in the beam section library. The St. Venant warping functions are used to define the shear
strain even when the response in the section is no longer purely elastic. This limits the accuracy of the
modeling for cases involving noncircular solid beam sections subjected to torsional loadings that cause
large amounts of inelastic deformation. When using a meshed beam profile, two shear strain components
are available for output in the user-specified material system. The thick pipe section is treated as a solid
cross-section.
29.3.2–1
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BEAM SECTIONS
Nonsolid (“thin-walled”) cross-sections
In Abaqus nonsolid sections are treated as “thin-walled” sections; that is, in the plane of the section, the
thickness of a branch of the section is assumed to be small compared to its length. Thin-walled beam
theory determines the shear in the wall of the section depending on whether the section is closed or open.
Closed sections
A closed section is a nonsolid section whose branches form closed loops. Closed sections offer significant
resistance to torsion and do not warp significantly. Abaqus ignores warping effects for closed sections.
In Abaqus predefined beam sections can model only one closed loop. Sections with multiple loops
must be modeled with a meshed beam section (see “Meshed cross-sections”) or with shells.
For sufficiently small thickness of the section walls, the variation of shear stress across the thickness
is negligible; the formulation of the closed sections available in Abaqus is based on this assumption.
Open sections
An open section is a nonsolid section with branches that do not form closed loops, such as an I-section
or a U-section. In such sections the shear stress is assumed to vary linearly over the wall thickness
and to vanish at the center of the wall. Open sections can warp significantly and generally require the
use of open-section warping theory (available with beam element types BxxOS in Abaqus/Standard)
with suitable warping constraints (applied to degree of freedom 7) at supports or joints. Such warping
constraints may significantly increase the torsional stiffness of the beam. Open, thin-walled sections
whose branches are straight lines that meet at a single point (such as the L-section in the Abaqus beam
element section library, T-sections, or X-sections) do not warp; therefore, warping constraints have no
effect. Such sections always have very little torsional stiffness.
If an open section is used with a regular beam element type (not BxxOS), the open section is assumed
to be free to warp and the axial strain due to warping is neglected. Consequently, the section will have
very little torsional stiffness.
Section property calculations

Thin-walled assumptions are used when calculating nonsolid section properties. Properties for sections
comprised of intersecting straight segments (arbitrary, box, hexagonal, I-, and L-sections) also include
an approximation of the intersection geometry.
Available beam cross-sections
You can specify any of the following types of beam cross-sections: an Abaqus library cross-section,
a generalized cross-section for which you specify the geometric quantities directly, or a meshed cross-
section.
29.3.2–2
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BEAM SECTIONS
The Abaqus beam cross-section library

The Abaqus beam cross-section library contains solid sections (circular, rectangular, and trapezoidal),
closed thin-walled sections (box, hexagonal, and pipe), open thin-walled sections (I-shaped, T-shaped,
or L-shaped), and a thick-walled pipe section. Abaqus also provides an arbitrary thin-walled section
definition; Abaqus will treat this section type as a closed or open section, depending on how the section
is defined.
Trapezoidal, I, and arbitrary library sections allow you to define the location of the origin of the local
coordinate system. Other section types—such as rectangular, circular, L, or pipe—have preset origins.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define a beam section integrated during the analysis:
*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=name
where name can be ARBITRARY, BOX, CIRC, HEX, I, L, PIPE, RECT,
THICK PIPE, or TRAPEZOID. A T-section is defined by specifying geometric
data for only one flange of an I-section.
Use the following option to define a general beam section:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=name
where name can be ARBITRARY, BOX, CIRC, HEX, I, L, PIPE, RECT, or
TRAPEZOID. A T-section is defined by specifying geometric data for only
one flange of an I-section.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: choose Box, Pipe, Circular, Rectangular,
Hexagonal, Trapezoidal, I, L, T, or Arbitrary
Generalized cross-sections
Abaqus also allows you to specify “generalized” cross-sections by specifying the geometric quantities
necessary to define the section. Such generalized sections can be used only with linear material behavior
although the section response can be linear or nonlinear.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define a linear generalized cross-section:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=GENERAL
Use the following option to define a nonlinear generalized cross-section:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=NONLINEAR GENERAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: choose Generalized
Nonlinear generalized cross-sections are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Meshed cross-sections
Abaqus allows you to mesh an arbitrarily shaped solid cross-section by using warping elements (see
“Warping elements,” Section 28.4.1) in a two-dimensional analysis to generate beam cross-section
properties that can be used in a subsequent two- or three-dimensional beam analysis. Such sections
29.3.2–3
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BEAM SECTIONS
permit only linear, elastic material behavior. Therefore, a meshed cross-section can be used only with a
general beam section definition; for details, see “Meshed beam cross-sections,” Section 10.6.1.
Input File Usage: *BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=MESHED
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Meshed cross-sections are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
29.3.2–4
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BEAM ELEMENTS
29.3.3 CHOOSING A BEAM ELEMENT
References

• “Beam element library,” Section 29.3.8
• *TRANSVERSE SHEAR STIFFNESS
• “Creating beam sections,” Section 12.13.11 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
Abaqus offers a wide range of beam elements, including “Euler-Bernoulli”-type beams and
“Timoshenko”-type beams with solid, thin-walled closed and thin-walled open sections.
The Abaqus/Standard beam element library includes:
• Euler-Bernoulli (slender) beams in a plane and in space;

• Timoshenko (shear flexible) beams in a plane and in space;
• linear, quadratic, and cubic interpolation formulations;
• warping (open section) beams;
• pipe elements; and
• hybrid formulation beams, typically used for very stiff beams that rotate significantly (applications
in robotics or in very flexible structures such as offshore pipelines).
The Abaqus/Explicit beam element library includes:
• Timoshenko (shear flexible) beams in a plane and in space;

• linear and quadratic interpolation formulations; and
• linear pipe elements.
Naming convention
Beam elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
29.3.3–1
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BEAM ELEMENTS
B 3 1 OS H
hybrid (optional)
open section (optional)
linear (1), quadratic (2), cubic (3),

or initially straight cubic (4)
beam or pipe in plane (2) or beam or pipe in space (3)
beam (B) or pipe (PIPE) element
For example, B21H is a planar beam that uses linear interpolation and a hybrid formulation.
Euler-Bernoulli (slender) beams
Euler-Bernoulli beams (B23, B23H, B33, and B33H) are available only in Abaqus/Standard. These
elements do not allow for transverse shear deformation; plane sections initially normal to the beam’s axis
remain plane (if there is no warping) and normal to the beam axis. They should be used only to model
slender beams: the beam’s cross-sectional dimensions should be small compared to typical distances
along its axis (such as the distance between support points or the wavelength of the highest mode that
participates in a dynamic response). For beams made of uniform material, typical dimensions in the
cross-section should be less than about 1/15 of typical axial distances for transverse shear flexibility to
be negligible. (The ratio of cross-section dimension to typical axial distance is called the slenderness
ratio.)
Load stiffness for pressure loads is not included for these elements.
Interpolation
The Euler-Bernoulli beam elements use cubic interpolation functions, which makes them reasonably
accurate for cases involving distributed loading along the beam. Therefore, they are well suited for
dynamic vibration studies, where the d’Alembert (inertia) forces provide such distributed loading.
The cubic beam elements are written for small-strain, large-rotation analysis. They may not be
appropriate for torsional stability problems due to the approximations in the underlying formulation and
cannot be used in analyses involving very large rotations (of the order 180°); quadratic or linear beam
elements should be used instead.
Mass formulation
The Euler-Bernoulli beam elements use a consistent mass formulation. Rotary inertia for twist around
the beam axis is the same as for Timoshenko beams. For details, see “Mass and inertia for Timoshenko
beams,” Section 3.5.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual. Any additional inertia defined for these elements
(see “Adding inertia to the beam section behavior for Timoshenko beams” in “Beam section behavior,”
Section 29.3.5) is ignored.
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Timoshenko (shear flexible) beams
Timoshenko beams (B21, B22, B31, B31OS, B32, B32OS, PIPE21, PIPE22, PIPE31, PIPE32, and their
“hybrid” equivalents) allow for transverse shear deformation. They can be used for thick (“stout”) as
well as slender beams. For beams made from uniform material, shear flexible beam theory can provide
useful results for cross-sectional dimensions up to 1/8 of typical axial distances or the wavelength of the
highest natural mode that contributes significantly to the response. Beyond this ratio the approximations
that allow the member’s behavior to be described solely as a function of axial position no longer provide
adequate accuracy.
Abaqus assumes that the transverse shear behavior of Timoshenko beams is linear elastic with a
fixed modulus and, thus, independent of the response of the beam section to axial stretch and bending.
For most beam sections Abaqus will calculate the transverse shear stiffness values required in
the element formulation. You can override these default values as described below in “Defining the
transverse shear stiffness and the slenderness compensation factor.” The default shear stiffness values
are not calculated in some cases if estimates of shear moduli are unavailable during the preprocessing
stage of input; for example, when the material behavior is defined by user subroutine UMAT, UHYPEL,
UHYPER, or VUMAT. In such cases you must define the transverse shear stiffnesses as described below.
The Timoshenko beams can be subjected to large axial strains. The axial strains due to torsion are
assumed to be small. In combined axial-torsion loading, torsional shear strains are calculated accurately
only when the axial strain is not large.
Transverse shear stiffness definition

The effective transverse shear stiffness of the section of a shear flexible beam is defined in Abaqus as
where is the section shear stiffness in the -direction; is a dimensionless factor used to prevent
the shear stiffness from becoming too large in slender beam elements; is the actual shear stiffness
of the section; and are the local directions of the cross-section. The have units of force.
The dimensionless factors are always included in the calculation of transverse shear stiffness
and are defined as
where l is the length of the element, A is the cross-sectional area, is the inertia in the -direction,
is the slenderness compensation factor (with a default value of 0.25), and is a constant of value
1.0 for first-order elements and 10−4 for second-order elements.
For meshed cross-sections the above expressions change to
29.3.3–3
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You can define the or as described below. If you do not specify them, they are defined by
or
where G is the elastic shear modulus or moduli and A is the cross-sectional area of the beam section.
Temperature and field variable dependencies of G are not taken into account when calculating and
. The shear factor k (Cowper, 1966) is defined as:
Section type Shear factor, k

Arbitrary 1.0
Box 0.44
Circular 0.89
Elbow 0.85
Generalized 1.0
Hexagonal 0.53
I (and T) 0.44
L 1.0
Meshed 1.0
Nonlinear generalized 1.0
Pipe 0.53
Rectangular 0.85
Thick pipe 0.53–0.89
Trapezoidal 0.822
When a beam section definition integrated during the analysis is used (see “Using a beam section
integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.3.6), G is calculated from the
elastic material definition used with the section. When a general beam section definition is used (see
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“Using a general beam section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.3.7), you provide G as part of
the beam section data.
Defining the transverse shear stiffness and the slenderness compensation factor
You can define the transverse shear stiffness for beam sections integrated during the analysis and general
beam sections. In the case of two-dimensional beams, you can input a single value of transverse shear
stiffness, namely . If either value of is omitted or given as zero, the nonzero value will be used
for both.
You can also define the slenderness compensation factor. The default value for the slenderness
compensation factor is 0.25. If a slenderness compensation factor value is provided, you must also
provide the values of the shear stiffness .
In the case of first-order elements, you may define the slenderness compensation factor by including
the label SCF. Abaqus will then use a slenderness compensation factor of , and any values
of that you specify are ignored. Instead, the values are calculated from the elastic material
definition.
The transverse shear stiffness is not relevant to Euler-Bernoulli beam elements for which the
transverse shear constraints are satisfied exactly.
Input File Usage: Use both of the following options to define the transverse shear stiffness for
beam sections integrated during the analysis:
*BEAM SECTION
*TRANSVERSE SHEAR STIFFNESS
Use both of the following options to define the transverse shear stiffness for
general beam sections:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: To define transverse shear stiffness for beam sections integrated during the
analysis:
Property module: beam section editor: Section integration: During
analysis: Stiffness: toggle on Specify transverse shear
To define transverse shear stiffness for general beam sections:
Property module: beam section editor: Section integration: Before
analysis: Stiffness, toggle on Specify transverse shear
Interpolation
Abaqus provides finite axial strain, shear flexible beams with linear and quadratic interpolations. Their
formulation is described in “Beam element formulation,” Section 3.5.2 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Element types B21, B31, B31OS, PIPE21, PIPE31, and their hybrid equivalents use linear
interpolation. These elements are well suited for cases involving contact, such as the laying of a pipeline
in a trench or on the seabed or the contact between a drill string and a well hole, and for dynamic
versions of similar problems (impact).
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Element types B22, B32, B32OS, PIPE22, PIPE32, and their hybrid equivalents use quadratic
interpolation.
Mass formulation
The linear Timoshenko beam elements use a lumped mass formulation by default. The quadratic
Timoshenko beam elements in Abaqus/Standard use a consistent mass formulation, except in dynamic
procedures in which a lumped mass formulation with a 1/6, 2/3, 1/6 distribution is used. For details, see
“Mass and inertia for Timoshenko beams,” Section 3.5.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual. The quadratic
Timoshenko beam elements in Abaqus/Explicit use a lumped mass formulation with a 1/6, 2/3, 1/6
distribution.
Using a consistent mass matrix in Abaqus/Standard

Alternatively, in Abaqus/Standard you can use the McCalley-Archer consistent mass matrix based on
the cubic interpolation of deflections and quadratic interpolation of rotations.
Input File Usage: Use the following option for linear Timoshenko beam elements with beam
sections integrated during the analysis:
*BEAM SECTION, LUMPED=NO
Use the following option for linear Timoshenko beam elements with general
beam sections:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, LUMPED=NO
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option for linear Timoshenko beam elements with beam
sections integrated during the analysis:
Property module: beam section editor: Section integration:
During analysis: Stiffness tabbed page: toggle on Use
consistent mass matrix formulation
Use the following option for linear Timoshenko beam elements with general
beam sections:
Property module: beam section editor: Section integration:
Before analysis: Stiffness tabbed page: toggle on Use
consistent mass matrix formulation
Rotary inertia treatment and additional beam inertia

By default, the exact (anisotropic with displacement-rotation coupling) rotary inertia is used for
Timoshenko beams. Optionally, an uncoupled isotropic approximation to the rotary inertia can be used.
See “Rotary inertia for Timoshenko beams” in “Beam section behavior,” Section 29.3.5, for further
details.
The exception to this rule is the static procedure with automatic stabilization (see “Static stress
analysis,” Section 6.2.2), where the mass matrix for Timoshenko beams is always calculated assuming
isotropic rotary inertia, regardless of the type of rotary inertia specified for the beam section definition
(see “Rotary inertia for Timoshenko beams” in “Beam section behavior,” Section 29.3.5).
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In some structural applications the beam element may be a one-dimensional approximation of a

structure with complex cross-sectional geometry and mass distribution. In such a cross-section there may
be inertia contributions that represent heavy machinery, cargo loaded in a ship compartment, fluid-filled
ballast tanks, or any other mass distributed along the length of the beam that is not part of the beam’s
structural stiffness. In such cases you can define additional mass and rotary inertia associated with the
beam section properties. Multiple masses per unit length (with location other than the origin of the beam
cross-section) and rotary inertias per unit length can be specified. Mass proportional damping (alpha or
composite damping) associated with this additional inertia can also be specified. Abaqus will use the
mass weighted average (based on the material damping and the added inertial damping) for the element
mass proportional damping. See “Material damping,” Section 26.1.1, for details.
Additional inertia due to immersion in fluid

When a beam is fully or partially submerged, the effect of the surrounding fluid can be modeled as an
additional distributed inertia on the beam. See “Additional inertia due to immersion in fluid” in “Beam
section behavior,” Section 29.3.5, for details.
Warping (open-section) beams

When modeling beams in space, a further consideration arises from the possible warping of the beam’s
cross-section under torsional loading. For all but circular sections the beam’s cross-section will deform
out of its original plane when subject to torsion. This warping deformation will modify the shear strain
distribution throughout the section.
Open sections will typically twist very easily if warping is not prevented, especially if the walls that
form the beam section are thin. Constraint of this warping at certain points along the beam (such as where
the beam is built into some other member, Figure 29.3.3–1, or into a wall) is then a major determinant
of the beam’s overall torsional response.
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Figure 29.3.3–1 Intersection of open section beams.
Element types B31OS, B32OS (and their “hybrid” equivalents) have the warping magnitude, w,
as a degree of freedom at each node; they are available only in Abaqus/Standard. In these elements
Abaqus/Standard assumes that the warping of the cross-section follows a certain pattern as a function of
position in the cross-section (Abaqus will calculate this warping pattern if you have specified a standard
library section or an “arbitrary” section): only the warping magnitude varies with position along the
beam’s axis. These elements are meant for the analysis of thin-walled open sections in which warping
constraints play a role and the axial strains due to warping cannot be neglected. Examples of such open
sections that may warp in this fashion are the I-section and any open arbitrary section. In the other beam
element types warping is considered unconstrained and any axial stress due to warping is neglected;
torsional behavior will not be represented adequately when these element types are used with thin-walled,
open sections.
In general, the warping magnitude can be continuous only when the beam axis is continuous
through a node and the beam cross-section is the same on both sides of the node. Thus, if open-section
members intersect at a node (such as the cross-member of a vehicle chassis abutting a longitudinal
member, Figure 29.3.3–1), separate nodes may have to be used for the intersecting members with
different axial directions and appropriate constraints must be chosen for the warping amplitudes in each
member at this point. The choice of these constraints is a matter of detail of the local construction. For
example, if the joint is reinforced, warping may be prevented; therefore, degree of freedom 7 should be
fully constrained with a boundary condition on the appropriate members at the joint.
“Pipe” elements
The pipe elements in Abaqus assume a hollow circular section. The internal stress caused by internal or
external pressure loading in the pipe is included in these elements so that on the pipe cross-section a point
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under tension will have different yield than a point under compression (Figure 29.3.3–2), thus causing
an asymmetry in the section’s response to inelastic bending. Two formulations are available for pipe
elements in Abaqus. The thin-walled pipe formulation assumes constant hoop stress across the cross-
section and neglects the radial stress, whereas thick-walled pipes (available only in Abaqus/Standard)
allow the hoop and radial stress components to vary across the cross-section.
The hoop stress in thin-walled pipe elements is computed as the average stress in equilibrium
with the internal and external pressure loading on the pipe section. For the thin-walled formulation, an
integration rule with one point through the thickness suffices to obtain an accurate solution.
For thick-walled pipes, the hoop stress and radial stress variation under applied internal and/or
external pressure are calculated using Lamé’s equations. The constitutive calculations at each material
point take into account the imposed hoop and radial stress values to determine the structural response.
A two-dimensional integration rule is used for thick-walled pipes to capture the effect of stress variation
across the section accurately.
“Hybrid” beams
Hybrid beam element types (B21H, B33H, etc.) are provided in Abaqus/Standard for use in cases where
it is numerically difficult to compute the axial and shear forces in the beam by the usual finite element
displacement method. This problem arises most commonly in geometrically nonlinear analysis when the
beam undergoes large rotations and is very rigid in axial and transverse shear deformation, such as a link
in a vehicle’s suspension system or a flexing long pipe or cable. The problem in such cases is that slight
differences in nodal positions can cause very large forces, which, in turn, cause large motions in other
directions. The hybrid elements overcome this difficulty by using a more general formulation in which
the axial and transverse shear forces in the elements are included, along with the nodal displacements and
rotations, as primary variables. Although this formulation makes these elements more expensive, they
generally converge much faster when the beam’s rotations are large and, therefore, are more efficient
overall in such cases.
Additional references
• Archer, J. S., “Consistent Matrix Formulations for Structural Analysis using Finite-Element
Techniques,” American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal, vol. 3, pp. 1910–1918,
1965.
• Cowper, R. G., “The Shear Coefficient in Timoshenko’s Beam Theory,” Journal of Applied
Mechanics, vol. 33, pp. 335–340, 1966.
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σ hoop
hoop stress caused by

pressurization
σ axial
asymmetric stress
limits in tension
Mises and compression
yield surface
Figure 29.3.3–2 Yield behavior in thin-walled PIPE elements.
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29.3.4 BEAM ELEMENT CROSS-SECTION ORIENTATION
References

• “Assigning a beam orientation,” Section 12.15.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
The orientation of a beam cross-section:

• is defined in terms of a local, right-handed axis system; and
• can be user-defined or calculated by Abaqus.
Beam cross-sectional axis system
The orientation of a beam cross-section is defined in Abaqus in terms of a local, right-handed ( , , )

axis system, where is the tangent to the axis of the element, positive in the direction from the first to
the second node of the element, and and are basis vectors that define the local 1- and 2-directions
of the cross-section. is referred to as the first beam section axis, and is referred to as the normal
to the beam. This beam cross-sectional axis system is illustrated in Figure 29.3.4–1.
Defining the n1 -direction
For beams in a plane the -direction is always (0.0, 0.0, −1.0); that is, normal to the plane in which the
motion occurs. Therefore, planar beams can bend only about the first beam-section axis.
For beams in space the approximate direction of must be defined directly as part of the beam
section definition or by specifying an additional node off the beam axis as part of the element definition
(see “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1). This additional node is included in the element’s connectivity
list.
• If an additional node is specified, the approximate direction of is defined by the vector extending
from the first node of the element to the additional node.
• If is defined directly for the section and an additional node is specified, the direction calculated
by using the additional node will take precedence.
• If the approximate direction is not defined by either of the above methods, the default value is (0.0,
0.0, −1.0).
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n2
x
n1
t 2
Figure 29.3.4–1 Local axis definition for beam-type elements.
This approximate -direction may be used to determine the -direction (discussed below). Once the
-direction has been defined or calculated, the actual -direction will be calculated as , possibly
resulting in a direction that is different from the specified direction.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify the -direction directly for a beam section
integrated during the analysis:
*BEAM SECTION
-direction (the data line number depends on the value
of the SECTION parameter)
Use the following option to specify the -direction directly for a general beam
section:
-direction (the data line number depends on the value
of the SECTION parameter)
Use the following option to specify an additional node off the beam axis to
define the -direction:
*ELEMENT
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Assign→Beam Section Orientation: select
region and enter the -direction
Specifying an additional node off the beam axis is not supported in
Abaqus/CAE.
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Defining nodal normals
For beams in space you can define the nodal normal ( -direction) by giving its direction cosines as the
fourth, fifth, and sixth coordinates of each node definition or by giving them in a user-specified normal
definition; see “Normal definitions at nodes,” Section 2.1.4, for details. Otherwise, the nodal normal will
be calculated by Abaqus, as described below.
If the nodal normal is defined as part of the node definition, this normal is used for all of the structural
elements attached to the node except those for which a user-specified normal is defined. If a user-specified
normal is defined at a node for a particular element, this normal definition takes precedence over the
normal defined as part of the node definition. If the specified normal subtends an angle that is greater
than 20° with the plane perpendicular to the element axis, a warning message is issued in the data (.dat)
file. If the angle between the normal defined as part of the node definition or the user-specified normal
and is greater than 90°, the reverse of the specified normal is used.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify the -direction as part of the node
definition:
*NODE
node number, nodal coordinates, nodal normal coordinates
Use the following option to define a user-specified normal:
*NORMAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Defining the nodal normal is not supported in Abaqus/CAE; the nodal normal
calculated by Abaqus is always used.
Calculation of the average nodal normals by Abaqus

If the nodal normal is not defined as part of the node definition, element normal directions at the node
are calculated for all shell and beam elements for which a user-specified normal is not defined (the
“remaining” elements). For shell elements the normal direction is orthogonal to the shell midsurface, as
described in “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1. For beam elements the normal direction is the
second cross-section direction, as described in “Beam element cross-section orientation,” Section 29.3.4.
The following algorithm is then used to obtain an average normal (or multiple averaged normals) for the
remaining elements that need a normal defined:
1. If a node is connected to more than 30 remaining elements, no averaging occurs and each element
is assigned its own normal at the node. The first nodal normal is stored as the normal defined as
part of the node definition. Each subsequent normal is stored as a user-specified normal.
2. If a node is shared by 30 or fewer remaining elements, the normals for all the elements connected
to the node are computed. Abaqus takes one of these elements and puts it in a set with all the other
elements that have normals within 20° of it. Then:
a. Each element whose normal is within 20° of the added elements is also added to this set (if it
is not yet included).
b. This process is repeated until the set contains for each element in the set all the other elements
whose normals are within 20°.
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c. If all the normals in the final set are within 20° of each other, an average normal is computed
for all the elements in the set. If any of the normals in the set are more than 20° out of line
from even a single other normal in the set, no averaging occurs for elements in the set and a
separate normal is stored for each element.
d. This process is repeated until all the elements connected to the node have had normals
computed for them.
e. The first nodal normal is stored as the normal defined as part of the node definition. Each
subsequently generated nodal normal is stored as a user-specified normal.
This algorithm ensures that the nodal averaging scheme has no element order dependence. A simple
example illustrating this process is included below.
Example: beam normal averaging

Consider the three beam element model in Figure 29.3.4–2. Elements 1, 2, and 3 share a common node
10, with no user-specified normal defined.
10
1 3
2
20 40
2
30
3 1
Figure 29.3.4–2 Three-element example for nodal averaging algorithm.
In the first scenario, suppose that at node 10 the normal for element 2 is within 20° of both elements
1 and 3, but the normals for elements 1 and 3 are not within 20° of each other. In this case, each element is
assigned its own normal: one is stored as part of the node definition and two are stored as user-specified
normals.
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In the second scenario, suppose that at node 10 the normal for element 2 is within 20° of both
elements 1 and 3 and the normals for elements 1 and 3 are within 20° of each other. In this case, a single
average normal for elements 1, 2, and 3 would be computed and stored as part of the node definition.
In the last scenario, suppose that at node 10 the normal for element 2 is within 20° of element 1 but
the normal of element 3 is not within 20° of either element 1 or 2. In this case, an average normal is
computed and stored for elements 1, and 2 and the normal for element 3 is stored by itself: one is stored
as part of the node definition and the other is stored as a user-specified normal.
Appropriate beam normals

To ensure proper application of loads that act normal to the beam cross-section, it is important to have
beam normals that correctly define the plane of the cross-section. When linear beams are used to model
a curved geometry, appropriate beam normals are the normals that are averaged at the nodes. For such
cases it is preferable to define the cross-sectional axis system such that beam normals lie in the plane of
curvature and are properly averaged at the nodes.
Initial curvature and initial twist
In Abaqus/Standard normal direction definitions can result in a beam element having an initial curvature
or an initial twist, which will affect the behavior of some elements.
• When the normal to an element is not perpendicular to the beam axis (obtained by interpolation
using the nodes of the element), the beam element is curved. Initial curvature can result when you
define the normal directly (as part of the node definition or as a user-specified normal) or can result
when beams intersect at a node and the normals to the beams are averaged as described above.
The effect of this initial curvature is considered in cubic beam elements. Initial curvature resulting
from normal definitions is not considered in quadratic beam elements; however, these elements do
properly account for any initial curvature represented by the node positions.
• Similarly, nodal-normal directions that are in different orientations about the beam axis at different
nodes imply a twist. The effect of an initial twist, which could result from normal averaging or
user-defined normal definitions, is considered in quadratic beam elements.
Since the behavior of initially curved or initially twisted beams is quite different from straight beams,
the changes caused by averaging the normals may result in changes in the deformation of some beam
elements. You should always check the model to ensure that the changes caused by averaging the normals
are intended. If the normal directions at successive nodes subtend an angle that is greater than 20°, a
warning message is issued in the data (.dat) file. In addition, a warning message will be issued during
input file preprocessing if the average curvature computed for a beam differs by more than 0.1 degrees per
unit length or if the approximate integrated curvature for the entire beam differs by more than 5 degrees
as compared to the curvature computed without nodal averaging and without user-defined normals.
In Abaqus/Explicit initial curvature of the beam is not taken into account: all beam elements are
assumed to be initially straight. The element’s cross-section orientation is calculated by averaging the
- and -directions associated with its nodes. These two vectors are then projected onto the plane that
is perpendicular to the beam element’s axis. These projected directions and are made orthogonal
to each other by rotating in this plane by an equal and opposite angle.
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29.3.5 BEAM SECTION BEHAVIOR
References

• *BEAM GENERAL SECTION
• *BEAM SECTION
• “Creating beam sections,” Section 12.13.11 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
The beam section behavior:

• is defined in terms of the response of the beam section to stretching, bending, shear, and torsion;
• may or may not require numerical integration over the section; and
• can be linear or nonlinear (as a result of nonlinear material response).
Beam section behavior
Defining a beam section’s response to stretching, bending, shear, and torsion of the beam’s axis requires
a suitable definition of the axial force, N; bending moments, and ; and torque, T, as functions
of the axial strain, ; curvature changes, and ; and twist, . Here the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to
local, orthogonal axes in the beam section.
If open-section beam types are used, the section behavior must also define the warping bimoment,
W, and the generalized strain measures include the warping amplitude, w, and the bicurvature of the
beam, , which is the gradient of the warping amplitude with respect to position along the beam:
.
The type of section definition you choose determines whether the beam section properties are
recomputed during the progression of the analysis or established in the preprocessor for the duration
of the analysis. If a general beam section definition is used (see “Using a general beam section to
define the section behavior,” Section 29.3.7), the cross-section properties are computed once, during
preprocessing. Alternatively, a beam section definition that is integrated during the analysis can
be used (see “Using a beam section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,”
Section 29.3.6), in which case Abaqus will use numerical integration of the stress over the cross-section
to define the beam’s response as the analysis proceeds.
Since planar beams deform only in the X–Y plane, only N and , and and , contribute to
the response in these elements: , , and w are assumed to be zero.
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In Abaqus bending moments in beam sections are always measured about the centroid of the beam
section, while torque is measured with respect to the shear center. The beam axis (defined as the line
joining the nodes that define the beam element) need not pass through the centroid of the beam section.
The degrees of freedom of the beam element are at the origin of the local coordinate system
defined in the cross-section of the beam; that is, the line of the element connecting the element’s nodes
passes through the origin of the cross-section’s local coordinate system.
Determining whether to use a beam section integrated during the analysis or a general beam
section
When a beam section integrated during the analysis is used (see “Using a beam section integrated during
the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.3.6), Abaqus integrates numerically over the
section as the beam deforms, evaluating the material behavior independently at each point on the section.
This type of beam section should be used when the section nonlinearity is caused only by nonlinear
material response.
When a general beam section is used (see “Using a general beam section to define the section
behavior,” Section 29.3.7), Abaqus precomputes the beam cross-section quantities and performs all
section computations during the analysis in terms of the precomputed values. This method combines
the functions of beam section and material descriptions (a material definition is not needed). The
precomputed section properties may be specified in a variety of ways, including quite complex
geometries defined with a two-dimensional finite element mesh (see “Meshed beam cross-sections,”
Section 10.6.1). A general beam section should be used when the beam section response is linear or
when it is nonlinear and the nonlinearity arises from more than just material nonlinearity, such as in
cases when section collapse occurs.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define a beam section integrated during the analysis:
*BEAM SECTION
Use the following option to define a general beam section:
Abaqus/CAE Usage: To define a beam section integrated during the analysis:
Property module: Create Section: select Beam as the section Category and
Beam as the section Type: Section integration: During analysis
To define a general beam section:
Property module: Create Section: select Beam as the section Category and
Beam as the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis
Geometric section quantities
The section quantities described below are needed to define the behavior of a general beam section.
Moments of inertia
The moments of inertia with respect to the centroid are defined as
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and
where ( ) is the position of the point in the local beam section axis system and ( ) is the
position of the centroid of the cross-sectional area.
Bending stiffness and rotary inertia contributions for a meshed section profile (see “Meshed cross-
sections” in “Choosing a beam cross-section,” Section 29.3.2) are calculated using the two-dimensional
cross-section model. The following integrated properties are defined for the entire cross-section model
meshed with warping elements:
and
where ( ) is the center of mass of the cross section.
Torsional constant
The torsional constant, J, depends on the shape of the cross section. The torsional constant of a circular
section is the polar moment of inertia, .
The torsional constant for the rectangular and trapezoidal library sections is calculated numerically
by Abaqus using the Prandtl stress function approach. A local finite element model of the cross-section
is created internally for this purpose. The number of integration points selected for the cross-section
determines the accuracy of this finite element model. For increased accuracy specify a higher-order rule
by selecting nondefault integration.
The above rule is also applied to both the thin-walled box section and the arbitrary section to
increase the accuracy of the model. If the thickness for each segment making up the section varies
significantly, more integration points for the box section or smaller segments for the arbitrary section
should be specified in the area where the thickness varies.
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The torsional stiffness for a meshed section is calculated over the two-dimensional region meshed
with warping elements. The accuracy of the integration depends on the number of elements in the model:
where denotes the derivative of the warping function with respect to the cross-section (1, 2) axis and
is the position of the shear center of the cross-sectional area. All indices take values 1, 2. For more
details, see “Meshed beam cross-sections,” Section 3.5.6 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
For closed thin-walled sections the torsional constant is calculated from
where t is the thickness of the section, is the area enclosed by the median line of the section, and s
is the length of the median line, measured along the circumference of the section in a counterclockwise
direction.
For open, built-up, thin-walled sections,
Abaqus will check if a built-up section is closed or not and will use the appropriate torsional constant.
Sectorial moment and warping constant

For open, thin-walled sections the sectorial moment is defined as
and the warping constant is defined as
where is the sectorial area at a point in the section with the shear center as its pole.
Rotary inertia for Timoshenko beams
In general, the rotary inertia associated with torsional modes is different from that of flexural modes. For
unsymmetric cross-sections the rotary inertia is different in each direction of bending. For cross-sections
where the beam node is not located at the center of mass, coupling exists between the translational and
rotational degrees of freedom.
By default, the exact (anisotropic and coupled) rotary inertia is used for Timoshenko beams. In
Abaqus/Standard the anisotropic rotary inertia introduces unsymmetric terms in the Jacobian operator
during geometrically nonlinear, transient, direct-integration dynamic simulations. If the rotary inertia
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effects are significant in the geometrically nonlinear dynamic response and the exact rotary inertia is
used, the unsymmetric solver should be used for better convergence.
Optionally, an approximate isotropic and uncoupled rotary inertia can be selected. In
Abaqus/Standard this means that the rotary inertia associated with the torsional mode only is used for all
rotational degrees of freedom; potentially destabilizing rotary inertia effects in impact problems due to
the anisotropy or displacement-rotation coupling will not be introduced. In Abaqus/Explicit this means
a scaled flexural inertia with a scaling factor chosen to maximize the stable element time increment is
used for all rotational degrees of freedom; i.e., the stable time increment will not be determined by the
flexural response of the beam. In some slender beam analyses an isotropic approximation to the rotary
inertia may be accurate enough.
If beam elements are used to model plate-type structures in Abaqus/Explicit (i.e., if the moment
of inertia about one section axis of the beam is more than a thousand times greater than the moment
of inertia about the other axis), the exact rotary inertia formulation may lead to a sharp cut-back in the
stable time increment. In this case it is recommended that you either use the isotropic approximation or
alternatively consider modeling the structure with shell elements, which might be better suited to this
type of analysis.
For a definition of rotary inertia for the beam’s cross-section, see “Mass and inertia for Timoshenko
beams,” Section 3.5.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify isotropic rotary inertia for a beam section
integrated during the analysis:
*BEAM SECTION, ROTARY INERTIA=ISOTROPIC
Use the following option to specify isotropic rotary inertia for a general beam
section:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, ROTARY INERTIA=ISOTROPIC

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Isotropic rotary inertia for beam sections is not supported in Abaqus/CAE. The
default exact rotary inertia is always used.
Adding inertia to the beam section behavior for Timoshenko beams
Additional mass and rotary inertia properties for Timoshenko beams (including PIPE elements) can be
defined. This added inertia defined within the cross-section per unit length along the beam contributes to
the inertia response of the beam without contributing to the structural stiffness. Additional beam inertia
cannot be defined for a section if isotropic rotary inertia is used.
To specify additional beam inertia, you define the mass (per unit length) with the mass center
positioned at point in the local (1, 2) beam cross-section axis system. To include rotary inertia
(per unit length), you can also define the angle (in degrees) within the cross-section local (1, 2) system
that positions the first axis of the rotary inertia coordinate system relative to the local 1-direction
in the beam cross-section axis system. See Figure 29.3.5–1 for an illustration.
29.3.5–5
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2
X
α
1
x 2
1
x 1
Figure 29.3.5–1 Beam element with added inertia.
The rotary inertia components relative to the rotary inertia coordinate system are defined as
and
where A is the area, is the mass density, and X and Y are the local rotary inertia system coordinates
measured from , the center of the added mass contribution.
As many point masses and rotary inertia contributions as are needed to define the added inertia can
be specified. Mass proportional damping associated with the added inertia can be specified by assigning a
value to the mass proportional Rayleigh damping coefficient, , or the composite damping coefficient,
. Abaqus will use the mass weighted average (based on the material damping and the added inertia
damping) for the element mass proportional damping.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in conjunction with the beam section definition to
specify additional inertia properties:
*BEAM ADDED INERTIA, ALPHA= , COMPOSITE=
mass per unit length, , , , , ,
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Additional inertia properties are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
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Additional inertia due to immersion in fluid
When a beam is fully or partially submerged, the effect of the surrounding fluid can be modeled as
an additional distributed inertia on the beam (see “Loading due to an incident dilatational wave field,”
Section 6.3.1 of the Abaqus Theory Manual). By default, the beam is assumed to be fully submerged.
Alternatively, you can specify that the added inertia per unit length should be reduced by a factor of
one-half to model a partially submerged beam.
You specify the fluid mass density, (per unit volume); beam local x and y coordinates of the
wetted cross-section centroid; wetted section effective radius, r; and empirical drag or flow coefficients,
and . The inertia added per unit length to a fully immersed beam cross-section is given by
Because the beam cross-section origin may not be coincident with the centroid of the wetted
cross-section, the additional fluid inertia may include rotary effects. Nonzero values for the x- and
y-offsets of the wetted cross-section centroid will produce rotation-displacement coupling in the inertia
formulation. The default model for the added inertia derives from inviscid flow around a cylindrical
cross-section ( ); you can specify a coefficient, , that models flow around a different
cross-section geometry.
An immersed beam also experiences an additional added mass effect at its free ends. If a beam
element’s end node is not attached to any other element and additional fluid inertia is defined for this
element, an additional mass may be added in the form:
For this added mass corresponds to that of a hemispherical cap; the default value is
. The coefficient can be changed to model other geometries. If the beam is partially
submerged, the end inertia is automatically reduced by one-half. However, the added mass at the free
ends is always isotropic: axial and transverse motions experience the same additional inertia.
The “virtual mass” added to a submerged or partially submerged beam is not included in the total
mass, center of mass, moments, or products of inertia reported in the data (.dat) file.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in conjunction with the beam section definition to
define a fully immersed beam:
*BEAM FLUID INERTIA, FULL
, x, y, r, ,
Use the following option in conjunction with the beam section definition to
define a partially immersed beam:
*BEAM FLUID INERTIA, HALF
, x, y, r, ,
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Abaqus/CAE Usage: To define a fully immersed beam:

Property module: beam section editor: Fluid Inertia: toggle on
Specify fluid inertia effects: Fully submerged
To define a partially immersed beam:
Property module: beam section editor: Fluid Inertia: toggle on
Specify fluid inertia effects: Half submerged
Additional reference
• Blevins, R. D., Formulas for Natural Frequency and Mode Shape, R. E. Krieger Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1987.
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USING BEAM SECTIONS INTEGRATED DURING ANALYSIS
29.3.6 USING A BEAM SECTION INTEGRATED DURING THE ANALYSIS TO DEFINE THE
SECTION BEHAVIOR
References

• *BEAM SECTION
• “Specifying properties for beam sections integrated during analysis” in “Creating beam sections,”
Section 12.13.11 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML version of this manual
Overview
A beam section integrated during the analysis:

• is used when section properties must be recomputed as the beam deforms over the course of the
analysis; and
• can be associated with linear or nonlinear material behavior.
Defining the behavior of a beam section integrated during the analysis
Use a beam section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior when numerical
integration over the section is required as the beam deforms. You can choose a section shape from
the library of beam section shapes provided (see “Beam cross-section library,” Section 29.3.9) and
define the section’s dimensions. In addition, you can specify the number of section points to use
for integration. The default number of section points is adequate for monotonic loading that causes
plasticity. If reversed plasticity will occur, more section points are required.
Use a material definition (“Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2) to define the material properties
of the section, and associate these properties with the section definition. Linear or nonlinear material
behavior can be associated with the section definition. However, if the material response is linear, the
more economic approach is to use a general beam section (see “Using a general beam section to define
the section behavior,” Section 29.3.7).
You must associate the section properties with a region of your model.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, ELSET=name, SECTION=library_section,
MATERIAL=name
The ELSET parameter is used to associate the section properties with a set of
beam elements.
Create Profile: Name: library_section
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Create Section: select Beam as the section Category and Beam as

the section Type: Section integration: During analysis, Profile
name: library_section, Material name: name
Defining a change in cross-sectional area due to straining
In the shear flexible elements Abaqus provides for a possible uniform cross-sectional area change by
allowing you to specify an effective Poisson’s ratio for the section. This effect is considered only in
geometrically nonlinear analysis (see “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2) and is provided to model the
reduction or increase in the cross-sectional area for a beam subjected to large axial stretch.
The value of the effective Poisson’s ratio must be between −1.0 and 0.5. By default, this effective
Poisson’s ratio for the section is set to 0.0 so that this effect is ignored. Setting the effective Poisson’s ratio
to 0.5 implies that the overall response of the section is incompressible. This behavior is appropriate if the
beam is made of a typical metal whose overall response at large deformation is essentially incompressible
(because it is dominated by plasticity). Values between 0.0 and 0.5 mean that the cross-sectional area
changes proportionally between no change and incompressibility, respectively. A negative value of the
effective Poisson’s ratio will result in an increase in the cross-sectional area in response to tensile axial
strains.
This effective Poisson’s ratio is not available for use with Euler-Bernoulli beam elements.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, POISSON=
Category and Beam as the section Type: Section integration:
During analysis, Section Poisson's ratio:
Defining material damping
When a beam section integrated during the analysis is used, damping can be introduced through the
material behavior definition. See “Material damping,” Section 26.1.1, for more information about the
material damping types available in Abaqus.
Specifying temperature and field variables
Temperature and field variables can be specified at specific points through the section or by defining
the value at the origin of the cross-section and specifying the gradients in the local 1- and 2-directions.
The actual values of the temperature and field variables are specified as either predefined fields or
initial conditions (see “Predefined fields,” Section 33.6.1, or “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1).
In any element it is assumed that the temperature definitions at all the nodes of the element are
compatible with the temperature definition method chosen for the element. For cases in which the
temperature definition method changes from one element to the next, separate nodes must be used on the
interface between elements with different temperature definition methods and MPCs must be applied to
make the displacements and rotations the same at the nodes.
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By defining the value at the origin and the gradients in the 1- and 2-directions
Temperatures and field variables can be defined by giving the value at the origin of the cross-section and
the gradients in the 2- and 1-directions of the cross-section (that is, give and in the
predefined field or initial condition definition). For beams in a plane only and need be given;
gradients in the 1-direction are ignored in this case.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, TEMPERATURE=GRADIENTS
During analysis, Linear by gradients
By defining the values at points through the section

Temperatures and field variables can be defined at a set of points on the section, as indicated for each
cross-section in “Beam cross-section library,” Section 29.3.9.
This technique cannot be used for any beam element that is adjacent to a general beam section
element, as it can lead to incorrect temperature distributions at the shared cross-section. If you cannot
avoid this modeling scenario, you must define the adjacent elements using separate nodes connected by
MPCs, as discussed above.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, TEMPERATURE=VALUES
and Beam as the section Type: Section integration: During analysis,
Interpolated from temperature points
Output
Beam section properties such as cross-sectional area, moments of inertia, etc. are printed in the model
data output. When a beam section integrated during the analysis is used, section forces, moments, and
transverse shear forces and section strains, curvatures, and transverse shear strains can be output for
the section (see “Element output” in “Output to the data and results files,” Section 4.1.2, and “Element
output” in “Output to the output database,” Section 4.1.3). In addition, stress and strain can be output at
each section point. “Beam element library,” Section 29.3.8, lists some of the element output quantities
that are available for beam elements.
Axial strains due to warping are included in the stress/strain output from Abaqus/Standard if a beam
section integrated during the analysis is used.
Temperature output at the section points can be obtained using the element variable TEMP. If the
temperatures are given at specific points through the section, output at the temperature points can be
obtained using the nodal variable NTxx. The nodal variable NTxx should not be used for output at the
temperature points if the temperatures are specified by defining the value at the origin of the cross-section
and specifying the gradients in the local 1- and 2-directions. In this case output variable NT should be
requested; NT11 (the reference temperature value) and NT12 and NT13 (the temperature gradients in
the local 1- and 2-directions, respectively) will be output automatically.
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Beam normals are written to the output database automatically for all frames that include field
output of nodal displacements. The normal directions can be visualized in the Visualization module of
Abaqus/CAE.
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USING GENERAL BEAM SECTIONS
29.3.7 USING A GENERAL BEAM SECTION TO DEFINE THE SECTION BEHAVIOR
References

• “Specifying properties for general beam sections” in “Creating beam sections,” Section 12.13.11 of
the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML version of this manual
Overview
A general beam section:

• is used to define beam section properties that are computed once and held constant for the entire
analysis;
• can be used to define linear or nonlinear section behavior;
• for linear section behavior can be associated only with linear material behavior
• enables the use of meshed cross-sections (“Meshed beam cross-sections,” Section 10.6.1); and
• enables the use of tapered cross-sections (Abaqus/Standard only).
Linear section behavior
Linear section response is calculated as follows. At each point in the cross-section the axial stress, ,
and the shear stress, , are given by
and
where
is Young’s modulus (which may depend on the temperature, , and field variables, , at the
beam axis);
is the shear modulus (which may also depend on the temperature and field variables at the
beam axis);
is the axial strain;
is the shear caused by twist; and
is the thermal expansion strain.
The thermal expansion strain is given by
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where
is the thermal expansion coefficient,
is the current temperature at a point in the beam section,
are field variables,
is the reference temperature for ,
is the initial temperature at this point (see “Defining initial temperatures” in “Initial
conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1), and
are the initial values of the field variables at this point (see “Defining initial values of
predefined field variables” in “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,”
Section 33.2.1).
If the thermal expansion coefficient is temperature or field-variable dependent, it is evaluated at the
temperature and field variables at the beam axis. Therefore, since we assume that varies linearly over
the section, also varies linearly over the section.
The temperature is defined from the temperature of the beam axis and the gradients of temperature
with respect to the local - and -axes:
The axial force, N; bending moments, and about the 1 and 2 beam section local axes; torque,
T; and bimoment, W, are defined in terms of the axial stress and the shear stress (see “Beam element
formulation,” Section 3.5.2 of the Abaqus Theory Manual). These terms are
where
A is the area of the section,
is the moment of inertia for bending about the 1-axis of the section,
is the moment of inertia for cross-bending,
J is the torsional constant,
is the sectorial moment of the section,
is the warping constant of the section,
is the axial strain measured at the centroid of the section,
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is the thermal axial strain,

is the curvature change about the first beam section local axis,
is the curvature change about the second beam section local axis,
is the twist,
is the bicurvature defining the axial strain in the section due to the twist of the
beam, and
is the difference between the unconstrained warping amplitude, , and the actual
warping amplitude, w.
, , , and are nonzero only for open-section beam elements.
Defining linear section behavior for library cross-sections or linear generalized cross-sections
Linear beam section response is defined geometrically by A, , , , J, and—if necessary— and
.
You can input these geometric quantities directly or specify a standard library section and Abaqus
will calculate these quantities. In either case define the orientation of the beam section (see “Beam
element cross-section orientation,” Section 29.3.4); give Young’s modulus, the torsional shear modulus,
and the coefficient of thermal expansion, as functions of temperature; and associate the section properties
If the thermal expansion coefficient is temperature dependent, the reference temperature for thermal
expansion must also be defined as described later in this section.
Specifying the geometric quantities directly

You can define “generalized” linear section behavior by specifying A, , , , J, and—if
necessary— and directly. In this case you can specify the location of the centroid, thus allowing
the bending axis of the beam to be offset from the line of its nodes. In addition, you can specify the
location of the shear center.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define generalized linear beam section properties:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=GENERAL, ELSET=name
A, , , , J, ,
If necessary, use the following option to specify the location of the centroid:
*CENTROID
If necessary, use the following option to specify the location of the shear center:
*SHEAR CENTER
Create Profile: Name: generalized_section, Generalized
Create Section: select Beam as the section Category and Beam
as the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis, Profile
name: generalized_section: Centroid and Shear Center
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Specifying a standard library section and allowing Abaqus to calculate the geometric quantities
You can select one of the standard library sections (see “Beam cross-section library,” Section 29.3.9)
and specify the geometric input data needed to define the shape of the cross-section. Abaqus will then
calculate the geometric quantities needed to define the section behavior automatically.
Input File Usage: *BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=library_section, ELSET=name
as the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis,
Profile name: library_section
Defining linear section behavior for meshed cross-sections

Linear beam section response for a meshed section profile is obtained by numerical integration from the
two-dimensional model. The numerical integration is performed once, determining the beam stiffness
and inertia quantities, as well as the coordinates of the centroid and shear center, for the duration of
the analysis. These beam section properties are calculated during the beam section generation and are
written to the text file jobname.bsp. This text file can be included in the beam model. See “Meshed
beam cross-sections,” Section 10.6.1, for a detailed description of the properties defining the linear beam
section response for a meshed section, as well as for how a typical meshed section is analyzed.
Input File Usage: Use the following options:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=MESHED, ELSET=name
*INCLUDE, INPUT=jobname.bsp
Defining linear section behavior for tapered cross-sections in Abaqus/Standard

In Abaqus/Standard you can define Timoshenko beams with linearly tapered cross-sections. General
beam sections with linear response and standard library sections are supported, with the exception of
arbitrary sections. The section parameters are defined at the two end nodes of each beam element. The
effective beam area and moment of inertia for bending about the 1- and 2-axis of the section used in the
calculation of the beam stiffness matrix, section forces, and stresses are
eff
eff
eff
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where the superscripts and refer to the two end nodes of the beam. The remaining effective geometric
quantities are calculated as the average between the values at the two end nodes. This approximation
suffices for mild tapering along each element, but it can lead to large errors if the tapering is not gradual.
Abaqus/Standard issues a warning message during input file preprocessing if the area or inertia ratio is
larger than 2.0 and an error message if the ratio is larger than 10.0.
The effective area and inertia are not used in the computation of the mass matrix. Instead, terms
on the diagonal quadrants use the properties from the respective nodes, while off-diagonal quadrants use
averaged quantities. For example, the axial inertia a linear element would have the diagonal term coming
from node of , while node contributes with and the two off-diagonal contributions
equal . Mild tapering is assumed in this formulation, since the total mass of the element
totals .
Note: When you apply a tapered beam section to geometry in Abaqus/CAE, the full tapering is applied
to each element along the beam’s length. For beams that include multiple elements, this modeling style
can create a “sawtooth” pattern along the length of the beam. If you want to model gradual tapering
along the entire length of the beam in Abaqus/CAE, you must calculate the size and shape of the beam
profiles at the intermediate nodes, then apply different tapered beam sections to each beam element along
the length.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define linear section behavior of tapered cross-
sections:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, TAPER, ELSET=name
as the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis,
Beam shape along length: Tapered: Beam start and Beam
end options: Profile name: library_section
Nonlinear section behavior
Typically nonlinear section behavior is used to include the experimentally measured nonlinear response
of a beam-like component whose section distorts in its plane. When the section behaves according to
beam theory (that is, the section does not distort in its plane) but the material has nonlinear response, it is
usually better to use a beam section integrated during the analysis to define the section geometrically (see
“Using a beam section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.3.6), in
association with a material definition.
Nonlinear section behavior can also be used to model beam section collapse in an approximate sense:
“Nonlinear dynamic analysis of a structure with local inelastic collapse,” Section 2.1.1 of the Abaqus
Example Problems Manual, illustrates this for the case of a pipe section that may suffer inelastic collapse
due to the application of a large bending moment. In following this approach you should recognize
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that such unstable section collapse, like any unstable behavior, typically involves localization of the
deformation: results will, therefore, be strongly mesh sensitive.
Calculation of nonlinear section response

Nonlinear section response is assumed to be defined by
where means a functional dependence on the conjugate variables: , ,

etc. For example, means that N is a function of: ; , the temperature of the
beam axis; and of , any predefined field variables at the beam axis. When the section behavior is
defined in this way, only the temperature and field variables of the beam axis are used: any temperature
or field-variable gradients given across the beam section are ignored.
These nonlinear responses may be purely elastic (that is, fully reversible—the loading and unloading
responses are the same, even though the behavior is nonlinear) or may be elastic-plastic and, therefore,
irreversible.
The assumption that these nonlinear responses are uncoupled is restrictive; in general, there is some
interaction between these four behaviors, and the responses are coupled. You must determine if this
approximation is reasonable for a particular case. The approach works well if the response is dominated
by one behavior, such as bending about one axis. However, it may introduce additional errors if the
response involves combined loadings.
Defining nonlinear section behavior

You can define “generalized” nonlinear section behavior by specifying the area, A; moments of inertia,
for bending about the 1-axis of the section, for bending about the 2-axis of the section, and
for cross-bending; and torsional constant, J. These values are used only to calculate the transverse shear
stiffness; and, if needed, A is used to compute the mass density of the element. In addition, you can define
the orientation and the axial, bending, and torsional behavior of the beam section (N, , , T), as
well as the thermal expansion coefficient. If the thermal expansion coefficient is temperature dependent,
the reference temperature for thermal expansion must also be defined as described below.
Nonlinear generalized beam section behavior cannot be used with beam elements with warping
degrees of freedom.
The axial, bending, and torsional behavior of the beam section and the thermal expansion coefficient
are defined by tables. See “Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2, for a detailed discussion of the
tabular input conventions. In particular, you must ensure that the range of values given for the variables
is sufficient for the application since Abaqus assumes a constant value of the dependent variable outside
this range.
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Input File Usage: Use the following options to define generalized nonlinear beam section
properties:
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=NONLINEAR GENERAL,
ELSET=name
A, , , ,J
*AXIAL for N
*M1 for
*M2 for
*TORQUE for T
*THERMAL EXPANSION for the thermal expansion coefficient
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Nonlinear generalized cross-sections are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Defining linear response for N, M1 , M2 , and T

If the particular behavior is linear, N, , , and T should be specified as functions of the temperature
and predefined field variables, if appropriate.
As an example of axial behavior, if
where is constant for a given temperature, the value of is entered. can still be varied
as a function of temperature and field variables.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define linear axial, bending, and torsional
behavior:
*AXIAL, LINEAR
*M1, LINEAR
*M2, LINEAR
*TORQUE, LINEAR
Defining nonlinear elastic response for N, M1 , M2 , and T

If the particular behavior is nonlinear but elastic, the data should be given from the most negative value of
the kinematic variable to the most positive value, always giving a point at the origin. See Figure 29.3.7–1
for an example.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define nonlinear elastic axial, bending, and
torsional behavior:
*AXIAL, ELASTIC
*M1, ELASTIC
*M2, ELASTIC
*TORQUE, ELASTIC
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Bending moment, M
M=M6 for K K6
M6
M5
M4
The origin should be included
in the data
K1 K2 K3
K4 K5 K6 Curvature, K
M3
M2
M1
M=M1 for K K1
Figure 29.3.7–1 Example of elastic nonlinear beam section behavior definition.
Defining elastic-plastic response for N, M1 , M2 , and T

By default, elastic-plastic response is assumed for N, , , and T.
The inelastic model is based on assuming linear elasticity and isotropic hardening (or softening)
plasticity. The data in this case must begin with the point and proceed to give positive values of
the kinematic variable at increasing positive values of the conjugate force or moment. Strain softening is
allowed. The elastic modulus is defined by the slope of the initial line segment, so that straining beyond
the point that terminates that initial line segment will be partially inelastic. If strain reversal occurs in
that part of the response, it will be elastic initially. See Figure 29.3.7–2 for an example.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define elastic-plastic axial, bending, and torsional
behavior:
*AXIAL
*M1
*M2
*TORQUE
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Bending moment, M
Elastic-plastic response for

continued straining beyond
here
Elastic modulus defined by

first line segment
The origin must be the first Curvature, K

data point
Elastic unloading
behavior
Response to opposite curvature

of the response given
Figure 29.3.7–2 Example of inelastic nonlinear beam section behavior definition.
Defining the reference temperature for thermal expansion
The thermal expansion coefficient may be temperature dependent. In this case the reference temperature
for thermal expansion, , must be defined.
Input File Usage: *BEAM GENERAL SECTION, ZERO=
and Beam as the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis:
Basic: Specify reference temperature:
Defining the initial section forces and moments
You can define initial stresses (see “Defining initial stresses” in “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard
and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1) for general beam sections that will be applied as initial section
forces and moments. Initial conditions can be specified only for the axial force, the bending moments,
and the twisting moment. Initial conditions cannot be prescribed for the transverse shear forces.
Defining a change in cross-sectional area due to straining
In the shear flexible elements Abaqus provides for a possible uniform cross-sectional area change by
allowing you to specify an effective Poisson’s ratio for the section. This effect is considered only in
geometrically nonlinear analysis (see “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2) and is provided to model the
reduction or increase in the cross-sectional area for a beam subjected to large axial stretch.
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The value of the effective Poisson’s ratio must be between −1.0 and 0.5. By default, this effective
Poisson’s ratio for the section is set to 0.0 so that this effect is ignored. Setting the effective Poisson’s ratio
to 0.5 implies that the overall response of the section is incompressible. This behavior is appropriate if the
beam is made of rubber or if it is made of a typical metal whose overall response at large deformation is
essentially incompressible (because it is dominated by plasticity). Values between 0.0 and 0.5 mean that
the cross-sectional area changes proportionally between no change and incompressibility, respectively.
A negative value of the effective Poisson’s ratio will result in an increase in the cross-sectional area in
response to tensile axial strains.
This effective Poisson’s ratio is not available for use with Euler-Bernoulli beam elements.
Input File Usage: *BEAM GENERAL SECTION, POISSON=
Category and Beam as the section Type: Section integration: Before
analysis: Basic: Section Poisson's ratio:
Defining damping
When the beam section and material behavior are defined by a general beam section, you can include mass
and viscous stiffness proportional damping in the dynamic response (calculated in Abaqus/Standard with
the direct time integration procedure, “Implicit dynamic analysis using direct integration,” Section 6.3.2).
See “Material damping,” Section 26.1.1, for more information about the material damping types
available in Abaqus.
*DAMPING
and Beam as the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis:
Damping: Alpha, Beta, Structural, and Composite
Define temperatures and field variables by giving the values at the origin of the cross-section as either
predefined fields or initial conditions (see “Predefined fields,” Section 33.6.1, or “Initial conditions in
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1). Temperature gradients can be specified in the
local 1- and 2-directions; other field-variable gradients defined through the cross-section will be ignored
in the response of beam elements that use a general beam section definition.
Output
Only the section forces, moments, and transverse shear forces and section strains, curvatures, and
transverse shear strains can be output (see “Element output” in “Output to the data and results files,”
Section 4.1.2, and “Element output” in “Output to the output database,” Section 4.1.3).
29.3.7–10
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You can output stress and strain at particular points in the section. For linear section behavior
defined using a standard library section or a generalized section, only axial stress and axial strain values
are available. For linear section behavior defined using a meshed section, axial and shear stress and strain
are available. For nonlinear generalized section behavior, axial strain output only is provided.
Specifying the output section points for standard library sections and generalized sections
To locate points in the section at which output of axial strain (and, for linear section behavior, axial stress)
is required, specify the local coordinates of the point in the cross-section: Abaqus numbers the
points 1, 2, … in the order that they are given.
The variation of over the section is given by
where are the local coordinates of the centroid of the beam section and and are the
changes of curvature for the section.
For open-section beam element types, the variation of over the section has an additional term of
the form , where is the warping function. The warping function itself is undefined
in the general beam section definition. Therefore, Abaqus will not take into account the axial strain
due to warping when calculating section points output. Axial strains due to warping are included in the
stress/strain output if a beam section integrated during the analysis is used.
Abaqus uses St. Venant torsion theory for noncircular solid sections. The torsion function and its
derivatives are necessary to calculate shear stresses in the plane of the cross-section. The function and
its derivatives are not stored for a general beam section. Therefore, you can request output of axial
components of stress/strain only. A beam section integrated during the analysis must be used to obtain
output of shear stresses.
Input File Usage: Use both of the following options to specify the output section points for general
beam sections:
*SECTION POINTS
, , ...
Before analysis: Output Points: x1, x2, ...
Requesting output of maximum axial stress/strain in Abaqus/Standard

If you specify the output section points to obtain the maximum axial stress/strain (MAXSS) for a linear
generalized section, the output value will be the maximum of the values at the user-specified section
points. You must select enough section points to ensure that this is the true maximum. MAXSS output
is not available for nonlinear generalized sections or for an Abaqus/Explicit analysis.
29.3.7–11
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Specifying the output section points for meshed cross-sections

For meshed cross-sections you can indicate in the two-dimensional cross-section analysis the elements
and integration points where the stress and strain will be calculated during the subsequent beam analysis.
Abaqus will then add the section points specification to the resulting jobname.bsp text file. This text
file is then included as the data for the general beam section definition in the subsequent beam analysis.
See “Meshed beam cross-sections,” Section 10.6.1, for details.
The variation of the axial strain over the meshed section is given by
where are the local coordinates of the centroid of the beam section and and are the
changes of curvature for the section.
The variations of shear components and over the meshed section are given by
where are the local coordinates of the shear center of the beam section, is the twist of the
beam axis, is the warping function, and and are shear strains due to the transverse
shear forces.
For the case of an orthotropic composite beam material, the axial stress and the two shear
components and are calculated in the beam section (1, 2) axis as follows:
where determines the material orientation.

Input File Usage: Use both of the following options in the two-dimensional meshed cross-section
analysis to specify the output section points for the subsequent beam analysis:
*BEAM SECTION GENERATE
*SECTION POINTS
section_point_label, element_number, integration_point_number
29.3.7–12
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BEAM ELEMENT LIBRARY
29.3.8 BEAM ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• “Choosing a beam element,” Section 29.3.3
• *BEAM SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the beam elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
Beams in a plane
B21 2-node linear beam
(S)
B21H 2-node linear beam, hybrid formulation
B22 3-node quadratic beam
B22H(S) 3-node quadratic beam, hybrid formulation
(S)
B23 2-node cubic beam
(S)
B23H 2-node cubic beam, hybrid formulation
PIPE21 2-node linear pipe
(S)
PIPE21H 2-node linear pipe, hybrid formulation
(S)
PIPE22 3-node quadratic pipe
PIPE22H(S) 3-node quadratic pipe, hybrid formulation

1, 2, 6

All of the cubic beam elements have two additional variables relating to axial strain.
The linear thin-walled pipe elements have one additional variable, and the quadratic thin-walled pipe
elements have two additional variables relating to the hoop strain. The linear thick-walled pipe elements
29.3.8–1
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have two additional variables, and the quadratic thick-walled pipe elements have four additional variables
relating to the hoop and radial strain components.
The hybrid beam and pipe elements have additional variables relating to the axial force and transverse
shear force. The linear elements have two, the quadratic elements have four, and the cubic elements have
three additional variables.
Beams in space
B31 2-node linear beam
(S)
B31H 2-node linear beam, hybrid formulation
B32 3-node quadratic beam
(S)
B32H 3-node quadratic beam, hybrid formulation
B33(S) 2-node cubic beam
B33H(S) 2-node cubic beam, hybrid formulation
PIPE31 2-node linear pipe
PIPE31H(S) 2-node linear pipe, hybrid formulation
(S)
PIPE32 3-node quadratic pipe
(S)
PIPE32H 3-node quadratic pipe, hybrid formulation

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

All of the cubic beam elements have two additional variables relating to axial strain.
The linear thin-walled pipe elements have one additional variable, and the quadratic thin-walled pipe
elements have two additional variables relating to the hoop strain. The linear thick-walled pipe elements
have two additional variables, and the quadratic thick-walled pipe elements have four additional variables
relating to the hoop and radial strain components.
The hybrid beam and pipe elements have additional variables relating to the axial force and transverse
shear force in the linear and quadratic elements and to the axial force only in the cubic elements. The
linear and cubic elements have three and the quadratic elements have six additional variables.
Open-section beams in space

B31OS(S) 2-node linear beam
(S)
B31OSH 2-node linear beam, hybrid formulation
(S)
B32OS 3-node quadratic beam
B32OSH(S) 3-node quadratic beam, hybrid formulation
29.3.8–2
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1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Element type B31OSH has three additional variables and element type B32OSH has six additional
variables relating to the axial force and transverse shear force.
Beams in a plane: X, Y, also (optional) , , the direction cosines of the normal.

Beams in space: X, Y, Z, also (optional) , , , the direction cosines of the second local cross-
section axis.
For PIPE elements use the pipe section type to specify the thin-walled pipe formulation or the thick pipe
section type to specify the thick-walled pipe formulation. No other section types can be used with PIPE
elements.
For open-section elements use only the arbitrary, I, L, and linear generalized section types.
Local orientations defined as described in “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5, cannot be used with beam
elements to define local material directions. The orientation of the local beam section axes in space is
discussed in “Beam element cross-section orientation,” Section 29.3.4.
*BEAM SECTION
Category and Beam as the section Type
Distributed loads

CENT(S) Not supported FL−2 Centrifugal force (magnitude is input

(ML−1 T−2 ) as , where m is the mass per unit
length and is the angular velocity).
29.3.8–3
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velocity).
CORIO(S) Coriolis force FL−2 T Coriolis force (magnitude is input as
(ML−1 T−1 ) , where m is the mass per unit
length and is the angular velocity).
The load stiffness due to Coriolis
loading is not accounted for in direct
steady-state dynamics analysis.
acceleration).
PX Line load FL−1 Force per unit length in global X-
direction.
PY Line load FL−1 Force per unit length in global Y-
direction.
PZ Line load FL−1 Force per unit length in global
Z-direction (only for beams in space).
PXNU Line load FL−1 Nonuniform force per unit length in
Abaqus/Explicit.
PYNU Line load FL−1 Nonuniform force per unit length in
Abaqus/Explicit.
PZNU Line load FL−1 Nonuniform force per unit length in
Abaqus/Explicit. (Only for beams in
space.)
P1 Line load FL−1 Force per unit length in beam local
1-direction (only for beams in space).
29.3.8–4
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P2 Line load FL−1 Force per unit length in beam local
2-direction.
P1NU Line load FL−1 Nonuniform force per unit
length in beam local 1-direction
in Abaqus/Explicit. (Only for beams
in space.)
P2NU Line load FL−1 Nonuniform force per unit
in Abaqus/Explicit.
acceleration).
velocity).
The following load types are available only for PIPE elements:

HPI Pipe pressure FL−2 Hydrostatic internal pressure (closed-

end condition), varying linearly with
the global Z-coordinate.
HPE Pipe pressure FL−2 Hydrostatic external pressure (closed-
end condition), varying linearly with
the global Z-coordinate.
PI Pipe pressure FL−2 Uniform internal pressure (closed-end
condition).
PE Pipe pressure FL−2 Uniform external pressure (closed-
end condition).
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PENU Pipe pressure FL−2 Nonuniform external pressure
(closed-end condition) with
magnitude supplied via user
subroutine DLOAD.
PINU Pipe pressure FL−2 Nonuniform internal pressure
(closed-end condition) with
magnitude supplied via user
subroutine DLOAD.
Abaqus/Aqua loads
Abaqus/Aqua loads are specified as described in “Abaqus/Aqua analysis,” Section 6.11.1. They are not
available for open-section beams and do not apply to beams that are defined to have additional inertia
due to immersion in fluid (see “Additional inertia due to immersion in fluid” in “Beam section behavior,”
Section 29.3.5).

*DLOAD)
FDD(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse fluid drag load.

(A)
FD1 Not supported F Fluid drag force on the first end of the
beam (node 1).
the beam (node 2 or node 3).
FI(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse fluid inertia load.
(A)
FI1 Not supported F Fluid inertia force on the first end of
the beam (node 1).
FI2(A) Not supported F Fluid inertia force on the second end
of the beam (node 2 or node 3).
PB(A) Not supported FL−1 Buoyancy load (closed-end
condition).
WDD(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse wind drag load.
WD1(A) Not supported F Wind drag force on the first end of the
beam (node 1).
29.3.8–6
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*DLOAD)
the beam (node 2 or node 3).
Foundations
FX(S) Not supported FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in global X-

direction.
FY(S) Not supported FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in global Y-
direction.
FZ(S) Not supported FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in global Z-
direction (only for beams in space).
F1(S) Not supported FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in beam local
1-direction (only for beams in space).
F2(S) Not supported FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in beam local
2-direction.
Distributed loads
P Pressure FL−1 Force per unit length in beam local

2-direction. The distributed surface
force is positive in the direction
PNU Pressure FL−1 Nonuniform force per unit
29.3.8–7
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in Abaqus/Explicit. The distributed
surface force is positive in the
normal.

Incident wave loading is also available for these elements, with some restrictions. See “Acoustic and
shock loads,” Section 33.4.6.
Element output
See “Beam cross-section library,” Section 29.3.9, for a description of the beam element output locations.

of freedom. All tensors, except for meshed sections, have the same components. For example, the stress
components are as follows:
S11 Axial stress.
S22 Hoop stress (available only for pipe elements).
S33 Radial stress (available only for thick-walled pipe elements).
S12 Shear stress caused by torsion (available only for beam-type elements in space). This
component is not available when thin-walled, open sections are employed (I-section,
L-section, and arbitrary open section).
Stress and strain for section points for meshed sections
S11 Axial stress.
S12 Shear stress along the second cross-section axis caused by shear force and, for beam
elements in space, torsion.
S13 Shear stress along the first cross-section axis caused by shear force and torsion
(available only for beams in space).
Section forces, moments, and transverse shear forces

SF1 Axial force.
SF2 Transverse shear force in the local 2-direction (not available for B23, B23H, B33,
B33H).
SF3 Transverse shear force in the local 1-direction (available only for beams in space,
not available for B33, B33H).
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SM1 Bending moment about the local 1-axis.

SM2 Bending moment about the local 2-axis (available only for beams in space).
SM3 Twisting moment about the beam axis (available only for beams in space).
BIMOM Bimoment due to warping (available only for open-section beams in space).
ESF1 Effective axial force for beams subjected to pressure loading (available for all
Abaqus/Standard stress/displacement analysis types except response spectrum and
random response).
See “Beam element formulation,” Section 3.5.2 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for the definitions of the
section forces and moments.
The effective axial section force for beams subjected to pressure loading is defined as
where and are the external and the internal pressures, respectively, and and are the external
and the internal pipe areas as defined in the load definition. The pressure loadings (with a closed-
end condition) that are relevant to the effective axial force are external/internal pressure (load types
PE, PI, PENU, and PINU); external/internal hydrostatic pressure (load types HPE and HPI); and, in
an Abaqus/Aqua environment, buoyancy pressure, PB, which includes dynamic pressure if waves are
present.
For beams that are not subjected to pressure loading, the effective axial force ESF1 is equal to the usual
axial force SF1.
Section strains, curvatures, and transverse shear strains
SE1 Axial strain.

SE2 Transverse shear strain in the local 2-direction (not available for B23, B23H, B33,
and B33H).
SE3 Transverse shear strain in the local 1-direction (available only for beams in space,
not available for B33 and B33H).
SK1 Curvature change about the local 1-axis.
SK2 Curvature change about the local 2-axis (available only for beams in space).
SK3 Twist of the beam (available only for beams in space).
BICURV Bicurvature due to warping (available only for open-section beams in space).
29.3.8–9
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2
2
3
1
For beams in space an additional node may be given after a beam element’s connectivity (in the element
definition—see “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1) to define the approximate direction of the first cross-
section axis, . See “Beam element cross-section orientation,” Section 29.3.4, for details.
2
1
1
2 - node element
2
2
2 3 3 2
1 1
1 1
3 - node quadratic element 2 - node cubic element
29.3.8–10
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BEAM CROSS-SECTION LIBRARY
29.3.9 BEAM CROSS-SECTION LIBRARY
References

• “Choosing a beam cross-section,” Section 29.3.2
• “Frame elements,” Section 29.4.1
• “Defining profiles,” Section 12.2.2 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
This section describes the standard beam sections that are available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit for use with beam elements. A subset of the standard beam sections are available
for use with frame elements in Abaqus/Standard. General (nonstandard) beam cross-sections can be
defined as described in “Choosing a beam cross-section,” Section 29.3.2.
Arbitrary, thin-walled, open and closed sections
A
1
t AB 7
D
2
6
3
B
4
1
5
t CD
t BC
C
Example of arbitrary section
The arbitrary section type is provided to permit modeling of simple, arbitrary, thin-walled, open and
closed sections. You specify the section by defining a series of points in the thin-walled cross-section of
the beam; these points are then linked by straight line segments, each of which is integrated numerically
29.3.9–1
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along the axis of the section so that the section can be used together with nonlinear material behavior.
An independent thickness is associated with each of the segments making up the arbitrary section.
Warping effects are included when an arbitrary section is used with open-section beam elements
(available only in Abaqus/Standard).
*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=ARBITRARY
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=ARBITRARY
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Arbitrary
Restrictions
• An arbitrary section can be used only with beams in space (three-dimensional models).
• An arbitrary section should not be used to define closed sections with branches, multiply connected
closed sections, or open sections with disconnected regions.
• For each individual segment of an arbitrary section there is no bending stiffness about the line joining
the end points of the segment. Thus, an arbitrary section cannot be made up of only one segment.
Geometric input data

First, give the number of segments, the local coordinates of points A and B, and the thickness of the
segment connecting these two vertices. Then, proceed by giving the local coordinates of point C and the
thickness of the segment between points B and C, followed by the local coordinates of point D and the
thickness of the segment between points C and D, and so on. An arbitrary section can contain as many
segments as needed. All coordinates of section definition points are given in the local 1–2 axis system
of the section.
The origin of the local 1–2 axis system is the beam node, and the position of this node used to define the
section is arbitrary: it does not have to be the centroid.
Defining a closed section

A closed section is defined by making the starting and end points coincident. Only single-cell closed
sections can be modeled accurately. Closed sections with fins (single branches attached to the cell) cannot
be modeled with the capability in Abaqus.
Defining an arbitrary section with discontinuous branches

If the arbitrary section contains discontinuous sections (branches), a section with zero thickness should
be used to return from the ending point of the branch to the starting point of the subsequent section.
This zero thickness section should always coincide with a nonzero thickness section. For an example of
an I-section defined using this method, see “Buckling analysis of beams,” Section 1.2.1 of the Abaqus
Benchmarks Manual.
29.3.9–2
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Default integration
A three-point Simpson integration scheme is used for each segment making up the section. For more
detailed integration, specify several segments along each straight portion of the section.
Default stress output points if a beam section integrated during the analysis is used
The vertices of the section.
Temperature and field variable input at specific points through beam sections integrated
during the analysis
Give the value at each vertex of the section (points A, B, C, D in the figure).
Box section

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=BOX
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=BOX
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=BOX
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Box
2 2
8 7 6
5 5 9 5
4 t1 10 t1
t2 4 t2 4
b 3 t4 3
1 b 11 t4 3
1
t3 t3
2 2 12 2
1 1 13 1
14 15 16
a a
Default integration, Default integration,

beam in a plane beam in space

a, b, , , ,
Default integration (Simpson)

Beam in a plane: 5 points
Beam in space: 5 points in each wall (16 total)
29.3.9–3
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Nondefault integration input for a beam section integrated during the analysis
Beam in a plane: Give the number of points in each wall that is parallel to the 2-axis. This number must
be odd and greater than or equal to three.
Beam in space: Give the number of points in each wall that is parallel to the 2-axis, then the number of
points in each wall that is parallel to the 1-axis. Both numbers must be odd and greater than or equal to
three.
Beam in a plane: Bottom and top (points 1 and 5 above for default integration).
Beam in space: 4 corners (points 1, 5, 9, and 13 above for default integration).
Temperature and field variable input at specific points for beam sections integrated during
the analysis
Give the value at each of the points shown below.
2 2
3 2
3
1 1
2 2
1
4 1
Beam in a plane Beam in space
Temperature input for a frame section

Constant temperature throughout the element cross-section is assumed; therefore, only one temperature
value per node is required.
Circular section

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=CIRC
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=CIRC
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=CIRC
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Circular
29.3.9–4
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2 2
5 11
13
10
4 12 8 9
3 15 14 1 6 7
1 1
16 4
2 2
17 5
1 3


Radius
Default integration
Beam in space: 3 points radially, 8 circumferentially (17 total; trapezoidal rule). Integration point 1 is
situated at the center of the beam and is used for output purposes only. It makes no contribution to the
stiffness of the element; therefore, the integration point volume (IVOL) associated with this point is zero.
Beam in a plane: A maximum of 9 points are permitted.
Beam in space: Give an odd number of points in the radial direction, then an even number of points in
the circumferential direction.
Beam in space: On the intersection of the surface with the 1- and 2-axes (points 3, 7, 11, and 15 above
for default integration).
the analysis
29.3.9–5
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2 2
3 3
2 4 2
1 1
1 1

Hexagonal section

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=HEX
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=HEX
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Hexagonal
2 2
5 5 4 3
t t
4 4 6 2
3 3 7 1
1 1
d d
2 2 8 12
9 11
1 10

29.3.9–6
Abaqus ID:
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d (circumscribing radius), t (wall thickness)

Beam in space: 3 points in each wall segment (12 total)
Beam in a plane: Give the number of points along the section wall, moving in the second beam section
axis direction. This number must be odd and greater than or equal to three.
Beam in space: Give the number of points in each wall segment. This number must be odd and greater
than or equal to three.
Beam in space: Vertices (points 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 above for default integration).
the analysis
2 2
3 3 2
2 2 4 1
1 1
5 6
1
29.3.9–7
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I-section

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=I
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=I
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=I
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: I
2 2
b2 b2
5 9 10 11 12 13
t2 4 t2 8
1 1
3 7
h h
t3 t3
t1 2 l t1 6
l
1 2 3 4 5
b1
b1


l, h, , , , ,
By allowing you to specify l, the origin of the local cross-section axis can be placed anywhere on the
symmetry line (the local 2-axis). In the above figures a negative value of l implies that the origin of
the local cross-section axis is below the lower edge of the bottom flange, which may be needed when
constraining a beam stiffener to a shell.
Defining a T-section
Input File Usage: Set and or and to zero to model a T-section.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: T
29.3.9–8
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Beam in a plane: 5 points (one in each flange plus 3 in web)
Beam in space: 5 points in web, 5 in each flange (13 total)
Beam in a plane: Give the number of points in the second beam section axis direction. This number must
Beam in space: Give the number of points in the lower flange first, then in the web, and then in the upper
flange. These numbers must be odd and greater than or equal to three in each nonvanishing section.
Beam in a plane: Flanges (points 1 and 5 above for default integration).
Beam in space: Ends of flanges (points 1, 5, 9, and 13 above for default integration).
the analysis
2 2
3
4 5
1 1
2 3
1 2
1
For a beam in space the temperature is first interpolated linearly through the flanges based on the
temperature at points 1 and 2, and then 4 and 5, respectively. It is then interpolated parabolically
through the web.
29.3.9–9
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L-section

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=L
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=L
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: L
2 2
5 9
t2 t2
4 8
3 7
b b
2 6 t1
t1
1 1 5 1
1
4 3 2
a a


a, b, ,

29.3.9–10
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Beam in space: 5 points in each flange (9 total)
Beam in space: Give the number of points in the first beam section axis direction, then the number of
points in the second beam section axis direction. These numbers must be odd and greater than or equal
to three.
Beam in space: End of flange along positive local 1-axis; section corner; end of flange along positive
local 2-axis (points 1, 5, and 9 above for default integration).
the analysis
2 2
2 3
1 1 2 1
1
29.3.9–11
Abaqus ID:
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Pipe section (thin-walled)
Pipe cross-sections can be associated with beam, pipe, or frame elements.

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=PIPE
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=PIPE
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=PIPE
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Pipe: Thin walled
2 2
5 5
4 4 6 4
r r
3 3 7 3
1 1
2 2 t
8 2 t
1 1


r (outside radius), t (wall thickness)
Default integration
Beam in a plane: 5 points (Simpson’s rule)
Beam in space: 8 points (trapezoidal rule)
Beam in a plane: Give an odd number of points. This number must be greater than or equal to five.
Beam in space: Give an even number of points. This number must be greater than or equal to eight.
29.3.9–12
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Beam in space: On the intersection of the surface with the 1- and 2-axes (points 1, 3, 5, and 7 above for
default integration).
the analysis
2 2
3 3
2 2 4 2
1 1
1 1

Pipe section (thick-walled)
Thick-walled pipe cross-sections can be associated with beam or pipe elements.

Input File Usage: Use the following option:
*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=THICK PIPE
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Pipe: Thick walled
29.3.9–13
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2 2
15 15
12 14 12 18 14 12
11 11 17 11
13 13
10 10 16 10
9 8 7 7 8 9 21 20 19 7 8 9
1 1
4 4 22 4
5 5 23 5
1 6 24 1 6
6
2 2
3 3


r (outside radius), t (wall thickness)
Default integration
Beam in a plane: 3 points radially (Simpson’s rule), 5 circumferentially (trapezoidal rule)
Beam in space: 3 points radially (Simpson’s rule), 8 circumferentially (trapezoidal rule)
Beam in a plane: Give an odd number of points in the radial direction, then an odd number of points
(greater than or equal to 5) in the circumferential direction.
Beam in space: Give an odd number of points in the radial direction, then an even number of points
(greater than or equal to 8) in the circumferential direction.
Beam in a plane: Bottom and top on the pipe midsurface (points 2 and 14 above for default integration).
Beam in space: On the intersection of the pipe midsurface with the 1- and 2-axes (points 2, 8, 14, and
20 above for default integration).
29.3.9–14
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the analysis
2 2
3 3
2 2 4 2
1 1
1 1
Rectangular section

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=RECT
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=RECT
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=RECT
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Rectangular
2 2
5 21 22 23 24 25
4 16 19
b b 17 18 20
3
1 11 14 15
1
12 13
2 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 4 5
a a

29.3.9–15
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a, b

Beam in space: 5 × 5 (25 total)
be odd and greater than or equal to five.
to five.
Beam in space: Corners (points 1, 5, 21, and 25 above for default integration).
the analysis
2 2
3 4 3
2
1 1
1
1 2

29.3.9–16
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Trapezoidal section

*BEAM SECTION, SECTION=TRAPEZOID
*BEAM GENERAL SECTION, SECTION=TRAPEZOID
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Profile: Trapezoidal
c c
2 2
5 21 22 23 24 25
4 16 17 18 19 20
b b
3 11 12 13 14 15
1 1
2 6 7 8 9 10
d d
1 1 2 3 4 5
a a


a, b, c, d
By allowing you to specify d, the origin of the local cross-section axes can be placed anywhere on the
symmetry line (the local 2-axis). In the above figures a negative value of d implies that the origin of the
local cross-section axis is below the lower edge of the section. This may be needed when constraining a
beam stiffener to a shell.

Beam in space: 5 × 5 (25 total)
be odd and greater than or equal to five.
29.3.9–17
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to five.
Beam in space: Corners (points 1, 5, 21, and 25 above for default integration).
the analysis
2 2
3 3
4
b/ 2
2
1 1
b/ 2
1
1 2
29.3.9–18
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FRAME ELEMENTS
29.4 Frame elements

• “Frame section behavior,” Section 29.4.2
• “Frame element library,” Section 29.4.3
29.4–1
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FRAME ELEMENTS
29.4.1 FRAME ELEMENTS
References

• “Frame section behavior,” Section 29.4.2
• “Frame element library,” Section 29.4.3
• *FRAME SECTION
Overview
Frame elements:
• are 2-node, initially straight, slender beam elements intended for use in the elastic or elastic-plastic
analysis of frame-like structures;
• are available in two or three dimensions;
• have elastic response that follows Euler-Bernoulli beam theory with fourth-order interpolation for
the transverse displacements;
• have plastic response that is concentrated at the element ends (plastic hinges) and is modeled with
a lumped plasticity model that includes nonlinear kinematic hardening;
• are implemented for small or large displacements (large rotations with small strains);
• output forces and moments at the element ends and midpoint;
• output elastic axial strain and curvatures at the element ends and midpoint and plastic displacements
and rotations at the element ends only;
• admit, optionally, a uniaxial “buckling strut” response where the axial response of the element is
governed by a damaged elasticity model in compression and an isotropic hardening plasticity model
in tension and where all transverse forces and moments are zero;
• can switch to buckling strut response during the analysis (for pipe sections only); and
• can be used in static, implicit dynamic, and eigenfrequency extraction analyses only.
Frame elements are designed to be used for small-strain elastic or elastic-plastic analysis of frame-like
structures composed of slender, initially straight beams. Typically, a single frame element will represent
the entire structural member connecting two joints. A frame element’s elastic response is governed
by Euler-Bernoulli beam theory with fourth-order interpolations for the transverse displacement field;
hence, the element’s kinematics include the exact (Euler-Bernoulli) solution to concentrated end forces
and moments and constant distributed loads. The elements can be used to solve a wide variety of
civil engineering design applications, such as truss structures, bridges, internal frame structures of
29.4.1–1
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buildings, off-shore platforms, and jackets, etc. A frame element’s plastic response is modeled with a
lumped plasticity model at the element ends that simulates the formation of plastic hinges. The lumped
plasticity model includes nonlinear kinematic hardening. The elements can, thus, be used for collapse
load prediction based on the formation of plastic hinges.
Slender, frame-like members loaded in compression often buckle in such a way that only axial force
is supported by the member; all other forces and moments are negligibly small. Frame elements offer
optional buckling strut response whereby the element only carries axial force, which is calculated based
on a damaged elasticity model in compression and an isotropic hardening plasticity model in tension.
This model provides a simple phenomenological approximation to the highly nonlinear geometric and
material response that takes place during buckling and postbuckling deformation of slender members
loaded in compression.
For pipe sections only, frame elements allow switching to optional uniaxial buckling strut response
during the analysis. The criterion for switching is the “ISO” equation together with the “strength”
equation (see “Buckling strut response for frame elements,” Section 3.9.3 of the Abaqus Theory Manual).
When the ISO and strength equations are satisfied, the elastic or elastic-plastic frame element undergoes
a one-time-only switch in behavior to buckling strut response.
Element cross-sectional axis system
The orientation of the frame element’s cross-section is defined in Abaqus/Standard in terms of a local,
right-handed ( , , ) axis system, where is the tangent to the axis of the element, positive in the
direction from the first to the second node of the element, and and are basis vectors that define
the local 1- and 2-directions of the cross-section. is referred to as the first axis direction, and is
referred to as the normal to the element. Since these elements are initially straight and assume small
strains, the cross-section directions are constant along each element and possibly discontinuous between
elements.
Defining the n1 -direction at the nodes

For frame elements in a plane the -direction is always (0.0, 0.0, −1.0); that is, normal to the plane in
which the motion occurs. Therefore, planar frame elements can bend only about the first axis direction.
For frame elements in space the approximate direction of must be defined directly as part of the
element section definition or by specifying an additional node off the element’s axis. This additional
node is included in the element’s connectivity list (see “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1).
• If an additional node is specified, the approximate direction of is defined by the vector extending
from the first node of the element to the additional node.
• If both input methods are used, the direction calculated by using the additional node will take
precedence.
• If the approximate direction is not defined by either of the above methods, the default value is (0.0,
0.0, −1.0).
The -direction is then the normal to the element’s axis that lies in the plane defined by the element’s
axis and this approximate -direction. The -direction is defined as .
29.4.1–2
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Large-displacement assumptions
The frame element’s formulation includes the effect of large rigid body motions (displacements and
rotations) when geometrically nonlinear analysis is selected (see “General and linear perturbation
procedures,” Section 6.1.3). Strains in these elements are assumed to remain small.
Material response (section properties) of frame elements
For frame elements the geometric and material properties are specified together as part of the frame
section definition. No separate material definition is required. You can choose one of the section shapes
that is valid for frame elements from the beam cross-section library (see “Beam cross-section library,”
Section 29.3.9). The valid section shapes depend upon whether elastic or elastic-plastic material response
is specified or whether buckling strut response is included. See “Frame section behavior,” Section 29.4.2,
for a complete discussion of specifying the geometric and material section properties.
Input File Usage: *FRAME SECTION, SECTION=section_type
Mechanical response and mass formulation
The mechanical response of a frame element includes elastic and plastic behavior. Optionally, uniaxial
buckling strut response is available.
Elastic response
The elastic response of a frame element is governed by Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. The displacement
interpolations for the deflections transverse to the frame element’s axis (the local 1- and 2-directions
in three dimensions; the local 2-direction in two dimensions) are fourth-order polynomials, allowing
quadratic variation of the curvature along the element’s axis. Thus, each single frame element exactly
models the static, elastic solution to force and moment loading at its ends and constant distributed loading
along its axis (such as gravity loading). The displacement interpolation along an element’s axis is a
second-order polynomial, allowing linear variation of the axial strain. In three dimensions the twist
rotation interpolation along an element’s axis is linear, allowing constant twist strain. The elastic stiffness
matrix is integrated numerically and used to calculate 15 nodal forces and moments in three dimensions:
an axial force, two shear forces, two bending moments, and a twist moment at each end node, and an
axial force and two shear forces at the midpoint node. In two dimensions 8 nodal forces and moments
exist: an axial force, a shear force, and a moment at each end, and an axial force and a shear force at the
midpoint. The forces and moments are illustrated in Figure 29.4.1–1.
Elastic-plastic response
The plastic response of the element is treated with a “lumped” plasticity model such that plastic
deformations can develop only at the element’s ends through plastic rotations (hinges) and plastic axial
displacement. The growth of the plastic zone through the element’s cross-section from initial yield to a
fully yielded plastic hinge is modeled with nonlinear kinematic hardening. It is assumed that the plastic
deformation at an end node is influenced by the moments and axial force at that node only. Hence, the
29.4.1–3
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FRAME ELEMENTS
N2
N2 N1 N2
N1 n2
N1 n1
T N N t
N T
M1 1 3 2
M1
M2 M2
L L
2 2
Figure 29.4.1–1 Forces and moments on a frame element in space.
yield function at each node, also called the plastic interaction surface, is assumed to be a function of that
node’s axial force and three moment components only. No length is associated with the plastic hinge.
In reality, the plastic hinge will have a finite size determined by the element’s length and the specific
loading that causes yielding; the hinge size will influence the hardening rate but not the ultimate load.
Hence, if the rate of hardening and, thus, the plastic deformation for a given load are important, the
lumped plasticity model should be calibrated with the element’s length and the loading situation taken
into account. For details on the elastic-plastic element formulation, see “Frame elements with lumped
plasticity,” Section 3.9.2 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Uniaxial linear elastic and buckling strut response with tensile yield
You can obtain a frame element’s response to uniaxial force only, based on linear elasticity, buckling
strut response, and tensile yield. In that case all transverse forces and moments in the element are
zero. For linear elastic response the element behaves like an axial spring with constant stiffness. For
buckling strut response if the tensile axial force in the element does not exceed the yield force, the axial
force in the element is constrained to remain inside a buckling envelope. See “Frame section behavior,”
Section 29.4.2, for a description of this envelope. Inside the envelope the force is related to strain by
a damaged elastic modulus. The cyclic, hysteretic response of this model is phenomenological and
approximates the response of thin-walled, pipe-like members. When the element is loaded in tension
beyond the yield force, the force response is governed by isotropic hardening plasticity. In reverse loading
the response is governed by the buckling envelope translated along the strain axis by an amount equal
to the axial plastic strain. For details of the buckling strut formulation, see “Buckling strut response for
frame elements,” Section 3.9.3 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Mass formulation
The frame element uses a lumped mass formulation for both dynamic analysis and gravity loading. The
mass matrix for the translational degrees of freedom is derived from a quadratic interpolation of the axial
29.4.1–4
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and transverse displacement components. The rotary inertia for the element is isotropic and concentrated
at the two ends.
For buckling strut response a lumped mass scheme is used, where the element’s mass is concentrated
at the two ends; no rotary inertia is included.
Using frame elements in contact problems
When contact conditions play a role in a structure’s behavior, frame elements have to be used with
caution. A frame element has one additional internal node, located in the middle of the element. No
contact constraint is imposed on this node, so this internal node may penetrate the surface in contact,
resulting in a sagging effect.
Output
The forces and moments, elastic strains, and plastic displacements and rotations in a frame element
are reported relative to a corotational coordinate system. The local coordinate directions are the axial
direction and the two cross-sectional directions. Output of section forces and moments as well as elastic
strains and curvatures is available at the element ends and midpoint. Output of plastic displacement and
rotations is available only at the element ends. You can request output to the output database (at the
integration points only), to the data file, or to the results file (see “Output to the data and results files,”
Section 4.1.2, and “Output to the output database,” Section 4.1.3). Since frame elements are formulated
in terms of section properties, stress output is not available.
29.4.1–5
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FRAME SECTION BEHAVIOR
29.4.2 FRAME SECTION BEHAVIOR
References

• *FRAME SECTION
Overview
The frame section behavior:

• requires definition of the section’s shape and its material response;
• uses linear elastic behavior in the interior of the frame element;
• can include “lumped” plasticity at the element ends to model the formation of plastic hinges;
• can be uniaxial only, with response governed by a phenomenological buckling strut model, together
with linear elasticity and tensile plastic yielding; and
• for pipe sections only, can switch to buckling strut response during the analysis.
Defining elastic section behavior
The elastic response of the frame elements is formulated in terms of Young’s modulus, E; the torsional
shear modulus, G; coefficient of thermal expansion, ; and cross-section shape. Geometric properties
such as the cross-sectional area, A, or bending moments of inertia are constant along the element and
during the analysis.
If present, thermal strains are constant over the cross-section, which is equivalent to assuming that
the temperature does not vary in the cross-section. As a result of this assumption only the axial force, N,
depends on the thermal strain
where defines the total axial strain, including any initial elastic strain caused by a user-defined nonzero
initial axial force, and defines the thermal expansion strain given by
where
is the thermal expansion coefficient,
is the current temperature at the section,
is the reference temperature for ,
29.4.2–1
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is the user-defined initial temperature at this point (“Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard

and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1),
are field variables, and
are the user-defined initial values of field variables at this point (“Initial conditions in
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1).
The bending moment and twist torque responses are defined by the constitutive relations
where
is the moment of inertia for cross-bending,
J is the torsional constant,
is the curvature change about the first beam section local axis, including any elastic curvature
change associated with a user-defined nonzero initial moment (“Initial conditions in
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1),
is the curvature change about the second beam section local axis, including any elastic
curvature change associated with a user-defined nonzero initial moment (“Initial
conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1), and
is the twist, including any elastic twist associated with a user-defined nonzero initial
twisting moment (torque) T (“Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,”
Section 33.2.1).
Defining temperature and field-variable-dependent section properties

The temperature and predefined field variables may vary linearly over the element’s length. Material
constants such as Young’s modulus, , the torsional shear modulus, , and the coefficient
of thermal expansion, , can also depend on the temperature, , and field variables . You must
associate the section definition with an element set.
Input File Usage: *FRAME SECTION, ELSET=name
Specifying a standard library section and allowing Abaqus/Standard to calculate the

cross-section’s parameters
Select one of the following section profiles from the standard library of cross-sections (see “Beam cross-
section library,” Section 29.3.9): box, circular, I, pipe, or rectangular. Specify the geometric input data
needed to define the shape of the cross-section. Abaqus/Standard will then calculate the geometric
quantities needed to define the section behavior automatically.
Input File Usage: *FRAME SECTION, SECTION=library_section, ELSET=name
29.4.2–2
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Specifying the geometric quantities directly

Specify a general cross-section to define the area of the cross-section, moments of inertia, and torsional
constant directly. These data are sufficient for defining the elastic section behavior since the axial
stretching, bending response, and torsional behavior are assumed to be uncoupled.
Input File Usage: *FRAME SECTION, SECTION=GENERAL, ELSET=name
Specifying the elastic behavior

Specify the elastic modulus, the torsional shear modulus, and the coefficient of thermal expansion as
functions of temperature and field variables.
Input File Usage: *FRAME SECTION, SECTION=section_type, ELSET=name
first_data_line
second_data_line
elastic_modulus, torsional_shear_modulus,
coefficient_of_thermal_expansion, temperature, fv_1, fv_2, etc.
Defining elastic-plastic section behavior
To include elastic-plastic response, specify N, , , and T directly as functions of their conjugate

plastic deformation variables or use the default plastic response for N, , , and T based on the
material yield stress. Abaqus/Standard uses the specified or default values to define a nonlinear kinematic
hardening model that is “lumped” into plastic hinges at the element ends. Since the plasticity is lumped
at the element ends, no length dimension is associated with the hinge. Generalized forces are related
to generalized plastic displacements, not strains. In reality, the plastic hinge will have a finite size
determined by the structural member’s length and the loading, which will affect the hardening rate but
not the ultimate load. For example, yielding under pure bending (a constant moment over the member)
will produce a hinge length equal to the member length, whereas yielding of a cantilever with transverse
tip load (a linearly varying moment over the member) will produce a much more localized hinge. Hence,
if the rate of hardening and, thus, the plastic deformation at a given load are of importance, you should
calibrate the plastic response appropriately for different lengths and different loading situations.
In the plastic range the only plastic surface available is an ellipsoid. This yield surface is only
reasonably accurate for the pipe cross-section. Box, circular, I, and rectangular cross-sections can be
used at your discretion with the understanding that the elliptic yield surface may not approximate the
elastic-plastic response accurately. The general cross-section type cannot be used with plasticity.
Defining N, M1 , M2 , and T directly

You can define N, , , and T directly. (See “Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2, for a detailed
discussion of the tabular input conventions. In particular, you must ensure that the range of values given
for the variables is sufficient for the application since Abaqus/Standard assumes a constant value of
the dependent variable outside the specified range.) Abaqus/Standard will fit an exponential curve to
the user-supplied data as discussed below (see “Elastic-plastic data curve fit and calculation of default
29.4.2–3
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values” below). The plastic data describe the response to axial force, moment about the cross-sectional
1- and 2-directions, and torque.
You must specify pairs of data relating the generalized force component to the appropriate plastic
variable. Since the plasticity is concentrated at the element ends, the overall plastic response is dependent
on the length of the element; hence, members with different lengths might require different hardening
data. The plasticity model for frame elements is intended for frame-like structures: each member between
structural joints is modeled with a single frame element where plastic hinges are allowed to develop at
the end connections.
At least three data pairs for each plastic variable are required to describe the elastic-plastic section
hardening behavior. If fewer than three data pairs are given, Abaqus/Standard will issue an error message.
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=PIPE, ELSET=name
*PLASTIC AXIAL for N
*PLASTIC M1 for
*PLASTIC M2 for
*PLASTIC TORQUE for T
Allowing Abaqus/Standard to calculate default values for N, M1 , M2 , and T

You can use the default elastic-plastic material response for the plastic variables based on the yield stress
for the material. The default elastic-plastic material response differs for each of the plastic variables: the
plastic axial force, first plastic bending moment, second plastic bending moment, and plastic torsional
moment. Specific default values are given below.
If you define the plastic variables directly and specify that the default response should be used, the
data defined by you will take precedence over the default values.
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=PIPE, ELSET=name,
PLASTIC DEFAULTS, YIELD STRESS=
plastic options if user-defined values are necessary for a
particular generalized force
Elastic-plastic data curve fit and calculation of default values

The elastic-plastic response is a nonlinear kinematic hardening plasticity model. See “Models for metals
subjected to cyclic loading,” Section 23.2.2, for a discussion of the nonlinear kinematic hardening
formulation.
Nonlinear kinematic hardening with N, M1 , M2 , and T defined directly

For each of the four plastic material variables Abaqus/Standard uses an exponential curve fit of the
user-supplied generalized force versus generalized plastic displacement to define the limits on the elastic
range. The curve-fit procedure generates a hardening curve from the user-supplied data. It requires at
least three data pairs.
29.4.2–4
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The nonlinear kinematic hardening model describes the translation of the yield surface in
generalized force space through a generalized backstress, . The kinematic hardening is defined to be
an additive combination of a purely kinematic linear hardening term and a relaxation (recall) term such
that the backstress evolution is defined by
sign
where F is a component of generalized force, and C and are material parameters that are calibrated
based on the user-defined or default hardening data. C is the initial hardening modulus, and
determines the rate at which the kinematic hardening modulus decreases with increasing backstress,
. The saturation value of ( ), called , is
See Figure 29.4.2–1 for an illustration of the elastic range for the nonlinear kinematic hardening
model.
F
0
F 0 C
F=F+
γ
C
F0
α
qpl
Figure 29.4.2–1 Nonlinear kinematic hardening model: yield

surface for positive loading and the center of the yield surface, .
Allowing Abaqus/Standard to generate the default nonlinear kinematic hardening model

To define the default plastic response, three data points are generated from the yield stress value and the
cross-section shape. These three data points relate generalized force to generalized plastic displacement
per unit length of the element. Since the model is calibrated per unit element length, the generated
default plastic response is different for different element lengths. The generalized force levels for these
29.4.2–5
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three points are , , and . is the generalized force at zero plastic generalized displacement.
and are generalized force magnitudes that characterize the ultimate load-carrying capacity. The
slopes between the data points (i.e., the generalized plastic moduli and ) characterize the hardening
response. See Figure 29.4.2–2 for an illustration of the default nonlinear kinematic hardening model.
F2
D2
1
F
D1
F0
qpl
L
Figure 29.4.2–2 Data points generated for the default nonlinear kinematic hardening model.
For the plastic axial force, is the axial force that causes initial yielding. For the plastic bending
moments about the first and second axes, is the moment about the first and second cross-sectional
directions, respectively, that produces first fiber yielding. For the plastic torsional moment, is the
torque about the axis that produces first fiber yielding. The generalized force levels and , along
with the connecting slopes and , are chosen to approximate the response of a pipe cross-section
made of a typical structural steel, with mild work hardening, from initial yielding to the development
of a fully plastic hinge. The work hardening of the material corresponds to the default hardening of the
section during axial loading. For different loading situations the size of the plastic hinge will vary; hence,
the default model should be checked for validity against all anticipated loading situations. Default values
for , , , and corresponding to each plastic variable are listed in Table 29.4.2–1. These default
values are available for pipe, box, and I cross-section types with the values for the coefficients , ,
and as shown in Table 29.4.2–2.
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Table 29.4.2–1 Default values for generalized forces and

connecting slopes for corresponding plastic variables.
Plastic axial force

First plastic bending moment
Second plastic bending moment
Plastic torsional moment (for box
and pipe sections)
Plastic torsional moment (for
I-sections)
Table 29.4.2–2 Coefficients , , and .
Cross-section type
Pipe 0.30 0.07 1.35
Box 0.17 0.02 1.20
I (strong) 0.10 0.02 1.12
I (weak) 0.43 0.10 1.50
Defining optional uniaxial strut behavior
Frame elements optionally allow only uniaxial response (strut behavior). In this case neither end of
the element supports moments or forces transverse to the axis; hence, only a force along the axis of
the element exists. Furthermore, this axial force is constant along the length of the element, even if a
distributed load is applied tangentially to the element axis. The uniaxial response of the element is linear
elastic or nonlinear, in which case it includes buckling and postbuckling in compression and isotropic
hardening plasticity in tension.
Defining linear elastic uniaxial behavior

A linear elastic uniaxial frame element behaves like an axial spring with constant stiffness , where
E is Young’s modulus, A is the cross-sectional area, and L is the original element length. The strain
measure is the change in length of the element divided by the element’s original length.
Input File Usage: *FRAME SECTION, SECTION=library_section, ELSET=name, PINNED
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Defining buckling, postbuckling, and plastic uniaxial behavior: buckling strut response
If uniaxial buckling and postbuckling in compression and isotropic hardening plasticity in tension are
modeled (buckling strut response), the buckling envelope must be defined. The buckling envelope
defines the force versus axial strain (change in length divided by the original length) response of the
element. It is illustrated in Figure 29.4.2–3.
force
Py
γEA
ζPy
EA
strain
βEA
κPcr
αEA
Pcr
Figure 29.4.2–3 Buckling envelope for uniaxial buckling response.
The buckling envelope derives from Marshall Strut theory, which is developed for pipe cross-section
profiles only. No other cross-section types are permitted with buckling strut response.
Seven coefficients determine the buckling envelope as follows (the default values are listed, where
D is the pipe outer diameter and t is the pipe wall thickness):
Elastic limit force ( ). is the yield stress.
Isotropic hardening slope ( ).
Critical compressive buckling force predicted by the ISO equation, defined in
“Buckling strut response for frame elements,” Section 3.9.3 of the Abaqus Theory
Manual.
Slope of a segment on the buckling envelope, ( and
).
Corner on the buckling envelope ( ).
Slope of a segment on the buckling envelope ( ).
Corner on the buckling envelope ( ).
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The axial force in the element is required to stay inside or on the buckling envelope. When tension
yielding occurs, the enclosed part of the envelope translates along the strain axis by an amount equal to
the plastic strain. When reverse loading occurs for points on the boundary of the enclosed part of the
envelope, the strut exhibits “damaged elastic” behavior. This damaged elastic response is determined by
drawing a line from the point on the envelope to the tension yield point (force value ). As long as the
force and axial strain remain inside the enclosed part of the envelope, the force response is linear elastic
with a modulus equal to the damaged elastic modulus. At any time that the compressive strain is greater
in magnitude than the negative extreme strain point of the envelope, the force is constant with a value
of zero.
The value of is a function of an element’s geometrical and material properties, including the
yield stress value.
Buckling strut response cannot be used with elastic-plastic frame section behavior; the strut’s plastic
behavior is defined by and the isotropic hardening slope .
Defining the buckling envelope

You can specify that the default buckling envelope should be used, or you can define the buckling
envelope. If you define the buckling envelope directly and specify that the default envelope should
be used, the values defined by you will take precedence.
In either case you must provide the yield stress value, which will be used to determine the yield
force in tension and the critical compressive buckling load (through the ISO equation described later in
this section).
Input File Usage: To specify the default buckling envelope, use the following option:
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=PIPE, ELSET=name, BUCKLING,
PINNED, YIELD STRESS=
To specify a user-defined buckling envelope, use both of the following options:
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=PIPE, ELSET=name, PINNED,
YIELD STRESS=
*BUCKLING ENVELOPE
Defining the critical buckling load

The critical buckling load, , is determined by the ISO equation, which is an empirical relationship
determined by the International Organization for Standardization based on experimental results for pipe-
like or tubular structural members. Within the ISO equation, four variables can be changed from their
default values: the effective length factors, and , in the first and second sectional directions (the
default values are 1.0) and the added length, and , in the first and second sectional directions
(the default values are 0). These variables account for the buckling member’s end connectivity. The
effective element length in the transverse direction i ( ) is . For details on
the ISO equation, see “Buckling strut response for frame elements,” Section 3.9.3 of the Abaqus Theory
Manual.
29.4.2–9
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Input File Usage: To define nondefault coefficients for the ISO equation with the default buckling
envelope, use both of the following options:
PINNED, YIELD STRESS=
*BUCKLING LENGTH
To define nondefault coefficients for the ISO equation with a user-defined
buckling envelope, use all of the following options:
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=PIPE, ELSET=name, PINNED,
YIELD STRESS=
*BUCKLING ENVELOPE
*BUCKLING LENGTH
Switching to optional uniaxial strut behavior during an analysis
Frame elements allow switching to uniaxial buckling strut response during the analysis. The criterion for
switching is the “ISO” equation together with the “strength” equation (see “Buckling strut response for
frame elements,” Section 3.9.3 of the Abaqus Theory Manual). When the ISO equation is satisfied, the
elastic or elastic-plastic frame element undergoes a one-time-only switch in behavior to buckling strut
response. The strength equation is introduced to prevent switching in the absence of significant axial
forces.
When the frame element switches to buckling strut response, a dramatic loss of structural stiffness
occurs. The switched element no longer supports bending, torsion, or shear loading. If the global
structure is unstable as a result of the switch (that is, the structure would collapse under the applied
loading), the analysis may fail to converge.
To permit switching of the element response, use the default buckling envelope or define a buckling
envelope and provide a yield stress, but do not activate linear elastic uniaxial behavior for the frame
element.
The ISO equation is an empirical relationship based on experiments with slender, pipe-like (tubular)
members. Since the equation is written explicitly in terms of the pipe outer diameter and thickness, only
pipe sections are permitted with buckling strut response. The ISO equation incorporates several factors
that you can define. Effective and added length factors account for element end fixity, and buckling
reduction factors account for bending moment influence on buckling. You can define nondefault values
for these factors in each local cross-section direction.
Input File Usage: To allow switching to buckling strut response with default coefficients for the
ISO equation and the default buckling envelope, use the following option:
YIELD STRESS=
To allow switching to buckling strut response with nondefault coefficients for
the ISO equation and the default buckling envelope, use all of the following
options:
29.4.2–10
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YIELD STRESS=
*BUCKLING LENGTH
*BUCKLING REDUCTION FACTORS
To allow switching to buckling strut response with nondefault coefficients for
the ISO equation and a user-defined buckling envelope, use all of the following
options:
*FRAME SECTION, SECTION=PIPE, ELSET=name, YIELD STRESS=
*BUCKLING ENVELOPE
*BUCKLING LENGTH
*BUCKLING REDUCTION FACTORS
Defining the reference temperature for thermal expansion
You can define a thermal expansion coefficient for the frame section. The thermal expansion coefficient
may be temperature dependent. In this case you must define the reference temperature for thermal
expansion, .
*FRAME SECTION, ZERO=
*THERMAL EXPANSION
Define temperatures and field variables by giving the value at the origin of the cross-section (i.e., only
one temperature or field-variable value is given).
Input File Usage: Use one or more of the following options:
*TEMPERATURE
*FIELD
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=TEMPERATURE
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=FIELD
29.4.2–11
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FRAME ELEMENT LIBRARY
29.4.3 FRAME ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *FRAME SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the frame elements available in Abaqus/Standard.

Element types
Frame in a plane
FRAME2D 2-node straight frame element
1, 2, 6
Two additional variables relating to the axial and lateral displacements.
Frame in space
FRAME3D 2-node straight frame element
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Three additional variables relating to the axial and lateral displacements.
Frame in a plane: X, Y (Direction cosines of the normal are not used; any values given are ignored.)
Frame in space: X, Y, Z (Direction cosines of the normal are not used; any values given are ignored.)
Local orientations defined as described in “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5, cannot be used with frame
elements to define local material directions. The orientation of the local section axes in space is discussed
in “Frame elements,” Section 29.4.1.
Input File Usage: *FRAME SECTION
29.4.3–1
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Distributed loads

(*DLOAD)

PX FL−1 Force per unit length in global X-direction.
−1
PY FL Force per unit length in global Y-direction.
−1
PZ FL Force per unit length in global Z-direction
(only for frames in space).
P1 FL−1 Force per unit length in frame local
1-direction (only for frames in space).
P2 FL−1 Force per unit length in frame local
2-direction.
Abaqus/Aqua loads
Abaqus/Aqua loads are specified as described in “Abaqus/Aqua analysis,” Section 6.11.1.

(*CLOAD/
*DLOAD)
FDD(A) FL−1 Transverse fluid drag load.

(A)
FD1 F Fluid drag force on the first end of the frame
(node 1).
FD2(A) F Fluid drag force on the second end of the
frame (node 2).
FDT(A) FL−1 Tangential fluid drag load.
(A) −1
FI FL Transverse fluid inertia load.
(A)
FI1 F Fluid inertia force on the first end of the
frame (node 1).
FI2(A) F Fluid inertia force on the second end of the
frame (node 2).
29.4.3–2
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(*CLOAD/
*DLOAD)
PB(A) FL−1 Buoyancy load (closed-end condition).
WDD(A) FL−1 Transverse wind drag load.
(A)
WD1 F Wind drag force on the first end of the frame
(node 1).
WD2(A) F Wind drag force on the second end of the
frame (node 2).
Foundations
(*FOUNDATION)
FX FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in global X-

direction.
FY FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in global Y-
direction.
FZ FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in global Z-
direction (only for frames in space).
F1 FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in frame local 1-
direction (only for frames in space).
F2 FL−2 Stiffness per unit length in frame local
2-direction.
Element output
All element output variables are given at the element ends (nodes 1 and 2) and midpoint (node 3).
Section forces and moments

SF1 Axial force.
SF2 Transverse shear force in the local 2-direction.
SF3 Transverse shear force in the local 1-direction (only available for frames in space).
SM2 Bending moment about the local 2-axis (only available for frames in space).
SM3 Twisting moment about the frame axis (only available for frames in space).
29.4.3–3
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See “Frame elements with lumped plasticity,” Section 3.9.2 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for a
discussion of the section forces and moments.
Section elastic strains and curvatures

SEE1 Elastic axial strain.
SKE1 Elastic curvature change about the local 1-axis.
SKE2 Elastic curvature change about the local 2-axis (only available for frames in space).
SKE3 Elastic twist of the beam (only available for frames in space).
Plastic displacements and rotations in the element coordinate system

SEP1 Plastic axial displacement.
SKP1 Plastic rotation about the local 1-axis.
SKP2 Plastic rotation about the local 2-axis (only available for frames in space).
SKP3 Plastic rotation about the beam axis (only available for frames in space).
Section force and moment backstresses

SALPHA1 Axial force backstress.
SALPHA2 Bending moment backstress about the local 1-axis.
SALPHA3 Bending moment backstress about the local 2-axis (only available for frames in
space).
SALPHA4 Twisting moment backstress about the beam axis (only available for frames in space).
2
end 2
1
end 1
2 - node element
For frames in space an additional node may be given after a frame element’s connectivity (in the element
definition—see “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1) to define the approximate direction of the first cross-
section axis, . See “Frame elements,” Section 29.4.1, for details.
29.4.3–4
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
29.5 Elbow elements
• “Pipes and pipebends with deforming cross-sections: elbow elements,” Section 29.5.1
• “Elbow element library,” Section 29.5.2
29.5–1
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
29.5.1 PIPES AND PIPEBENDS WITH DEFORMING CROSS-SECTIONS: ELBOW

ELEMENTS
References
• “Elbow element library,” Section 29.5.2

• *BEAM SECTION
Overview
Elbow elements:
• are intended to provide accurate modeling of the nonlinear response of initially circular pipes and
pipebends when distortion of the cross-section by ovalization and warping dominates the behavior;
• appear as beams but are shells with quite complex deformation patterns allowed;
• use plane stress theory to model the deformation through the pipe wall; and
• cannot provide nodal values of stress, strain, and other constitutive results.
In the usual approach to linear analysis of elbows, the response prediction is based on semianalytical
results, used as “flexibility factors” to correct results obtained with simple beam theory. Such factors do
not apply in nonlinear cases, and the pipeline must be modeled as a shell to predict the response accurately
(for example, see “Parametric study of a linear elastic pipeline under in-plane bending,” Section 1.1.3 of
the Abaqus Example Problems Manual). Although the elbow elements appear as beams, they are, in fact,
shells, with quite complex deformation patterns allowed. In thin-walled elbows the interaction of elbows
and adjacent straight segments is an important aspect of elbow modeling, as are the large rotations that
readily occur in the cross-sectional deformation, even at small relative rotations of the pipe axis itself. All
of these effects (including the stiffening effect of internal pressure) can be modeled with these elements.
Elbow elements are intended to provide accurate modeling of the nonlinear response of initially
circular pipes and pipebends when distortion of the cross-section by ovalization and warping dominates
the behavior. Such behavior arises in two circumstances: in pipebends, where the initial curvature of
the pipe, together with the thinness of the wall of the pipe, causes ovalization to dominate the response,
and in straight pipe sections, where excessive bending can lead to a buckling collapse of the thin-walled
circular section (“Brazier buckling”).
Because the elbow elements use a full shell formulation around the circumference, the number of
degrees of freedom per element is high. Elbow elements that use all Fourier modes (discussed below) to
model ovalization and warping are considerably more expensive computationally than beam elements,
but their cost is comparable to that of coarse shell models, which can be used to model the section.
29.5.1–1
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
If an analysis requires connecting pipe elements to a pipebend, it is easier to connect elbow elements
to pipe elements than it is to connect shell elements to pipe elements.
Elbow elements use polynomial interpolation along their length (linear or quadratic depending on the
element type), together with Fourier interpolation around the pipe to model the ovalization and warping
of the section. Shell theory is then used to model the behavior.
Two types of elbow elements are provided.
ELBOW31 and ELBOW32

Element types ELBOW31 and ELBOW32 are the most complete elbow elements. In these elements the
ovalization of the pipe wall is made continuous from one element to the next, thus modeling such effects
as the interaction between pipe bends (elbows) and adjacent straight segments of the pipeline.
ELBOW31 and ELBOW32 should not be used for the analysis of unconnected straight pipes unless
the warping and ovalization are restrained at some point in the pipe.
ELBOW31B and ELBOW31C

Element types ELBOW31B and ELBOW31C use a simplified version of the formulation, in which
ovalization only is considered (no warping) and axial gradients of the ovalization are neglected. These
approximations are often satisfactory, and indeed they form the basis of the standard flexibility factor
approach used in linear analysis of piping systems. They provide a considerably less expensive capability.
ELBOW31C includes the further approximation that the odd numbered terms in the Fourier interpolation
around the pipe, except the first term, are neglected. This formulation provides a slightly less expensive
model for cases where the radius of the pipe is small compared to the radius of curvature of the pipe axis.
You use a beam section definition integrated during the analysis to define the section properties of elbow
elements. Give the outside radius of the pipe, r; pipe wall thickness, t; and elbow torus radius, measured
to the pipe axis, R. For a straight pipe, set R to zero.
You must associate these properties with a set of elbow elements.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, SECTION=ELBOW, ELSET=name
r, t, R
Defining the section orientation

For all elbow elements the section must be oriented in space by specifying a point that, together with
the nodes of the element, defines the plane of the -axis in Figure 29.5.1–1. For bent pipes this point
should lie outside the bend (the side of the pipe on the outside of the bend is referred to as the extrados).
For pipebends of less than 180° this point can be set to be the point of intersection of the tangents to
the adjacent straight pipe runs. If a pipebend subtends an angle greater than or equal to 180°, the bend
should be partitioned into sections of less than 180° and a separate beam section should be defined for
29.5.1–2
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
each partition so that the point used to define the plane of the -axis can lie outside of the extrados.
When the elements are used to model straight pipes, the point can be any point off the pipe axis.
Second cross-sectional direction

a2
2
a1= a 2 x a 3 1
a3
a3 - positive from
1st to 2nd node
R
torus radius
Figure 29.5.1–1 Elbow element geometry.
When ovalization modeling is extended onto straight runs adjacent to a pipebend by using
ELBOW31 or ELBOW32 elements for the pipebend and for the straight pipe, you must ensure that the
-axis is defined so that its orientation about the axis of the pipe is the same between the pipebend and
each of the straight segments. When possible, the -axis should also be the same between adjacent
pipebends. In some cases, such as adjacent pipebends in different planes, the -axes are necessarily
discontinuous. In such cases separate nodes must be introduced at the point where the -axis changes
orientation, and MPC type ELBOW must be invoked to impose the appropriate constraints to ensure
continuity of displacements. See Figure 29.5.1–2.
29.5.1–3
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
Use two coincident nodes with MPC type ELBOW

to allow for change in direction of a 2
a2 a2
x x
x xx x
x x
a2 x x x a2
a2 x x
x a2
a2
x
a2
Figure 29.5.1–2 Use of MPC type ELBOW with ELBOW31 or ELBOW32.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, SECTION=ELBOW

first data line
coordinates of orientation point
Defining the number of integration points and Fourier modes

You can specify the number of integration points and Fourier modes for an elbow section. Experience
suggests that for relatively thick-walled cases 4 Fourier modes with 12 integration points around the
pipe are sufficient. For thin-walled elbows 6 Fourier modes and 18 integration points around the pipe
are needed. As a general rule, the number of integration points around the pipe should not be less than
three times the number of Fourier modes used; otherwise, singularities may arise in the stiffness matrix.
When used with zero Fourier modes, the elements become simple pipe elements with hoop strain and
stress included: when Poisson’s ratio is set to zero, they show similar behavior to the PIPE elements in
Abaqus (see “Choosing a beam element,” Section 29.3.3).
first data line
second data line
number of int. pts. through thickness, number of int. pts. around
pipe, number of Fourier modes
29.5.1–4
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
Assigning a material definition to a set of elbow elements
You must associate a material definition with each elbow section definition.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, SECTION=ELBOW, MATERIAL=name
Temperature and field variables can be specified by defining the values at specific points through the
section or by defining the value at the middle of the pipe wall and specifying the gradient through the
pipe thickness.
By defining the values at points through the section

You can define temperatures and field variables by giving the values at each of the three points shown
below.
outside
inside 3 points through thickness

3
2
1
No matter how many section points there are through the thickness of the elbow, specify the values at
only these three points. These three values are applied to all integration points around the circumference
so that the only admissible variation is in the radial direction.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, SECTION=ELBOW, TEMPERATURE=VALUES
By defining the value at the middle of the pipe wall and the gradient through the thickness
Alternatively, you can define temperatures and field variables by giving the value on the middle surface
of the pipe wall and the gradient of temperature with respect to position through the pipe wall thickness,
positive when the outside surface is hotter than the inside surface.
Input File Usage: *BEAM SECTION, SECTION=ELBOW, TEMPERATURE=GRADIENTS
Using elbow elements in large-displacement analysis
When elbow elements are subjected to pipe pressure loads (load types PI, PE, HPI, or HPE) in large-
displacement analysis (“General and linear perturbation procedures,” Section 6.1.3), the most significant
contributions to the load stiffness are taken into account.
29.5.1–5
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
Defining kinematic boundary conditions on elbow elements
Kinematic boundary conditions on the standard degrees of freedom at the nodes of elbow elements (that
is, degrees of freedom 1–6) should be treated in the usual way.
In addition, the elements have ovalization and warping terms stored internally. For ELBOW31B and
ELBOW31C elements this requires no additional consideration. For ELBOW31 or ELBOW32 elements
you may often need to provide kinematic boundary conditions on these additional degrees of freedom.
For example, it is common to model a pipeline with ovalization and warping allowed in the elbows
and adjacent straight pipe segments but no ovalization in the middle segments of long, straight pipe
runs (see Figure 29.5.1–3). (The latter is usually accomplished by specifying ELBOW31 elements with
zero modes or PIPE31 elements so that the usual bending terms and the uniform radial expansion term,
associated with pressure in the pipe, are included; if internal pressure is not important, a simple beam
element, B31, can be used instead.) Where the segments with ovalization and warping end, the warping
must be restrained; and if a stiff flange or vessel exists at that point, the ovalization should also be
restrained. To do so, specify NOWARP and/or NOOVAL or NODEFORM boundary conditions for that
node (“Boundary conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.3.1).
NOWARP means that no warping is allowed at the node, but ovalization and uniform radial
expansion are allowed; NOOVAL means that there can be no ovalization at the node, but warping
and uniform radial expansion are allowed; NODEFORM means that there can be no cross-section
deformation at all—no warping, ovalization, or uniform radial expansion.
Typically, NOWARP will be specified at the end of a pipebend segment modeled with ELBOW31
adjacent to a straight pipe run, while NOWARP and NOOVAL would be specified at a stiff flange or
vessel attachment point. NODEFORM restrains all cross-sectional deformation, including the uniform
radial expansion term: this will result in large stresses if thermal expansion occurs. NODEFORM should
be used, for example, at a built-in end.
Visualizing the cross-section deformation
The current release of Abaqus/Standard does not provide a direct way of visualizing the cross-section
ovalization. However, the utility routine felbow.f (“Creation of a data file to facilitate the
postprocessing of elbow element results: FELBOW,” Section 14.1.6 of the Abaqus Example Problems
Manual) creates a data file that can be used in Abaqus/CAE to plot the current coordinates of the
integration points around the circumference of the elbow section of interest. The routine uses output
variable COORD (“Abaqus/Standard output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.1) to obtain the current
coordinates of the integration points. These values are available only if geometric nonlinearity is
considered in the step. You will have to ensure that the variable COORD is written to the results (.fil)
file for this purpose.
The routine is suitable for elbow elements oriented arbitrarily in space: the integration points of
the elbow section are projected appropriately to a coordinate system suitable for plotting the cross-
section. The input data for plotting are written to a file that can be read into Abaqus/CAE. An X–Y
plot of the elbow element’s deformed cross-section can be displayed using the XY Data Manager in the
Visualization module.
29.5.1–6
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
Z X
a. Typical pipeline
Y
Z X
b. Sections modeled with continuous ovalization
Figure 29.5.1–3 Pipeline schematic.
In addition to facilitating the visualization of the cross-section ovalization, the program also allows
you to create data files to plot the variation of a variable along a line of elbow elements and around the
circumference of a given elbow element.
Similar C++ and Python utility routines, felbow.C (“A C++ version of FELBOW,”
Section 10.15.6 of the Abaqus Scripting User’s Manual) and felbow.py (“An Abaqus Scripting
Interface version of FELBOW,” Section 9.10.12 of the Abaqus Scripting User’s Manual), are provided
29.5.1–7
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ELBOW ELEMENTS
to process the pertinent elbow element results output written to the output database (.odb) file. When
these programs are executed, they write data to an ASCII format file and/or an output database file
that can be used in Abaqus/CAE to plot the current coordinates of the integration points around the
circumference of the elbow section. Both these routines can also be used to visualize the variation of
an output variable around the circumference of the elbow section.
29.5.1–8
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ELBOW ELEMENT LIBRARY
29.5.2 ELBOW ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Pipes and pipebends with deforming cross-sections: elbow elements,” Section 29.5.1
• *BEAM SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the elbow elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
ELBOW31 2-node pipe in space with deforming section, linear interpolation along the pipe
ELBOW32 3-node pipe in space with deforming section, quadratic interpolation along the pipe
ELBOW31B 2-node pipe in space with ovalization only, axial gradients of ovalization neglected
ELBOW31C 2-node pipe in space with ovalization only, axial gradients of ovalization neglected.
This formulation is the same as that for element type ELBOW31B, with the exception
that all odd numbered terms in the Fourier interpolation around the pipe but the first
term are neglected.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

Elbow elements have numerous variables to model cross-sectional ovalization and warping. The number
of variables depends on the type of elbow element, the number of nodes, and the number of Fourier modes
chosen. In the following table p is the number of Fourier modes:
Element type Number of variables

ELBOW31 16, if p=0
(16p+8), if p 1
ELBOW32 24, if p=0
(24p+12), if 1
ELBOW31B 13+2p, if p=0,1
11+4p, if 2
29.5.2–1
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Element type Number of variables

ELBOW31C 13+2p, if p=0,1,3,5
15+2p, if p=2,4,6
Distributed loads
(*DLOAD)
BX FL−3 Body force per unit volume in global X-

direction.
BY FL−3 Body force per unit volume in global Y-
direction.
BZ FL−3 Body force per unit volume in global Z-
direction.
BXNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global X-
subroutine DLOAD.
BYNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global Y-
subroutine DLOAD.
BZNU FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global Z-
subroutine DLOAD.
where is the mass density per unit volume
and is the angular velocity).
29.5.2–2
Abaqus ID:
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(*DLOAD)
HPE FL−2 Hydrostatic external pressure, with linear
variation in global Z (closed-end condition).
HPI FL−2 Hydrostatic internal pressure, with linear
variation in global Z (closed-end condition).
PE FL−2 Uniform external pressure (closed-end
condition).
PI FL−2 Uniform internal pressure (closed-end
condition).
PENU FL−2 Nonuniform external pressure with
DLOAD (closed-end condition).
PINU FL−2 Nonuniform internal pressure with
DLOAD (closed-end condition).
Abaqus/Aqua loads
(*CLOAD/
*DLOAD)
FDD(A) FL−1 Transverse fluid drag load.

(A)
FD1 F Fluid drag force on the first end of the elbow
(node 1).
FD2(A) F Fluid drag force on the second end of the
elbow (node 2 or node 3).
FDT(A) FL−1 Tangential fluid drag load.
FI(A) FL−1 Transverse fluid inertia load.
29.5.2–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

(*CLOAD/
*DLOAD)
FI1(A) F Fluid inertia force on the first end of the

elbow (node 1).
FI2(A) F Fluid inertia force on the second end of the

PB(A) FL−1 Buoyancy force (closed-end condition).
WDD(A) FL−1 Transverse wind drag load.
WD1(A) F Wind drag force on the first end of the elbow

(node 1).
WD2(A) F Wind drag force on the second end of the

Element output
The default stress output points are on the inside surface and the outside surface at all integration stations
around the pipe.
S11 Direct stress along the pipe.

S22 Direct stress around the pipe section.
S12 Shear stress in the pipe wall.
Section forces and moments
SF1 Axial force.

SM3 Twisting moment about the elbow axis.
29.5.2–4
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2
2
3
1

extrados
12 11
10
13 9
14 8 outside
15
7 inside x
x x 5
16 1
6
17
5
18
4
19
3
20 2
1
intrados
The extrados is the side of the pipebend that is furthest away from the center of the torus defining the
pipebend; that is, the side of the pipebend to which the -axis points. The intrados is the side of the
pipebend closest to the center of the torus.
The middle surface integration points around a section are shown above. There is a default of five
thickness direction integration points at each such point, with point 1 on the inside surface of the pipe
and point 5 on the outside surface.
29.5.2–5
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For ELBOW31 and ELBOW31B only one integration station is used along the axis of the element. For
ELBOW32 two integration stations are used along the axis of the elbow and the point numbers on the
second section are a continuation of those on the first section (e.g., 21, 22, …, 40 in the default case),
located around the pipe as shown above.
29.5.2–6
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SHELL ELEMENTS
29.6 Shell elements
• “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1

• “Choosing a shell element,” Section 29.6.2
• “Defining the initial geometry of conventional shell elements,” Section 29.6.3
• “Shell section behavior,” Section 29.6.4
• “Using a shell section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5
• “Using a general shell section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.6
• “Three-dimensional conventional shell element library,” Section 29.6.7
• “Continuum shell element library,” Section 29.6.8
• “Axisymmetric shell element library,” Section 29.6.9
• “Axisymmetric shell elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation,” Section 29.6.10
29.6–1
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SHELL ELEMENTS: OVERVIEW
29.6.1 SHELL ELEMENTS: OVERVIEW
Abaqus offers a wide variety of shell modeling options.
Overview
Shell modeling consists of:

• choosing the appropriate shell element type (“Choosing a shell element,” Section 29.6.2);
• defining the initial geometry of the surface (“Defining the initial geometry of conventional shell
elements,” Section 29.6.3);
• determining whether or not numerical integration is needed to define the shell section behavior
(“Shell section behavior,” Section 29.6.4); and
• defining the shell section behavior (“Using a shell section integrated during the analysis to define the
section behavior,” Section 29.6.5, or “Using a general shell section to define the section behavior,”
Section 29.6.6).
Conventional shell versus continuum shell
Shell elements are used to model structures in which one dimension, the thickness, is significantly smaller
than the other dimensions. Conventional shell elements use this condition to discretize a body by defining
the geometry at a reference surface. In this case the thickness is defined through the section property
definition. Conventional shell elements have displacement and rotational degrees of freedom.
In contrast, continuum shell elements discretize an entire three-dimensional body. The thickness is
determined from the element nodal geometry. Continuum shell elements have only displacement degrees
of freedom. From a modeling point of view continuum shell elements look like three-dimensional
continuum solids, but their kinematic and constitutive behavior is similar to conventional shell elements.
Figure 29.6.1–1 illustrates the differences between a conventional shell and a continuum shell
element.
Conventions
The conventions that are used for shell elements are defined below.
Definition of local directions on the surface of a shell in space

The default local directions used on the surface of a shell for definition of anisotropic material properties
and for reporting stress and strain components are defined in “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2. You can
define other directions by defining a local orientation (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5), except for
SAX1, SAX2, and SAX2T elements (“Axisymmetric shell element library,” Section 29.6.9), which
do not support orientations. A spatially varying local coordinate system defined with a distribution
(“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1) can be assigned to shell elements. For SAXA elements
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displacement and rotation

degrees of freedom
Conventional shell model -
geometry is specified at the reference surface;
thickness is defined by section property.
Finite Element Model Element
structural body
being modeled
displacement
degrees of freedom only
Continuum shell model -
full 3-D geometry is specified;
element thickness is defined by nodal geometry.
Figure 29.6.1–1 Conventional versus continuum shell element.
(“Axisymmetric shell elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation,” Section 29.6.10) any
anisotropic material definition must be symmetric with respect to the r–z plane at and .
In large-deformation (geometrically nonlinear) analysis these local directions rotate with the
average rotation of the surface at that point. They are output as directions in the current configuration
except in the shell elements in Abaqus/Standard that provide only large rotation but small strain
(element types STRI3, STRI65, S4R5, S8R, S8RT, S8R5, S9R5—see “Choosing a shell element,”
Section 29.6.2), where they are output as directions in the reference configuration. Therefore, in
geometrically nonlinear analysis, when displaying these directions or when displaying principal values
of stress, strain, or section forces or moments in Abaqus/CAE, the current (deformed) configuration
should be used except for the small-strain elements in Abaqus/Standard, for which the reference
configuration should be used.
Positive normal definition for conventional shell elements

The “top” surface of a conventional shell element is the surface in the positive normal direction and is
referred to as the positive (SPOS) face for contact definition. The “bottom” surface is in the negative
direction along the normal and is referred to as the negative (SNEG) face for contact definition. Positive
and negative are also used to designate top and bottom surfaces when specifying offsets of the reference
surface from the shell’s midsurface.
The positive normal direction defines the convention for pressure load application and output of
quantities that vary through the thickness of the shell. A positive pressure load applied to a shell element
produces a load that acts in the direction of the positive normal.
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Three-dimensional conventional shells

For shells in space the positive normal is given by the right-hand rule going around the nodes of the
element in the order that they are specified in the element definition. See Figure 29.6.1–2.
n face SPOS
4 3
n 3
1 2
Z
Y
1
face SNEG 2
X
Figure 29.6.1–2 Positive normals for three-dimensional conventional shells.
Axisymmetric conventional shells

For axisymmetric conventional shells (including the SAXA1n and SAXA2n elements that allow for
nonsymmetric deformation) the positive normal direction is defined by a 90° counterclockwise rotation
n face SPOS
face SNEG
z 1
Figure 29.6.1–3 Positive normal for conventional axisymmetric shells.
Normal definition for continuum shell elements

Figure 29.6.1–4 illustrates the key geometrical features of continuum shells. It is important that the
continuum shells are oriented properly, since the behavior in the thickness direction is different from that
in the in-plane directions. By default, the element top and bottom faces and, hence, the element normal,
stacking direction, and thickness direction are defined by the nodal connectivity. For the triangular in-
plane continuum shell element (SC6R) the face with corner nodes 1, 2, and 3 is the bottom face; and the
face with corner nodes 4, 5, and 6 is the top face. For the quadrilateral continuum shell element (SC8R)
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6
8
n 3
n top face
4
5 7
thickness 4
direction 1 6 3
1
5 thickness
z 2 direction
2 bottom face
y
Figure 29.6.1–4 Default normals and thickness direction for continuum shell elements.
the face with corner nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the bottom face; and the face with corner nodes 5, 6, 7, and 8 is
the top face. The stacking direction and thickness direction are both defined to be the direction from the
bottom face to the top face. Additional options for defining the element thickness direction, including
one option that is independent of nodal connectivity, are presented below.
Surfaces on continuum shells can be defined by specifying the face identifiers S1–S6 identifying the
individual faces as defined in “Continuum shell element library,” Section 29.6.8. Free surface generation
can also be used.
Pressure loads applied to faces P1–P6 are defined similar to continuum elements, with a positive
pressure directed into the element.
Defining the stacking and thickness direction

By default, the continuum shell stacking direction and thickness direction are defined by the nodal
connectivity as illustrated in Figure 29.6.1–4. Alternatively, you can define the element stacking
direction and thickness direction by either selecting one of the element’s isoparametric directions or by
using an orientation definition.
Defining the stacking and thickness direction based on the element isoparametric direction
You can define the element stacking direction to be along one of the element’s isoparametric directions
(see Figure 29.6.1–5 for element stack directions). The 8-node hexahedron continuum shell has three
possible stacking directions; the 6-node in-plane triangular continuum shell has only one stack direction,
which is in the element 3-isoparametric direction. The default stacking direction is 3, providing the same
thickness and stacking direction as outlined in the previous section.
To obtain a desired thickness direction, the choice of the isoparametric direction depends on
the element connectivity. For a mesh-independent specification, use an orientation-based method as
described below.
Input File Usage: Use one of the following options to define the element stacking direction based
on the element’s isoparametric directions:
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8 F5
F6 7
F2 6
5
6 F4 F5 3 F4
F3 4 F2
3 3 4 5 3
2 F3
1 1
2 1 2
F1 Stack direction F1 Stack direction
Stack direction = 1 Stack direction = 2 Stack direction = 3 Stack direction = 3

from face 6 to face 4 from face 3 to face 5 from face 1 to face 2 from face 1 to face 2
Figure 29.6.1–5 Stack directions for SC6R and SC8R elements.
*SHELL SECTION, STACK DIRECTION=n

*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, STACK DIRECTION=n
where n = 1, 2, or 3.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option to define the stacking direction based on the element’s
isoparametric directions if the continuum shell is defined using a composite
layup:
Property module: Create Composite Layup: select Continuum Shell
as the Element Type: Stacking Direction: Element direction 1,
Element direction 2, or Element direction 3
Use the following option to define the stacking direction based on the element’s
isoparametric directions if the continuum shell is defined using a composite
shell section:
Assign→Material Orientation: select regions: Use Default
Orientation or Other Method: Stacking Direction: Element
isoparametric direction 1, Element isoparametric direction 2,
or Element isoparametric direction 3
Defining the stacking and thickness direction based on an orientation definition

Alternatively, you can define the element stacking direction based on a local orientation definition.
For shell elements the orientation definition defines an axis about which the local 1 and 2 material
directions may be rotated. This axis also defines an approximate normal direction. The element stacking
and thickness directions are defined to be the element isoparametric direction that is closest to this
approximate normal (see Figure 29.6.1–6).
“The pinched cylinder problem,” Section 2.3.2 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, and “LE3:
Hemispherical shell with point loads,” Section 4.2.3 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, illustrate the use
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Local cylindrical orientation cylor1:

a = 0, 0, 0
b = 10, 0, 0
x'
Cohesive section, stack direction
ε
based on cylor1 3
x'
b
ε 2
(10, 0, 0)
ε 1
Y
Abaqus selects the isoparametric direction 2 that is
X closest to the 1st (i.e., x 1, or radial) axis, at the center.
Global a
(0, 0, 0)
Figure 29.6.1–6 Example illustrating the use of a cylindrical system to define the stacking direction.
of a cylindrical and spherical orientation system, respectively, to define the stack and thickness direction
independent of nodal connectivity.
Input File Usage: Use one of the following options to define the element stacking direction based
on a user-defined orientation:
*SHELL SECTION, STACK DIRECTION=ORIENTATION,
ORIENTATION=name
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, STACK DIRECTION=ORIENTATION,
ORIENTATION=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option to define the stacking direction based on a user-defined
orientation if the continuum shell is defined using a composite layup:
Property module: Create Composite Layup: select Continuum Shell as
the Element Type: Stacking Direction: Layup orientation
Use the following option to define the stacking direction based on a user-defined
orientation if the continuum shell is defined using a composite shell section:
Assign→Material Orientation: select regions: Use Default
Orientation or Other Method: Stacking Direction: Normal
direction of material orientation
Verifying the element stack and thickness direction

You can verify the element stack and thickness direction visually in Abaqus/CAE by either contouring
the element section thickness or plotting the material axis. Generally, the in-plane dimensions are
significantly larger than the element thickness. By contouring the shell section thickness, output variable
STH, you can easily verify that all elements are oriented appropriately and have the correct thickness.
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If the element is oriented improperly, one of the in-plane dimensions will become the element section
thickness, resulting in a discontinuous contour plot.
Alternatively, you can plot the material axis to verify that the 3-axis points in the desired normal
direction. If the element is oriented improperly, one of the in-plane axes (either the 1- or 2-axis) would
point in the normal direction.
Numbering of section points through the shell thickness

The section points through the thickness of the shell are numbered consecutively, starting with point 1.
For shell sections integrated during the analysis, section point 1 is exactly on the bottom surface of the
shell if Simpson’s rule is used, and it is the point that is closest to the bottom surface if Gauss quadrature
is used. For general shell sections, section point 1 is always on the bottom surface of the shell.
For a homogeneous section the total number of section points is defined by the number of integration
points through the thickness. For shell sections integrated during the analysis, you can define the number
of integration points through the thickness. The default is five for Simpson’s rule and three for Gauss
quadrature. For general shell sections, output can be obtained at three section points.
For a composite section the total number of section points is defined by adding the number of
integration points per layer for all of the layers. For shell sections integrated during the analysis, you
can define the number of integration points per layer. The default is three for Simpson’s rule and two for
Gauss quadrature. For general shell sections, the number of section points for output per layer is three.
Default output points

In Abaqus/Standard the default output points through the thickness of a shell section are the points that
are on the bottom and top surfaces of the shell section (for integration with Simpson’s rule) or the points
that are closest to the bottom and top surfaces (for Gauss quadrature). For example, if five integration
points are used through a single layer shell, output will be provided for section points 1 (bottom) and 5
(top).
In Abaqus/Explicit all section points through the thickness of a shell section are written to the results
file for element output requests.
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29.6.2 CHOOSING A SHELL ELEMENT
References

• “Three-dimensional conventional shell element library,” Section 29.6.7
• “Continuum shell element library,” Section 29.6.8
• “Axisymmetric shell element library,” Section 29.6.9
• “Axisymmetric shell elements with nonlinear, asymmetric deformation,” Section 29.6.10
• “Creating homogeneous shell sections,” Section 12.13.6 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
• “Creating composite shell sections,” Section 12.13.7 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
Overview
The Abaqus/Standard shell element library includes:

• elements for three-dimensional shell geometries;
• elements for axisymmetric geometries with axisymmetric deformation;
• elements for axisymmetric geometries with general deformation that is symmetric about one plane;
• elements for stress/displacement, heat transfer, and fully coupled temperature-displacement
analysis;
• general-purpose elements, as well as elements specifically suitable for the analysis of “thick” or
“thin” shells;
• general-purpose, three-dimensional, first-order elements that use reduced or full integration;
• elements that account for finite membrane strain;
• elements that use five degrees of freedom per node where possible, as well as elements that always
use six degrees of freedom per node; and
• continuum shell elements.
The Abaqus/Explicit shell element library includes:
• general-purpose three-dimensional elements to model “thick” or “thin” shells that account for finite
membrane strains;
• small-strain elements;
• fully coupled temperature-displacement analysis elements;
• an element for axisymmetric geometries with axisymmetric deformation; and
• continuum shell elements.
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Naming convention
The naming convention for shell elements depends on the element dimensionality.
Three-dimensional shell elements

Three-dimensional shell elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
S 8 R 5 W
warping considered in small-strain formulation
in ABAQUS/Explicit (optional)
optional: 5 dof (5);
coupled temperature-displacement (T);
small-strain formulation in ABAQUS/Explicit (S)
number of nodes
conventional stress/displacement shell (S);
continuum stress/displacement shell (SC);
triangular stress/displacement thin shell (STRI);
heat transfer shell (DS)
For example, S4R is a 4-node, quadrilateral, stress/displacement shell element with reduced integration
and a large-strain formulation; and SC8R is an 8-node, quadrilateral, first-order interpolation,
stress/displacement continuum shell element with reduced integration.
Axisymmetric shell elements

Axisymmetric shell elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
S AX 2 T
Optional:
coupled temperature-displacement (T);
number of Fourier modes (1, 2, 3, or 4)
axisymmetric (AX); axisymmetric with
nonlinear, asymmetric deformation (AXA)
stress/displacement shell (S);
heat transfer shell (DS)
For example, DSAX1 is an axisymmetric, heat transfer shell element with first-order interpolation.
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Conventional stress/displacement shell elements
The conventional stress/displacement shell elements in Abaqus can be used in three-dimensional

or axisymmetric analysis. In Abaqus/Standard they use linear or quadratic interpolation and allow
mechanical and/or thermal (uncoupled) loading; in Abaqus/Explicit they use linear interpolation and
allow mechanical loading. These elements can be used in static or dynamic procedures. Some elements
include the effect of transverse shear deformation and thickness change, while others do not. Some
elements allow large rotations and finite membrane deformation, while others allow large rotations but
small strains.
Interpolation of temperature and field variables in stress/displacement shell elements

The value of temperatures at the integration locations in the surface of the shell used to compute
the thermal stresses depends on whether first-order or second-order elements are used. An average
temperature is used at the integration location in linear elements so that the thermal strain is constant
throughout the shell surface. A linearly varying temperature distribution is used in higher-order shell
elements. Field variables in stress/displacement shell elements are interpolated the same way as
temperatures.
Stress/displacement continuum shell elements
The stress/displacement continuum shell elements in Abaqus can be used in three-dimensional analysis.
Continuum shells discretize an entire three-dimensional body, unlike conventional shells which discretize
a reference surface (see “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1). These elements have displacement
degrees of freedom only, use linear interpolation, and allow mechanical and/or thermal (uncoupled)
loading for static and dynamic procedures. The continuum shell elements are general-purpose shells that
allow finite membrane deformation and large rotations and, thus, are suitable for nonlinear geometric
analysis. These elements include the effects of transverse shear deformation and thickness change.
Continuum shell elements employ first-order layer-wise composite theory, and estimate through-
thickness section forces from the initial elastic moduli. Unlike conventional shells, continuum shell
elements can be stacked to provide more refined through-thickness response. Stacking continuum shell
elements allows for a richer transverse shear stress and force prediction.
Although continuum shell elements discretize a three-dimensional body, care should be taken to
verify whether the overall deformation sustained by these elements is consistent with their layer-wise
plane stress assumption; that is, the response is bending dominated and no significant thickness change
is observed (i.e., approximately less than 10% thickness change). Otherwise, regular three-dimensional
solid elements (“Three-dimensional solid element library,” Section 28.1.4) should be used. Furthermore,
the thickness strain mode may yield a small stable time increment for thin continuum shell elements in
Abaqus/Explicit (see “Shell section behavior,” Section 29.6.4).
Coupled temperature-displacement continuum shell elements
The coupled temperature-displacement continuum shell elements in Abaqus have continuum shell
geometry and use linear interpolation for the geometry and displacements. The temperature is
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interpolated linearly as well. The thermal formulation is similar to that used for three-dimensional
coupled temperature-displacement solid elements with reduced integration, for which the temperature
variation is trilinear (see “Solid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1). The temperatures at the section
points through the thickness are interpolated linearly from the temperatures at the nodes.
Heat transfer shell elements
These elements, available only in Abaqus/Standard and only with conventional shell element geometry,
are intended to model heat transfer in shell-type structures. They provide the values of temperature at
a number of points through the thickness at each shell node. This output can be input directly to the
equivalent stress analysis shell element for sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis (“Sequentially
coupled thermal-stress analysis,” Section 16.1.2).
Temperature variation through the shell thickness

The temperature variation is assumed to be piecewise quadratic through the thickness, while the
interpolation on the reference surface of the shell is the same as that of the corresponding stress
elements. For shell sections integrated during the analysis (“Using a shell section integrated during the
analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5) you can specify the number of section points
used for cross-section integration and thickness-direction temperature interpolation at each node. Only
Simpson’s rule can be used for integration through the shell thickness.
The temperature on the bottom surface of the shell (the surface in the negative direction along
the shell normal—see “Defining the initial geometry of conventional shell elements,” Section 29.6.3) is
degree of freedom 11. The temperature on the top surface is degree of freedom . A maximum
of 20 temperature degrees of freedom can exist at a node. For a single-layer shell is the total number
of integration points used through the shell section. If a single section point is used for the cross-section
integration, there is no temperature variation through the thickness of the shell and the temperature of
the entire shell cross-section is degree of freedom 11. For a multi-layered shell the temperature at the
top of each layer is the same as the temperature at the bottom of the next layer. Therefore,
where ( > 1) is the number of integration points used in layer l. If =1, is equal to the number
of composite layers. In this case, there is no temperature variation through the thickness of the shell, and
the temperature of the entire composite is degree of freedom 11. The internal energy storage and heat
conduction terms for shells are integrated in the same way as in the corresponding continuum elements
(see “Solid (continuum) elements,” Section 28.1.1).
Using shells in a thermal-stress analysis

To use the temperatures that are saved in the Abaqus/Standard results file directly as input to a thermal-
stress analysis, the mesh and the specification of the number of temperature points in the shell sections
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must be the same in the heat transfer and the stress analysis models. In addition, multi-layered heat
transfer shell elements must have the same number of integration points in each layer.
Coupled temperature-displacement shell elements
The coupled temperature-displacement shell elements available in Abaqus have conventional shell
element geometry and use linear or quadratic interpolation for the geometry and displacements.
The temperature is interpolated linearly from the corner or end nodes; the lower-order temperature
interpolation in quadratic shells is chosen to give the same interpolation order for thermal strain, which
is proportional to temperature, as for total strain. All terms in the governing equations are integrated in
the reference surface of the shell using a conventional Gauss scheme; Simpson’s rule is used to integrate
through the shell thickness.
Temperature variation through the shell thickness

The temperature variation through the shell thickness is assumed to be piecewise quadratic and is
interpolated from temperatures at a series of points through the thickness of the shell at each node. The
number of temperature values to be used at each node is determined by the number of integration points
that you specify in the shell section definition (see “Defining the shell section integration” in “Using
a shell section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5). Up to a
maximum of 20 temperature values are stored as degrees of freedom 11, 12, 13, etc. (up to degree of
freedom 30) in a manner that is identical to that used for heat transfer shell elements (see “Heat transfer
shell elements” above).
“Thick” versus “thin” conventional shell elements
Abaqus includes general-purpose, conventional shell elements as well as conventional shell elements that
are valid for thick and thin shell problems. See below for a discussion of what constitutes a “thick” or
“thin” shell problem. This concept is relevant only for elements with displacement degrees of freedom.
The general-purpose, conventional shell elements provide robust and accurate solutions to most
applications and will be used for most applications. However, in certain cases, for specific applications
in Abaqus/Standard, enhanced performance may be obtained with the thin or thick conventional shell
elements; for example, if only small strains occur and five degrees of freedom per node are desired.
The continuum shell elements can be used for any thickness; however, thin continuum shell
elements may result in a small stable time increment in Abaqus/Explicit.
General-purpose conventional shell elements

These elements allow transverse shear deformation. They use thick shell theory as the shell thickness
increases and become discrete Kirchhoff thin shell elements as the thickness decreases; the transverse
shear deformation becomes very small as the shell thickness decreases.
Element types S3/S3R, S3RS, S4, S4R, S4RS, S4RSW, SAX1, SAX2, SAX2T, SC6R, and SC8R
are general-purpose shells.
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Thick conventional shell elements

In Abaqus/Standard thick shells are needed in cases where transverse shear flexibility is important and
second-order interpolation is desired. When a shell is made of the same material throughout its thickness,
this occurs when the thickness is more than about 1/15 of a characteristic length on the surface of the
shell, such as the distance between supports for a static case or the wavelength of a significant natural
mode in dynamic analysis.
Abaqus/Standard provides element types S8R and S8RT for use only in thick shell problems.
Thin conventional shell elements

In Abaqus/Standard thin shells are needed in cases where transverse shear flexibility is negligible and the
Kirchhoff constraint must be satisfied accurately (i.e., the shell normal remains orthogonal to the shell
reference surface). For homogeneous shells this occurs when the thickness is less than about 1/15 of a
characteristic length on the surface of the shell, such as the distance between supports or the wave length
of a significant eigenmode. However, the thickness may be larger than 1/15 of the element length.
Abaqus/Standard has two types of thin shell elements: those that solve thin shell theory (the
Kirchhoff constraint is satisfied analytically) and those that converge to thin shell theory as the thickness
decreases (the Kirchhoff constraint is satisfied numerically).
• The element that solves thin shell theory is STRI3. STRI3 has six degrees of freedom at the nodes
and is a flat, faceted element (initial curvature is ignored). If STRI3 is used to model a thick shell
problem, the element will always predict a thin shell solution.
• The elements that impose the Kirchhoff constraint numerically are S4R5, STRI65, S8R5, S9R5,
SAXA1n, and SAXA2n. These elements should not be used for applications in which transverse
shear deformation is important. If these elements are used to model a thick shell problem, the
elements may predict inaccurate results.
Finite-strain versus small-strain shell elements
Abaqus has both finite-strain and small-strain shell elements. This concept is relevant only for elements
with displacement degrees of freedom.
Finite-strain shell elements

Element types S3/S3R, S4, S4R, SAX1, SAX2, SAX2T, SAXA1n, and SAXA2n account for finite
membrane strains and arbitrarily large rotations; therefore, they are suitable for large-strain analysis.
The underlying formulation is described in “Axisymmetric shell elements,” Section 3.6.2 of the Abaqus
Theory Manual; “Finite-strain shell element formulation,” Section 3.6.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual;
and “Axisymmetric shell element allowing asymmetric loading,” Section 3.6.7 of the Abaqus Theory
Manual.
Continuum shell elements SC6R and SC8R account for finite membrane strains, arbitrary large
rotation, and allow for changes in thickness, making them suitable for large-strain analysis. Computation
of the change in thickness is based on the element nodal displacements, which in turn are computed from
an effective elastic modulus defined at the beginning of an analysis.
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Small-strain shell elements

In Abaqus/Standard the three-dimensional “thick” and “thin” element types STRI3, S4R5, STRI65, S8R,
S8RT, S8R5, and S9R5 provide for arbitrarily large rotations but only small strains. The change in
thickness with deformation is ignored in these elements.
In Abaqus/Explicit element types S3RS, S4RS, and S4RSW are provided for shell problems
with small membrane strains and arbitrarily large rotations. Many impact dynamics analyses fall
within this class of problems, including those of shell structures undergoing large-scale buckling
behavior but relatively small amounts of membrane stretching and compression. Although solution
accuracy may degrade as membrane strains become large, the small-strain shell elements in
Abaqus/Explicit provide a computationally efficient alternative to the finite-membrane-strain elements
for appropriate applications. The underlying formulation is described in “Small-strain shell elements in
Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 3.6.6 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Change of shell thickness

Thickness change is considered only in geometrically nonlinear analyses. For conventional shells, stress
in the thickness direction is zero and the strain results only from the Poisson’s effect. For continuum
shells, the stress in the thickness direction may not be zero and may cause additional strain beyond that
due to Poisson’s effect. The thickness strain due to Poisson’s effect is referred as the “Poisson strain,”
and any additional strain beyond the “Poisson strain” is referred to as the “effective thickness strain.”
For shell elements in Abaqus/Explicit defined by integrating the section during the analysis, the
Poisson strain is calculated by enforcing the plane stress condition either at the individual material points
in the section and then integrating the Poisson strain from these material points, or at the integration
station for the whole section using a “section Poisson’s ratio.” For shell elements in Abaqus/Standard
only the section Poisson’s ratio method is available. For shell elements defined by general shell sections,
only the section Poisson’s ratio method is applicable.
See “Defining the Poisson strain in shell elements in the thickness direction” in “Using a shell
section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5, and “Defining the
Poisson strain in shell elements in the thickness direction” in “Using a general shell section to define the
section behavior,” Section 29.6.6, for details.
Thickness direction stress in continuum shell elements

The thickness direction stress is computed by penalizing the effective thickness strain with a constant
“thickness modulus.” The thickness modulus used for a single layer shell element with an elastic or
elastic-plastic material is twice the in-plane elastic shear modulus. In the case of a composite shell with
each layer either an elastic or elastic-plastic material, the thickness modulus is computed as the thickness-
weighted harmonic mean of the contributions from the individual layers:
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where is the thickness modulus, is the layer index, is the number of layers, is the relative
thickness of layer , and is twice the initial in-plane elastic shear modulus based on
the material definition for layer in the initial configuration.
See “Defining the thickness modulus in continuum shell elements” in “Using a shell section
integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5, and “Defining the
thickness modulus in continuum shell elements” in “Using a general shell section to define the section
behavior,” Section 29.6.6, for details.
Five degree of freedom shells versus six degree of freedom shells
Two types of three-dimensional conventional shell elements are provided in Abaqus/Standard: ones that
use five degrees of freedom (three displacement components and two in-surface rotation components)
where possible and ones that use six degrees of freedom (three displacement components and three
rotation components) at all nodes.
The elements that use five degrees of freedom (S4R5, STRI65, S8R5, S9R5) can be more
economical. However, they are available only as “thin” shells (they cannot be used as “thick” shells)
and cannot be used for finite-strain applications (although they model large rotations with small strains
accurately). In addition, output for the five degree of freedom shell elements is restricted as follows:
• At nodes that use the two in-surface rotation components, the values of these in-surface rotations
are not available for output.
• When output variable NFORC is requested, moments corresponding to the in-surface rotations are
not available for output.
When five degree of freedom shell elements are used, Abaqus/Standard will automatically switch to
using three global rotation components at any node that:
• has kinematic boundary conditions applied to rotational degrees of freedom,
• is used in a multi-point constraint (“General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2) that involves
rotational degrees of freedom,
• is shared with a beam element or a shell element that uses the three global rotation components at
all nodes,
• is on a fold line in the shell (that is, on a line where shells with different surface normals come
together), or
• is loaded with moments.
In all elements that use three global rotation components at all nodes (whether activated as described
above or always present), a singularity exists at any node where the surface is assumed to be continuously
curved: three rotation components are used, but only two are actively associated with stiffness. A small
stiffness is associated with the rotation about the normal to avoid this difficulty. The default stiffness
values used are sufficiently small such that the artificial energy content is negligible. In some rare cases
this stiffness may need to be altered. You can define a scaling factor for this stiffness, as described in
“Using a shell section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5, and
“Using a general shell section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.6.
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Reduced integration
Many shell element types in Abaqus use reduced (lower-order) integration to form the element stiffness.
The mass matrix and distributed loadings are still integrated exactly. Reduced integration usually
provides more accurate results (provided the elements are not distorted or loaded in in-plane bending)
and significantly reduces running time, especially in three dimensions.
When reduced integration is used with first-order (linear) elements, hourglass control is required.
Therefore, when using first-order reduced-integration elements, you must check if hourglassing is
occurring; if it is, a finer mesh may be required or concentrated loads must be distributed over multiple
nodes. The second-order reduced-integration elements available in Abaqus/Standard generally do not
have the same difficulty and are recommended in cases when the solution is expected to be smooth.
First-order elements are recommended when large strains or very high strain gradients are expected.
Specifying section controls for shell elements
In Abaqus/Standard you can specify nondefault hourglass control parameters for shell elements. In
Abaqus/Explicit you can specify second-order accuracy in the element formulation, nondefault hourglass
control parameters for S4R, S4RS, and S4RSW elements, or deactivate the drill constraint for S3RS and
S4RS elements. See “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more information.
Input File Usage: Use the following options in Abaqus/Standard:
*SHELL SECTION or *SHELL GENERAL SECTION
Use one of the following options in Abaqus/Explicit:
Modeling issues
A number of modeling issues must be considered when using shell elements.
Using S3/S3R and S3RS elements

Both S3 and S3R refer to the same 3-node triangular shell element. This element is a degenerated version
of S4R that is fully compatible with S4R and, in Abaqus/Standard, S4.
Element S3RS, available in Abaqus/Explicit, is a degenerated version of S4RS that is fully
compatible with S4RS.
S3/S3R and S3RS provide accurate results in most loading situations. However, because of their
constant bending and membrane strain approximations, high mesh refinement may be required to capture
pure bending deformations or solutions to problems involving high strain gradients. A consequence of
the degenerated element formulation is that the solution changes slightly when the element connectivity
is permuted.
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Degenerating elements
Element types S4, S4R, S4R5, S4RS, S8R5, and S9R5 can be degenerated to triangles. However,
for elements S4 (element S4 degenerated to a triangle may exhibit overly stiff response in membrane
deformation), S4R, and S4RS it is recommended that S3R and S3RS be used instead.
The quarter-point technique (moving the midside nodes to the quarter points to give a
singularity for elastic fracture mechanics applications) can be used with the quadratic element types
S8R5 and S9R5 (see “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1). The accuracy of the element is very
significantly reduced when it is degenerated to a triangle; therefore, this is not recommended except
for special applications, such as fracture.
Element types S8R and S8RT cannot be degenerated to triangles. Element types DS4 and DS8 can
be degenerated to triangles, but it is recommended that DS3 and DS6 elements be used instead.
Modeling with continuum shell elements

Continuum shell elements are similar to continuum solids from a modeling point of view. The element
geometries for the SC6R and SC8R elements are a triangular prism and hexahedron, respectively, with
displacement degrees of freedom only.
Continuum shell elements must be oriented correctly, since these elements have a thickness direction
associated with them. See “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1, for further details on element
connectivity and orientation.
When classical shell structures (structures in which only the midsurface geometry and kinematic
constraints are provided) are analyzed, care must be taken that appropriate moments and rotations are
specified. For example, a moment may be applied as a force-couple system at the corresponding nodes on
the top and bottom faces. A rotation boundary condition may be specified through a kinematic constraint
to yield the appropriate displacement boundary conditions on the edge of the continuum shell.
Continuum shell elements can be connected directly to first-order continuum solids without any
kinematic transition. An appropriate kinematic transition needs to be provided when conventional shell
elements are connected to continuum shell elements to correctly transfer the moment/rotation at the
reference surface of a conventional shell. Such a transition can be defined with a shell-to-solid coupling
constraint or any other kinematic constraint, such as a surface-based coupling constraint, a multi-point
constraint, or a linear constraint equation.
Using the SC6R element

The SC6R element is a degenerated version of the SC8R element. The SC6R element provides
accurate results in most loading situations. However, because of its constant bending and membrane
strain approximations, high mesh refinement may be required to capture pure bending deformations or
solutions to problems involving high strain gradients.
Modeling contact with continuum shell elements

Continuum shell elements, SC6R and SC8R, allow two-sided contact with changes in the thickness and
are thus suitable for modeling contact.
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Stable time increment in Abaqus/Explicit

In Abaqus/Explicit the element stable time increment can be controlled by the continuum shell
element thickness, particularly for thin shell applications. This may increase significantly the number
of increments taken to complete the analysis when compared to the same problem modeled with
conventional shell elements. The small stable time increment size may be mitigated by specifying a
lower stiffness in the thickness direction when appropriate.
Limitations with continuum shell elements

Continuum shell elements cannot be used with the hyperfoam material definitions, nor can they be used
with general shell sections where the section stiffness is provided directly.
Modeling a “sandwich” shell

For a “sandwich” shell, in which parts of the cross-section are made of a softer material (especially when
the layers are nonisotropic so that some layers are weak in particular directions), the transverse shear
flexibility can be important even when the shell is rather thin. Use of general-purpose shell elements
or stacking continuum shell elements is recommended in such cases. See “Shell section behavior,”
Section 29.6.4, for a discussion of transverse shear stiffness in shell elements.
Modeling bending of a thin curved shell in Abaqus/Standard

In Abaqus/Standard curved elements (STRI65, S8R5, S9R5) are preferable for modeling bending of a
thin curved shell.
Element type STRI3 is a flat facet element. If this element is used to model bending of a curved
shell, a dense mesh may be required to obtain accurate results.
Modeling buckling of doubly curved shells in Abaqus/Standard

Element type S8R5 may give inaccurate results for buckling problems of doubly curved shells due to the
fact that the internally defined center node may not be positioned on the actual shell surface. Element
type S9R5 should be used instead.
Using S8R5 in contact analyses

Element type S8R5 is converted automatically to element type S9R5 if a slave surface in a contact pair
is attached to the element.
Applying moments to S9R5 elements

Moments should not be applied to the center node of S9R5 elements.
Using S4 elements
Element type S4 is a fully integrated, general-purpose, finite-membrane-strain shell element. The
element’s membrane response is treated with an assumed strain formulation that gives accurate solutions
to in-plane bending problems, is not sensitive to element distortion, and avoids parasitic locking.
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Element type S4 does not have hourglass modes in either the membrane or bending response of
the element; hence, the element does not require hourglass control. The element has four integration
locations per element compared with one integration location for S4R, which makes the element
computationally more expensive. S4 is compatible with both S4R and S3R. S4 can be used for
problems prone to membrane- or bending-mode hourglassing, in areas where greater solution accuracy
is required, or for problems where in-plane bending is expected. In all of these situations S4 will
outperform element type S4R. S4 cannot be used with the hyperelastic or hyperfoam material definitions
in Abaqus/Standard.
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29.6.3 DEFINING THE INITIAL GEOMETRY OF CONVENTIONAL SHELL ELEMENTS
References

• “Assigning a section,” Section 12.15.1 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
• “Assigning shell/membrane normal directions,” Section 12.15.5 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual,
in the online HTML version of this manual
Overview
The initial shell geometry:

• must be defined accurately since most shell elements are true curved shell elements;
• is defined by initial normal directions, which can be user-defined or calculated by Abaqus;
• requires that sufficient mesh refinement be used so that the discretized surface accurately represents
the actual surface; and
• can include an offset of the reference surface from the shell’s midsurface.
Defining nodal normals
This discussion applies to conventional shell elements only. The normals of a continuum shell element
are defined by the position of the top and bottom nodes along the shell corner edge (see “Shell elements:
overview,” Section 29.6.1).
Conventional shell elements in Abaqus (with the exception of element types S3/S3R, S3RS, S4R,
S4RS, S4RSW, and STRI3) are true curved shell elements; true curved shell elements require special
attention to accurate calculation of the initial curvature of the surface. Shell normals can be defined by
giving the direction cosines of the normal to the surface at all nodes attached to shell elements. These
direction cosines can be entered as the fourth, fifth, and sixth coordinates of each node definition or in
a user-specified normal definition, as described below; see “Normal definitions at nodes,” Section 2.1.4,
for more information. If the user-defined normal differs from the midsurface normal by more than 20°, a
warning message is issued to the data (.dat) file. However, if the angle is more than 160°, the direction
of the midsurface normal is reversed and no warning message is issued. An additional warning message
is issued if the nodal normal deviates more than 10° from the average element normal.
Specifying the same normal at a node for all shell elements attached to the node creates a smooth
shell surface at the node. Define a user-specified normal to introduce a fold line.
If the normals are not defined as part of the node definition or by a user-specified normal, Abaqus
will calculate the normal using the algorithm given below. Since the only information available for
this calculation is the nodal coordinates, it may not define the normal directions accurately. Accurate
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definition can be important on edges of the model, especially if they are also symmetry planes, or on
lines where the curvature of the shell changes discontinuously. It is also important when relatively coarse
meshing is used on highly curved shells, since Abaqus may estimate that the change in direction from
one element to its neighbor is so large that it represents a fold line, not a smoothly curving surface. You
are, therefore, advised to enter the direction cosines whenever the shell normal is defined ambiguously
by the nodal coordinates. Failure to do so may lead to inaccurate results.
The normal direction at a node is needed for temperature input and nodal stress output. The direction
is taken from the definitions below for the elements adjacent to the nodes. If this leads to a conflict at
a node, the positive normal direction used at that node will be the one defined by the lowest numbered
element at the node.
Calculation of average nodal normals by Abaqus

If the nodal normal is not defined as part of the node definition, element normal directions at the node
are calculated for all shell and beam elements for which a user-specified normal is not defined (the
“remaining” elements). For shell elements the normal direction is orthogonal to the shell midsurface, as
described in “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1. For beam elements the normal direction is the
second cross-section direction, as described in “Beam element cross-section orientation,” Section 29.3.4.
The following algorithm is then used to obtain an average normal (or multiple averaged normals)
for the remaining elements that need a normal defined:
1. If a node is connected to more than 30 remaining elements, no averaging occurs and each element
is assigned its own normal at the node. The first nodal normal is stored as the normal defined as
part of the node definition. Each subsequent normal is stored as a user-specified normal.
2. If a node is shared by 30 or fewer remaining elements, the normals for all the elements connected
to the node are computed. Abaqus takes one of these elements and puts it in a set with all the other
elements that have normals within 20° of it. Then:
a. Each element whose normal is within 20° of the added elements is also added to this set (if it
is not yet included).
b. This process is repeated until the set contains for each element in the set all the other elements
whose normals are within 20°.
c. If all the normals in the final set are within 20° of each other, an average normal is computed
for all the elements in the set. If any of the normals in the set are more than 20° out of line
from even a single other normal in the set, no averaging occurs for elements in the set and a
separate normal is stored for each element.
d. This process is repeated until all the elements connected to the node have had normals
computed for them.
e. The first nodal normal is stored as the normal defined as part of the node definition. Each
subsequently generated nodal normal is stored as a user-specified normal.
This algorithm ensures that the nodal averaging scheme has no element order dependence. A simple
example illustrating this process is included below.
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Example: shell normal averaging

Consider the three element model in Figure 29.6.3–1. Elements 1, 2, and 3 share a common node,
node 10, with no user-specified normal defined.
10
1 3
2
20 50
2 30 40
3 1
Figure 29.6.3–1 Three element example for nodal averaging algorithm.
In the first scenario, suppose that at node 10 the normal for element 2 is within 20° of both elements
1 and 3, but the normals for elements 1 and 3 are not within 20° of each other. In this case, each element is
assigned its own normal: one is stored as part of the node definition and two are stored as user-specified
normals.
In the second scenario, suppose that at node 10 the normal for element 2 is within 20° of both
elements 1 and 3 and the normals for elements 1 and 3 are within 20° of each other. In this case, a single
average normal for elements 1, 2, and 3 would be computed and stored as part of the node definition.
In the last scenario, suppose that at node 10 the normal for element 2 is within 20° of element 1 but
the normal of element 3 is not within 20° of either element 1 or 2. In this case, an average normal is
computed and stored for elements 1, and 2 and the normal for element 3 is stored by itself: one is stored
as part of the node definition and the other is stored as a user-specified normal.
Meshing concerns
In a coarse mesh this algorithm may introduce fold lines where the shell is smooth, or it may create a
smooth shell where there should be a fold if the angle of the fold line is less than 20°. Difficulties in large-
displacement shell analysis are sometimes caused by false fold lines introduced by coarse meshing. To
model a smooth shell, the mesh should be refined enough to create unique nodal normals or the normals
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must be defined as part of the node definition or by a user-specified normal. To model plates or shells
with fold lines, you should define user-specified normals.
Verifying the normal definitions

Normal definitions can be checked by examining the analysis input file processor output. The direction
cosines of the reference normal associated with a node are listed under the NODE DEFINITIONS output
in the data (.dat) file. User-specified normals are listed under the NORMAL DEFINITIONS output in
the data file.
Offset: reference surface versus midsurface
This discussion applies to conventional shell elements only. Continuum shell elements define a top and
bottom surface around the structural body being modeled. The notion of a shell reference surface is not
applicable for these types of elements.
The reference surface for conventional shell elements is defined by the shell’s nodes and normal
definitions. When modeling with shell elements, the reference surface is typically coincident with the
shell’s midsurface. However, many situations arise in which it is more convenient to define the reference
surface as offset from the shell’s midsurface. For example, CAD surfaces usually represent either the top
or bottom surface of the shell. In this case it may be easier to define the reference surface to be coincident
with the CAD surface and, therefore, offset from the shell’s midsurface.
Shell offsets can also be used to define a more precise surface geometry for contact problems where
shell thickness is important. Another situation where the offset from the midsurface may be important
is when a shell with continuously varying thickness is modeled. In this case if one surface of the shell
is smooth while the other surface is rough, as in some aircraft structures, using the smooth surface as
the reference surface, with an offset of half the shell’s thickness from the midsurface, will represent the
physical geometry more accurately. The use of the midsurface as the reference surface for this case is
much more complicated and may result in an inaccurate model.
You can introduce offsets in the section definitions for both shell sections integrated during the
analysis and general shell sections. The offset value is defined as a fraction of the shell thickness
measured from the shell’s midsurface to the shell’s reference surface. See “Using a shell section
integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5, and “Using a general shell
section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.6, for details.
The degrees of freedom for the shell are associated with the reference surface. All kinematic
quantities, including the element’s area, are calculated there. Any loading in the plane of the reference
surface will, therefore, cause both membrane forces and bending moments when a nonzero offset value
is used. Large offset values for curved shells may also lead to a surface integration error, affecting
the stiffness, mass, and rotary inertia for the shell section. For stability purposes Abaqus/Explicit also
automatically scales the rotary inertia used for shell elements by a factor proportional to the offset
squared, which may result in errors for large offsets. When a large offset from the shell’s midsurface is
necessary, use multi-point constraints instead (see “General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2).
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29.6.4 SHELL SECTION BEHAVIOR
References

• “Using a shell section integrated during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5
• “Using a general shell section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.6
• *SHELL GENERAL SECTION
• *SHELL SECTION
Overview
The shell section behavior:

• may or may not require numerical integration over the section;
• can be linear or nonlinear; and
• can be homogeneous or composed of layers of different material.
Methods for defining the shell section behavior
Two methods are provided to define the cross-sectional behavior of a shell.

• Linear moment-bending and force-membrane strain relationships can be defined by using a general
shell section (see “Using a general shell section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.6). In
this case all calculations are done in terms of section forces and moments.
In Abaqus/Standard when section properties are given directly (i.e., the section is not associated
with one or more material definitions), strains and stresses are not available for output. However,
when section properties are specified by one or more elastic material layers, strains and stresses are
available when requested for output. In Abaqus/Explicit stresses and strains are not available for
output at the section points whenever a general shell section is used; only section forces, section
moments, and section strains are available for output.
In Abaqus/Standard nonlinear behavior of the shell section, formulated in terms of forces
and moments, can be defined by using a general shell section in conjunction with user subroutine
UGENS.
• Alternatively, a shell section integrated during the analysis (see “Using a shell section integrated
during the analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5) allows the cross-sectional
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behavior to be calculated by numerical integration through the shell thickness, thus providing
complete generality in material modeling. With this type of section any number of material points
can be defined through the thickness and the material response can vary from point to point.
Both general shell sections and shell sections integrated during the analysis allow layers of different
materials, in different orientations, to be used through the cross-section. In these cases the section
definition provides the shell thickness, material, and orientation per layer.
For conventional shell elements you can specify an offset of the reference surface from the shell’s
midsurface when the section properties are specified by one or more material layers. When the section
properties are given directly, you cannot directly specify an offset; however, an offset can be included
implicitly in the section properties. A nonzero offset cannot be specified for continuum shell elements.
If a nonzero offset is specified for a continuum shell element, an error message is issued during input file
preprocessing.
Determining whether to use a shell section integrated during the analysis or a general shell
section
When a shell section integrated during the analysis (see “Using a shell section integrated during the
analysis to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.5) is used, Abaqus uses numerical integration
through the thickness of the shell to calculate the section properties. This type of shell section is generally
used with nonlinear material behavior in the section. It must be used with shells that provide for heat
transfer, since general shell sections do not allow the definition of heat transfer properties.
Use a general shell section (see “Using a general shell section to define the section behavior,”
Section 29.6.6) if the response of the shell is linear elastic and its behavior is not dependent on changes in
temperature or predefined field variables or, in Abaqus/Standard, if nonlinear behavior in terms of forces
and moments is to be defined in user subroutine UGENS.
Transverse shear stiffness
For all shell elements in Abaqus/Standard that use transverse shear stiffness and for the finite-strain shell
elements in Abaqus/Explicit, the transverse shear stiffness is computed by matching the shear response
for the shell to that of a three-dimensional solid for the case of bending about one axis. For the small-
strain shell elements in Abaqus/Explicit the transverse shear stiffness is based on the effective shear
modulus.
Transverse shear stiffness for shell elements in Abaqus/Standard and finite-strain shell
elements in Abaqus/Explicit
In all shell elements in Abaqus/Standard that are valid for thick shell problems or that enforce the
Kirchhoff constraint numerically (i.e., all shell elements except STRI3) and in the finite-strain shell
elements in Abaqus/Explicit (S3R, S4, S4R, SAX1, SC6R, and SC8R), Abaqus computes the transverse
shear stiffness by matching the shear response for the case of the shell bending about one axis, using a
parabolic variation of transverse shear stress in each layer. The approach is described in “Transverse
shear stiffness in composite shells and offsets from the midsurface,” Section 3.6.8 of the Abaqus
Theory Manual, and generally provides a reasonable estimate of the shear flexibility of the shell. It
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also provides estimates of interlaminar shear stresses in composite shells. In calculating the transverse
shear stiffness, Abaqus assumes that the shell section directions are the principal bending directions
(bending about one principal direction does not require a restraining moment about the other direction).
For composite shells with orthotropic layers that are not symmetric about the shell midsurface, the
shell section directions may not be the principal bending directions. In such cases the transverse shear
stiffness is a less accurate approximation and will change if different shell section directions are used.
Abaqus computes the transverse shear stiffness only once at the begining of the analysis based on initial
elastic properties given in the model data. Any changes to the transverse shear stiffness that occur due
to changes in the material stiffness during the analysis are ignored.
Axisymmetric shell elements SAX1 and SAX2; three-dimensional shell elements S3/S3R, S4,
S4R, S8R, and S8RT; and continuum shell elements SC6R and SC8R are based on a first-order shear
deformation theory. Other shell elements—such as S4R5, S8R5, S9R5, STRI65, and SAXAmn—use
the transverse shear stiffness to enforce the Kirchhoff constraints numerically in the thin shell limit. The
transverse shear stiffness is not relevant for shells without displacement degrees of freedom nor is it
relevant for element type STRI3. Although element type S4 has four integration points, the transverse
shear calculation is assumed constant over the element. Higher resolution of the transverse shear may
be obtained by stacking continuum shell elements.
For most shell sections, including layered composite or sandwich shell sections, Abaqus will
calculate the transverse shear stiffness values required in the element formulation. You can override
these default values. The default shear stiffness values are not calculated in some cases if estimates of
shear moduli are unavailable during the preprocessing stage of input; for example, when the material
behavior is defined by user subroutine UMAT, UHYPEL, UHYPER, or VUMAT or, in Abaqus/Standard,
when the section behavior is defined in UGENS. You must define the transverse shear stiffnesses in such
cases.
Transverse shear stiffness definition

The transverse shear stiffness of the section of a shear flexible shell element is defined in Abaqus as
where
are the components of the section shear stiffness ( refer to the default surface
directions on the shell, as defined in “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2, or to the local directions
associated with the shell section definition);
is a dimensionless factor that is used to prevent the shear stiffness from becoming too large
in thin shells; and
is the actual shear stiffness of the section (calculated by Abaqus or user-defined).
You can specify all three shear stiffness terms ( , , and ); otherwise, they will take
the default values defined below. The dimensionless factor is always included in the calculation of
transverse shear stiffness, regardless of the way is obtained. For shell elements of type S4R5, S8R5,
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S9R5, STRI65, or SAXAn the average of and is used and is ignored. The have units
of force per length.
The dimensionless factor is defined as
where A is the area of the element and t is the thickness of the shell. When a general shell section
definition not associated with one or more material definitions is used to define the shell section stiffness,
the thickness of the shell, t, is estimated as
If you do not specify the , they are calculated as follows. For laminated plates and sandwich
constructions the are estimated by matching the elastic strain energy associated with shear
deformation of the shell section with that based on piecewise quadratic variation of the transverse shear
stress across the section, under conditions of bending about one axis. For unsymmetric lay-ups the
coupling term can be nonzero.
When a general shell section is used and the section stiffness is given directly, the are defined
as
where is the section stiffness matrix and Y is the initial scaling modulus.
When a user subroutine (for example, UMAT, UHYPEL, UHYPER, or VUMAT) is used to define a
shell element’s material response, you must define the transverse shear stiffness. The definition of an
appropriate stiffness depends on the shell’s material composition and its lay-up; that is, how material is
distributed through the thickness of the cross-section.
The transverse shear stiffness should be specified as the initial, linear elastic stiffness of the shell in
response to pure transverse shear strains. For a homogeneous shell made of a linear, orthotropic elastic
material, where the strong material direction aligns with the element’s local 1-direction, the transverse
shear stiffness should be
and
and are the material’s shear moduli in the out-of-plane direction. The number 5/6 is the
shear correction coefficient that results from matching the transverse shear energy to that for a
three-dimensional structure in pure bending. For composite shells the shear correction coefficient will
be different from the value for homogeneous ones; see “Transverse shear stiffness in composite shells
and offsets from the midsurface,” Section 3.6.8 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for a discussion of how
the effective shear stiffness for elastic materials is obtained in Abaqus.
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Checking the validity of using shell theory

For linear elastic materials the slenderness ratio, , where =1 or 2 (no sum on ) and
l is a characteristic length on the surface of the shell, can be used as a guideline to decide if the assumption
that plane sections must remain plane is satisfied and, hence, shell theory is adequate. Generally, if
shell theory will be adequate; for smaller values the membrane strains will not vary linearly through the
section, and shell theory will probably not give sufficiently accurate results. The characteristic length, l,
is independent of the element length and should not be confused with the element’s characteristic length,
.
To obtain the and , you must run a data check analysis using a composite general
shell section definition. The will be printed under the title “TRANSVERSE SHEAR STIFFNESS
FOR THE SECTION” in the data (.dat) file if you request model definition data (see “Controlling the
amount of analysis input file processor information written to the data file” in “Output,” Section 4.1.1).
The will be printed out under the title “SECTION STIFFNESS MATRIX.”
Transverse shear stiffness for small-strain shell elements in Abaqus/Explicit

When a shell section integrated during the analysis is used, the transverse shear stresses for the small-
strain shells in Abaqus/Explicit are assumed to have a piecewise constant distribution in each layer. The
transverse shear force will converge to the correct solution for single or multilayer isotropic sections and
single-layer orthotropic sections. The transverse shear stiffness is approximate for multilayer orthotropic
sections where convergence to the proper transverse shear behavior may not be obtained as shells become
thick and principal material directions deviate from the principal section directions. The finite-strain S4R
element should be used with a shell section integrated during the analysis if accurate through-thickness
transverse shear stress distributions are required for the analysis of composite shells.
The same transverse shear stiffness described for the finite-strain shells is used to calculate the
transverse shear force for the small-strain shells in Abaqus/Explicit when a general shell section is used.
Thus, for this case the transverse shear force for multilayer composite shells will converge to the correct
value for both thin and thick sections.
Bending strain measures
All three-dimensional shell elements in Abaqus use bending strain measures that are approximations to
those of Koiter-Sanders shell theory (see “Shell element overview,” Section 3.6.1 of the Abaqus Theory
Manual). As per the Koiter-Sanders theory the displacement field normal to the shell surface does not
produce any bending moments. For example, a purely radial expansion of a cylinder will result in only
membrane stress and strains—there are no variations through the thickness and, hence, no bending. This
applies to both the incremental strain measures for linear elastic materials and the deformation gradient
for hyperelastic materials.
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Nodal mass and rotary inertia for composite sections
For composite shell sections Abaqus computes the nodal masses based on an average density through
the section, weighted with respect to the layer thicknesses. This average density is used to compute an
average rotary inertia as if the section were homogeneous. As a consequence, Abaqus does not account
for an unsymmetric distribution of mass: the center of mass is assumed to be at the reference surface of
the shell. For continuum shells the mass is equally distributed to the top and bottom surface nodes.
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USING SHELL SECTIONS INTEGRATED DURING ANALYSIS
29.6.5 USING A SHELL SECTION INTEGRATED DURING THE ANALYSIS TO DEFINE

THE SECTION BEHAVIOR
References

• *DISTRIBUTION
• *SHELL SECTION
• “Creating homogeneous shell sections,” Section 12.13.6 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
• “Creating composite shell sections,” Section 12.13.7 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
A shell section integrated during the analysis:

• is used when numerical integration through the thickness of the shell is required; and
• can be associated with linear or nonlinear material behavior.
Defining a homogeneous shell section
To define a shell made of a single material, use a material definition (“Material data definition,”
Section 21.1.2) to define the material properties of the section and associate these properties with the
section definition. Optionally, you can refer to an orientation (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) to be
associated with this material definition. A spatially varying local coordinate system defined with a
distribution (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1) can be assigned to the shell section definition.
Linear or nonlinear material behavior can be associated with the section definition. However, if the
material response is linear, the more economic approach is to use a general shell section (see “Using a
general shell section to define the section behavior,” Section 29.6.6).
You specify the shell thickness and the number of integration points to be used through the shell
section (see below). For continuum shell elements the specified shell thickness is used to estimate
certain section properties, such as hourglass stiffness, which are later computed using the actual thickness
computed from the element geometry.
If the orientation definition assigned to a shell section definition is defined with distributions,
spatially varying local coordinate systems are applied to all shell elements associated with the shell
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section. A default local coordinate system (as defined by the distributions) is applied to any shell
element that is not specifically included in the associated distribution.
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION, ELSET=name, MATERIAL=name,
ORIENTATION=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of shell elements.
Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and
Homogeneous as the section Type: Section integration: During
analysis; Basic: Material: name
Defining a composite shell section
You can define a laminated (layered) shell made of one or more materials. You specify the thickness,
the number of integration points (see below), the material, and the orientation (either as a reference to
an orientation definition or as an angle measured relative to the overall orientation definition) for each
layer of the shell. The order of the laminated shell layers with respect to the positive direction of the
shell normal is defined by the order in which the layers are specified.
Optionally, you can specify an overall orientation definition for the layers of a composite shell.
A spatially varying local coordinate system defined with a distribution (“Distribution definition,”
Section 2.8.1) can be used to specify the overall orientation definition for the layers of a composite shell.
For continuum shell elements the thickness is determined from the element geometry and may
vary through the model for a given section definition. Hence, the specified thicknesses are only relative
thicknesses for each layer. The actual thickness of a layer is the element thickness times the fraction of
the total thickness that is accounted for by each layer. The thickness ratios for the layers need not be
given in physical units, nor do the sum of the layer relative thicknesses need to add to one. The specified
shell thickness is used to estimate certain section properties, such as hourglass stiffness, which are later
computed using the actual thickness computed from the element geometry.
Spatially varying thicknesses can be specified on the layers of conventional shell elements using
distributions (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1). A distribution that is used to define layer thickness
must have a default value. The default layer thickness is used by any shell element assigned to the shell
section that is not specifically assigned a value in the distribution.
An example of a section with three layers and three section points per layer is shown in
Figure 29.6.5–1.
The material name specified for each layer refers to a material definition (“Material data definition,”
Section 21.1.2). The material behavior can be linear or nonlinear.
The orientation for each layer is specified by either the name of the orientation (“Orientations,”
Section 2.2.5) associated with the layer or the orientation angle in degrees for the layer. Spatially varying
orientation angles can be specified on a layer using distributions (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1).
Orientation angles, , are measured positive counterclockwise around the normal and relative to the
overall section orientation. If either of the two local directions from the overall section orientation is
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n, shell
normal
t3 Layer 3 (material 1, orientation 3)
9 t2 Layer 2 (material 2, orientation 2)

8 6
7 5 t1 Layer 1 (material 1, orientation 1)
4 Layers 1 & 3 use the same material in different orientations
3
2
1
Specify 3 temperature values read
per layer for stress analysis
Use default of 3 section points
per layer (also define temperature
degrees of freedom for heat
transfer)
Figure 29.6.5–1 Example of composite shell section definition.
not in the surface of the shell, is applied after the section orientation has been projected onto the shell
surface. If you do not specify an overall section orientation, is measured relative to the default local
shell directions (see “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2).
using composite shell sections as you increase the number of layers and as you assign different sections to
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION, ELSET=name, COMPOSITE, ORIENTATION=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Abaqus/CAE uses a composite layup or a composite shell section to define the
layers of a composite shell.
Property module: Create Composite Layup: select Conventional Shell
or Continuum Shell as the Element Type: Section integration: During
analysis: specify orientations, regions, and materials
Use the following options for a composite shell section:
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Property module:
Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and Composite
as the section Type: Section integration: During analysis
Defining the shell section integration
Simpson’s rule and Gauss quadrature are provided to calculate the cross-sectional behavior of a shell.
You can specify the number of section points through the thickness of each layer and the integration
method as described below. The default integration method is Simpson’s rule with five points for a
homogeneous section and Simpson’s rule with three points in each layer for a composite section.
The three-point Simpson’s rule and the two-point Gauss quadrature are exact for linear problems.
The default number of section points should be sufficient for routine thermal-stress calculations and
nonlinear applications (such as predicting the response of an elastic-plastic shell up to limit load). For
more severe thermal shock cases or for more complex nonlinear calculations involving strain reversals,
more section points may be required; normally no more than nine section points (using Simpson’s rule)
are required. Gaussian integration normally requires no more than five section points.
Gauss quadrature provides greater accuracy than Simpson’s rule when the same number of section
points are used. Therefore, to obtain comparable levels of accuracy, Gauss quadrature requires fewer
section points than Simpson’s rule does and, thus, requires less computational time and storage space.
Using Simpson’s rule

By default, Simpson’s rule will be used for the shell section integration. The default number of section
points is five for a homogeneous section and three in each layer for a composite section.
Simpson’s integration rule should be used if results output on the shell surfaces or transverse shear
stress at the interface between two layers of a composite shell is required and must be used for heat
transfer and coupled temperature-displacement shell elements.
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION, SECTION INTEGRATION=SIMPSON
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option for a composite layup:
Property module: composite layup editor: Section integration: During
analysis, Thickness integration rule: Simpson
Use the following option for a homogeneous or composite shell section:
Property module: shell section editor: Section integration: During
analysis; Basic: Thickness integration rule: Simpson
Using Gauss quadrature

If you use Gauss quadrature for the shell section integration, the default number of section points is three
for a homogeneous section and two in each layer for a composite section.
In Gauss quadrature there are no section points on the shell surfaces; therefore, Gauss quadrature
should be used only in cases where results on the shell surfaces are not required.
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Gauss quadrature cannot be used for heat transfer and coupled temperature-displacement shell
elements.
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION, SECTION INTEGRATION=GAUSS
analysis, Thickness integration rule: Gauss
analysis; Basic: Thickness integration rule: Gauss
Defining a shell offset value for conventional shells
You can define the distance (measured as a fraction of the shell’s thickness) from the shell’s midsurface to
the reference surface containing the element’s nodes (see “Defining the initial geometry of conventional
shell elements,” Section 29.6.3). Positive values of the offset are in the positive normal direction (see
“Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1). When the offset is set equal to 0.5, the top surface of the
shell is the reference surface. When the offset is set equal to −0.5, the bottom surface is the reference
surface. The default offset is 0, which indicates that the middle surface of the shell is the reference
surface.
You can specify an offset value that is greater in magnitude than 0.5. However, this technique should
be used with caution in regions of high curvature. All kinematic quantities, including the element’s
area, are calculated relative to the reference surface, which may lead to a surface area integration error,
affecting the stiffness and mass of the shell.
In an Abaqus/Standard analysis a spatially varying offset can be defined for conventional shells
using a distribution (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1). The distribution used to define the shell
offset must have a default value. The default offset is used by any shell element assigned to the shell
An offset to the shell’s top surface is illustrated in Figure 29.6.5–2. The shell offset value is ignored
for continuum shell elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a value for the shell offset:
*SHELL SECTION, OFFSET=offset
The OFFSET parameter accepts a value, a label (SPOS or SNEG), or in an
Abaqus/Standard analysis the name of a distribution that is used to define a
spatially varying offset. Specifying SPOS is equivalent to specifying a value
of 0.5; specifying SNEG is equivalent to specifying a value of −0.5.
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SPOS SPOS SPOS

n
SNEG SNEG SNEG
Mid surface
a) OFFSET= 0 b) OFFSET= −0.5 (SNEG) c) OFFSET= +0.5 (SPOS)

Reference surface and Reference surface is Reference surface is
midsurface are coincident the bottom surface the top surface
Figure 29.6.5–2 Schematic of shell offset for an offset value of 0.5.

Property module: composite layup editor: Section integration:
During analysis; Offset: choose a reference surface, specify an
offset, or select a scalar discrete field
Use the following option for a shell section assignment:
Property module: Assign→Section: select regions: Section: select a
homogeneous or composite shell section: Definition: select a reference
surface, specify an offset, or select a scalar discrete field
Defining a variable thickness for conventional shells using distributions
You can define a spatially varying thickness for conventional shells using a distribution (“Distribution
definition,” Section 2.8.1). The thickness of continuum shell elements is defined by the element
geometry.
For composite shells the total thickness is defined by the distribution, and the layer thicknesses you
specify are scaled proportionally such that the sum of the layer thicknesses is equal to the total thickness
(including spatially varying layer thicknesses defined with a distribution).
The distribution used to define shell thickness must have a default value. The default thickness is
used by any shell element assigned to the shell section that is not specifically assigned a value in the
distribution.
If the shell thickness is defined for a shell section with a distribution, nodal thicknesses cannot be
used for that section definition.
*SHELL SECTION, SHELL THICKNESS=distribution name
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Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option for a conventional shell composite layup:
analysis; Shell Parameters: Shell thickness: Element distribution:
select an analytical field or an element-based discrete field
Use the following option for a homogeneous shell section:
analysis; Basic: Shell thickness: Element distribution: select an
analytical field or an element-based discrete field
Use the following option for a composite shell section:
analysis; Advanced: Shell thickness: Element distribution: select
an analytical field or an element-based discrete field
Defining a variable nodal thickness for conventional shells
You can define a conventional shell with continuously varying thickness by specifying the thickness of
the shell at the nodes. The thickness of continuum shell elements is defined by the element geometry.
If you indicate that the nodal thicknesses will be specified, for homogeneous shells any constant
shell thickness you specify will be ignored, and the shell thickness will be interpolated from the nodes.
The thickness must be defined at all nodes connected to the element.
For composite shells the total thickness is interpolated from the nodes, and the layer thicknesses you
used for that section definition. However, if nodal thicknesses are used, you can still use distributions to
define spatially varying thicknesses on the layers of conventional shell elements.
*NODAL THICKNESS
*SHELL SECTION, NODAL THICKNESS
During analysis; Shell Parameters: Nodal distribution: select
an analytical field or a node-based discrete field
Property module: shell section editor: Section integration:
During analysis; Basic: Nodal distribution: select an analytical
field or a node-based discrete field
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analysis; Advanced: Nodal distribution: select an analytical
Defining the Poisson strain in shell elements in the thickness direction
Abaqus allows for a possible uniform change in the shell thickness in a geometrically nonlinear analysis
(see “Change of shell thickness” in “Choosing a shell element,” Section 29.6.2). The Poisson’s strain
can be based on a fixed section Poisson’s ratio, either user specified or computed by Abaqus based on
the elastic portion of the material definition. Alternatively, in Abaqus/Explicit the Poisson strain can
be integrated through the section based on the material response at the individual material points in the
section.
By default, Abaqus/Standard computes the Poisson’s strain using a fixed section Poisson’s ratio of
0.5; Abaqus/Explicit uses the material response to compute the Poisson’s strain. See “Finite-strain shell
element formulation,” Section 3.6.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details regarding the underlying
formulation.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a value for the effective Poisson’s ratio:
*SHELL SECTION, POISSON=
Use the following option to cause the shell thickness to change based on the
element initial elastic material definition:
*SHELL SECTION, POISSON=ELASTIC

Use the following option (available only in Abaqus/Explicit) to cause the
thickness direction strain under plane stress conditions to be a function of the
membrane strains and the in-plane material properties:
*SHELL SECTION, POISSON=MATERIAL

During analysis; Shell Parameters: Section Poisson's ratio:

During analysis; Advanced: Section Poisson's ratio: Use
analysis default or Specify value:
You cannot specify a shell thickness direction behavior based on the initial
elastic material definition in Abaqus/CAE.
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Defining the thickness modulus in continuum shell elements
The thickness modulus is used in computing the stress in the thickness direction (see “Thickness direction
stress in continuum shell elements” in “Choosing a shell element,” Section 29.6.2). Abaqus computes a
thickness modulus value by default based on the elastic portion of the material definitions in the initial
configuration. Alternatively, you can provide a value.
If the material properties are unavailable during the preprocessing stage of input; for example, when
the material behavior is defined by the fabric material model or user subroutine UMAT or VUMAT, you
must specify the effective thickness modulus directly.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define an effective thickness modulus directly:
*SHELL SECTION, THICKNESS MODULUS=
During analysis; Shell Parameters: Thickness modulus to
specify the thickness properties directly
During analysis; Advanced: Thickness modulus to
Defining the transverse shear stiffness
You can provide nondefault values of the transverse shear stiffness. You must specify the transverse shear
stiffness in Abaqus/Standard if the section is used with shear flexible shells and the material definitions
used in the shell section do not include linear elasticity (“Linear elastic behavior,” Section 22.2.1). See
“Shell section behavior,” Section 29.6.4, for more information about transverse shear stiffness.
If you do not specify the transverse shear stiffness values, Abaqus will integrate through the section
to determine them. The transverse shear stiffness is precalculated based on the initial elastic material
properties, as defined by the initial temperature and predefined field variables evaluated at the midpoint
of each material layer. This stiffness is not recalculated during the analysis.
For most shell sections, including layered composite or sandwich shell sections, Abaqus will
calculate the transverse shear stiffness values required in the element formulation. You can override
these default values. The default shear stiffness values are not calculated in some cases if estimates of
shear moduli are unavailable during the preprocessing stage of input; for example, when the material
behavior is defined by the fabric material model or by user subroutine UMAT, UHYPEL, UHYPER, or
VUMAT. You must define the transverse shear stiffnesses in such cases except for STRI3 elements.
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*SHELL SECTION
analysis; Shell Parameters: toggle on Specify transverse shear
analysis; Advanced: toggle on Specify transverse shear
Specifying the order of accuracy in the Abaqus/Explicit shell element formulation
In Abaqus/Explicit you can specify second-order accuracy in the shell element formulation. See “Section
controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more information.
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION, CONTROLS=name
Defining density for conventional shells
You can define additional mass per unit area for conventional shell elements directly in the section
definition. This functionality is similar to the more general functionality of defining a nonstructural
mass contribution (see “Nonstructural mass definition,” Section 2.7.1.) The only difference between the
two definitions is that the nonstructural mass contributes to the rotary inertia terms about the midsurface
while the additional mass defined in the section definition does not.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the density directly:
*SHELL SECTION, ELSET=name, DENSITY=
analysis; Shell Parameters: toggle on Density, and enter
analysis; Advanced: toggle on Density, and enter
Specifying nondefault hourglass control parameters for reduced-integration shell elements
You can specify a nondefault hourglass control formulation or scale factors for elements that use reduced
integration. See “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more information.
In Abaqus/Standard the nondefault enhanced hourglass control formulation is available only for
S4R and SC8R elements. When the enhanced hourglass control formulation is used with composite
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shells, the average value of the bulk material properties and the minimum value of the shear material
properties over all the layers are used for computing the hourglass forces and moments.
In Abaqus/Standard you can modify the default values for hourglass control stiffness based on the
default total stiffness approach for elements that use reduced integration and define a scaling factor for
the stiffness associated with the drill degree of freedom (rotation about the surface normal) for elements
that use six degrees of freedom at a node.
The stiffness associated with the drill degree of freedom is the average of the direct components
of the transverse shear stiffness multiplied by a scaling factor. In most cases the default scaling factor
is appropriate for constraining the drill rotation to follow the in-plane rotation of the element. If an
additional scaling factor is defined, the additional scaling factor should not increase or decrease the drill
stiffness by more than a factor of 100.0 for most typical applications. Usually, a scaling factor between
0.1 and 10.0 is appropriate. Continuum shell elements do not use a drill stiffness; hence, the scale factor
is ignored.
There are no hourglass stiffness factors or scale factors for hourglass stiffness for the nondefault
enhanced hourglass control formulation. You can define the scale factor for the drill stiffness for the
nondefault enhanced hourglass control formulation.
Input File Usage: Use both of the following options to specify a nondefault hourglass control
formulation or scale factors for reduced-integration elements:
Use both of the following options in Abaqus/Standard to modify the default
values for hourglass control stiffness based on the default total stiffness
approach for reduced-integration elements and to define a scaling factor for
the stiffness associated with the drill degree of freedom (rotation about the
surface normal) for six degree of freedom elements:
*SHELL SECTION
You can specify temperatures and field variables for conventional shell elements by defining the value at
the reference surface of the shell and the gradient through the shell thickness or by defining the values at
equally spaced points through each layer of the shell’s thickness. You can specify a temperature gradient
only for elements without temperature degrees of freedom. The temperatures and field variables for
continuum shell elements are defined at the nodes and then interpolated to the section points.
The actual values of the temperatures and field variables are specified as either predefined fields or
initial conditions (see “Predefined fields,” Section 33.6.1, or “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1).
If temperature is to be read as a predefined field from the results file or the output database file of
a previous analysis, the temperature must be defined at equally spaced points through each layer of the
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thickness. In addition, the results file must be modified so that the field variable data are stored in record
201. See “Predefined fields,” Section 33.6.1, for additional details.
Defining the value at the reference surface and the gradient through the thickness
You can define the temperature or predefined field by its magnitude on the reference surface of the shell
and the gradient through the thickness. If only one value is given, the magnitude will be constant through
the thickness.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify that the temperatures or predefined fields
are defined by a gradient:
*SHELL SECTION
Use any of the following options to specify the actual values of the temperatures
or predefined fields:
*TEMPERATURE
*FIELD
During analysis; Shell Parameters; Temperature variation:
Linear through thickness
analysis: Advanced; Temperature variation: Linear through thickness
Only initial temperatures and predefined temperature fields are supported in
Abaqus/CAE.
Load module: Create Predefined Field: Step: initial_step or
analysis_step: choose Other for the Category and Temperature
for the Types for Selected Step
Defining the values at equally spaced points through the thickness

Alternatively, you can define the temperature and field variable values at equally spaced points through
the thickness of a shell or of each layer of a composite shell.
For a sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis in Abaqus/Standard, the number (n) of equally
spaced points through the thickness of a layer is an odd number when temperature values are obtained
from the results file or the output database file generated by a previous Abaqus/Standard heat transfer
analysis (since only Simpson’s rule can be used for integration through the section in heat transfer
analysis). n may be even or odd if the values are supplied from some other source. In either case
Abaqus/Standard interpolates linearly between the two closest defined temperature points to find the
temperature values at the section points.
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The number of predefined field points through each layer, n, must be the same as the number of
integration points used through the same layer in the analysis from which the temperatures are obtained.
This requirement implies that in the previous analysis each of the layers must have the same number of
integration points.
You specify temperature or field variable values, where is the number of layers
in the shell section and ( > 1) is the value of n. For =1, you specify one temperature or field
variable value for a given node or node set.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify that the temperatures or predefined fields
are defined at equally spaced points:
*SHELL SECTION, TEMPERATURE=n
Use any of the following options to specify the actual values of the temperatures
or predefined fields:
*TEMPERATURE
*FIELD
During analysis; Shell Parameters; Temperature variation:
Piecewise linear over n values
Property module: shell section editor: Section integration: During analysis:
Advanced; Temperature variation: Piecewise linear over n values
Only initial temperatures and predefined temperature fields are supported in
Abaqus/CAE.
Load module: Create Predefined Field: Step: initial_step or
analysis_step: choose Other for the Category and Temperature
for the Types for Selected Step
Example
An example of this scheme is illustrated in Figure 29.6.5–3 and Figure 29.6.5–4. The following
Abaqus/Standard heat transfer shell section definition corresponds to this example:
*SHELL SECTION, COMPOSITE

, 3, MAT1, ORI1
, 3, MAT2, ORI2
, 3, MAT3, ORI3
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Composite shell section

n
x
9
x
layer 3 t3
7 x x
6
x
layer 2 t2
4
x x
3
x
layer 1 t1
⎭
⎬
⎫
1 x
Specify 3 temperature points
⎫
⎬
⎭
per layer, shared at layer intersections,

Use default of 3 section 7 total
points per layer
nT = 3 1 + nl (nT -1) = 7
nl = 3
Figure 29.6.5–3 Defining temperature values at n equally spaced points using Simpson’s rule.
This creates degrees of freedom 11–17 in the heat transfer analysis. Temperatures corresponding to these
degrees of freedom are then read into the stress analysis at the temperature points shown and interpolated
to the section points shown.
Defining a continuous temperature field

In Abaqus/Standard if an element with temperature degrees of freedom other than a shell abuts the bottom
surface of a shell element with temperature degrees of freedom, the temperature field is made continuous
when the elements share nodes. If another element with temperature degrees of freedom abuts the top
surface, separate nodes must be used and a linear constraint equation (“Linear constraint equations,”
Section 34.2.1) must be used to constrain the temperatures to be the same (that is, to give the same value
to the top surface degree of freedom on the shell and degree of freedom 11 on the other element).
For the same reason you must be careful if a different number of temperature points is used in
adjacent shell elements. For compatibility MPCs (“General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2) or
equation constraints are also needed in this case.
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composite shell section

n
6 x
layer 3 t3 5 x
x 4
layer 2 t2 x 3
2 x
t1
layer 1 1x
⎭
⎬
⎫
Specify 3 temperature points per layer,
⎫
⎬
⎭
shared at layer intersections,

Use default of 2 section 7 total
points per layer
nT = 3 1 + nl (nT -1) = 7
nl = 3
Figure 29.6.5–4 Defining temperature values at n equally spaced points using Gauss integration.
In Abaqus/Explicit since no thermal MPCs and no thermal equation constraints are available for
degrees of freedom greater than 11, care must be taken when using a different number of temperature
points in adjacent shell elements. This should usually have a localized effect on the temperature
distribution, but it may affect the overall solution for the cases in which the temperature gradient
through the thickness is significant.
In both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit be careful in the models in which the shell’s normals
are reversed. In this case the temperature at the bottom of the shell becomes the temperature at the top
of the adjacent shell. This may have a small impact on the overall solution for the cases in which the
thermal gradient through the thickness is negligible and the temperature variation is mainly in plane.
However, if the temperature gradient through the thickness is significant, it may lead to incorrect results.
Output
In an Abaqus/Standard stress analysis temperature output at the section points can be obtained using the
element variable TEMP.
If the temperature values were specified at equally spaced points through the thickness, output at the
temperature points can be obtained in an Abaqus/Standard stress analysis, as in a heat transfer analysis,
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by using the nodal variable NTxx. This nodal output variable is also available in Abaqus/Explicit for
coupled temperature-displacement analyses. The nodal variable NTxx should not be used for output
at the temperature points with the default gradient method. In this case output variable NT should be
requested; NT11 (the reference temperature value) and NT12 (the temperature gradient) will be output
automatically. For continuum shell elements, there is only NT11; all other NTxx are irrelevant.
Other output variables that are relevant for shells are listed in each of the library sections describing
the specific shell elements. For example, stresses, strains, section forces and moments, average section
stresses, section strains, etc. can be output. The section moments are calculated relative to the reference
surface.
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USING GENERAL SHELL SECTIONS
29.6.6 USING A GENERAL SHELL SECTION TO DEFINE THE SECTION BEHAVIOR
References

• “UGENS,” Section 1.1.34 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• *DISTRIBUTION
• “Creating general shell stiffness sections,” Section 12.13.10 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in
Overview
A general shell section:

• is used when numerical integration through the thickness of the shell is not required;
• can be associated with linear elastic material behavior or, in Abaqus/Standard, can invoke user
subroutine UGENS to define nonlinear section properties in terms of forces and moments;
• can be used to model an equivalent shell section for some more complex geometry (for example,
replacing a corrugated shell with an equivalent smooth plate for global analysis); and
• cannot be used with heat transfer and coupled temperature-displacement shells.
Defining the shell section behavior
A general shell section can be defined as follows:

• The section response can be specified by associating the section with a material definition or, in the
case of a composite shell, with several different material definitions.
• The section properties can be specified directly.
• In Abaqus/Standard the section response can be programmed in user subroutine UGENS.
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Specifying the equivalent section properties by defining the layers (thickness, material, and
orientation)
You can define the shell section’s mechanical response by specifying the thickness; the material
reference; and the orientation of the section or, for a composite shell, the orientation of each of its layers.
Abaqus will determine the equivalent section properties. You must associate the section behavior with
a region of your model.
The linear elastic material behavior is defined with a material definition (“Material data definition,”
Section 21.1.2), which may contain linear elastic behavior (“Linear elastic behavior,” Section 22.2.1)
and thermal expansion behavior (“Thermal expansion,” Section 26.1.2). The density (“Density,”
Section 21.2.1) and damping (“Material damping,” Section 26.1.1) behavior can also be specified as
described below; in Abaqus/Explicit the density of the material must be defined. However, no nonlinear
material properties, such as plastic behavior, can be included since Abaqus will precompute the section
response and will not update that response during the analysis. Dependence of the linear elastic material
behavior on temperature or predefined field variables is not allowed.
The shell section response is defined by
No temperature-dependent scaling of the modulus is included. The section forces and moments caused
by thermal strains, , vary linearly with temperature and are defined by
where are the generalized stresses caused by a fully constrained unit temperature rise that result from
the user-defined thermal expansion, is the temperature, and is the initial (stress-free) temperature at
this point in the shell (defined by the initial nodal temperatures given as initial conditions; see “Defining
initial temperatures” in “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1).
Defining a shell made of a single linear elastic material

To define a shell made of a single linear elastic material, you refer to the name of a material definition
(“Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2) as described above. Optionally, you can define an orientation
definition to be used with the section (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5). A spatially varying local coordinate
system defined with a distribution (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1) can be assigned to the shell
section definition. In addition, you specify the shell thickness as part of the section definition. For
continuum shell elements the specified thickness is used to estimate certain section properties, such as
hourglass stiffness, that are later computed from the element geometry.
You must associate this section behavior with a region of your model.
You can redefine the thickness, offset, section stiffness, and material orientation specified in the
section definition on an element-by-element basis. See “Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1.
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Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, MATERIAL=name,
ORIENTATION=name
Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and Homogeneous as
the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis;
Basic: Material: name
Defining a shell made of layers with different linear elastic material behaviors
You can define a shell made of layers with different linear elastic material behaviors. Optionally, you can
define an orientation definition to be used with the section (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5). A spatially
varying local coordinate system defined with a distribution (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1) can
be assigned to the shell section definition.
You specify the layer thickness; the name of the material forming this layer (as described above); and
the orientation angle, , (in degrees) measured positive counterclockwise relative to the specified section
orientation definition. Spatially varying orientation angles can be specified on a layer using distributions
(“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1). If either of the two local directions from the specified section
orientation is not in the surface of the shell, is applied after the section orientation has been projected
onto the shell surface. If you do not specify a section orientation, is measured relative to the default shell
local directions (see “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2). The order of the laminated shell layers with respect
to the positive direction of the shell normal is defined by the order in which the layers are specified.
For continuum shell elements the thickness is determined from the element geometry and may
vary through the model for a given section definition. Hence, the specified thicknesses are only relative
thicknesses for each layer. The actual thickness of a layer is the element thickness times the fraction of
the total thickness that is accounted for by each layer. The thickness ratios for the layers need not be
given in physical units, nor do the sum of the layer relative thicknesses need to add to one. The specified
shell thickness is used to estimate certain section properties, such as hourglass stiffness, that are later
computed from the element geometry.
Spatially varying thicknesses can be specified on the layers of conventional shell elements (not
continuum shell elements) using distributions (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1). A distribution
that is used to define layer thickness must have a default value. The default layer thickness is used by
any shell element assigned to the shell section that is not specifically assigned a value in the distribution.
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using composite shell sections as you increase the number of layers and as you assign different sections to
Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, COMPOSITE,
ORIENTATION=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Abaqus/CAE uses a composite layup or a composite shell section to define a
shell made of layers with different linear elastic material behaviors.
Property module: Create Composite Layup: select Conventional Shell
or Continuum Shell as the Element Type: Section integration: Before
analysis: specify orientations, regions, and materials
Use the following options for a composite shell section:
Property module:
Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and Composite
as the section Type: Section integration: Before analysis
Specifying the equivalent section properties directly for conventional shells
You can define the section’s mechanical response by specifying the general section stiffness and thermal
expansion response— , , and , as defined below—directly. Since this method
then provides the complete specification of the section’s mechanical response, no material reference is
needed. Optionally, you can define , the reference temperature for thermal expansion.
In this case the shell section response is defined by
where
are the forces and moments on the shell section (membrane forces per unit length, bending
moments per unit length);
are the generalized section strains in the shell (reference surface strains and curvatures);
is the section stiffness matrix;
is a scaling modulus, which can be used to introduce temperature and field-variable
dependence of the cross-section stiffness; and
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are the section forces and moments (per unit length) caused by thermal strains.
These thermal forces and moments in the shell are generated according to the formula
where
is a scaling factor (the “thermal expansion coefficient”);
is the initial (stress-free) temperature at this point in the shell, defined by the initial
nodal temperatures given as initial conditions (“Defining initial temperatures” in “Initial
conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1); and
are the user-specified generalized section forces and moments (per unit length) caused by a
fully constrained unit temperature rise.
If the coefficient of thermal expansion, , is not a function of temperature, the value of is not
needed. Note the distinction between , the reference value used in defining , and the stress-free initial
temperature, .
In these equations the order of the terms is
that is, the direct membrane terms come first, then the shear membrane term, then the direct and shear
bending terms, with six terms in all. Engineering measures of shear membrane strain ( ) and twist
( ) are used in Abaqus.
This method of defining the shell section properties cannot be used with variable thickness shells
or continuum shell elements.
See “Laminated composite shells: buckling of a cylindrical panel with a circular hole,” Section 1.2.2
of the Abaqus Example Problems Manual, for more information.
The stiffness matrix, , can be defined as a constant stiffness for the section or as a spatially
varying stiffness by referring to a distribution (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1). If a spatially
varying stiffness is used, the distribution must have a default stiffness defined. The default stiffness is
distribution.
Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, ZERO=
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Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and General
shell stiffness as the section Type
Specifying the section properties in user subroutine UGENS
In Abaqus/Standard you can define the section response in user subroutine UGENS for the more general
case where the section response may be nonlinear. User subroutine UGENS is particularly useful if the
nonlinear behavior of the section involves geometric as well as material nonlinearity, such as may occur
due to section collapse. If only nonlinear material behavior is present, it is simpler to use a shell section
integrated during the analysis with the appropriate nonlinear material model.
You must specify a constant section thickness as part of the section definition or a continuously
varying thickness by defining the thickness at the nodes as described below. Even though the section’s
mechanical behavior is defined in user subroutine UGENS, the thickness of the shell section is required
for calculation of the hourglass control stiffness. You must associate this section behavior with a region
of your model.
Abaqus/Standard calls user subroutine UGENS for each integration point at each iteration of every
increment. The subroutine provides the section state at the start of the increment (section forces and
moments, ; generalized section strains, ; solution-dependent state variables; temperature; and any
predefined field variables); the increments in temperature and predefined field variables; the generalized
section strain increments, ; and the time increment.
The subroutine must perform two functions: it must update the forces, the moments, and the
solution-dependent state variables to their values at the end of the increment; and it must provide the
section stiffness matrix, . The complete section response, including the thermal expansion
effects, must be programmed in the user subroutine.
You should ensure that the strain increment is not used or changed in user subroutine UGENS for
linear perturbation analyses. For this case the quantity is undefined.
This method of defining the shell section properties cannot be used with continuum shell elements.
Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, USER
Abaqus/CAE Usage: User subroutine UGENS is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Defining whether or not the section stiffness matrices are symmetric
If the section stiffness matrices are not symmetric, you can specify that Abaqus/Standard should use its
unsymmetric equation solution capability (see “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2).
Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, USER, UNSYMM
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Defining the section properties

Any number of constants can be defined to be used in determining the section behavior. You can specify
the number of integer property values required, m, and the number of real (floating point) property values
required, n; the total number of values required is the sum of these two numbers. The default number of
integer property values required is 0, and the default number of real property values required is 0.
Integer property values can be used inside user subroutine UGENS as flags, indices, counters, etc.
Examples of real (floating point) property values are material properties, geometric data, and any other
information required to calculate the section response in UGENS.
The property values are passed into user subroutine UGENS each time the subroutine is called.
Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, USER, I PROPERTIES=m,
PROPERTIES=n
To define the property values, enter all floating point values on the data lines
first, followed immediately by the integer values. Eight values can be entered
per line.
Defining the number of solution-dependent variables that must be stored for the section
You can define the number of solution-dependent state variables that must be stored at each integration
point within the section. There is no restriction on the number of variables associated with a user-defined
section. The default number of variables is 1. Examples of such variables are plastic strains, damage
variables, failure indices, user-defined output quantities, etc.
These solution-dependent state variables can be calculated and updated in user subroutine UGENS.
Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, USER, VARIABLES=n
Idealizing the section response
Idealizations allow you to modify the stiffness coefficients in a shell section based on assumptions about
the shell’s makeup or expected behavior. The following idealizations are available for general shell
sections:
• Retain only the membrane stiffness for shells whose predominant response will be in-plane
stretching.
• Retain only the bending stiffness for shells whose predominant response will be pure bending.
• Ignore the effects of the material layer stacking sequence for composite shells.
The membrane stiffness and bending stiffness idealizations can be applied to homogeneous shell
sections, composite shell sections, or shell sections with the stiffness coefficients specified directly. The
idealization to ignore stacking effects can be applied only to composite shell sections.
Idealizations modify the shell general stiffness coefficients after they have been computed normally,
including the effects of offset.
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• If you use any idealization, all membrane-bending coupling terms are set to zero.
• If you retain only the membrane stiffness, off-diagonal terms of the bending submatrix are set to
zero, and diagonal bending terms are set to 1 × 10−6 times the largest diagonal membrane coefficient.
• If you retain only the bending stiffness, off-diagonal terms of the membrane submatrix are set to
zero, and diagonal membrane terms are set to 1 × 10−6 times the largest diagonal bending coefficient.
• If you ignore the material layer stacking sequence in a composite shell, each term of the bending
submatrix is set equal to T 2 /12 times the corresponding membrane submatrix term, where T is the
total thickness of the shell.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to retain only the membrane stiffness:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, MEMBRANE ONLY
Use the following option to retain only the bending stiffness:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, BENDING ONLY
Use the following option to ignore the effects of the layer stacking sequence:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, COMPOSITE, SMEAR ALL LAYERS
Multiple idealization options can be used on the same general shell section.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use any of the following options to apply an idealization to a shell section:
Property module: Homogeneous shell section editor: Section integration:
Before analysis; Basic: Idealization: Membrane only or Bending only
Property module: Composite shell section editor: Section integration:
Before analysis; Basic: Idealization: Membrane only, Bending only,
or Smear all layers
Property module: Shell (conventional or continuum) composite layup editor:
Section integration: Before analysis; Basic: Idealization: Membrane
only, Bending only, or Smear all layers
You cannot apply multiple idealizations to the same shell section in
Abaqus/CAE, and you cannot apply idealizations to a general shell stiffness
section.
Defining a shell offset value for conventional shells
You can define the distance (measured as a fraction of the shell’s thickness) from the shell’s midsurface to
the reference surface containing the element’s nodes (see “Defining the initial geometry of conventional
shell elements,” Section 29.6.3). Positive values of the offset are in the positive normal direction (see
“Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1). When the offset is set equal to 0.5, the top surface of the
shell is the reference surface. When the offset is set equal to −0.5, the bottom surface is the reference
surface. The default offset is 0, which indicates that the middle surface of the shell is the reference
surface.
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You can specify an offset value that is greater in magnitude than 0.5. However, this technique should
be used with caution in regions of high curvature. All kinematic quantities, including the element’s
area, are calculated relative to the reference surface, which may lead to a surface area integration error,
affecting the stiffness and mass of the shell.
In an Abaqus/Standard analysis a spatially varying offset can be defined for conventional shells
using a distribution (“Distribution definition,” Section 2.8.1). The distribution used to define the shell
offset must have a default value. The default offset is used by any shell element assigned to the shell
An offset to the shell’s top surface is illustrated in Figure 29.6.6–1.
SPOS SPOS SPOS

n
SNEG SNEG SNEG
Mid surface
a) OFFSET= 0 b) OFFSET= −0.5 (SNEG) c) OFFSET= +0.5 (SPOS)

Reference surface and Reference surface is Reference surface is
midsurface are coincident the bottom surface the top surface
Figure 29.6.6–1 Schematic of shell offset for an offset value of 0.5.
A shell offset value can be specified only if a material definition is referenced or a composite shell
section is defined. The shell offset value is ignored when the section definition is applied to continuum
shell elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a value for the shell offset:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, OFFSET=offset
The OFFSET parameter accepts a value, a label (SPOS or SNEG), or in an
Abaqus/Standard analysis the name of a distribution that is used to define a
spatially varying offset. Specifying SPOS is equivalent to specifying a value
of 0.5; specifying SNEG is equivalent to specifying a value of −0.5.
Before analysis; Offset: choose a reference surface, specify an
offset, or select a scalar discrete field
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Use the following option for a shell section assignment:

Property module: Assign→Section: select regions: Section: select a
homogeneous or composite shell section: Definition: select a reference
surface, specify an offset, or select a scalar discrete field
Defining a variable thickness for conventional shells using distributions
You can define a spatially varying thickness for conventional shells using a distribution (“Distribution
definition,” Section 2.8.1). The thickness of continuum shell elements is defined by the element
geometry.
For composite shells the total thickness is defined by the distribution, and the layer thicknesses you
The distribution used to define shell thickness must have a default value. The default thickness is
distribution.
used for that section definition.
*SHELL SECTION, SHELL THICKNESS=distribution name
Property module: composite layup editor: Section integration: Before
analysis; Shell Parameters: Shell thickness: Element distribution:
select an analytical field or an element-based discrete field
Property module: shell section editor: Section integration: Before
analysis; Basic: Shell thickness: Element distribution: select an
analytical field or an element-based discrete field
analysis; Advanced: Shell thickness: Element distribution: select
an analytical field or an element-based discrete field
Defining a variable nodal thickness for conventional shells
You can define a conventional shell with continuously varying thickness by specifying the thickness of the
shell at the nodes. This method can be used only if the section is defined in terms of material properties; it
cannot be used if the section behavior is defined by specifying the equivalent section properties directly.
For continuum shell elements a continuously varying thickness can be defined through the element nodal
geometry; hence, the nodal thickness is not meaningful.
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If you indicate that the nodal thicknesses will be specified, for homogeneous shells any constant
shell thickness you specify will be ignored, and the shell thickness will be interpolated from the nodes.
The thickness must be defined at all nodes connected to the element.
For composite shells the total thickness is interpolated from the nodes, and the layer thicknesses you
used for that section definition. However, if nodal thicknesses are used, you can still use distributions to
define spatially varying thicknesses on the layers of conventional shell elements.
*NODAL THICKNESS
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, NODAL THICKNESS
Before analysis; Shell Parameters: Nodal distribution: select
an analytical field or a node-based discrete field
Before analysis; Basic: Nodal distribution: select an analytical
analysis; Advanced: Nodal distribution: select an analytical
Defining the Poisson strain in shell elements in the thickness direction
Abaqus allows for a possible uniform change in the shell thickness in a geometrically nonlinear analysis
(see “Change of shell thickness” in “Choosing a shell element,” Section 29.6.2). The Poisson’s strain is
based on a fixed section Poisson’s ratio, either user specified or computed by Abaqus based on the elastic
portion of the material definition.
By default, Abaqus computes the Poisson’s strain using a fixed section Poisson’s ratio of 0.5.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a value for the effective Poisson’s ratio:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, POISSON=
Use the following option to cause the shell thickness to change based on the
initial elastic properties of the material:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, POISSON=ELASTIC
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Before analysis; Shell Parameters: Section Poisson's ratio:
Before analysis; Advanced: Section Poisson's ratio: Use
analysis default or Specify value:
Defining the thickness modulus in continuum shell elements
The thickness modulus is used in computing the stress in the thickness direction (see “Thickness direction
stress in continuum shell elements” in “Choosing a shell element,” Section 29.6.2). Abaqus computes a
thickness modulus value by default based on the elastic portion of the material definitions in the initial
configuration. Alternatively, you can provide a value.
If the material properties are unavailable during the preprocessing stage of input; for example, when
the material behavior is defined by the fabric material model or user subroutine UMAT or VUMAT, you
must specify the effective thickness modulus directly.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define an effective thickness modulus directly:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, THICKNESS MODULUS=
Before analysis; Shell Parameters: Thickness modulus to
Before analysis; Advanced: Thickness modulus to
Defining the transverse shear stiffness
You can provide nondefault values of the transverse shear stiffness. You must specify the transverse
shear stiffness for shear flexible shells in Abaqus/Standard if the section properties are specified in user
subroutine UGENS. If you do not specify the transverse shear stiffness, it will be calculated as described
in “Shell section behavior,” Section 29.6.4.
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analysis; Shell Parameters: toggle on Specify transverse shear
analysis; Advanced: toggle on Specify transverse shear
Defining the initial section forces and moments
You can define initial stresses (see “Defining initial stresses” in “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard
and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1) for general shell sections that will be applied as initial section
forces and moments. Initial conditions can be specified only for the membrane forces, the bending
moments, and the twisting moment. Initial conditions cannot be prescribed for the transverse shear
forces.
Specifying the order of accuracy in the Abaqus/Explicit shell element formulation
In Abaqus/Explicit you can specify second-order accuracy in the shell element formulation. See “Section
controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more information.
Input File Usage: *SHELL GENERAL SECTION, CONTROLS=name
Specifying nondefault hourglass control parameters for reduced-integration shell elements
You can specify a nondefault hourglass control formulation or scale factors for elements that use reduced
integration. See “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4, for more information.
In Abaqus/Standard the nondefault enhanced hourglass control formulation is available only for
S4R and SC8R elements.
In Abaqus/Standard you can modify the default values for hourglass control stiffness based on the
default total stiffness approach for elements that use hourglass control and define a scaling factor for the
stiffness associated with the drill degree of freedom (rotation about the surface normal) for elements that
use six degrees of freedom at a node.
No default values are available for hourglass control stiffness if the section properties are specified
in user subroutine UGENS. Therefore, you must specify the hourglass control stiffness when UGENS is
used to specify the section properties for reduced-integration elements.
The stiffness associated with the drill degree of freedom is the average of the direct components
of the transverse shear stiffness multiplied by a scaling factor. In most cases the default scaling factor
is appropriate for constraining the drill rotation to follow the in-plane rotation of the element. If an
additional scaling factor is defined, the additional scaling factor should not increase or decrease the drill
stiffness by more than a factor of 100.0 for most typical applications. Usually, a scaling factor between
0.1 and 10.0 is appropriate.
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There are no hourglass stiffness factors or scale factors for hourglass stiffness for the nondefault
enhanced hourglass control formulation. You can define the scale factor for the drill stiffness for the
nondefault enhanced hourglass control formulation.
Input File Usage: Use both of the following options to specify a nondefault hourglass control
formulation or scale factors for reduced-integration elements:
Use both of the following options in Abaqus/Standard to modify the default
values for hourglass control stiffness based on the default total stiffness
approach for reduced-integration elements and to define a scaling factor for
the stiffness associated with the drill degree of freedom (rotation about the
surface normal) for six degree of freedom elements:
Defining density for conventional shells
You can define the mass per unit area for conventional shell elements whose section properties
are specified directly in terms of the section stiffness (either directly in the section definition or, in
Abaqus/Standard, in user subroutine UGENS). The density is required, for example, in a dynamic
analysis or for gravity loading. See “Density,” Section 21.2.1, for details.
The density is defined as part of the material definition for shells whose section properties include
a material definition.
This functionality is similar to the more general functionality of defining a nonstructural mass
contribution (see “Nonstructural mass definition,” Section 2.7.1.) The only difference between the two
definitions is that the nonstructural mass contributes to the rotary inertia terms about the midsurface while
the additional mass defined in the section definition does not.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the density directly:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, DENSITY=
Use the following option in Abaqus/Standard to define the density in user
subroutine UGENS:
*SHELL GENERAL SECTION, ELSET=name, USER,
DENSITY=
analysis; Shell Parameters: toggle on Density, and enter
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analysis; Advanced: toggle on Density, and enter
You cannot define the shell section properties in user subroutine UGENS in
Abaqus/CAE.
Defining damping
You can include mass and stiffness proportional damping in a shell section definition. See “Material
damping,” Section 26.1.1, for more information about material damping in Abaqus.
Temperatures and field variables can be specified by defining the value at the reference surface of the shell
or by defining the values at the nodes of a continuum shell element. The actual values of the temperatures
and field variables are specified as either predefined fields or initial conditions (see “Predefined fields,”
Section 33.6.1, or “Initial conditions in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1).
Output
The following output variables are available from Abaqus/Explicit as element output: section forces and
moments, section strains, element energies, element stable time increment, and element mass scaling
factor.
The output that is available from Abaqus/Standard depends on how the section behavior is defined.
Output if the section is defined in terms of material properties
For shells whose section properties include a material definition (homogeneous or composite),
section forces and moments and section strains are available as element output. The section
moments are calculated relative to the reference surface. In addition, stress (in-plane and, for
certain elements, transverse shear), strain, and orthotropic failure measures can be output. Since
the behavior of the material is linear, three section points per layer (the bottom, middle, and top,
respectively) are available for output. Stress invariants and principal stresses are not available as
output but can be visualized in Abaqus/CAE.
Output if the equivalent section properties are specified directly or in UGENS

If the matrix is used to specify the equivalent section properties directly or if user subroutine
UGENS is used, section point stresses and strains and section strains are not available for output
or visualization inAbaqus/CAE; only section forces and moments can be requested for outputor
visualized inAbaqus/CAE.
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3-D CONVENTIONAL SHELL ELEMENTS
29.6.7 THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONVENTIONAL SHELL ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SHELL SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the three-dimensional shell elements available in Abaqus/Standard
Element types
STRI3(S) 3-node triangular facet thin shell
S3 3-node triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains (identical to element
S3R)
S3R 3-node triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains (identical to element
S3)
S3RS(E) 3-node triangular shell, small membrane strains
(S)
STRI65 6-node triangular thin shell, using five degrees of freedom per node
S4 4-node general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains
S4R 4-node general-purpose shell, reduced integration with hourglass control, finite
membrane strains
S4RS(E) 4-node, reduced integration, shell with hourglass control, small membrane strains
S4RSW(E) 4-node, reduced integration, shell with hourglass control, small membrane strains,
S4R5(S) 4-node thin shell, reduced integration with hourglass control, using five degrees of
freedom per node
S8R(S) 8-node doubly curved thick shell, reduced integration
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S8R5(S) 8-node doubly curved thin shell, reduced integration, using five degrees of freedom per
node
S9R5(S) 9-node doubly curved thin shell, reduced integration, using five degrees of freedom per
node

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 for STRI3, S3R, S3RS, S4, S4R, S4RS, S4RSW, S8R
1, 2, 3 and two in-surface rotations for STRI65, S4R5, S8R5, S9R5 at most nodes
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 for STRI65, S4R5, S8R5, S9R5 at any node that
• has a boundary condition on a rotational degree of freedom;
• is involved in a multi-point constraint that uses rotational degrees of freedom;
• is attached to a beam or to a shell element that uses six degrees of freedom at all nodes (such as
S4R, S8R, STRI3, etc.);
• is a point where different elements have different surface normals (user-specified normal definitions
or normal definitions created by Abaqus because the surface is folded); or
• is loaded with moments.
Element type S8R5 has three displacement and two rotation variables at an internally generated midbody
node.
Heat transfer elements
DS3(S) 3-node triangular shell
(S)
DS4 4-node quadrilateral shell
DS6(S) 6-node triangular shell
(S)
DS8 8-node quadrilateral shell

11, 12, etc. (temperatures through the thickness as described in “Choosing a shell element,”
Section 29.6.2)
None.
S3T(S) 3-node triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains, bilinear temperature
in the shell surface (identical to element S3RT)
S3RT 3-node triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains, bilinear temperature
in the shell surface (for Abaqus/Standard it is identical to element S3T )
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S4T(S) 4-node general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains, bilinear temperature in the shell
surface
S4RT 4-node general-purpose shell, reduced integration with hourglass control, finite
membrane strains, bilinear temperature in the shell surface
S8RT(S) 8-node thick shell, biquadratic displacement, bilinear temperature in the shell surface

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 at all nodes
11, 12, 13, etc. (temperatures through the thickness as described in “Choosing a shell element,”
Section 29.6.2) at all nodes for S3T, S3RT, S4T, and S4RT; and at the corner nodes only for S8RT

None.
and, optionally for shells with displacement degrees of freedom in Abaqus/Standard,

, the direction cosines of the shell normal at the node.
Input File Usage: Use either of the following options for stress/displacement elements:
*SHELL SECTION
Use the following option for heat transfer or coupled temperature-displacement
elements:
*SHELL SECTION
In addition, use the following option for variable thickness shells:
*NODAL THICKNESS
and Homogeneous or Composite as the section Type
Distributed loads
Body forces, centrifugal loads, and Coriolis forces must be given as force per unit area if the equivalent
section properties are specified directly as part of the general shell section definition.
29.6.7–3
Abaqus ID:
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BX Body force FL−3 Body force (give magnitude as

force per unit volume) in the global
X-direction.
BY Body force FL−3 Body force (give magnitude as
Y-direction.
BZ Body force FL−3 Body force (give magnitude as
Z-direction.
BXNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force (give
magnitude as force per unit
volume) in the global X-direction,
in Abaqus/Explicit.
BYNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force (give
volume) in the global Y-direction,
in Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force (give
volume) in the global Z-direction,
in Abaqus/Explicit.
CENT(S) Not supported FL−4 Centrifugal load (magnitude defined
and is the angular speed).
force as , where is the angular speed).
29.6.7–4
Abaqus ID:
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CORIO(S) Coriolis force FL−4 T Coriolis force (magnitude input ,
(ML−3 T−1 ) where is the mass density and
is the angular speed). The load
stiffness due to Coriolis loading is not
accounted for in direct steady-state
dynamics analysis.
EDLDn Shell edge load FL−1 General traction on edge n.
EDLDnNU(S) Not supported FL−1 Nonuniform general traction on edge
UTRACLOAD.
EDMOMn Shell edge load F Moment on edge n.
(S)
EDMOMnNU Not supported F Nonuniform moment on edge n
EDNORn Shell edge load FL−1 Normal traction on edge n.
EDNORnNU(S) Not supported FL−1 Nonuniform normal traction on edge
n with magnitude supplied via user
EDSHRn Shell edge load FL−1 Shear traction on edge n.
EDSHRnNU(S) Not supported FL−1 Nonuniform shear traction on edge
n with magnitude supplied via user
EDTRAn Shell edge load FL−1 Transverse traction on edge n.
(S) −1
EDTRAnNU Not supported FL Nonuniform transverse traction on
edge n with magnitude supplied via
acceleration).
29.6.7–5
Abaqus ID:
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normal.
element normal.
acceleration).
velocity).
SBF(E) Not supported FL−5 T Stagnation body force in global X-,
reference surface.
reference surface.
29.6.7–6
Abaqus ID:
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and Z-directions.
VP(E) Not supported FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure. The viscous
normal to the element face and
Foundations
F(S) Elastic FL−3 Elastic foundation in the direction of

foundation the shell normal.

BF(S) Body heat flux JL−3 T−1 Body heat flux per unit volume.
BFNU(S) Body heat flux JL−3 T−1 Nonuniform body heat flux per unit
SNEG(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Surface heat flux per unit area into the
bottom face of the element.
SPOS(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Surface heat flux per unit area into the
top face of the element.
SNEGNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform surface heat flux per
unit area into the bottom face of the
element with magnitude supplied via
29.6.7–7
Abaqus ID:
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SPOSNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform surface heat flux per unit
area into the top face of the element
subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions
FNEG(S) Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1

condition (units of ) provided on the bottom
face of the element.
FPOS(S) Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1
condition (units of ) provided on the top face
of the element.
FNEGNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1
temperature (units of ) provided
on the bottom face of the element
subroutine FILM.
FPOSNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1
on the top face of the element
subroutine FILM.
Radiation types
RNEG(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) provided for the bottom
face of the shell.
29.6.7–8
Abaqus ID:
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RPOS(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) provided for the top face
of the shell.
Distributed loads

EDLD Shell edge load FL−1 General traction on edge-based

surface.
EDLDNU(S) Shell edge load FL−1 Nonuniform general traction on
edge-based surface with magnitude
and direction supplied via user
EDMOM Shell edge load F Moment on edge-based surface.
(S)
EDMOMNU Shell edge load F Nonuniform moment on edge-based
EDNOR Shell edge load FL−1 Normal traction on edge-based
surface.
EDNORNU(S) Shell edge load FL−1 Nonuniform normal traction on
UTRACLOAD.
EDSHR Shell edge load FL−1 Shear traction on edge-based surface.
(S) −1
EDSHRNU Shell edge load FL Nonuniform shear traction on
UTRACLOAD.
EDTRA Shell edge load FL−1 Transverse traction on edge-based
surface.
29.6.7–9
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EDTRANU(S) Shell edge load FL−1 Nonuniform transverse traction on

UTRACLOAD.

normal.

normal.

the surface normal.


reference surface.


reference surface.

29.6.7–10
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

VP(E) Pressure FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure. The viscous


Surface-based distributed heat fluxes are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom.

S(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Surface heat flux per unit area into the
element surface.
SNU(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform surface heat flux per
subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions
Surface-based film conditions are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are

F(S) Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1

surface.
Radiation types
Surface-based radiation conditions are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They
29.6.7–11
Abaqus ID:
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R(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) provided for the element
surface.

Surface-based incident wave loads are available. They are specified as described in “Acoustic, shock,
and coupled acoustic-structural analysis,” Section 6.10.1. If the incident wave field includes a reflection
off a plane outside the boundaries of the mesh, this effect can be included.
Element output
If a local coordinate system is not assigned to the element, the stress/strain components, as well as the
section forces/strains, are in the default directions on the surface defined by the convention given in
“Conventions,” Section 1.2.2. If a local coordinate system is assigned to the element through the section
definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5), the stress/strain components and the section forces/strains are
in the surface directions defined by the local coordinate system.
In large-displacement problems with elements that allow finite membrane strains in Abaqus/Standard
and in all problems in Abaqus/Explicit, the local directions defined in the reference configuration are
rotated into the current configuration by the average material rotation.


Available for elements with displacement degrees of freedom.
SF1 Direct membrane force per unit width in local 1-direction.
SF3 Shear membrane force per unit width in local 1–2 plane.
SF4 Transverse shear force per unit width in local 1-direction (available only for S3/S3R,
S3RS, S4, S4R, S4RS, S4RSW, S8R, and S8RT).
SF5 Transverse shear force per unit width in local 2-direction (available only for S3/S3R,
S3RS, S4, S4R, S4RS, S4RSW, S8R, and S8RT).
29.6.7–12
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SM1 Bending moment force per unit width about local 2-axis.
SM3 Twisting moment force per unit width in local 1–2 plane.
The section force and moment resultants per unit length in the normal basis directions in a given shell
section of thickness h can be defined on this basis as
where is the offset of the reference surface from the midsurface.

The section force SF6, which is the integral of through the shell thickness, is reported only for finite-
strain shell elements and is zero because of the plane stress constitutive assumption. The total number
of attributes written to the results file for finite-strain shell elements is 9; SF6 is the sixth attribute.
Average section stresses

SSAVG1 Average membrane stress in local 1-direction.
SSAVG3 Average membrane stress in local 1–2 plane.
SSAVG4 Average transverse shear stress in local 1-direction.
The average section stresses are defined as
where h is the current section thickness.

SE1 Direct membrane strain in local 1-direction.
SE3 Shear membrane strain in local 1–2 plane.
SE4 Transverse shear strain in the local 1-direction (available only for S3/S3R, S3RS,
S4, S4R, S4RS, S4RSW, S8R, and S8RT).
29.6.7–13
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SE5 Transverse shear strain in the local 2-direction (available only for S3/S3R, S3RS,
S4, S4R, S4RS, S4RSW, S8R, and S8RT).
SE6 Strain in the thickness direction (available only for S3/S3R, S3RS, S4, S4R, S4RS,
and S4RSW).
SK1 Curvature change about local 2-axis.
SK3 Surface twist in local 1–2 plane.
The local directions are defined in “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1.
Shell thickness
STH Shell thickness, which is the current section thickness for S3/S3R, S3RS, S4, S4R,
S4RS, and S4RSW elements.
Transverse shear stress estimates

Available for S3/S3R, S3RS, S4, S4R, S4RS, S4RSW, S8R, and S8RT elements.
TSHR13 13-component of transverse shear stress.
Estimates of the transverse shear stresses are available at section integration points as output variables
TSHR13 or TSHR23 for both Simpson’s rule and Gauss quadrature. For Simpson’s rule output of
variables TSHR13 or TSHR23 should be requested at nondefault section points, since the default output
is at section point 1 of the shell section where the transverse shear stresses vanish. For the small-
strain elements in Abaqus/Explicit, transverse shear stress distributions are assumed constant for non-
composite sections and piecewise constant for composite sections; therefore, transverse shear stresses at
integration points should be interpreted accordingly.
For element type S4 the transverse shear calculation is performed at the center of the element and assumed
constant over the element. Hence, transverse shear strain, force, and stress will not vary over the area of
the element.
For numerically integrated shell sections (with the exception of small-strain shells in Abaqus/Explicit),
estimates of the interlaminar shear stresses in composite sections—i.e., the transverse shear stresses at
the interface between two composite layers—can be obtained only by using Simpson’s rule. With Gauss
quadrature no section integration point exists at the interface between composite layers.
Unlike the S11, S22, and S12 in-plane stress components, transverse shear stress components TSHR13
and TSHR23 are not calculated from the constitutive behavior at points through the shell section. They
are estimated by matching the elastic strain energy associated with shear deformation of the shell section
with that based on piecewise quadratic variation of the transverse shear stress across the section, under
conditions of bending about one axis (see “Transverse shear stiffness in composite shells and offsets
from the midsurface,” Section 3.6.8 of the Abaqus Theory Manual). Therefore, interlaminar shear stress
29.6.7–14
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
calculation is supported only when the elastic material model is used for each layer of the shell section.
If you specify the transverse shear stiffness values, interlaminar shear stress output is not available.

HFL1 Heat flux in local 1-direction.
29.6.7–15
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
face 3
3 3
4
1 2 1 2
face 1 face 1
face 3
3 4 7 3

6 5 8 6
4
1 2 1 5 2
face 1 face 1
face 3
4 7 3
face 4 9 6 face 2
8
1 5 2
face 1
9-node element
29.6.7–16
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Stress/displacement analysis
3 3 4 7 3
4 3 4
9 6
1 1 8
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 5 2
S3R element 4-node reduced 9-node reduced
integration element integration element
3 3
4
3 4
3
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
STRI3 element 4-node full
integration element
4 7 3
3
3 4
6 3 5 8 6
1 2 1 2
1 4 2 5
1 2
6-node element 8-node reduced
integration element
29.6.7–17
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Heat transfer analysis
3 3
3 3 5
6 6 5
1 2 1 4 2
1 2 1 4 2
DS3 DS6
4 3 4 7 3
3 4 7 8 9
8 4 5 6 6
1 2 1 2 3
1 2 1 5 2
DS4 DS8
29.6.7–18
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CONTINUUM SHELLS
29.6.8 CONTINUUM SHELL ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SHELL SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the continuum shell elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
SC6R 6-node triangular in-plane continuum shell wedge, general-purpose, finite membrane
strains
SC8R 8-node hexahedron, general-purpose, finite membrane strains

1, 2, 3

None.

SC6RT 6-node linear displacement and temperature, triangular in-plane continuum shell
wedge, general-purpose, finite membrane strains
SC8RT 8-node linear displacement and temperature, hexahedron, general-purpose, finite
membrane strains

1, 2, 3, 11

None.
29.6.8–1
Abaqus ID:
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CONTINUUM SHELLS

*SHELL SECTION
Distributed loads

BX Body force FL−3 Body force (give magnitude as

X-direction.
BY Body force FL−3 Body force (give magnitude as
Y-direction.
BZ Body force FL−3 Body force (give magnitude as
Z-direction.
BXNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force (give
volume) in the global X-direction,
in Abaqus/Explicit.
BYNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force (give
volume) in the global Y-direction,
29.6.8–2
Abaqus ID:
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CONTINUUM SHELLS

in Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force (give
volume) in the global Z-direction,
in Abaqus/Explicit.
CENT(S) Not supported FL−4 Centrifugal load (magnitude defined
and is the angular speed).
CORIO(S) Coriolis force FL−4 T Coriolis force (magnitude input ,
(ML−3 T−1 ) where is the mass density and
is the angular speed). The load
stiffness due to Coriolis loading is not
accounted for in direct steady-state
dynamics analysis.
acceleration).
in global Z. A positive pressure is
directed into the element.
Pn Pressure FL−2 Pressure on face n. A positive
pressure is directed into the element.
Abaqus/Explicit. A positive pressure
is directed into the element.
29.6.8–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONTINUUM SHELLS


acceleration).
velocity).
(S) −2
TRSHRnNU Not supported FL Nonuniform shear traction on face
UTRACLOAD.
(S) −2
TRVECnNU Not supported FL Nonuniform general traction on face
UTRACLOAD.
and Z-directions.
VPn(E) Not supported FL3 T Viscous pressure on face n, applying
motion.
Foundations

Fn(S) Elastic FL−3 Elastic foundation on face n. A

foundation positive pressure is directed into the
element.
29.6.8–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONTINUUM SHELLS


face n.
Film conditions


Radiation types


29.6.8–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONTINUUM SHELLS
Distributed loads

HP(S) Pressure FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure applied to the

element surface, linear in global
normal.
normal.
PNU Pressure FL−2 Nonuniform pressure applied to the
the surface normal.
reference surface.
reference surface.
29.6.8–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONTINUUM SHELLS

VP(E) Pressure FL3 T Viscous surface pressure. The viscous



element surface.
subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions


surface.
Radiation types
29.6.8–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONTINUUM SHELLS


surface.
Element output
If a local coordinate system is not assigned to the element, the stress/strain components, as well as the
section forces/strains, are in the default directions on the surface defined by the convention given in
“Conventions,” Section 1.2.2. If a local coordinate system is assigned to the element through the section
definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5), the stress/strain components and the section forces/strains are
in the surface directions defined by the local coordinate system.
The local directions defined in the reference configuration are rotated into the current configuration by
the average material rotation.
In the case of composite shells the components of section forces, section strains, and transverse
shear stress estimates for stacked continuum shells (CTSHR13 and CTSHR23) are reported in the
local orientation defined for the entire section (or the default shell coordinate directions if no section
orientation is used). Components of stress, strain, and transverse shear stress (TSHR13 and TSHR23)
are given with respect to the individual layer orientations.

Stress and other tensors (including strain tensors) are available. All tensors have the same components.
For example, the stress components are as follows:
The stress in the thickness direction, , is reported as zero to the output database as discussed in
“Abaqus/Standard output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.1. may be obtained through the average
section stress variable SSAVG6. Output of in-plane stress components of continuum shell elements does
not include Poisson effects due to changes in the thickness direction.

HFL3 Heat flux in the Z-direction.
29.6.8–8
Abaqus ID:
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CONTINUUM SHELLS

SF4 Transverse shear force per unit width in local 1-direction.
SF5 Transverse shear force per unit width in local 2-direction.
SF6 Thickness stress integrated over the element thickness.
SM3 Twisting moment force per unit width in local 1–2 plane.
The section force and moment resultants per unit length in the normal basis directions in a given shell
section of thickness h can be defined on this basis as
where stress in the thickness direction is constant through the thickness. Outputs of in-plane section
forces of continuum shell elements do not include Poisson effects due to changes in the thickness
direction.
Average section stresses

SSAVG3 Average membrane stress in local 1–2 plane.
SSAVG6 Average thickness stress in the local 3-direction.
The average section stresses are defined as
where and h is the current section thickness. is constant through the thickness.
29.6.8–9
Abaqus ID:
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CONTINUUM SHELLS

SE4 Transverse shear strain in the local 1-direction.
SE5 Transverse shear strain in the local 2-direction.
SE6 Total strain in the thickness direction.
SK3 Surface twist in local 1–2 plane.
The local directions are defined in “Shell elements: overview,” Section 29.6.1.
Shell thickness
STH Section thickness, which is the current section thickness if geometric nonlinearity is
considered; otherwise, it is the initial section thickness.
Transverse shear stress estimates
Estimates of the transverse shear stresses are available at section integration points as output variables
TSHR13 or TSHR23 for both Simpson’s rule and Gauss quadrature. For Simpson’s rule output of
variables TSHR13 or TSHR23 should be requested at nondefault section points, since the default output
is at section point 1 of the shell section where the transverse shear stresses vanish.
For numerically integrated sections, estimates of the interlaminar shear stresses in composite
sections—i.e., the transverse shear stresses at the interface between two composite layers—can be
obtained only by using Simpson’s rule. With Gauss quadrature no section integration point exists at
the interface between composite layers.
Unlike the S11, S22, and S12 in-surface stress components, TSHR13 and TSHR23 are not calculated
from the constitutive behavior at points through the shell section. They are estimated by matching the
elastic strain energy associated with shear deformation of the shell section with that based on piecewise
quadratic variation of the transverse shear stress across the section, under conditions of bending about one
axis (see “Transverse shear stiffness in composite shells and offsets from the midsurface,” Section 3.6.8
of the Abaqus Theory Manual). Therefore, interlaminar shear stress calculation is supported only when
the elastic material model is used for each layer of the shell section. If you specify the transverse
shear stiffness values, interlaminar shear stress output is not available. TSHR13 and TSHR23 are valid
only for sections that have one element through the thickness direction. For sections with two or more
continuum shell elements stacked in the thickness direction, output variables SSAVG4 and SSAVG5 or
29.6.8–10
Abaqus ID:
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CONTINUUM SHELLS
CTSHR13 and CTSHR23 should be used instead. An example using SSAVG4 and SSAVG5 to estimate
the transverse shear stress distribution in stacked continuum shells can be found in “Composite shells in
cylindrical bending,” Section 1.1.3 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual.
Transverse shear stress estimates for stacked continuum shells
CTSHR13 13-component of transverse shear stress for stacked continuum shells.
CTSHR23 23-component of transverse shear stress for stacked continuum shells.
Estimates of the transverse shear stresses that take into account the continuity of interlaminar transverse
shear stress for stacked continuum shells are available at section integration points as output variables
CTSHR13 or CTSHR23 for both Simpson’s rule and Gauss quadrature. CTSHR13 or CTSHR23 are
available only in Abaqus/Standard.
CTSHR13 and CTSHR23 are not calculated from the constitutive behavior at points through the shell
section. They are estimated by assuming a quadratic variation of shear stress across the element section
and by enforcing the continuity of interface transverse shear between adjoining continuum elements in
a stack. It is also assumed that the transverse shear is zero at the free boundaries of a stack.
The intended use case for CTSHR13 and CTSHR23 is to estimate the through-the-thickness transverse
shear stress for flat or nearly flat composite plates that are modeled with stacked continuum shell elements
where each continuum element in the stack models a single material layer. Central to CTSHR13 and
CTSHR23 is the concept of a “stack” of continuum shell elements.
During input file preprocessing Abaqus partitions all the continuum shells in a model into stacks. A
“stack” is defined as a contiguous set of continuum shells whose first and last elements lie on a free
boundary and who are connected through shared nodes on the top and bottom element surfaces (as
determined by the elements’ stack directions). In this context a “free boundary” is a top or bottom
surface of a continuum shell element that is not connected through its nodes to another continuum shell
element. For example, assuming that the stack direction of all the elements in Figure 29.6.8–1 is in the
z-direction, elements 1–6 would form a stack.
z
A stack of continuum shell elements
1
2
3
x
4
5
6
Figure 29.6.8–1 Composite plate meshed with six stacked continuum shells through the thickness.
It is important to emphasize that stacks of continuum shells are connected through shared nodes, not
through constraints or other elements. Suppose, for example, that in Figure 29.6.8–1 element pairs 1–2,
2–3, 4–5, and 5–6 are connected to each other through shared nodes, but elements 3 and 4 are connected
29.6.8–11
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONTINUUM SHELLS
through a constraint (such as a tied constraint). In that case Abaqus would interpret the bottom surface
of element 3 and the top surface of element 4 as free boundaries; therefore, elements 1–3 would form
one stack, and elements 4–6 would form a second independent stack. For another example, suppose
that element 4 is not a continuum shell element. In this case elements 1–3 would form one stack, and
elements 5–6 would form another stack. In a final example, suppose the stack directions of elements
1–5 are in the global z-direction and the stack direction of element 6 is in the global x-direction. In this
case elements 1–5 would form a stack separate from element 6. In the three cases just discussed the
computed values of CTSHR13 and CTSHR23 would probably not be what you wanted. It is more likely
that you want elements 1–6 to be in the same stack. It may be necessary to make changes in your model
to achieve this. You can review the partitioning of the continuum shell elements into stacks in the data
file by making a model definition data request.
The continuum shell elements in a stack must satisfy certain criteria; otherwise, Abaqus marks the stack
as invalid with respect to computing CTSHR13 or CTSHR23. If a stack is marked as invalid, CTSHR13
or CTSHR23, if requested, are not computed and are set to zero for all continuum shell elements in that
stack. If a continuum shell element does not have an elastic material model, if you specify the transverse
shear for any element in the stack, or if the element is specified as rigid, that stack is marked as invalid.
A stack is also marked as invalid if the normal of any element in a stack is not within 10° of the average
normal for the stack. In addition, if a continuum shell element is removed during the analysis, the stack
to which the element belongs is marked as invalid until the element is reactivated.
There are several other certain restrictions on CTSHR13 and CTSHR23. CTSHR13 and CTSHR23 are
not available in any continuum shell element with a multi-layer composite material definition. However,
having a multi-layer composite element in the stack does not invalidate the stack. For the purposes
of computing CTSHR13 and CTSHR23, a maximum of 500 continuum shell elements can be put in
any individual stack. If more than 500 continuum shell elements are stacked on top of each other,
Abaqus issues a warning message during input file preprocessing, and CTSHR13 and CTSHR23 are not
computed and are set to zero for all continuum shell elements in the model. CTSHR13 and CTSHR23
are not available if element operations are run in parallel (see “Parallel execution in Abaqus/Standard,”
Section 3.5.2). CTSHR13 or CTSHR23 are currently available only for static and direct-integration
dynamic analyses.
An example using CTSHR13 and CTSHR23 to estimate the transverse shear stress distribution in stacked
continuum shells can be found in “Composite shells in cylindrical bending,” Section 1.1.3 of the Abaqus
Benchmarks Manual.
29.6.8–12
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONTINUUM SHELLS
6 face 5
face 5 face 2
face 2 8 7
face 6
3
4 face 4 5 4 6 3
5 face 4
1
1 2
face 1 face 3
face 1 face 3 2
6-node continuum shell 8-node continuum shell
Stress/displacement analysis
6
8 7
3 1
4 5 1
5 4 6 3
1 2
1 2
6-node continuum shell 8-node continuum shell
29.6.8–13
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS
29.6.9 AXISYMMETRIC SHELL ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *SHELL SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric shell elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit. For axisymmetric shell geometries in which nonaxisymmetric behavior is expected,
use the SAXA elements available in Abaqus/Standard (see “Axisymmetric shell elements with nonlinear,
asymmetric deformation,” Section 29.6.10).
Conventions
Coordinate 1 is r, coordinate 2 is z. The r-direction corresponds to the global X-direction, and the z-
direction corresponds to the global Y-direction. Coordinate 1 should be greater than or equal to zero.
Degree of freedom 1 is , degree of freedom 2 is , and degree of freedom 6 is rotation in the r–z
plane.
Abaqus does not automatically apply any boundary conditions to nodes located along the symmetry axis.
You should apply radial or symmetry boundary conditions on these nodes if desired.
Point loads and concentrated fluxes should be given as the value integrated around the circumference
(that is, the load on the complete ring).
The meridional direction is the direction that is tangent to the element in the r–z plane; that is, the
meridional direction is along the line that is rotated about the axis of symmetry to generate the full
three-dimensional body.
The circumferential or hoop direction is the direction normal to the r–z plane.
Element types
SAX1 2-node thin or thick linear shell
(S)
SAX2 3-node thin or thick quadratic shell
29.6.9–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS

1, 2, 6

None.
Heat transfer elements

DSAX1(S) 2-node shell
(S)
DSAX2 3-node shell

Section 29.6.2)

None.
Coupled temperature-displacement element

SAX2T(S) 3-node thin or thick shell, quadratic displacement, linear temperature in the shell
surface

1, 2, 6 at all three nodes
Section 29.6.2) at the end nodes

None.
r, z, and optionally for shells with displacement degrees of freedom, , , the direction cosines of the
shell normal at the node.
Input File Usage: Use either of the following options for stress/displacement elements:
*SHELL SECTION
29.6.9–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS
Use the following option for heat transfer or coupled temperature-displacement

elements:
*SHELL SECTION
*NODAL THICKNESS
Distributed loads
Distributed load magnitudes are per unit area or per unit volume. They do not need to be multiplied by
.
Body forces and centrifugal loads must be given as force per unit area if a general shell section is used.
BR Body force FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the

radial direction.
BZ Body force FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the
axial direction.
BRNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force per unit
volume in the radial direction,
with the magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force per unit
volume in the global z-direction,
with the magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit.
CENT(S) Not supported FL−4 Centrifugal load (magnitude given as
(ML−3 T−2 ) , where is the mass density and
is the angular velocity). Since only
29.6.9–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS

axisymmetric deformation is allowed,
the spin axis must be the z-axis.
must be the z-axis.
acceleration).
normal.
element normal.
axial directions.
reference surface.
29.6.9–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS

reference surface.
VBF(E) Not supported FL−4 T Viscous body force in radial and axial
directions.
VP(E) Not supported FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure. The viscous
Foundations
F(S) Elastic FL−3 Elastic foundation in the direction of

foundation the shell normal.

BF(S) Body heat flux JL−3 T−1 Body heat flux per unit volume.
(S) −3 −1
BFNU Body heat flux JL T Nonuniform body heat flux per unit
SNEG(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Surface heat flux per unit area into the
bottom face of the element.
29.6.9–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS

SPOS(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Surface heat flux per unit area into the
top face of the element.
SNEGNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform surface heat flux per
unit area into the bottom face of the
element with magnitude supplied via
SPOSNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform surface heat flux per unit
area into the top face of the element
subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions

FNEG(S) Surface film JL−2 T −1 −1

condition (units of ) provided on the bottom
face of the element.
FPOS(S) Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1

condition (units of ) provided on the top face
of the element.
FNEGNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1

on the bottom face of the element
subroutine FILM.
FPOSNU(S) Not supported JL−2 T−1 −1

on the top face of the element
subroutine FILM.
29.6.9–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS
Radiation types

RNEG(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) provided for the bottom
face of the shell.
RPOS(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature
(units of ) provided for the top face
of the shell.
Distributed loads
.


direction opposite the surface normal.
normal.
the surface normal.
29.6.9–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS


reference surface.
reference surface.
VP(E) Pressure FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure. The viscous

Surface-based heat fluxes are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are

S(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Surface heat flux per unit area into the
element surface.
SNU(S) Surface heat flux JL−2 T−1 Nonuniform surface heat flux per
subroutine DFLUX.
Film conditions
Surface-based film conditions are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They are
29.6.9–8
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS

F(S) Surface film JL−2 T−1 −1

surface.
Radiation types
Surface-based radiation conditions are available for elements with temperature degrees of freedom. They

R(S) Surface radiation Dimensionless Emissivity and sink temperature

(units of ) provided for the element
surface.

Surface-based incident wave loads are available. They are specified as described in “Acoustic, shock,
and coupled acoustic-structural analysis,” Section 6.10.1. If the incident wave field includes a reflection
off a plane outside the boundaries of the mesh, this effect can be included.
Element output

S11 Meridional stress.
S22 Hoop (circumferential) stress.

SF1 Membrane force per unit width in the meridional direction.
SF2 Membrane force per unit width in the hoop direction.
29.6.9–9
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS
SF3 Transverse shear force per unit width in the meridional direction (available only from
Abaqus/Standard).
SF4 Integrated stress in the thickness direction; always zero (available only from
Abaqus/Standard).
SM1 Bending moment per unit width about the hoop direction.
SM2 Bending moment per unit width about the meridional direction.
Section strains, curvature changes, and transverse shear strains

SE1 Membrane strain in the meridional direction.
SE2 Membrane strain in the hoop direction.
SE3 Transverse shear strain in the meridional direction (available only from
Abaqus/Standard).
SE4 Strain in the thickness direction (available only from Abaqus/Standard).
SK1 Curvature change about the hoop direction.
SK2 Curvature change about the meridional direction.
Shell thickness
STH Shell thickness, which is the current thickness for SAX1, SAX2, and SAX2T
elements.

HFL1 Heat flux in the meridional direction.
HFL2 Heat flux in the thickness direction.
2
2
3
1
1
29.6.9–10
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS
2
2
2 3
1 1
1
1
29.6.9–11
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYM. SHELL WITH ASYM. LOADS
29.6.10 AXISYMMETRIC SHELL ELEMENTS WITH NONLINEAR, ASYMMETRIC

DEFORMATION
References

• *SHELL SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric shell elements with nonlinear, asymmetric
deformation available in Abaqus/Standard. For an axisymmetric reference geometry where
axisymmetric deformation is expected, use regular axisymmetric elements (see “Axisymmetric shell
element library,” Section 29.6.9). For an axisymmetric reference geometry where nonaxisymmetric
deformation is expected and the thickness to characteristic radius is high or through the thickness detail
is required, use CAXA-type elements (see “Axisymmetric solid elements with nonlinear, asymmetric
deformation,” Section 28.1.7).
Conventions
Coordinate 1 is r, coordinate 2 is z. The r-direction corresponds to the global X-direction in the

plane and the global Y-direction in the plane, and the z-direction corresponds to the global
Z-direction. Coordinate 1 should be greater than or equal to zero.
Degree of freedom 1 is , degree of freedom 2 is , degree of freedom 6 is rotation in the r–z plane.
Even though the symmetry in the r–z plane at allows the modeling of half of the initially
axisymmetric structure, the loading must be specified as the total load on the full axisymmetric body.
Consider, for example, a cylindrical shell loaded by a unit uniform axial force. To produce a unit load
on a SAXA element with four modes, the nodal forces are 1/8, 1/4, 1/4, 1/4, and 1/8 at , , ,
, and , respectively.
The meridional direction is the direction tangent to the element in the r–z plane; that is, the meridional
direction is along the line that is rotated about the axis of symmetry to generate the full three-dimensional
body.
The circumferential or hoop direction is the direction normal to the r–z plane.
29.6.10–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Element types
SAXA1N Linear interpolation, Fourier shell element with 2 nodes in the meridional direction and
N Fourier modes
SAXA2N Quadratic interpolation, Fourier shell element with 3 nodes in the meridional direction
and N Fourier modes
1, 2, 6
See Figure 29.6.10–1 for the positive nodal displacement and rotation directions. The nodal rotation, ,
is consistent with the SAX elements; however, a positive nodal rotation is in the negative -direction.
uz ur
φθ
uz
ur φθ
uz
ur
φθ
Figure 29.6.10–1 Element coordinate system and positive

displacement/rotation directions. SAXA22 element shown.

SAXA elements have variables relating to ( , , ).
SAXA elements have variables relating to ( , , ).
r, z (given in the r–z plane for )

The two direction cosines, and , of the nodal normal field can be specified either in the nodal data
or by a user-specified normal definition (see “Normal definitions at nodes,” Section 2.1.4).
29.6.10–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
If a general shell section is used and the section stiffness matrix is given directly, a full 6 × 6 section
stiffness should be specified (i.e., 21 constants as for a three-dimensional shell).
*SHELL SECTION
*NODAL THICKNESS
Distributed loads
times the radius.

(*DLOAD)
BX FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the global X-

direction.
BZ FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the global Z-
direction.
HP FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the shell surface,
linear in the global Z-direction.
P FL−2 Pressure on the shell surface.
PNU FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on the shell surface
DLOAD.
29.6.10–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Element output
The numerical integration with respect to employs the trapezoidal rule. There are equally
spaced integration planes in the element, including the and planes, with N being the
number of Fourier modes. Consequently, the radial nodal forces corresponding to pressure loads applied
in the circumferential direction are distributed in this direction in the ratio of in the 1 Fourier mode
element, in the 2 Fourier mode element, and in the 4 Fourier mode element.
The sum of these consistent nodal forces is equal to the integral of the applied pressure over the full
circumference ( ).

S11 Meridional stress.
S22 Hoop (circumferential) stress.
S12 Local 12 shear stress (zero at and ).
Section forces
SF4 Integrated stress in the thickness direction; always zero.
SM1 Bending moment per unit width about local 2-axis.
SM2 Bending moment per unit width about local 1-axis.
SM3 Twisting moment per unit width in local 1–2 plane.
Section strains
SE4 Strain in the thickness direction.
SK1 Bending strain in local 1-direction.
SK2 Bending strain in local 2-direction.
SK3 Twisting strain in local 1–2 plane.
The section force and moment resultants per unit length in the normal basis directions for a given layer
of thickness h can be defined, in components relative to this basis, as:
29.6.10–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
where is the offset of the reference surface from the midsurface.

The local directions are defined in “Defining the initial geometry of conventional shell elements,”
Section 29.6.3.
Current shell thickness
STH Current shell thickness.
The node ordering in the first generator plane ( ) of each element is shown below. You specify
the line or curve of nodes in the generator plane just as with the SAX1 and SAX2 elements. Each
element must have N more planes of nodes defined, where N is the number of Fourier modes used.
Abaqus/Standard will generate these additional circumferential nodes and number them by adding a
constant offset value to the nodes specified in the first plane (see “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1).
z z n
n 2 3
n
2
1
1
r r
29.6.10–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
INERTIAL, RIGID, AND CAPACITANCE ELEMENTS
30. Inertial, Rigid, and Capacitance Elements
Point mass elements 30.1

Rotary inertia elements 30.2
Rigid elements 30.3
Capacitance elements 30.4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
POINT MASS ELEMENTS
30.1 Point mass elements
• “Point masses,” Section 30.1.1

• “Mass element library,” Section 30.1.2
30.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
POINT MASSES
30.1.1 POINT MASSES
References
• “Mass element library,” Section 30.1.2

• *MASS
• “Defining point mass and rotary inertia,” Section 33.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
Overview
Mass elements:
• allow the introduction of concentrated mass that is either isotropic or anisotropic at a point;
• are associated with the three translational degrees of freedom at a node.
If rotary inertia is also required (for example, to represent a rigid body), use element type ROTARYI
(“Rotary inertia,” Section 30.2.1).
In addition to point masses, Abaqus provides a convenient nonstructural mass definition that can be
used to smear mass from features that have negligible structural stiffness over a region that is typically
adjacent to the nonstructural feature. The nonstructural mass can be specified in the form of a total mass
value, a mass per unit volume, a mass per unit area, or a mass per unit length (see “Nonstructural mass
definition,” Section 2.7.1).
Defining the isotropic mass value
You specify a mass magnitude, which is associated with the three translational degrees of freedom at
the node of the element. Specify mass, not weight. You must associate this mass with a region of your
model.
Input File Usage: *MASS, ELSET=name
mass magnitude
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of MASS elements.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property or Interaction module: Special→Inertia→Create: Point
mass/inertia: select point: Magnitude: Isotropic: mass magnitude
Defining the mass matrix explicitly in Abaqus/Standard

You can define a general mass matrix explicitly in Abaqus/Standard if the introduction of individual terms
on and off the diagonal of the mass matrix is desired. See “User-defined elements,” Section 32.15.1, for
details.
30.1.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
POINT MASSES

*USER ELEMENT
*MATRIX
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Defining the mass matrix explicitly is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Defining the anisotropic mass tensor
You can specify the mass as anisotropic by giving the three principal values and the principal directions.
When the orientation of the principal directions is not specified, they are assumed to coincide with the
global axes. In a large-displacement analysis the local axes of the anisotropic mass rotate with the
rotation, if active, of the node to which the anisotropic mass is attached. The rotation degree of freedom
is active at a node if that node is connected to a beam, a conventional shell, a rotary inertia element,
or a rigid body. You can specify mass proportional loads such as gravitation on an anisotropic mass.
Damping and mass scaling can also be used with an anisotropic mass.
Specify mass, not weight. You must associate this mass with a region of your model.
Input File Usage: *MASS, ELSET=name, TYPE=ANISOTROPIC,
ORIENTATION=orientation_name
, ,
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of MASS elements.
mass/inertia: select point: Magnitude: Anisotropic: , , and
Defining damping for MASS elements
In Abaqus/Standard you can define mass proportional damping for direct-integration dynamic analysis or
composite damping for modal dynamic analysis. Although both damping definitions can be specified for
a set of MASS elements, only the damping that is relevant to the particular dynamic analysis procedure
will be used.
In Abaqus/Explicit mass proportional damping can be defined for MASS elements.
Dynamics
You can define inertia proportional damping for MASS elements in direct-integration dynamic analysis
or explicit dynamic analysis. See “Material damping,” Section 26.1.1, for details.
Input File Usage: *MASS, ALPHA=
mass/inertia: select point: Damping: Alpha:
Modal dynamics
You can define the fraction of critical damping to be used with the MASS elements when calculating
composite damping factors for the modes when used in modal dynamic analysis. See “Material
damping,” Section 26.1.1, for details.
30.1.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
POINT MASSES
Input File Usage: *MASS, COMPOSITE=

mass/inertia: select point: Damping: Composite:
30.1.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MASS LIBRARY
30.1.2 MASS ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Point masses,” Section 30.1.1

• *MASS
Overview
This section provides a reference to the mass elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element type
MASS Point mass

1, 2, 3
None.
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: *MASS

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Not supported
Distributed loads
CENTRIF(S) Not supported T−2 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input

as , where is the angular
velocity).
30.1.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MASS LIBRARY

GRAV Not supported LT−2 Gravity loading in a specified
direction.
ROTA(S) Not supported T−2 Rotary acceleration load (magnitude
is input as , where is the rotary
acceleration).
Element output
ELKE Element kinetic energy (available only from Abaqus/Standard).
1 node.
30.1.2–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ROTARY INERTIA ELEMENTS
30.2 Rotary inertia elements
• “Rotary inertia,” Section 30.2.1

• “Rotary inertia element library,” Section 30.2.2
30.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ROTARY INERTIA
30.2.1 ROTARY INERTIA
References
• “Rotary inertia element library,” Section 30.2.2

• *ROTARY INERTIA
• “Defining point mass and rotary inertia,” Section 33.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
Overview
Rotary inertia elements:

• allow rotary inertia to be included at a node;
• are associated with the three rotational degrees of freedom at a node; and
• can be paired with a MASS element (“Point masses,” Section 30.1.1) to define the mass and inertia
properties of a rigid body directly (“Rigid body definition,” Section 2.4.1).
Defining the rotary inertia
The ROTARYI element allows rotary inertia to be included at a node. The node is assumed to be the
center of mass of the body so that only second moments of inertia are required. If the node is part of
a rigid body, the offset between the node and the center of mass of the rigid body is accounted for. All
six components of the rotary inertia tensor— , , , , , and —about the global coordinate
system are defined as follows:
The rotary inertia tensor must be positive semi-definite.
30.2.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ROTARY INERTIA
You specify the moments of inertia, which should be given in units of ML2 . You must associate
these moments of inertia with a region of your model.
Optionally, you can refer to a local orientation (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) that defines the
directions of the local axes for which the rotary inertia values are being given. If you do not specify a
local orientation and the rotary inertia element is defined within a part or a part instance (see “Defining
an assembly,” Section 2.10.1), the components of the inertia tensor must be given with respect to the
local part axes. If you do not specify a local orientation and the rotary inertia element is not defined
within a part or a part instance, the components of the inertia tensor must be given with respect to the
global axes.
Input File Usage: *ROTARY INERTIA, ELSET=name, ORIENTATION=name
, , , , ,
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of ROTARYI elements.
mass/inertia: select point: Magnitude: I11: , I22: , I33:
; if necessary, toggle on Specify off-diagonal terms: I12:
, I13: , I23: ; CSYS: Edit
Defining damping for ROTARYI elements
In Abaqus/Standard you can define mass proportional damping for direct-integration dynamic analysis
or composite damping for modal dynamic analysis. Although both damping definitions can be specified
for a set of ROTARYI elements, only the damping that is relevant to the particular dynamic analysis
procedure will be used.
In Abaqus/Explicit mass proportional damping can be defined for ROTARYI elements.
Dynamics
You can define inertia proportional damping for ROTARYI elements in direct-integration dynamic
analysis or explicit dynamic analysis. See “Material damping,” Section 26.1.1, for details.
Input File Usage: *ROTARY INERTIA, ALPHA=
mass/inertia: select point: Damping: Alpha:
Modal dynamics
You can define the fraction of critical damping to be used with the ROTARYI elements when calculating
composite damping factors for the modes when used in modal dynamic analysis. See “Material
damping,” Section 26.1.1, for details.
Input File Usage: *ROTARY INERTIA, COMPOSITE=
mass/inertia: select point: Damping: Composite:
30.2.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ROTARY INERTIA
Speeding up convergence in three-dimensional implicit analyses
In geometrically nonlinear analysis in Abaqus/Standard, rigid body rotary inertia contributes some
unsymmetric terms to the system matrix when the motion is in three dimensions and the rotary inertia
is not the same about all three axes. Therefore, in cases when the rotary inertia effects are significant,
the solution may converge faster if you use the unsymmetric matrix storage and solution scheme for the
step (“Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2).
30.2.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ROTARY INERTIA LIBRARY
30.2.2 ROTARY INERTIA ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Rotary inertia,” Section 30.2.1

• *ROTARY INERTIA
Overview
This section provides a reference to the rotary inertia elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element type
ROTARYI Rotary inertia at a point

4, 5, 6

None.
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: *ROTARY INERTIA

mass/inertia: select point: Magnitude: Rotary Inertia
Distributed loads
30.2.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ROTARY INERTIA LIBRARY

ROTA(S) Not supported T−2 Rotary acceleration load (magnitude

is input as , where is the rotary
acceleration).
velocity).
Element output
ELKE Element kinetic energy (available only from Abaqus/Standard).
1 node.
30.2.2–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
RIGID ELEMENTS
30.3 Rigid elements
• “Rigid elements,” Section 30.3.1

• “Rigid element library,” Section 30.3.2
30.3–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
RIGID ELEMENTS
30.3.1 RIGID ELEMENTS
References
• “Rigid body definition,” Section 2.4.1

• “Rigid element library,” Section 30.3.2
• *RIGID BODY
• “Defining rigid body constraints,” Section 15.15.2 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
Rigid elements:
• can be used to define the surfaces of rigid bodies for contact;

• can be used to define rigid bodies for multibody dynamic simulations;
• can be attached to deformable elements;
• can be used to constrain parts of a model;
• are used to apply Abaqus/Aqua loads to rigid structures; and
• are associated with a given rigid body and share a common node known as the rigid body reference
node.
Use R2D2 elements in plane strain or plane stress analysis, RAX2 elements in axisymmetric planar
geometries, and R3D3 and R3D4 elements in three-dimensional analysis.
RB2D2 and RB3D2 elements are often used in Abaqus/Standard to model offshore structures that
will transmit Abaqus/Aqua loads but will not deform. They can also be used as rigid links between nodes
on deformable bodies.
Naming convention
Rigid elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
30.3.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
RIGID ELEMENTS
R B 3D 2
number of nodes
two-dimensional (2D),
three-dimensional (3D),
or axisymmetric (AX)
beam (optional)
rigid element
For example, R2D2 is a two-dimensional, 2-node, rigid element.
For all rigid elements the face on the side of the element with the positive outward normal is referred to
as SPOS. The face on the opposite side is referred to as SNEG. The positive normal direction for each
element is defined below.
R2D2, RAX2, RB2D2, R3D3, and R3D4 rigid elements can be used in Abaqus/Standard to define
master surfaces for contact applications. The direction of the master surface’s outward normal is critical
for proper detection of contact. See “Defining contact pairs in Abaqus/Standard,” Section 35.3.1, for a
more detailed discussion of contact surface definitions.
Two-dimensional rigid elements

The positive outward normal direction, , is defined by a 90° counterclockwise rotation from the direction
going from node 1 to node 2 of the element. See Figure 30.3.1–1.
n face SPOS
Y or z
face SNEG
1
X or r
Figure 30.3.1–1 Positive normal for two-dimensional rigid elements.
Three-dimensional rigid elements

The positive normal for R3D3 and R3D4 elements is given by the right-hand rule going around the nodes
of the element in the order that they are given in the element’s connectivity. See Figure 30.3.1–2.
RB3D2 elements do not have a unique normal definition.
30.3.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
RIGID ELEMENTS
n face SPOS
4
3
n 3
1 2
Z
Y 1
face SNEG 2
X
Figure 30.3.1–2 Positive normals for R3D3 and R3D4 elements.
Defining rigid elements
Rigid elements must always be part of a rigid body. See “Rigid body definition,” Section 2.4.1, for
complete details on the definition of a rigid body.
Input File Usage: *RIGID BODY, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of rigid elements.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: Create Constraint: Rigid body: Body (elements)
Mass distribution
In Abaqus/Standard rigid elements do not contribute mass to the rigid body to which they are assigned.
The mass distribution on the rigid surface can be accounted for by using point mass (“Point masses,”
Section 30.1.1) and rotary inertia elements (“Rotary inertia,” Section 30.2.1) on the nodes connected to
the rigid elements.
By default in Abaqus/Explicit, rigid elements do not contribute mass to the rigid body to which they
are assigned. To define the mass distribution, you can specify the density of all rigid elements in a rigid
body. When a nonzero density and thickness are specified, mass and rotary inertia contributions to the
rigid body from rigid elements will be computed in an analogous manner to structural elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in Abaqus/Explicit to specify the density of rigid
elements:
*RIGID BODY, DENSITY=density
Abaqus/CAE Usage: You cannot specify the density of rigid elements in Abaqus/CAE.
Geometry in Abaqus/Explicit
In Abaqus/Explicit you can specify the cross-sectional area or thickness for all of the rigid elements that
are part of a rigid body. Abaqus/Explicit assumes a default zero cross-sectional area or thickness if you
do not specify one.
30.3.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
RIGID ELEMENTS
To account for a continuously varying thickness of a surface formed by rigid elements in

Abaqus/Explicit, you can specify the thickness of the rigid elements at the nodes.
Specifying a nonzero thickness for rigid elements that form a rigid surface in a contact pair definition
can be used to account for the effect of surface thickness in the contact constraint. It also enables the use
of the double-sided surface contact feature with rigid surfaces formed by rigid elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in Abaqus/Explicit to specify the cross-sectional area
or thickness for all rigid elements in a rigid body:
*RIGID BODY
cross-sectional area or thickness
Use both of the following options to specify a continuously varying thickness
for a surface formed by rigid elements:
*NODAL THICKNESS
*RIGID BODY, NODAL THICKNESS
Abaqus/CAE Usage: You cannot specify the cross-sectional area or thickness of rigid elements in
Abaqus/CAE.
Offset in Abaqus/Explicit
In Abaqus/Explicit you can define the distance (measured as a fraction of the rigid element’s thickness)
from the rigid element’s midsurface to the reference surface containing the element’s nodes. The positive
values of the offset are in the direction of the element normal. When the offset distance is 0.5, the top
surface is the reference surface. When the offset distance is −0.5, the bottom surface is the reference
surface. The default offset distance is 0, which indicates that the middle surface of the rigid element is
the reference surface. You can specify a value for the offset distance that is greater in magnitude than
half the rigid element’s thickness.
Since no element-level calculations are performed for rigid elements, a specified offset affects only
the handling of contact pairs with rigid surfaces formed by rigid elements (see “Element-based surface
definition,” Section 2.3.2). Mass and rotary inertia contributions to the rigid body from rigid elements
defined with an offset are computed as if the offset is zero.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in Abaqus/Explicit to specify a surface offset for a
rigid element:
*RIGID BODY, OFFSET=offset
The OFFSET parameter accepts a value or a label (SPOS or SNEG). Specifying
SPOS is equivalent to specifying a value of 0.5; specifying SNEG is equivalent
to specifying a value of −0.5.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: You cannot specify an offset for rigid elements in Abaqus/CAE.
30.3.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
RIGID ELEMENT LIBRARY
30.3.2 RIGID ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Rigid elements,” Section 30.3.1

• *RIGID BODY
Overview
This section provides a reference to the rigid elements available in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
2-D rigid elements

R2D2 2-node, linear link (for use in plane strain or plane stress)
RAX2 2-node, linear link (for use in axisymmetric planar geometries)
(S)
RB2D2 2-node, rigid beam
Slave kinematic variables

R2D2 and RAX2: 1, 2
RB2D2: 1, 2, 6
Master degrees of freedom

R2D2, RAX2, and RB2D2: 1, 2, 6 at the rigid body reference node
None.
3-D rigid elements
R3D3 3-node, triangular facet
R3D4 4-node, bilinear quadrilateral
(S)
RB3D2 2-node, rigid beam
Slave kinematic variables

R3D3 and R3D4: 1, 2, 3
RB3D2: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
30.3.2–1
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Master degrees of freedom

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 at the rigid body reference node

None.
R2D2 and RB2D2: X, Y

RAX2: r, z
R3D3, R3D4, and RB3D2: X, Y, Z
For R2D2, RB2D2, and RB3D2 elements you can specify the cross-sectional area of the element. In
Abaqus/Standard if no area is given, unit area is assumed; the area is required in Abaqus/Explicit.
For RAX2, R3D3, and R3D4 elements you can specify the thickness of the element. In Abaqus/Standard
if no thickness is given, unit thickness is assumed; the thickness is required in Abaqus/Explicit.
The cross-sectional area or element thickness is used for the purpose of defining body forces, which are
given in units of force per unit volume, and, in Abaqus/Explicit, determining the total mass.
Input File Usage: *RIGID BODY
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: Create Constraint: Rigid body: Body (elements)
Distributed loads
Available for R2D2 elements only:

BX(S) Body force FL−3 Body force in global X-direction.

(S) −3
BXNU(S) Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global X-
30.3.2–2
Abaqus ID:
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BYNU(S) Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in global Y-

per unit volume and is the angular
velocity).
for in direct steady-state dynamics
analysis.
P(E) Pressure FL−2 Pressure on the element surface. The
pressure is positive in the direction of
the positive element normal.
PNU(E) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on the element
via user subroutine VDLOAD. The
Available for RAX2 elements only:

BR(S) Body force FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the
radial direction.
BZ(S) Body force FL−3 Body force per unit volume in the
axial direction.
BRNU(S) Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force per unit
volume in the radial direction, with
the magnitude supplied via user
subroutine DLOAD.
30.3.2–3
Abaqus ID:
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BZNU(S) Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force per unit

volume in the z-direction, with
the magnitude supplied via user
subroutine DLOAD.
CENT(S) Not supported FL−4 (ML− Centrifugal load (magnitude given as

3
T−2 ) , where is the mass density and
is the angular speed). Since only
axisymmetric deformation is allowed,
the spin axis must be the z-axis.
HP(S) Not supported FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the element

surface and linear in global Z. The
P Pressure FL−2 Pressure on the element surface. The

PNU Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on the element

surface with the magnitude supplied
Abaqus/Explicit. The pressure is
element normal.

UTRACLOAD.

surface.
TRVECNU(S) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on the

UTRACLOAD.
30.3.2–4
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Available for R3D3 and R3D4 elements only:

BX(S) Body force FL−3 Body force in the global X-direction.

(S) −3
BY Body force FL Body force in the global Y-direction.
(S) −3
BXNU(S) Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the global
via user subroutine DLOAD.
BYNU(S) Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the global
BZNU(S) Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in the global
velocity).
for in direct steady-state dynamics
analysis.
HP(S) Not supported FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the element
PNU Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on the element
30.3.2–5
Abaqus ID:
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element normal.
(S) −2
TRSHRNU Not supported FL Nonuniform shear traction on the
UTRACLOAD.
surface.
TRVECNU(S) Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform general traction on the
UTRACLOAD.
Abaqus/Aqua loads
Available for R3D3 and R3D4 elements only:

*DLOAD)
PB(A) Not supported FL−2 Buoyancy force.
Available for RB2D2 and RB3D2 elements only:

*DLOAD)
FDD(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse fluid drag force.

(A)
FD1 Not supported F Fluid drag force on the first end of the
rigid link (node 1).
the rigid link (node 2).
30.3.2–6
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*DLOAD)
FI(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse fluid inertia load.
(A)
FI1 Not supported F Fluid inertia load on the first end of
FI2(A) Not supported F Fluid inertia load on the second end of
PB(A) Not supported FL−1 Buoyancy force (with closed-end
condition).
WDD(A) Not supported FL−1 Transverse wind drag force.
WD1(A) Not supported F Wind drag force on the first end of the
rigid link (node 1).
Distributed loads
Available for RAX2, R3D3, and R3D4 elements only:


pressure is positive in the direction
pressure is positive in the direction
surface with the magnitude supplied
30.3.2–7
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the surface normal.
(S) −2
TRSHRNU Surface traction FL Nonuniform shear traction on the
UTRACLOAD.
surface.
UTRACLOAD.
Element output
None.
30.3.2–8
Abaqus ID:
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2
R2D2, RAX2
RB2D2, RB3D2
1
R3D3
2
1
4 3
R3D4
1 2
30.3.2–9
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CAPACITANCE ELEMENTS
30.4 Capacitance elements
• “Point capacitance,” Section 30.4.1

• “Capacitance element library,” Section 30.4.2
30.4–1
Abaqus ID:
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POINT CAPACITANCE
30.4.1 POINT CAPACITANCE
References
• “Capacitance element library,” Section 30.4.2

• *HEATCAP
• “Defining heat capacitance,” Section 33.5 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
Capacitance elements:
• allow the introduction of concentrated heat capacitance at a point;
• are associated with the temperature degree of freedom at a node; and
• have a capacitance that can be specified as a function of temperature and/or field variables.
Defining the capacitance value
The heat capacitance is associated with the temperature degree of freedom at the node of the element.
You specify the capacitance magnitude, (density × specific heat × volume). Specify capacitance,
not specific heat. You must associate this capacitance with a region of your model.
Input File Usage: *HEATCAP, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of HEATCAP elements.

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property or Interaction module: Special→Inertia→Create: Heat
capacitance: select points: Capacitance
30.4.1–1
Abaqus ID:
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CAPACITANCE LIBRARY
30.4.2 CAPACITANCE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Point capacitance,” Section 30.4.1

• *HEATCAP
Overview
This section provides a reference to the capacitance elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element type
HEATCAP Point heat capacitance

11
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: *HEATCAP

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property or Interaction module: Special→Inertia→Create:
Heat capacitance
None.
Element output
None.
1 node.
30.4.2–1
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
31. Connector Elements
Connector elements 31.1

Connector element behavior 31.2
Abaqus ID:
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
31.1 Connector elements
• “Connectors: overview,” Section 31.1.1

• “Connector elements,” Section 31.1.2
• “Connector actuation,” Section 31.1.3
• “Connector element library,” Section 31.1.4
• “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5
31.1–1
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CONNECTORS: OVERVIEW
31.1.1 CONNECTORS: OVERVIEW
Abaqus offers a library of connector types and connector elements to model the behavior of connectors.
Overview
Connector modeling consists of:

• choosing and defining the appropriate connector elements (“Connector elements,” Section 31.1.2);
• defining the connector behavior (“Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1);
• defining any connector actuations (“Connector actuation,” Section 31.1.3); and
• monitoring connector output (“Connector elements,” Section 31.1.2, and “Connector element
library,” Section 31.1.4).
The analyst is often faced with modeling problems in which two different parts are connected in some
way. Sometimes connections are simple, such as two panels of sheet metal spot welded together or a
door connected to a frame with a hinge. In other cases the connection may impose more complicated
kinematic constraints, such as constant velocity joints, which transmit constant spinning velocity
between misaligned and moving shafts. In addition to imposing kinematic constraints, connections
may include (nonlinear) force versus displacement (or velocity) behavior in their unconstrained relative
motion components, such as a muscle force resisting the rotation of a knee joint in a crash-test occupant
model. More complex connections may include the following:
• stopping mechanisms, which restrict the range of motion of an otherwise unconstrained relative
motion;
• internal friction, such as the lateral force or moments on a bolt generating friction in the translation
of the bolt along a slot;
• failure conditions, where excess force or displacement inside the connection causes the entire
connection or a single component of relative motion to break free; and
• locking mechanisms that engage after some force or displacement criteria is met, such as a snap-fit
connector or a falling-pin locking mechanism on a satellite deployment arm.
In many situations the connection can be actuated either through displacement or force control, such as
a hydraulic piston or a gear-driven robot arm.
In Abaqus/Standard if the two parts being connected are rigid bodies, multi-point constraints cannot
be used to connect the bodies at nodes other than the reference nodes, since multi-point constraints use
degree-of-freedom elimination and the other nodes on a rigid body do not have independent degrees
of freedom. In Abaqus/Explicit this restriction does not apply. See “General multi-point constraints,”
Section 34.2.2.
31.1.1–1
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Connector elements in Abaqus provide an easy and versatile way to model these and many other
types of physical mechanisms whose geometry is discrete (i.e., node-to-node), yet the kinematic and
kinetic relationships describing the connection are complex.
Connector elements versus multi-point constraints
In many instances connector elements perform functions similar to multi-point constraints (“General
multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2). However, in most cases multi-point constraints eliminate
degrees of freedom at one of the nodes involved in the connection. This elimination has the advantage
that the problem size is reduced; it has the disadvantage that output and other functionality provided
with connector elements is not available. In addition, in Abaqus/Standard the degree of freedom
elimination prevents the use of multi-point constraints between nodes without independent degrees of
freedom (such as nodes on a rigid body whose degrees of freedom are dependent on the degrees of
freedom at the reference node).
In contrast, connector elements do not eliminate degrees of freedom; kinematic constraints are
enforced with Lagrange multipliers. These Lagrange multipliers are additional solution variables
in Abaqus/Standard. The Lagrange multipliers provide constraint force and moment output. Since
connector elements do not eliminate degrees of freedom, they can be used in many situations where
multi-point constraints cannot be used or do not exist for the function required; for example, to connect
two rigid bodies at nodes other than the reference node in Abaqus/Standard.
Multi-point constraints are more efficient than connector elements; and if the requirements of the
analysis can be satisfied with multi-point constraints, they should be used in place of connector elements.
Input file template
The following template shows the options used to define and activate the connector elements shown in
Figure 31.1.1–1 and Figure 31.1.1–2. In the respective figures on the left is a schematic representation
of a connection to be modeled; on the right is a representation of the equivalent finite element model.
All options are discussed in detail in the following sections.
extensible b node 12
range
7.5
a 1 (local orientation)
2
node 11
Figure 31.1.1–1 Simplified connector model of a shock absorber.
31.1.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
2.0
body 2
15.0
node 120
2
node 120
⇒ 1 (local orientation)
node 110
2 node 110
body 1
45° 1
global directions
Figure 31.1.1–2 A pin-in-slot connection modeled with SLOT and CARDAN connection types.
*HEADING
...
*ELEMENT, TYPE=CONN3D2, ELSET=shock
101, 11, 12
*ELEMENT, TYPE=CONN3D2, ELSET=pininslot
1010, 110, 120
...
*ORIENTATION, NAME=ori60
0.5, 0.866025, 0.0, -0.866025, 0.5, 0.0
0.707, 0.707, 0.0, -0.707, 0.707, 0.0
*CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=shock, BEHAVIOR=sbehavior
revolute, slot
ori60,
...
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, NAME=sbehavior
*CONNECTOR DAMPING, COMPONENT=1
1500.0
*CONNECTOR LOCK, COMPONENT=3, LOCK=4
, , -500.0, 500.0
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, COMPONENT=4, NONLINEAR
-900., -0.7
0., 0.0
1250., 0.7
*CONNECTOR CONSTITUTIVE REFERENCE
31.1.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
, , , 22.5,
*CONNECTOR STOP, COMPONENT=1
7.5, 15.0
...
*CONNECTOR FRICTION
0.34, 0.55, 0.0
0.34, 0.10, 0.45
*FRICTION
.15
...
*CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=pininslot
cardan, slot
ori45,
*CONNECTOR MOTION
pininslot, 4
pininslot, 5
...
*STEP
...
*CONNECTOR MOTION, TYPE=VELOCITY
pininslot, 6, 0.7854
...
*CONNECTOR LOAD
...
*END STEP
31.1.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
31.1.2 CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
References

• *CONNECTOR SECTION
• “Creating connector sections,” Section 15.12.11 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
• “Creating and modifying connector section assignments,” Section 15.12.12 of the Abaqus/CAE
User’s Manual, in the online HTML version of this manual
Overview
Connector elements:
• are available for two-dimensional, axisymmetric, and three-dimensional analyses;
• can define a connection between two nodes (each node can be connected to a rigid part, a deformable
part, or not connected to any part);
• can define a connection between a node and ground;
• have relative displacements and rotations that are local to the element, which are referred to as
components of relative motion;
• are functionally defined by specifying the connector attributes;
• have comprehensive kinematic and kinetic output; and
• can be used to monitor kinematics in local coordinate systems.
Two connector elements are provided. The element type to be chosen depends on the dimensionality
of the analysis: CONN2D2 for two-dimensional and axisymmetric analyses and CONN3D2 for three-
dimensional analyses. Both connector elements have at most two nodes. The position and motion of the
second node on the connector element are measured relative to the first node.
Naming convention
Connector elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
31.1.2–1
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
CONN 3D 2
number of nodes
two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D)
connector
For example, CONN2D2 is a two-dimensional, 2-node connector element.
Defining a connection between points
A connector element can be used to connect two points.

Input File Usage: *ELEMENT, TYPE=name
connector element number, node_1, node_2
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: Connector→Assignment→Create: select wires
Defining a connection between a point and ground
A connector element can be connected to ground, and the ground “node” can be the first or second point
on the connector element. The initial position of the ground node used for calculating relative position
and displacement is the initial position of the other point on the element. All displacements and rotations
at the ground node, if they exist, are fixed.
*ELEMENT, TYPE=name
connector element number, node number on the body
*ELEMENT, TYPE=name
connector element number, , node number on the body
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: Connector→Assignment→Create:
select wires connected to ground
Components of relative motion
Connector elements have relative displacements and rotations that are local to the element. These relative
displacements and rotations are referred to as components of relative motion. In the three-dimensional
case connector elements use 12 nodal degrees of freedom to define six relative motion components: three
displacements and three rotations in element local directions. In two dimensions six nodal degrees of
31.1.2–2
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
freedom define three relative motion components: two displacements and one rotation. The components
of relative motion are either constrained or unconstrained (“available”), depending upon the definition
of the connector element.
Constrained components of relative motion

Constrained components of relative motion are displacements and rotations that are fixed by the
connector element.
In connector elements with constrained components of relative motion, Abaqus/Standard uses
Lagrange multipliers to enforce the kinematic constraints. Accordingly, in Abaqus/Standard the
constraint forces and moments carried by the element appear as additional solution variables. The
number of additional solution variables is equal to the number of constrained components of relative
motion. In Abaqus/Explicit the constraints are enforced using an augmented Lagrangian technique for
which no additional solution variables are needed.
Available components of relative motion

Available components of relative motion are displacements and rotations that are not constrained
kinematically and, hence, remain available for defining material-like behavior, specifying
time-dependent motion, applying loading, or assigning complex interactions, such as contact or
friction. Many connection types have available components of relative motion, and their meaning is
described in “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, for each individual connection type.
Defining the connection attributes
The connection attributes define the connector element’s function. In the most general case you specify
the following attributes:
• the connection type or types,
• the local directions associated with the connector’s nodes,
• additional data for certain connection types, and
• the connector behavior.
The connector definition that is defined with these attributes is associated with a set of connector elements.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module:
Connector→Geometry→Create Wire Feature
Connector→Section→Create: Name: connector section name
Connector→Assignment→Create: select wires: Section:
connector section name
Defining the connection type

Abaqus provides a comprehensive library of connection types. See “Connection-type library,”
Section 31.1.5, for the available connection types. The connection types are divided into three
categories: basic connection components, assembled connections, and complex connections. The basic
31.1.2–3
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
connection components affect either translations or rotations on the second node. A connector element
may include one translational basic connection component and/or one rotational basic connection
component. The assembled connections are constructed from the basic connection components.
They are provided for convenience and cannot be combined in the same connector element definition
with a basic connection component or other assembled connections. Complex connections affect a
combination of degrees of freedom at the nodes in the connection and cannot be combined with other
connection components.
The connection type is specified as:
• a single basic connection type (translational or rotational),

• one translational and one rotational basic connection type,
• one assembled connection type, or
• one complex connection type.
*CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=name
basic connection type, basic connection type
assembled connection or complex connection
Connector→Section→Create: Connection Category: Basic,
Translational type: translational basic connection type and/or
Rotational type: rotational basic connection type
or
Connector→Section→Create: Connection Category:
Assembled/Complex, Assembled/Complex type: assembled
connection or complex connection
Defining the local connector directions

Local directions at the nodes are often required to define the connection types used to define the
connector element. The local directions and how they are used to define the connection are described in
“Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5. In the most general case the connection type uses two sets of
local directions, which are defined as described in “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5. The names associated
with the two orientation definitions must be referred to from the connector section definition.
Input File Usage: Use the following options for the most general case:
*ORIENTATION, NAME=orientation_1
*ORIENTATION, NAME=orientation_2
basic connection type(s) or assembled connection
orientation_1 for first node (or ground), orientation_2 for
second node (or ground)
31.1.2–4
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: Connector→Assignment→Create: select wires:

Orientation 1, Orientation 2: Edit: select the orientations for the first
and second points, respectively, of the selected wires
Degree of freedom activation and co-rotation of connection directions

Many connection types either require connection directions at the nodes on the element or allow optional
directions to be defined. In cases where an orientation definition is permitted for defining connection
directions (required or optional), connector elements activate the rotational degrees of freedom at the
nodes to which they are attached, if they do not exist already. The only exception is connection type
JOIN, for which connection directions are optional at the first node of the element, but rotation degrees
of freedom are not activated.
The connector element’s orientation directions co-rotate with the rotational degrees of freedom at
the corresponding node on the element. If there is no element with rotational degrees of freedom or
rotation constraint (such as an equation or a multi-point constraint) attached to the node, you must ensure
that sufficient rotational boundary conditions are provided to avoid numerical singularities associated
with unconstrained rotational degrees of freedom. Connection type JOIN uses fixed directions when
rotational degrees of freedom are not active at the nodes on the connector element.
Example
Figure 31.1.2–1 illustrates the use of the CONN3D2 element to connect two bodies with a cylindrical-
like connector oriented at 60° from the global 1-axis. On the left is a schematic representation of the
connection to be modeled; on the right is a representation of the equivalent finite element model. See
“Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, for a list of connector type names.
range
7.5
2
node 11
The connection requires node b to remain on the line of the shock absorber, which is determined
by the position and orientation directions of node a. Furthermore, the two rotation components
perpendicular to the line of the shock absorber at node b must be the same as those at node a. Hence,
the only relative motion components permitted in the connection are the displacement of node b relative
to node a along the line of the shock absorber and the rotation of node b relative to node a about the
line of the shock absorber. This displacement and this rotation are the available components of relative
motion. The connector is defined using the following lines in the input file:
31.1.2–5
Abaqus ID:
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
*ELEMENT, TYPE=CONN3D2, ELSET=shock

101, 11, 12
*CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=shock
slot, revolute
ori60,
**Defines the local 1-direction along the slot (required)
**Also defines the rotation axis for the revolute (required)
0.5, 0.866025, 0.0, -0.866025, 0.5, 0.0
Alternatively, you could use the assembled connection type CYLINDRICAL instead of the two basic
connection types SLOT and REVOLUTE.
Defining additional connection type data

Some connection types allow additional data to define the kinematic behavior of the connector. For
example, the connection type FLOW-CONVERTER allows you to specify a scaling factor for material
flow at node b. See “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, for more information.
Defining the connector behavior

Abaqus provides comprehensive kinetic behavior modeling in the available components of relative
motion. Defining connector behavior is optional and can be used to incorporate spring, dashpot,
node-to-node contact, locking, friction, plasticity-like effects, and failure. The kinetic modeling
capabilities in connectors are described in detail in “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1.
Using connector elements in two-dimensional and axisymmetric analysis
Not all connection types can be used with element type CONN2D2. The connection-type library contains
many connection types whose mechanics are valid for three-dimensional analyses only. In other cases
the local directions required in the definition of the connection type conflict with the two-dimensional
coordinate system. See “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, for more information.
Using multiple connector elements in parallel
Connector elements in Abaqus allow most physical connections to be modeled with a single connector
element. However, in certain circumstances more complex connections or output considerations may
require multiple connector elements to be used in parallel. This is accomplished by defining two or more
connector elements between the same nodes. In this case you must ensure that a constrained component
of relative motion in one connector element is not constrained (either by a kinematic constraint or through
motion specified as described in “Connector actuation,” Section 31.1.3) by one of the other connector
elements.
Multiple connector elements are sometimes used in parallel to obtain output in different coordinate
systems. For a connector element between two bodies, the local directions at the nodes can be determined
by the requirements of the connection type. However, output may be needed in a different, possibly
31.1.2–6
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CONNECTOR ELEMENTS
co-rotating, coordinate system. For example, the angular acceleration history could be reported in a local,
body-fixed coordinate system (other than the one used to define the connector element) by using a second
connector element (such as connection type CARDAN) that does not impose kinematic constraints or
use connector behavior but aligns with the desired local output directions.
Defining connectors in a model that contains parts and an assembly
An Abaqus model can be defined in terms of an assembly of part instances (see “Defining an assembly,”
Section 2.10.1). Connector elements can be defined at either the part level or the assembly level in such
a model.
Using connector elements with nodal transformations
Nodal transformations (see “Transformed coordinate systems,” Section 2.1.5) can be defined for either
node connected to the connector element. Since these transformations affect only the nodal degrees of
freedom, their use does not affect the behavior of the connector element. Connector elements operate on
components of motion local to the connection.
Using nonlinear connections in geometrically linear analyses
If a connector element with a nonlinear kinematic constraint is used in a geometrically linear analysis,
the kinematic constraint is linearized. For example, if connection type LINK is used in a geometrically
linear analysis, the distance between the two nodes is held constant after projection onto the direction
of the line between the original positions of the nodes. The difference should be noticeable only if the
magnitudes of the rotations and displacements are not small.
Mismatched masses at connector nodes in Abaqus/Explicit
If the nodes of a connector element in Abaqus/Explicit have masses that are highly mismatched, the
implicit solver may encounter convergence problems due to the resulting ill-conditioned coefficient
matrix. To prevent this from happening, if the nodal masses or rotary inertias of a connector element
differ by more than three orders of magnitude, Abaqus/Explicit adds mass/rotary inertia to the connector
element node that has the smaller mass/rotary inertia. The mass/rotary inertia added is negligibly
small (less than three orders of magnitude smaller) compared to the larger of the connector element’s
nodal inertias. This additional mass almost never affects the solution significantly. However, in certain
situations (for example, for a strongly dynamic analysis that has connector elements with highly
mismatched nodal masses) this adjustment may have a noticeable effect.
Connector output
The connector element force, moment, and kinematic output is defined in “Connector element library,”
Section 31.1.4. These output quantities include total, elastic, viscous, and friction forces and moments.
In addition, reaction forces and moments caused by connector stops and locks are available as well as
connector contact forces used for friction calculation.
31.1.2–7
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To obtain accurate reaction force and moment output for connectors from Abaqus/Explicit, it may
sometimes be necessary to run the analysis in double precision. In such situations a double precision run
will also yield a better estimate of the work done by the reaction forces and moments, thereby providing
a more accurate value of the energy due to the external work reported by Abaqus/Explicit.
Kinematic output includes relative position, relative displacement, relative velocity, relative
acceleration, frictional slip, and constitutive displacements (the displacement used in the elastic force
and hysteretic friction calculations defined as the difference between the current relative positions
and the reference positions; see “Defining reference lengths and angles for constitutive response”
in “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1). For relative rotations the Abaqus convention of reporting
angles between and radians is not used with connector elements. Connector element output
of angles and rotational components or relative motion includes accumulated multiple rotations whose
magnitudes can be arbitrarily large. Energy output is available, as are output flags to identify whether a
connector has failed (in Abaqus/Explicit only), locked, or reached a connector stop.
In a geometrically linear step in Abaqus/Standard the relative position output variable does not
change (in the same fashion that the nodal coordinates are output). Therefore, care must be exercised in
interpreting output for connector stops and locks since they use updated coordinates.
Using connector elements for output only
Connector elements defined without kinematic constraints or constitutive behavior can be used
to monitor kinematic output in local coordinate systems. Quantities of interest include relative
position, displacement, velocity, and acceleration in local coordinate parametrization. Finite rotation
parametrizations include Euler and Cardan angles, rotation vector, and flexion-torsion-sweep. For
an example that uses a connector element to monitor Euler angles, see “Motion of a rigid body in
Abaqus/Standard,” Section 1.3.6 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual.
In Abaqus/Explicit all such connectors are solved without invoking the implicit solver, which leads
to better performance in domain parallel mode (particularly when such connectors nodes overlap with
other constraints such as slave nodes of tie constraints).
31.1.2–8
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31.1.3 CONNECTOR ACTUATION
References

• *CONNECTOR LOAD
• *CONNECTOR MOTION
• “Defining a connector force,” Section 16.9.13 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
• “Defining a connector moment,” Section 16.9.14 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
• “Defining a connector displacement boundary condition,” Section 16.10.5 of the Abaqus/CAE
User’s Manual, in the online HTML version of this manual
• “Defining a connector velocity boundary condition,” Section 16.10.6 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s
Manual, in the online HTML version of this manual
• “Defining a connector acceleration boundary condition,” Section 16.10.7 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s
Manual, in the online HTML version of this manual
Overview
Connector actuation:
• is meant to model situations, such as deployment maneuvers, where a motor attached to the body
loads the connection with an internal force or moment history or a hydraulic system imposes a
known motion;
• can be used to fix available components of relative motion; and
• consists of driving an available component of relative motion by a prescribed displacement
(rotation) or by a specified force (moment).
The prescribed relative motions and loads are in the local directions associated with the available
components of relative motion for the connector.
Prescribing displacements/rotations for available components of relative motion that also include
connector stop or connector lock behaviors may lead to overconstraints. Abaqus will issue a warning
message if an overconstraint occurs.
Fixing available components of relative motion
A common practice is to fix available components of motion. Such fixed motion conditions can be used
to customize connection types for specific applications. As an example, the REVOLUTE connection
type uses the local 1-direction as the shared revolute axis and, hence, the available component of relative
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motion. If, for convenience, a revolute connection about the local 3-direction were needed, you could
fix the relative rotations about the local 1- and 2-directions in a CARDAN connection type. In doing so,
a connection type identical to the REVOLUTE connection type would be created; however, the shared
axis would be the local 3-direction instead of the local 1-direction.
An example is provided later in this section in which the pin part of a pin-in-slot connection is
modeled with a CARDAN connection type with fixed rotations.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in the model portion of the input file to fix available
connector components of relative motion:
*CONNECTOR MOTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Load module: Create Boundary Condition: Step: Initial:
Mechanical: Connector displacement
Displacement-controlled actuation
You can specify a relative displacement, velocity, or acceleration between two parts in the connector’s
local directions in a manner similar to defining a boundary condition (see “Boundary conditions in
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.3.1). You specify the connector element set name
or connector element number; the component number identifying the available component of relative
motion being actuated; and the value of the relative displacement, velocity, or acceleration.
You cannot specify the motion of connectors in a subspace dynamic analysis.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in the history portion of the input file to specify a
relative displacement for a connector:
*CONNECTOR MOTION, AMPLITUDE=name, OP=MOD or NEW,
TYPE=DISPLACEMENT
Use the following option in the history portion of the input file to specify a
relative velocity for a connector:
TYPE=VELOCITY
Use the following option in the history portion of the input file to specify a
relative acceleration for a connector:
TYPE=ACCELERATION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Load module: Create Boundary Condition: Mechanical: Connector
displacement, Connector velocity, or Connector acceleration
Example
Figure 31.1.3–1 illustrates a pin-in-slot connection oriented at 45° from the global 1-axis modeled with
element type CONN3D2.
31.1.3–2
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2.0
body 2
15.0
node 120
2
node 120
⇒ 1 (local orientation)
node 110
2 node 110
body 1
45° 1
global directions
Figure 31.1.3–1 A pin-in-slot connection modeled with SLOT and CARDAN connection types.
The figure on the left is a schematic representation of the connection to be modeled, while the figure
on the right is the finite element mesh. Displacements in the slot are allowed only along the line of
the slot, and connection type SLOT is appropriate for enforcing these kinematics. Assume the pin and
slot are constructed in such a way that the only rotation of the pin relative to the slot is along the local
3-direction. This is a revolute constraint; however, basic rotation connection type REVOLUTE uses the
local 1-direction as the revolute axis. In this case connection type CARDAN combined with a specified
constraint can be used to define a revolute-type connection with the appropriate revolute axis.
For illustrative purposes assume the connection is actuated by a rotational velocity of radians
per second around the pin’s axis. Using input parametrization for convenience, the following lines are
used:
*PARAMETER
PI = 3.141592
rotangvel = PI/4
...
*ELEMENT, TYPE=CONN3D2, ELSET=pininslot
101, 110, 120
*CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=pininslot
cardan, slot
ori45,
*CONNECTOR MOTION
pininslot, 4
pininslot, 5
0.707, 0.707, 0.0, -0.707, 0.707, 0.0
...
31.1.3–3
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*STEP
...
*CONNECTOR MOTION, TYPE=VELOCITY
pininslot, 6, <rotangvel>
...
*END STEP
Force-controlled actuation
You can specify concentrated loads applied to the available components of relative motion in a
manner similar to defining concentrated loads for other elements in Abaqus (see “Concentrated loads,”
Section 33.4.2). However, connector loads are always follower loads that rotate with the rotation of the
available components of relative motion as the connector element moves. You specify the connector
element set name or connector element number, the component number identifying the available
component of relative motion being loaded, and the value of the actuation force or moment.
Input File Usage: Use the following option in the history portion of the input file to specify a
concentrated load for a connector:
*CONNECTOR LOAD, AMPLITUDE=name, OP=MOD
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Load module: Create Load: Mechanical: Connector force
or Connector moment
Example
Returning to the example in Figure 31.1.3–1, assume that the pin is pushed along the slot by a constant
force of 1000.0 units (for example, through a hydraulic system). The following lines should be added to
the input file:
*STEP
...
*CONNECTOR LOAD
...
*END STEP
Connector actuation in linear perturbation procedures
Nonzero magnitude connector motions are allowed only in the eigenvalue buckling, direct-solution
steady-state dynamic, and linear static perturbation procedures. Any nonzero magnitude specified
during an eigenfrequency extraction procedure is ignored, and the specified available component of
relative motion is held fixed. Connector motions cannot be used in any modal-based procedure.
In direct-solution steady-state dynamic analyses the real and imaginary parts of any available
connector component of relative motion are either restrained or unrestrained simultaneously; it is
physically impossible to have one part restrained and the other part unrestrained. Abaqus/Standard
will automatically restrain both the real and the imaginary parts of a component of relative motion
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even when only one part is prescribed specifically. The unspecified part will be assumed to have a
perturbation magnitude of zero.
A nonzero prescribed connector motion in an eigenvalue buckling step will contribute to the
incremental stress and, thus, will contribute to the differential initial stress stiffness. When prescribing
nonzero connector motions, you must interpret the resulting eigenproblem carefully. See the discussion
for boundary conditions in “Eigenvalue buckling prediction,” Section 6.2.3, for more details.
In steady-state dynamic analyses both real and imaginary connector loads can be applied in a
manner similar to concentrated loads (see “Mode-based steady-state dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.8;
“Direct-solution steady-state dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.4; and “Subspace-based steady-state
dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.9). Multiple connector load cases can be defined in random response
analyses (see “Random response analysis,” Section 6.3.11) in the same manner as concentrated loads.
Connector loads are ignored during an eigenfrequency extraction analysis.
31.1.3–5
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31.1.4 CONNECTOR ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR
• *CONNECTOR LOAD
Overview
This section provides a reference to the connector elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
Connector in a plane
CONN2D2 Connector element between two nodes or ground and a node.

1, 2, 6 for the most general connection types.

In Abaqus/Standard there can be up to three additional constraint variables related to forces and a moment
associated with the connector. The number of additional constraint variables depends on the connection
type.
Connector in space
CONN3D2 Connector element between two nodes or ground and a node.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 for the most general connection types.

In Abaqus/Standard there can be up to six additional constraint variables related to forces and moments
associated with the connector. The number of additional constraint variables depends on the connection
type.
31.1.4–1
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CONN2D2: X, Y
CONN3D2: X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR SECTION

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: Connector→Section→Create
Use connector loads to apply loading to the available components of relative motion. Prescribe connector
motion to specify relative kinematics (zero or nonzero values) for the available components of relative
motion. See “Connector actuation,” Section 31.1.3, for details.
Element output
Total force components

CTF1 Total force in the 1-direction.
CTM1 Total moment about the 1-direction.
The total force is obtained as CTF = CEF + CVF + CUF + CSF + CRF – CCF.
Elastic force components

CEF1 Elastic force in the 1-direction.
CEM1 Elastic moment about the 1-direction.
Elastic displacement components

CUE1 Elastic displacement in the 1-direction.
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CURE1 Elastic rotation about the 1-direction.
Plastic relative displacement components

CUP1 Plastic relative displacement in the 1-direction.
CURP1 Plastic relative rotation about the 1-direction.
Equivalent plastic relative displacement components

CUPEQ1 Equivalent plastic relative displacement in the 1-direction.
CURPEQ1 Equivalent plastic relative rotation about the 1-direction.
CUPEQC Equivalent plastic relative motion for a coupled plasticity definition.
Kinematic hardening shift force components

CALPHAF1 Kinematic hardening shift force in the 1-direction.
CALPHAM1 Kinematic hardening shift moment about the 1-direction.
Viscous force components

CVF1 Viscous force in the 1-direction.
CVM1 Viscous moment about the 1-direction.
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Uniaxial force components

Connector uniaxial behavior can be defined only in Abaqus/Explicit; therefore, there is no uniaxial force
output available in Abaqus/Standard.
CUF1 Uniaxial force in the 1-direction.
CUM1 Uniaxial moment in the 1-direction.
Friction force components

CSF1 Force due to frictional stress in the 1-direction.
CSM1 Frictional moment about the 1-direction.
CSFC Force due to frictional stress in the instantaneous slip direction. Available only for
predefined or user-defined coupled friction interactions.
Contact force components generating friction

CNF1 Contact force generating friction in the 1-direction.
CNM1 Contact moment generating friction about the 1-direction.
CNFC Contact force generating friction in the instantaneous slip direction.
Total overall damage components

CDMG1 Overall damage variable in the 1-direction.
CDMGR1 Overall damage variable along the 1-direction.
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Connector force-based damage initiation criteria

CDIF1 Connector force-based damage initiation criterion in the 1-direction.
CDIFR1 Connector force-based damage initiation criterion along the 1-direction.
CDIFC Connector force-based damage initiation criterion in the instantaneous slip direction.
Connector motion-based damage initiation criteria

CDIM1 Connector motion-based damage initiation criterion in the 1-direction.
CDIMR1 Connector motion-based damage initiation criterion along the 1-direction.
CDIMC Connector motion-based damage initiation criterion in the instantaneous slip
direction.
Connector plastic motion-based damage initiation criteria

CDIP1 Connector plastic motion-based damage initiation criterion in the 1-direction.
CDIPR1 Connector plastic motion-based damage initiation criterion along the 1-direction.
CDIPC Connector plastic motion-based damage initiation criterion in the instantaneous slip
direction.
Connector lock or stop status

CSLSTi Flags for connector stop and connector lock status .
Friction-related accumulated slip

CASU1 Accumulated frictional slip in the 1-direction.
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CASUR1 Accumulated frictional rotation about the 1-direction.
CASUC Accumulated frictional slip in the instantaneous slip direction.
Frictional instantaneous velocity in the slip direction (available only if friction is defined in the
slip direction)
CIVC Friction-related instantaneous velocity in the slip direction.
Reaction force components due to kinematic constraints, connector locks, connector stops,
and prescribed connector motion
CRF1 Connector reaction force in the 1-direction.
CRM1 Connector reaction moment about the 1-direction.
Connector concentrated force components due to connector loads

CCF1 Connector concentrated force in the 1-direction.
CCM1 Connector concentrated moment about the 1-direction.
Relative position components

CP1 Relative position in the 1-direction.
CPR1 Relative angular position in the 1-direction.
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Relative displacement components

CU1 Relative displacement in the 1-direction.
CUR1 Relative rotation in the 1-direction.
Constitutive displacement components

CCU1 Constitutive displacement in the 1-direction.
CCUR1 Constitutive rotation in the 1-direction.
Relative velocity components

CV1 Relative velocity in the 1-direction.
CVR1 Relative angular velocity in the 1-direction.
Relative acceleration components

CA1 Relative acceleration in the 1-direction.
CAR1 Relative angular acceleration in the 1-direction.
Connector failure status

CFAILSTi Flags for connector failure status .
31.1.4–7
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2 2
or or
1 1
31.1.4–8
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31.1.5 CONNECTION-TYPE LIBRARY
References

Overview
The connection-type library contains:

• translational basic connection components, which affect translational degrees of freedom at both
nodes and may affect rotational degrees of freedom at the first node or at both nodes on the connector
element;
• rotational basic connection components, which affect only rotational degrees of freedom at both
nodes on the connector element;
• specialized rotational basic connection components, which in addition to rotational degrees of
freedom affect other degrees of freedom at the nodes on the connector element;
• assembled connections, which are predefined combinations of translational and rotational or
translational and specialized rotational basic connection components; and
• complex connections, which affect a combination of degrees of freedom at the nodes on the
connector element and cannot be combined with any other connection component.
Using the connection-type library
Each connection type is described in the connection-type library. Each library entry includes a figure,
which relates the physical behavior to the idealized model and defines the local coordinate directions.
Following the figure, each library entry defines kinematic constraints; constraint forces and moments
internal to the connection; components of relative motion available for defining the connector behavior,
connector motion, or connector loads (called available components); and kinetic forces and moments
conjugate to the available components of relative motion. If appropriate, a discussion of the predicted
Coulomb-like friction in the connection is included. Finally, the connection type is summarized in a
table.
Connection figures
A schematic drawing of each connection type is included along with the Abaqus idealization of
the connection. The idealization indicates in what sense available components of relative motion
are measured and how the nodes’ positions and orientation directions define the connection. When
31.1.5–1
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orientation directions are used to define the connection, the idealization shows these local directions
at the appropriate nodes. If available components of relative motion exist in the connection, they are
indicated in the figure as free relative motions. Figure 31.1.5–1 shows the connection figure for the
REVOLUTE connection type, which affects only rotations. It has one available component (the rotation
about the shared axis), requires an orientation at node a, and allows an optional orientation at node b.
e1b
e2a b
e3b
a
e
1
a e2b
e3a e1a e1b
Figure 31.1.5–1 Example connection type: REVOLUTE.
Orientation directions
The orientation directions at node a (the first node on the connector element) are indicated as unit base
vectors , where . Similarly, the orientation directions at node b are indicated as .
When orientation directions are required at a node, you must define them as described in “Orientations,”
Section 2.2.5. If orientation directions are optional but not provided at node a, the global directions are
used by default. If orientation directions are optional but not provided at node b, the orientation directions
from node a are used by default.
Connector elements activate rotational degrees of freedom at the nodes to which they are attached
if they do not exist already and an orientation is permitted at that node. The only exception is connection
type JOIN, where an orientation is optional at node a but rotation degrees of freedom are not activated.
The orientation directions co-rotate with the rotation of the node to which they are attached (with
the exception of connection type JOIN, which uses fixed directions when rotation degrees of freedom are
not active at node a). If there are no elements with rotational degrees of freedom attached to the node,
rotational multi-point constraints, or rotational equations, you must ensure that sufficient rotational
boundary conditions are provided to avoid numerical singularities associated with unconstrained
rotational degrees of freedom.
Components of relative motion and connector forces and moments

The six components of relative motion, denoted and for , are defined in the description
for each connection, where needed. These components include constrained and available components of
relative motion. Forces and moments are denoted and . These quantities are either constraint forces
and moments, which enforce the kinematic constraints on the constrained components of relative motion,
or kinetic forces and moments, which are the work conjugate variables to the available components of
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relative motion. For example, the REVOLUTE connection type has one available component of relative
motion, , and two kinematic rotation constraints (equivalent to setting two rotation components,
and , to zero). Conjugate to the available rotation component is the kinetic moment acting about
the local -direction.
In general, kinetic forces and moments include the effects of connector behaviors, such as elastic
springs, viscous damping, friction, and reaction forces and moments due to connector stops and locks.
For constitutive response defined as a function of displacement or rotation, the initial position may
not correspond with the reference position where constitutive forces and moments are zero. You can
define reference lengths and angles (given in degrees) for connector behavior as described in “Defining
reference lengths and angles for constitutive response” in “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1. These
reference quantities define and , the connector constitutive displacements and rotations.
These constitutive displacements and rotations are used only to define constitutive response and differ
from the relative displacements and rotations measured in the connector elements only when you define
the reference lengths or angles.
As an example, if the REVOLUTE connection included linear spring and dashpot behavior
combined with a connector stop,
where is the spring stiffness, is the dashpot coefficient, and is the reaction moment caused
by the connector stop. In the REVOLUTE connection there are two constraint moment components,
about and about .
Interpreting connector forces and moments

The kinematic constraint and kinetic forces and moments are always computed as work conjugates of
the kinematics in the connector (components of relative motion). In most connection types one direct
consequence is that the constraint forces (and moments) in connectors are reported as the forces (and
moments) applied at the second node but in the local system associated with the first node. Since the
kinematics are complex in many of the connection types, the connector forces and moments can be
somewhat surprising upon first inspection. For example, consider the case of a HINGE connection
defined with the local -direction aligned with the global X-direction and the local -direction aligned
with the global Y-direction. Assume that the second connector node is grounded and that the first node
is subjected to a concentrated load along the global Y-direction. If the only available relative rotation
in the HINGE is constrained with a zero-valued connector motion, the second node does not rotate with
respect to the first node and the connector reaction force along the local -direction matches the applied
load while the other two connector reaction forces are zero. However, if a nonzero connector motion is
specified, the first connector reaction force is still zero while both the second and third connector reaction
forces are nonzero and only the vector-norm of these two forces matches the applied load. In both cases
the only nonzero nodal reaction force at the second connector node is the one in the global Y-direction,
as dictated by the equilibrium in a free body diagram. Hence, the connector reaction forces and nodal
reaction forces are not equivalent in most cases.
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Coulomb-like friction behavior

Coulomb-like friction behavior is possible for any connection type that has available components
of relative motion; see “Connector friction behavior,” Section 31.2.5, for details. Friction behavior
requires a “tangent” direction (the direction in which slipping may occur) and a “normal” direction (the
direction perpendicular to the contacting surfaces). In the most general case you define the normal force
causing friction in the connector. However, Abaqus predefines friction behavior for a limited number of
connection types, as discussed in the connection-type library in this section. In these predefined friction
cases you do not have to define the contact normal force.
Summary table
Each connection library entry includes a table summarizing the connection type. This summary
table indicates whether the connection type is basic, assembled, or complex. It gives the kinematic
constraints; constraint force or moment components; available components of relative motion; “kinetic”
force or moment components following from the constitutive behavior in the available components of
relative motion; which orientation directions are required, optional, or ignored; how connector stops
limit the available components of relative motion; what reference lengths and angles are used to define
the constitutive behavior; what parameters are used for predefined Coulomb-like friction; and how the
contact normal forces are defined by Abaqus in association with predefined Coulomb-like friction.
Basic connection components
Basic connection components are divided into three categories:

• Translational basic connection components, which affect translational degrees of freedom at both
nodes and may affect rotational degrees of freedom at the first node or at both nodes
• Rotational basic connection components, which affect only rotational degrees of freedom at both
nodes
• Specialized rotational basic connection components, which in addition to rotational degrees of
freedom affect other degrees of freedom at the nodes
Only one translational basic connection component and one rotational or specialized rotational basic
connection component can be used in the definition of a connector element. If a more complicated
connection requires more basic connection components than this, use multiple connector elements
attached to the same nodes.
Translational basic connection components

The following basic connection components affect translational degrees of freedom at both node a and
node b. Some of these connector components affect rotational degrees of freedom at node a or at both
node a and node b. Any basic connection component from this list can be used to define the translational
behavior of a connector element.
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ACCELEROMETER Provide a connection between two nodes to measure the relative

acceleration, velocity, and position of a body in a local coordinate
system. This connection type is available only in Abaqus/Explicit.
If it is defined in an Abaqus/Standard model, it will be converted
internally to a CARTESIAN connector type.
AXIAL Provide a connection between two nodes that acts along the line
connecting the nodes.
CARTESIAN Provide a connection between two nodes that allows independent
behavior in three local Cartesian directions that follow the system
at node a.
JOIN Join the position of two nodes.
LINK Provide a pinned rigid link between two nodes to keep the distance
between the two nodes constant.
PROJECTION CARTESIAN Provide a connection between two nodes that allows independent
at both nodes a and b.
RADIAL-THRUST Provide a connection between two nodes that allows different
behavior for radial and thrust displacements.
SLIDE-PLANE Provide a slide-plane connection to make the position of the second
node remain on a plane defined by the orientation of the first node
and the initial position of the second node.
SLOT Provide a slot connection to make the position of the second node
remain on a line defined by the orientation of the first node and the
initial position of the second node.
Rotational basic connection components

The following basic connection components affect only rotational degrees of freedom at the nodes in the
connection. Any basic connection component from this list can be used to define the rotational behavior
of a connector element.
ALIGN Provide a connection between two nodes that aligns their local
directions.
CARDAN Provide a rotational connection between two nodes parameterized
by Cardan (or Bryant) angles.
CONSTANT VELOCITY Provide a constant velocity connection between two nodes.
EULER Provide a rotational connection between two nodes parameterized
by Euler angles.
FLEXION-TORSION Provide a connection between two nodes that allows different
behavior for flexural and torsional rotations.
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PROJECTION FLEXION- Provide a connection between two nodes that allows different
TORSION behavior for two flexural rotations and one torsional rotation.
REVOLUTE Provide a revolute connection between two nodes.
ROTATION Provide a rotational connection between two nodes parameterized
by the rotation vector.
ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER Provide a connection between two nodes to measure the relative
angular acceleration, velocity, and position of a body in a local
coordinate system. This connection type is available only in
Abaqus/Explicit. If it is defined in an Abaqus/Standard model, it
will be converted internally to a CARDAN connector type.
UNIVERSAL Provide a universal connection between two nodes.
Specialized rotational basic connection components

The following basic connection component affects rotational and other non-translational degrees of
freedom at the nodes in the connection. The specialized rotational basic connection component can be
combined with translational basic connection components.
FLOW-CONVERTER Provide a means of converting the material flow (degree of

freedom 10) at a connector node into a rotation.
Assembled connections
Assembled connections are included for convenience. Each assembled connection is created by
combinations of basic connection components. The equivalent basic connection components used for
each assembled connection are listed in parentheses.
BEAM Provide a rigid beam connection between two nodes. (JOIN +

ALIGN)
BUSHING Provide a connection between two nodes that allows independent
at both nodes a and b and that allows different behavior in two
flexural rotations and one torsional rotation. (PROJECTION
CARTESIAN + PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION)
CVJOINT Join the position of two nodes, and provide a constant velocity
connection between their rotational degrees of freedom. (JOIN +
CONSTANT VELOCITY)
CYLINDRICAL Provide a slot connection between two nodes, and constrain the
rotations by a revolute connection. (SLOT + REVOLUTE)
HINGE Join the position of two nodes, and provide a revolute
connection between their rotational degrees of freedom. (JOIN +
REVOLUTE)
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PLANAR Provide a slide-plane connection between two nodes with a

revolute connection about the normal direction to the plane. The
PLANAR connection creates a local two-dimensional system in
three-dimensional analyses. (SLIDE-PLANE + REVOLUTE)
RETRACTOR Join the position of two nodes, and convert material flow into
rotation. (JOIN + FLOW-CONVERTER)
TRANSLATOR Provide a slot connection between two nodes, and align their three
local axis directions. (SLOT + ALIGN)
UJOINT Join the position of two nodes, and provide a universal connection
between their rotational degrees of freedom at the nodes. (JOIN +
UNIVERSAL)
WELD Join the position of two nodes, and align their three local axis
directions. (JOIN + ALIGN)
Complex connections
Complex connections affect a combination of degrees of freedom at the nodes in the connection and
cannot be combined with other connection components. They typically model highly coupled physical
connections.
SLIPRING Model material flow and stretching between two points of a belt
system (such as an automotive seat belt).
Connection-type library
The following descriptions list all the basic connection components and assembled connections in
alphabetical order.
31.1.5–7
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ACCELEROMETER
Connection type ACCELEROMETER provides a convenient way to measure the relative position,
velocity, and acceleration of a body in a local coordinate system. These kinematic quantities are
measured relative to the motion of node a and are reported in the coordinate system of node b. Each
node of the connector can translate and rotate independently, although fixing the first of the two nodes
to ground is more common. With the first node fixed, connection type ACCELEROMETER provides a
convenient way to measure the local components of the velocity and acceleration in a coordinate system
fixed to a moving body (for example, an accelerometer).
Connection type ACCELEROMETER is available only in Abaqus/Explicit. It is the translation
counterpart to connection type ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER, which measures relative
angular position, velocity, and acceleration. ACCELEROMETER connections cannot be used in
two-dimensional and axisymmetric analyses in Abaqus/Explicit.
e3a
b
a e2a
e1a
Figure 31.1.5–2 Connection type ACCELEROMETER.
Description
The ACCELEROMETER connection does not impose kinematic constraints. It defines three local
directions at node a and three local directions at node b. The ACCELEROMETER connection’s
formulation is similar to that for the CARTESIAN connection. The ACCELEROMETER connection
measures the position of node b relative to node a
and
There are no available components of relative motion for the ACCELEROMETER connection. The
connector displacement components are
and
where , , and are the initial coordinates of node b relative to node a.
The ACCELEROMETER connection measures velocity and acceleration in the local directions
at node a as if node a were an inertial frame. In contrast to the CARTESIAN connection, the
31.1.5–8
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ACCELEROMETER connection reports the computed velocity and acceleration in the local directions
at node b. Let be the transformation from to . Then the ACCELEROMETER connection
measures velocity and acceleration as
and
where the derivatives above are time derivatives in a system moving with .
In two-dimensional and axisymmetric analyses .
Summary
ACCELEROMETER
Basic, assembled, or complex: Basic
Kinematic constraints: None
Constraint force output: None
Available components: None
Kinetic force output: None
Orientation at a: Optional
Orientation at b: Optional
Connector stops: None
Constitutive reference lengths: None
Predefined friction parameters: None
Contact force for predefined friction: None
31.1.5–9
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ALIGN
Connection type ALIGN provides a connection between two nodes where all three local directions are
aligned. If both local axes are given and do not align initially, their initial relative angular position is
held constant.
e3b
a
e3
b
e2b
a ea
2
e1b
a
e 1
Figure 31.1.5–3 Connection type ALIGN.
Description
The ALIGN connection imposes kinematic constraints only. The local directions at node b are set equal
to those at node a. If the local directions do not align initially, the ALIGN connection holds fixed the
Cardan angles between the local orientation directions at node b, , and those at node a,
. These fixed angular positions are the connector position output quantities. See connection
type CARDAN for a definition of Cardan angles.
The constraint moment enforcing the alignment of the local directions is
In two-dimensional analysis .
Summary
ALIGN
Kinematic constraints:
Constraint moment output:
Kinetic moment output: None
31.1.5–10
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ALIGN
Constitutive reference angles: None
31.1.5–11
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AXIAL
Connection type AXIAL provides a connection between two nodes where the relative displacement is
along the line separating the two nodes. It models discrete physical connections such as axial springs,
axial dashpots, or node-to-node (gap-like) contact.
u1
a
Figure 31.1.5–4 Connection type AXIAL.
Description
The AXIAL connection does not constrain any component of relative motion. The distance between
nodes a and b is
The available component of relative motion, , acts along the line connecting the two nodes, measures
the change in distance separating the two nodes, and is defined as
where is the initial distance from node a to b. The connector constitutive displacement is
The kinetic force is
where
In Abaqus/Standard an optional orientation can be provided at one of the nodes in an AXIAL

connection to provide direction for the force if the nodes are coincident or when one of the nodes is
a “ground node.” If the orientation is provided at both of the coincident nodes, the orientation at the
first node in the connectivity will be used. The orientation definitions remain fixed during the analysis
31.1.5–12
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and will be ignored when the two nodes separate. Rotational degrees of freedom are not activated for
connection type AXIAL.
Symbol plots in the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE display vector field output for the AXIAL
connector along the 1-direction of the orientation at the first node instead of along the line joining the two
nodes. If an orientation is not defined for the first node of the connector, the vector is displayed along
the 1-direction of the global coordinate system.
Summary
AXIAL

Available components:
Kinetic force output:
Connector stops:
Constitutive reference lengths:
31.1.5–13
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BEAM
Connection type BEAM provides a rigid beam connection between two nodes.
e2b
e2a
e1b
b
a e1a
e3b
e3a
Figure 31.1.5–5 Connection type BEAM.
Description
Connection type BEAM imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions equivalent
to combining connection types JOIN and ALIGN.
Summary
BEAM
Basic, assembled, or complex: Assembled
Kinematic constraints: JOIN + ALIGN
Constraint force and moment output:
Kinetic force and moment output: None
Constitutive reference lengths and angles: None
31.1.5–14
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BUSHING
Connection type BUSHING provides a bushing-like connection between two nodes. It cannot be used
in two-dimensional or axisymmetric analyses.
attached to
Part A
attached to Part A
deformable
material
attached to
Part B
attached to Part B
deformable material
(e.g. rubber)
Figure 31.1.5–6 Connection type BUSHING.
Description
Connection type BUSHING does not constrain any components of relative motion and uses local
orientation definitions equivalent to combining connection types PROJECTION CARTESIAN and
PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION.
Summary
BUSHING
Constraint force and moment output: None
31.1.5–15
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BUSHING
Kinetic force and moment output:
Orientation at a: Required
Connector stops:
Constitutive reference lengths and angles:

31.1.5–16
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CARDAN
Connection type CARDAN provides a rotational connection between two nodes where the relative
rotation between the nodes is parameterized by Cardan (or Bryant) angles. A Cardan-angle
parameterization of finite rotations is also called a 1–2–3 or yaw-pitch-roll parameterization.
Connection type CARDAN cannot be used in two-dimensional or axisymmetric analysis.
When connection type CARDAN is used with connector behavior, the relative rotation axis with the
highest resistance to rotational motion should be assigned to the second component of relative rotation
(component number 5) to avoid “gimbal lock,” a singularity in the rotation parameterization for relative
rotation angles .
α rotation β rotation γ rotation

e3a e3a e3a
e2b
α α
e2 γ
e3b β β
b
e 3
α α
e2a e2a e2a
β β γ
e1a e1a e1a e1b
Figure 31.1.5–7 Connection type CARDAN.
Description
The CARDAN connection does not impose kinematic constraints. A CARDAN connection is a finite
rotation connection where the local directions at node b are parameterized in terms of Cardan (or Bryant)
angles relative to the local directions at node a. Local directions are positioned relative to
by three successive finite rotations , , and as follows:
1. Rotate by radians about axis ;
2. Rotate by radians about the intermediate 2-axis, ; and
3. Rotate by radians about axis .
Rotation angle should be moderate (magnitude less than ), whereas and may be arbitrarily
large (i.e., magnitude greater than ). The Cardan angles are determined by the local directions as
31.1.5–17
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Here, m and n are integers that account for rotations with a magnitude greater than .
The three available components of relative motion in the CARDAN connection are the changes in
the Cardan angles positioning the local directions at node b relative to the local directions at node a.
Therefore,
and
where , , and are the initial Cardan angles. The connector constitutive rotations are
and
The kinetic moment in a CARDAN connection is determined from the three component
relationships:
and
Summary
CARDAN
Constraint moment output: None
Kinetic moment output:
Connector stops:
Constitutive reference angles:

31.1.5–18
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CARTESIAN
Connection type CARTESIAN provides a connection between two nodes where the change in position
is measured in three local connection directions for node a, shown in Figure 31.1.5–8.
e3a
b
a e2a
e1a
Figure 31.1.5–8 Connection type CARTESIAN.
Description
The CARTESIAN connection does not impose kinematic constraints. It defines three local directions
at node a and measures the change in position of node b along these local coordinate
directions. The local directions at node a follow the rotation of node a.
The position of node b relative to node a is
and
The available components of relative motion are
and
where , , and are the initial coordinates of node b relative to the local coordinate system at node a.
The connector constitutive displacements are
and
In two-dimensional analysis , , , and .
31.1.5–19
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Summary
CARTESIAN
Orientation at b: Ignored
Connector stops:

31.1.5–20
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CONSTANT VELOCITY
Connection type CONSTANT VELOCITY provides the rotational part of connection type CVJOINT.
It cannot be used in two-dimensional or axisymmetric analysis. Furthermore, the connection type does
not have available components of relative motion. To include connector behavior in flexural motion, use
connection type FLEXION-TORSION with the torsion angle set to zero.
This connection type models physical connectors that under certain conditions transmit a constant
spinning velocity about misaligned shafts.
e3a e2b
a b
e1b
a e2a e3b
e 1
Figure 31.1.5–9 Connection type CONSTANT VELOCITY.
Description
The shaft direction at node a is , and the shaft direction at node b is . The constant velocity constraint
is stated as follows. In any configuration there are two unit length orthogonal vectors and in the
plane perpendicular to the shaft at node b. These vectors can be written
and
The angle is chosen such that
The constant velocity constraint requires that the angle is constant at all times. The constant velocity
constraint is equivalent to constraining the torsion angle to be constant in a FLEXION-TORSION
connection.
The name “constant velocity” for this connection type derives from the following property. If the
angular velocities of the two shafts, and , have components only along each shaft, respectively, and
in the direction of the normal to the plane containing the two shafts (that is, along the direction),
the components of angular velocity along the respective shaft directions are equal:
Hence, the “spinning” angular velocity component is the same about each shaft.
31.1.5–21
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The constraint moment imposing the constant velocity constraint has a single component about the
average shaft direction and is written
Summary
CONSTANT VELOCITY
Kinetic moment output: None
Constitutive reference angles: None
31.1.5–22
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CVJOINT
Connection type CVJOINT joins the position of two nodes and provides a constant velocity
constraint between their rotational degrees of freedom. Connection type CVJOINT cannot be used in
two-dimensional or axisymmetric analysis.
e2b
e1a e3a
a, b b
e
b 1
e
3
ea2
Figure 31.1.5–10 Connection type CVJOINT.
Description
Connection type CVJOINT imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions
equivalent to combining connection types JOIN and CONSTANT VELOCITY.
Summary
CVJOINT
Kinematic constraints: JOIN + CONSTANT VELOCITY
31.1.5–23
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CYLINDRICAL
Connection type CYLINDRICAL provides a slot connection between two nodes and a revolute constraint
where the free rotation is about the line of the slot. It cannot be used in two-dimensional or axisymmetric
analysis.
e2a
e2b
e1b
u1
a e1a b
ur1
e3a e3b
Figure 31.1.5–11 Connection type CYLINDRICAL.
Description
Connection type CYLINDRICAL imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions
equivalent to combining connection types SLOT and REVOLUTE.
The connector constraint forces and moments reported as connector output depend strongly on
the order and the location of the nodes in the connector (see “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1).
Since the kinematic constraints are enforced at node b (the second node of the connector element), the
reported forces and moments are the constraint forces and moments applied at node b to enforce the
CYLINDRICAL constraint. Thus, in most cases the connector output associated with a CYLINDRICAL
connection is best interpreted when node b is located at the center of the device enforcing the constraint.
This choice is essential when moment-based friction is modeled in the connector since the contact
forces are derived on the connector forces and moments, as illustrated below. Proper enforcement of the
kinematic constraints is independent of the order or location of the nodes.
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the CYLINDRICAL connection defines the friction force (CSFC)
along the instantaneous slip direction on the two contacting cylindrical surfaces (the pin and the sleeve)
31.1.5–24
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illustrated above. The table below summarizes the parameters that are used to specify predefined friction
in this connection type as discussed in detail next.
The frictional effect is formally written as
where the potential represents the magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions in the connector
in a direction tangent to the cylindrical surface on which contact occurs, is the friction-producing
normal force on the same cylindrical surface, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional stick occurs if
; and sliding occurs if , in which case the friction force is .
The normal force is the sum of a magnitude measure of friction-producing connector forces,
, and a self-equilibrated internal contact force (such as from a press-fit assembly), :
The magnitude measure of friction-producing connector contact force, , is defined by summing

the following two contributions:
• a radial force contribution, (the magnitude of the constraint forces enforcing the SLOT
constraint):
• a force contribution from “bending,” , obtained by scaling the bending moment, (the
magnitude of the constraint moments enforcing the REVOLUTE constraint), by a length factor, as
follows:
where L represents a characteristic overlapping length between the shaft and the outer sleeve in the
1-direction. If L is 0.0, is ignored.
Thus,
where .
The magnitude of the frictional tangential moment, is computed using
31.1.5–25
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where R is an effective radius of the shaft cross-section in the local 2–3 plane. The potential
represents the magnitude of connector tangential tractions on the cylindrical contact surface due to
simultaneous translation and rotation. The instantaneous slip direction is a result of combined motion
in these directions.
Summary
CYLINDRICAL
Kinematic constraints: SLOT + REVOLUTE
Available components: ,
Kinetic force and moment output: ,
Connector stops:
Constitutive reference lengths and angles: ,

Predefined friction parameters: Required: R; optional: L,
Contact force for predefined friction:
31.1.5–26
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EULER
Connection type EULER provides a rotational connection between two nodes where the total relative
rotation between the nodes is parameterized by Euler angles. An Euler-angle parameterization of finite
rotations is also called a 3–1–3 or precession-nutation-spin parameterization. Connection type EULER
cannot be used in two-dimensional or axisymmetric analysis.
α rotation β rotation γ rotation

e3a
e3a e3a
e3b e3b e2b
β β
γ
β β
α α
e2a e2a e2a
γ e1b
α α
a e1a e1 e1a
e1
Figure 31.1.5–12 Connection type EULER.
Description
The EULER connection does not impose kinematic constraints. An EULER connection is a finite rotation
connection where the local directions at node b are parameterized in terms of Euler angles relative to the
local directions at node a. Local directions are positioned relative to by three
successive finite rotations , , and as follows:
1. Rotate by radians about axis ;
2. Rotate by radians about the intermediate 1-axis, ;
3. Rotate by radians about axis .
The Euler angles are determined by the local directions as
31.1.5–27
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Here i, j, and k are integers that account for rotations with magnitudes greater than . Initially, the
intermediate rotation angle is chosen in the interval .
If the intermediate rotation is an even multiple of , , where , the other
two Euler angles become non-unique. In this case
Similarly, if the intermediate rotation is an odd multiple of , , where 0, ,

the other two Euler angles become nonunique as well. In this case
In both of these cases a singularity results in the rotation parameterization when the and axes
align. The EULER connection should be used in such a way that these axes do not align throughout
the computation. For a singularity-free condition Abaqus will choose and such that a smooth
parameterization results for the above values of the intermediate angle .
The available components of relative motion in the EULER connection are the changes in the Euler
angles that position the local directions at node b relative to the local directions at node a. Therefore,
and
where , , and are the initial Euler angles. The connector constitutive rotations are
and
The kinetic moment in a EULER connection is determined from the three component relationships:
and
Summary
EULER
31.1.5–28
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EULER
Connector stops:

31.1.5–29
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FLEXION-TORSION
Connection type FLEXION-TORSION provides a rotational connection between two nodes. It models
the bending and twisting of a cylindrical coupling between two shafts. In this case the response to
twist rotations about the shafts may differ from the response to bending of the shafts. Connection type
FLEXION-TORSION cannot be used in two-dimensional or axisymmetric analysis.
The flexural part of the connection resists angular misalignment of the two shafts, whereas the
torsional part of the connection resists relative rotations about the shafts. Connection type FLEXION-
TORSION can be used in conjunction with connection type RADIAL-THRUST when resistance to
relative radial and thrust displacements is modeled.
β
e3a α
e3b
e2a
θ
e1a
Figure 31.1.5–13 Connection type FLEXION-TORSION.
Description
The FLEXION-TORSION connection does not impose kinematic constraints. The FLEXION-
TORSION connection describes a finite rotation by three angles: flexion, torsion, and sweep ( , , and
). However, the flexion, torsion, and sweep angles do not represent three successive rotations. The
flexion angle between two shafts measures the angle of misalignment of the two shafts and is always
reported as a positive angle. The torsion angle measures the twist of one shaft relative to the other.
The sweep angle orients the rotation vector, in the – plane, for the flexion motion. See
Figure 31.1.5–13. Since the flexion angle is never negative, the sweep angle may undergo discontinuous
jumps by up to radians when the flexion angle passes through zero. An analysis may give inaccurate
results or may not converge if any jump occurs in the sweep angle. In general, the sweep angle is not
used as an available component of relative motion for which connector behavior is defined. Rather, it
is used to define angular dependence for the elastic constitutive response in flexion deformations (as an
independent component in the connector elastic behavior definition). Since the sweep angle is restricted
to the interval to radians, any dependence on the sweep angle should be periodic, such that the
31.1.5–30
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behavior for is the same as . Since is a singular point for which the sweep angle
is not uniquely defined, it is strongly recommended that any connector behavior that defines flexural
moment versus flexion angle gives zero moment at zero flexion angle. If connector behavior is defined
in the sweep available component, the sweep moment must be zero at flexion angles and .
The FLEXION-TORSION connection is similar to a finite successive rotation parameterization
3–2–3. However, in terms of the 3–2–3 parameterization, the sweep angle is the first rotation angle, the
flexion angle is the second rotation angle, and the torsion angle is the sum of the first and third rotation
angles.
The first shaft direction at node a is , and the second shaft direction at node b is . Let the two
shafts form an angle , called the flexion angle. Then,
where
The flexion angle is a rotation by about the (unit) rotation vector
where
The torsion angle between the two shafts is defined as
where positive torsion angles are rotations about the positive -direction, and m is an integer.
The sweep angle measures the angle from to the projection of onto the – plane. With
this definition
where
It follows that the flexion rotation vector, , can be written
A singularity in the definition of the sweep angles occurs when the flexion angle vanishes. In this
case ; that is, the torsion and sweep angle axes are coincident, and the two angles are no longer
independent. When , the sweep angle is assumed zero, .
The available components of relative motion , , and are the changes in the flexion,
torsion, and sweep angles and are defined as
and
where and are the initial flexion and torsion angles, respectively. The initial value of the sweep
angle is chosen to be zero if the shafts align initially. The connector constitutive rotations are
31.1.5–31
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and
The kinetic moment in a FLEXION-TORSION connection is determined from the three component
relationships:
and
Summary
FLEXION-TORSION
Connector stops:

31.1.5–32
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FLOW-CONVERTER
Connection type FLOW-CONVERTER converts the relative rotation about a user-specified axis between
the two nodes of the connector into material flow degree of freedom (10) at the second node of a connector
element. This connection type can be used to model retractor and pretensioner devices in automotive
seat belts (see “Seat belt analysis of a simplified crash dummy,” Section 3.3.1 of the Abaqus Example
Problems Manual) or cable drums in winch-like devices. Belt or cable material is considered to be
wrapped around an axle or a drum, and material can be spooled either into or out of the connector element.
In certain cases, material flow needs to be converted into a displacement rather than a rotation.
Examples include pretensioner devices for which experimental force vs. displacement data need to
be specified. Although this connection type always converts the material flow into a rotation, the two
modeling cases are equivalent. The experimentally available force vs. displacement data can be input
directly as moment vs. rotation data for the same end result.
This connection type activates degree of freedom 10 at the second node of a connector. As with
any other nodal degree of freedom, you must be careful in constraining it. This is typically done by
attaching the connector to a SLIPRING connector that is part of the belt system or by applying a boundary
condition. FLOW-CONVERTER connections cannot be used in two-dimensional and axisymmetric
analyses in Abaqus/Explicit.
a
2
a
3
a
1
a LW
3
Figure 31.1.5–14 Connection type FLOW-CONVERTER.
Description
The FLOW-CONVERTER connection constrains the relative rotation between the two nodes about the
third local direction, , to the material flow at node b, . The constraint can be written as
where is the relative nodal rotation between node a andb and is a scaling factor specified as
part of the associated connector section definition. By default, . The local direction rotates
with the nodal rotation at node a.
31.1.5–33
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There are no available components of relative motion for this connection type; hence, kinetic
behavior cannot be specified. However, the following kinematic quantities are available for output:
and
which will be output as CPR1 and CPR2, respectively.

The constraint moment is
Limitation
At most two FLOW-CONVERTER connectors can share their second node where degree of freedom 10
is active.
Summary
FLOW-CONVERTER
Basic, assembled, or complex: Specialized basic rotational
31.1.5–34
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HINGE
Connection type HINGE joins the position of two nodes and provides a revolute constraint between
their rotational degrees of freedom. Connection type HINGE cannot be used in two-dimensional or
axisymmetric analysis.
e2a
e1a, eb1
a, b
e2b
e3b
e3a
Figure 31.1.5–15 Connection type HINGE.
Description
Connection type HINGE imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions equivalent
to combining connection types JOIN and REVOLUTE.
The connector constraint forces and moments reported as connector output depend strongly on the
order and the location of the nodes in the connector element (see “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1).
HINGE constraint. Thus, in most cases the connector output associated with a HINGE connection is
best interpreted when node b is located at the center of the device enforcing the constraint. This choice
is essential when moment-based friction is modeled in the connector since the contact forces are derived
from the connector forces and moments, as illustrated below. Proper enforcement of the kinematic
constraints is independent of the order or location of the nodes.
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the HINGE connection relates the kinematic constraint forces and
moments in the connector to a friction moment (CSM1) in the rotation about the hinge axis. The table
below summarizes the parameters that are used to specify predefined friction in this connection type
as discussed in detail next. A typical interpretation of the geometric scaling constants is illustrated in
Figure 31.1.5–16.
Since the rotation about the 1-direction is the only possible relative motion in the connection, the
frictional effect is formally written in terms of moments generated by tangential tractions and moments
generated by contact forces, as follows:
31.1.5–35
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Ls
Part B
Pin
2Ra
Part A
Contact on this face

between Part A and Part B
2R p
Figure 31.1.5–16 Illustration of the geometric scaling constants for a HINGE connection.
where the potential represents the moment magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions in the
connector in a direction tangent to the cylindrical surface on which contact occurs, is the friction-
producing normal moment on the same cylindrical surface, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional
stick occurs if ; and sliding occurs if , in which case the friction moment is .
The normal moment is the sum of a magnitude measure of friction-producing connector
moments, , and a self-equilibrated internal contact moment (such as from a press-fit
assembly), :
The magnitude measure of friction-producing connector contact moments, , is defined by

summing the following contributions:
31.1.5–36
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• a moment from an axial force, , where and is an effective friction arm associated
with the constraint force in the axial direction (the radius could be interpreted as an average
radius of the outer sleeve cylindrical sections as found in a typical door hinge or as an effective
radius associated with the hinge end caps, if they exist; if is 0.0, is ignored); and
• a moment from normal forces to the cylindrical face, , where is the radius of the pin cross-
section in the local 2–3 plane and is itself a sum of the following two contributions:
– a radial force contribution, (the magnitude of the constraint forces enforcing the translation
constraints in the local 2–3 plane):
– a force contribution from “bending,” , obtained by scaling the bending moment,

(the magnitude of the constraint moments enforcing the REVOLUTE constraint), by a length
factor, as follows:
where represents a characteristic overlapping length between the pin and the sleeve. If
is 0.0, is ignored.
Thus,
where .
The moment magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions, .
Summary
HINGE
Kinematic constraints: JOIN + REVOLUTE
31.1.5–37
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HINGE
Connector stops:
Predefined friction parameters: Required: ; optional: , ,
Contact moment for predefined friction:
31.1.5–38
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JOIN
Connection type JOIN makes the position of two nodes the same. If the two nodes are not co-located
initially, the position of node b is fixed relative to that of node a in a Cartesian coordinate system attached
to node a.
Even though an orientation is optional at node a, connection type JOIN does not activate rotational
degrees of freedom at node a.
e2a
e1a
a, b e3a
Figure 31.1.5–17 Connection type JOIN.
Description
The JOIN connection makes the position of node b equal to that of node a. If the two nodes are not
coincident initially, the Cartesian coordinates of node b relative to node a are fixed. See connection type
CARTESIAN for a definition of the Cartesian coordinates of node b relative to node a. If rotational
degrees of freedom exist at node a, the local directions co-rotate with the node.
The constraint force in the JOIN connection acts in the three local directions at node a and is
where in two-dimensional analysis.
Friction
When used by itself, there is no predefined Coulomb-like friction in the JOIN connection, since there are
no available components of relative motion for which friction can be defined. However, when the JOIN
and REVOLUTE connection types are used together, the predefined friction is the same as the HINGE
connection. When the JOIN and UNIVERSAL connection types are used together, the predefined friction
is the same as the UJOINT connection.
Summary
JOIN
31.1.5–39
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JOIN
Constraint force output:
31.1.5–40
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LINK
Connection type LINK maintains a constant distance between two nodes. Rotational degrees of freedom,
if they exist, are not affected at either node.
l b
Figure 31.1.5–18 Connection type LINK.
Description
The LINK connection constrains the position of node b, , to a constant distance from node a. The
distance between the two nodes is
and is constant. The constraint force in the LINK connection acts along the line connecting the two nodes
and is
where
Symbol plots in the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE display vector field output for the LINK
connector along the 1-direction of the orientation at the first node instead of along the line joining the two
nodes. If an orientation is not defined for the first node of the connector, the vector is displayed along
the 1-direction of the global coordinate system.
Summary
LINK
Orientation at a: Ignored
31.1.5–41
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LINK
31.1.5–42
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PLANAR
Connection type PLANAR provides a local two-dimensional system in a three-dimensional analysis.
Connection type PLANAR cannot be used in two-dimensional or axisymmetric analysis.
e1a
a e1b
e3a
e2a
ur1
b e3b
u2 u3
e2b
Figure 31.1.5–19 Connection type PLANAR.
Description
Connection type PLANAR imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions
equivalent to combining connection types SLIDE-PLANE and REVOLUTE.
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the PLANAR connection relates the kinematic constraint forces and
moments in the connector to the friction forces in the translations in the local 2–3 plane and the frictional
moment in the rotation about the local 1-direction. These two frictional effects are discussed separately
below.
A. The frictional effect due to sliding in the 2–3 plane is formally written as
where the potential represents the magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions in the
connector in a direction tangent to the local 2–3 plane on which contact occurs, is the friction-
producing normal force on the same plane, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional stick occurs
if ; and sliding occurs if , in which case the friction force (CSFC) is .
The normal force is the sum of a magnitude measure of force-producing connector forces,
, and a self-equilibrated internal contact force, :
31.1.5–43
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The contact force magnitude is defined by summing the following two contributions:
• a force contribution, (the constraint force enforcing the SLIDE-PLANE constraint);
and
• a force contribution from “bending,” , obtained by scaling the bending moment,
(the magnitude of the constraint moments enforcing the REVOLUTE constraint), by a length
factor, as follows:
where R represents a characteristic radius of the “puck” (as illustrated in Figure 31.1.5–20) in
the local 2–3 plane. If R is 0.0, is ignored.
M bend
F1
M bend
2R
Mbend
2R
Figure 31.1.5–20 Illustration of the effective internal friction contact forces.
Thus,
31.1.5–44
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where .
The magnitude of the frictional tangential moment, is computed using
B. Since the frictional effects due to rotation about the 1-direction are quantified, the frictional effect
is formally written in terms of moments generated by tangential tractions and moments generated
by contact forces as
where the potential represents the magnitude of the frictional tangential moment in the
connector about the 1-direction, is the friction-producing normal moment about the same
axis, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional stick in rotation occurs if ; and sliding
occurs if , in which case the friction moment (CSM1) is .
The normal moment is the sum of a magnitude measure of friction-producing connector
moments, , and a self-equilibrated internal contact moment, :
The contact moment magnitude is defined by summing the following two contributions:
• a moment from a contact force in the 2–3 plane, (the constraint moment enforcing the
SLIDE-PLANE constraint):
where , R represents a characteristic radius of the “puck” (as illustrated in

Figure 31.1.5–20) in the local 2–3 plane (if R is 0.0, is ignored), and the 2/3 factor comes
from integrating moment contributions from a uniform pressure ( ) over the circular
contact patch; and
• a moment contribution from “bending,” (the magnitude of the constraint moments
enforcing the REVOLUTE constraint):
Thus,
The magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions, is computed using
31.1.5–45
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Summary
PLANAR
Kinematic constraints: SLIDE-PLANE + REVOLUTE
Connector stops:
Constitutive reference lengths and angles:

Predefined friction parameters: Optional: R, ,
Contact forces and moments for predefined ,
friction:
31.1.5–46
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PROJECTION CARTESIAN
Connection type PROJECTION CARTESIAN provides a connection between two nodes where the
response in three local connection directions (that is, the axes of the local Cartesian coordinate system)
is measured. Unlike the CARTESIAN connection, which uses an orthonormal coordinate system that
follows node a, the PROJECTION CARTESIAN connection uses an orthonormal system that follows
the systems at both nodes a and b.
The connector local directions used in the PROJECTION CARTESIAN connection are identical
to those used in the PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection. Connection type PROJECTION
CARTESIAN is compatible with connection type PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION and is
appropriate for modeling the displacement response of bushing-like or spot-weld-like components.
e3
α e3a
α e3b
e1 a, b
e2
Figure 31.1.5–21 Connection type PROJECTION CARTESIAN.
Description
The PROJECTION CARTESIAN connection does not impose kinematic constraints. It defines three
local directions as a function of the directions at both nodes a and b. These directions
are the projection directions defined by the PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection. The
PROJECTION CARTESIAN connection measures the change in position of node b relative to node a
along the (projection) coordinate directions .
The position of node b relative to node a is
and
The available components of relative motion are
and
where , , and are the initial coordinates of node b relative to node a along the initial
directions. The connector constitutive displacements are
and
31.1.5–47
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The local directions in a PROJECTION CARTESIAN connection are “centered” between the
systems at the two connector nodes. PROJECTION CARTESIAN connections are appropriate where
isotropic or anisotropic material response is modeled and the local material directions evolve as a
function of the rotations at both ends of the connection. The kinetic force is
In two-dimensional analysis , , , and .
Summary
PROJECTION CARTESIAN
Connector stops:

31.1.5–48
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PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION
Connection type PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION provides a rotational connection between
two nodes. It models the bending and twisting of a cylindrical coupling between two shafts. In
this case the response to twist rotations about the shafts may differ from the response to bending
of the shafts. Connection type PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION is similar to connection type
FLEXION-TORSION. Whereas the FLEXION-TORSION connection has rotation parameterization
angles consisting of total flexion, torsion, and sweep, the PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION
connection has rotation parameterization angles consisting of two component flexion angles and
a torsion angle. The flexion angle of the FLEXION-TORSION connection is the resultant flexion
angle resulting from the two component flexion angles of the PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION
connection. Connection type PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION cannot be used in two-dimensional
or axisymmetric analysis.
The flexural part of the connection resists angular misalignment of the two shafts, whereas the
torsional part of the connection resists relative rotations about the shafts. Connection type PROJECTION
FLEXION-TORSION can be used in conjunction with connection type PROJECTION CARTESIAN
when modeling the response of bushing-like or spot-weld-like components.
e3
α e3a
α e3b
e1 a, b
e2
Figure 31.1.5–22 Connection type PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION.
Description
The PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection does not impose kinematic constraints. The
PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection describes a finite rotation by three angles: flexion 1,
flexion 2, and torsion ( , , and ). However, the flexion 1, flexion 2, and torsion angles do not
represent three successive rotations. The two component flexion angles ( and ) make up the total
flexion angle between two shafts and measure the angle of misalignment of the two shafts. The torsion
angle measures the twist of one shaft relative to the other.
The first shaft direction at node a is , and the second shaft direction at node b is . Let the two
shafts form an angle , called the total flexion angle. Then,
where
31.1.5–49
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The flexion angle is a rotation by about the (unit) rotation vector,
where
The PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection is formulated in terms of the unit vector

normal to a plane, , and two unit vectors spanning this plane, and . See Figure 31.1.5–22. The
plane with normal vector is referred to as the flexion-torsion plane. The component flexion angles
and are determined from and by projection onto the two in-plane directions:
and
The torsion angle in a PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection can be understood from

a finite successive rotation parameterization 3–2–3. In terms of the 3–2–3 parameterization the total
flexion angle is the second successive rotation angle, and the torsion angle is the sum of the first and
third successive rotation angles. The torsion angle between the two shafts is defined as
where positive torsion angles are rotations about the positive -direction and m is an integer.
The PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection avoids the singularity that occurs in the
sweep angle of the FLEXION-TORSION connection when the total flexion angle vanishes. As a
result, the PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection is better suited for defining bushing-like
behavior for flexion response that varies with the direction of in the flexion-torsion plane.
The available components of relative motion , , and are the changes in the two flexion
angles and the torsion angle and are defined as
and
where , , and are the initial flexion component angles and torsion angle, respectively. The
connector constitutive rotations are
and
The kinetic moment in a PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION connection is
31.1.5–50
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Summary
PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION
Connector stops:

31.1.5–51
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RADIAL-THRUST
Connection type RADIAL-THRUST provides a connection between two nodes where the response
differs in the radial and cylindrical axis directions. Connection type RADIAL-THRUST models
situations such as a point inside a cylindrical bearing where the response to radial displacements
differs from the response to thrusting motions. Connection type RADIAL-THRUST cannot be used in
If the rotational degrees of freedom at the two nodes are connected through flexural and torsional
resistance, connection type FLEXION-TORSION can be used in conjunction with connection type
RADIAL-THRUST.
r
b
e3a l
Figure 31.1.5–23 Connection type RADIAL-THRUST.
Description
The RADIAL-THRUST connection does not impose kinematic constraints. An orientation at node a is
required to define the axis of the rectangular coordinate system, . The position of node b relative to
node a is given by the radial and axial-direction distances
and
The RADIAL-THRUST connection has two available components of relative motion, and . The
radial displacement measures the change in distance from node b to the axis of the cylindrical
coordinate system and is defined as
where is the initial radial distance from node b to the axis. The thrust displacement measures the
change in distance from node a to node b along the cylindrical axis and is defined as
31.1.5–52
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where is the initial distance along the axis from node b to node a. The connector constitutive
displacements are
and
where the radial unit vector is
The radial resistance of the RADIAL-THRUST connector is analogous to a single spring in the
– plane. Loads applied in this plane and perpendicular to the current radial unit vector will initially
encounter no resistance and may lead to numerical singularity and/or zero pivot warnings from the solver
during static analyses. If the numerical singularities cause convergence difficulties, one modeling option
is to overlay the RADIAL-THRUST connector with a CARTESIAN connector with a very small elastic
stiffness.
Summary
RADIAL-THRUST
Connector stops:

31.1.5–53
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RETRACTOR
Connection type RETRACTOR joins the position of two nodes and provides a FLOW-CONVERTER
constraint between the material flow degree of freedom (10) at the second node and the rotational degrees
of freedom at the first node of the connector. This connection type can be used to model retractor and
pretensioner devices in automotive seat belts (see “Seat belt analysis of a simplified crash dummy,”
Section 3.3.1 of the Abaqus Example Problems Manual) or cable drums in winch-like devices.
RETRACTOR connections cannot be used in two-dimensional and axisymmetric analyses in
Abaqus/Explicit.
a
2
a
3
a
1
a LW
3
Figure 31.1.5–24 Connection type RETRACTOR.
Description
Connection type RETRACTOR imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions
equivalent to combining connection types JOIN and FLOW-CONVERTER.
Summary
RETRACTOR
Kinematic constraints: JOIN + FLOW-CONVERTER
31.1.5–54
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RETRACTOR
31.1.5–55
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REVOLUTE
Connection type REVOLUTE provides a connection between two nodes where the rotations are
constrained about two local directions and free about a shared axis. The shared axis of rotation is
the connector local 1-direction. Connection type REVOLUTE cannot be used in two-dimensional or
Connection type REVOLUTE models the rotational part of a HINGE or CYLINDRICAL joint.
e1b
e2a b
e3b
a
e
1
a e2b
e3a e1a e1b
Figure 31.1.5–25 Connection type REVOLUTE.
Description
A REVOLUTE connection constrains two rotational components of relative motion between two nodes
and allows one free rotational component. The two kinematic constraints imposed by the REVOLUTE
connection are
and
which are equivalent to the requirement that . Alternatively, the REVOLUTE constraint is
equivalent to setting the second and third Cardan angles to zero in a CARDAN connection. If the shared
axes and do not align initially, the REVOLUTE constraint will hold the second and third Cardan
angles fixed at their initial values. The constraint moment in the REVOLUTE connection is
Node b can rotate about the shared local direction . The relative angular position of the
local directions at node b relative to a is
where is the first Cardan angle measuring a counterclockwise rotation about the -direction of to
.
31.1.5–56
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The available component of relative motion, , measures the change in angular position and is
defined as
where is the initial angular position and n is an integer accounting for multiple rotations about the
shared axis. The connector constitutive rotation is
The kinetic moment in the REVOLUTE connection is
Friction
When used by itself, there is no predefined Coulomb-like friction in the REVOLUTE connection.
However, when the REVOLUTE connection is used in combination with a JOIN, SLIDE-PLANE, or
SLOT connection, the predefined friction is the same as the HINGE, PLANAR, and CYLINDRICAL
connections, respectively.
Summary
REVOLUTE
Connector stops:
Contact moment for predefined friction: None
31.1.5–57
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ROTATION
Connection type ROTATION provides a rotational connection between two nodes where the relative
rotation between the nodes is parameterized by the rotation vector. In two-dimensional and axisymmetric
analyses, the ROTATION connection type involves a single (scalar) relative rotation component.
Although available components of relative motion exist for the ROTATION connection type in
three-dimensional analysis, the finite rotation parameterization of the connection is not necessarily
well-suited for defining connector behavior. If a finite, three-dimensional ROTATION connection
with connector behavior is desired, either the CARDAN or EULER connection type typically is more
appropriate.
When connection type ROTATION is used in a connector element connected to ground at the
element’s first node, the rotational components relative to the orientation at ground are identical to the
Abaqus convention for nodal rotation degrees of freedom. Hence, connection type ROTATION can be
used in conjunction with prescribed connector motion (see “Connector actuation,” Section 31.1.3) to
specify finite rotation boundary conditions in local coordinate directions using the Abaqus convention
for finite rotation boundary conditions.
e3b
e3a
e2b
b
a
e2a
e1b
e1a
Figure 31.1.5–26 Connection type ROTATION.
Description
The rotation connection does not impose kinematic constraints. The rotation connection is a finite
rotation connection where the local directions at node b are parameterized relative to the local directions
at node a by the rotation vector. Let be the rotation vector that positions local directions
relative to ; that is,
31.1.5–58
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for all , where is the skew-symmetric matrix with axial vector . See “Rotation variables,”
Section 1.3.1 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for a discussion of finite rotations.
The available components of relative motion in the ROTATION connection are the change in the
rotation vector components positioning the local directions at node b relative to the local directions at
node a. Therefore,
where is the initial rotation vector, is an integer accounting for rotations with magnitude greater
than , all vector components are components relative to the local directions , and . The
connector constitutive rotations are
The kinetic moment in a rotation connection is
In two-dimensional and axisymmetric analyses and .
Summary
ROTATION
Connector stops:
31.1.5–59
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ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER
Connection type ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER provides a convenient way to measure the relative
angular position, velocity, and acceleration of a body in a local coordinate system. These kinematic
quantities are measured relative to the motion of node a and are reported in the coordinate system of
node b. Each node of the connector can translate and rotate independently, although fixing the first
of the two nodes to ground is more common. With the first node fixed, connection type ROTATION-
ACCELEROMETER provides a convenient way to measure the local components of the angular velocity
and angular acceleration in a coordinate system fixed to a moving body (for example, an accelerometer).
Connection type ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER is available only in Abaqus/Explicit. It is the
rotation counterpart to connection type ACCELEROMETER, which measures relative translational
position, velocity, and acceleration.
ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER connectors cannot be used in two-dimensional and
axisymmetric analysis in Abaqus/Explicit.
e3b
a
e
3
e2b
b
a
e2a
e1b
e1a
Figure 31.1.5–27 Connection type ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER.
Description
The ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER connection does not impose kinematic constraints. It
defines three local directions at node a and three local directions at node b. The ROTATION-
ACCELEROMETER connection’s formulation is similar to that for the ROTATION connection. The
ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER connection measures the finite rotation that takes the local directions
at node a into the local directions at node b and parameterizes that finite rotation by the rotation vector.
Let be the rotation vector that positions local directions relative to ; that is,
for all , where is the skew-symmetric matrix with axial vector . See “Rotation variables,”
Section 1.3.1 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for a discussion of finite rotations. The connection measures
the change in the rotation vector components in the local directions rotating with the body at node b. The
rotation vector components are calculated as
31.1.5–60
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There are no available components of relative motion for the ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER

connection. The connector rotation is
where is the initial rotation vector and is an integer accounting for rotations with magnitude
greater than .
The ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER connection differs from the ROTATION connection in the
way angular velocity and acceleration are calculated. The ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER connection
measures velocity and acceleration from the nodes as
and
where , , , and are the nodal angular velocities and accelerations at nodes a and b, respectively.
In two-dimensional and axisymmetric analyses .
Summary
ROTATION-ACCELEROMETER
31.1.5–61
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SLIDE-PLANE
Connection type SLIDE-PLANE keeps node b on a plane defined by the orientation of node a and
the initial position of node b. Connection type SLIDE-PLANE cannot be used in two-dimensional or
axisymmetric analysis. The normal direction defining the plane at node a is .
Connection type SLIDE-PLANE models a point confined between parallel plates or a pin-in-slot
connection where the pin is free to move normal to the plane of the slot.
e1a
a
e3a
e2a
x0 b
u2 u3
Figure 31.1.5–28 Connection type SLIDE-PLANE.
Description
The SLIDE-PLANE connection constrains the position of node b, , to remain on a plane defined by
the local normal direction . The normal direction distance from node a to the plane is constant:
where is the initial distance from node a to the plane. The constraint force in the SLIDE-PLANE
connection is
Node b can move in the plane defined by the normal of node a. The position of node b in the plane
relative to node a is
and
The two available components of relative motion, and , are
31.1.5–62
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and
where and are the coordinates of the initial position of node b. The connector constitutive
displacements are
and
The kinetic force in the plane is
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the SLIDE-PLANE connection relates the kinematic constraint
forces in the connector to the friction forces (CSFC) in the translations along the two local directions
in the 2–3 plane.
in a direction tangent to the 2–3 plane on which contact occurs, is the friction-producing normal force
on the same plane, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional stick occurs if ; and sliding occurs
if , in which case the friction force is .
The normal force is the sum of a magnitude measure of friction-producing connector forces,
The force magnitude .

The magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions, is computed using
The predefined Coulomb-like friction is computed differently when the SLIDE-PLANE connection
is used in combination with a REVOLUTE connection. See the description of the PLANAR connection
for the predefined friction definition in this case.
31.1.5–63
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Summary
SLIDE-PLANE
Connector stops:

Predefined friction parameters: Optional:
31.1.5–64
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SLIPRING
Connection type SLIPRING provides a connection between two nodes that models material flow and
stretching between two points of a belt system. It can be used to model seat belts (see “Seat belt analysis of
a simplified crash dummy,” Section 3.3.1 of the Abaqus Example Problems Manual), pulley systems, and
taut cable systems. The angle between two adjacent belt segments is used only for friction calculations.
By default, the angle, , is computed automatically from the nodal coordinates as an angle between
and . Alternatively, you can specify the angle between two adjacent belt segments (in radians) as part
of the connector section definition. You can use this option to specify wrapping angles larger than .
This connection type activates the material flow degree of freedom (10) at both nodes of the
connector. As with any other nodal degree of freedom, you must be careful in constraining it. This is
typically done by attaching the connector to other SLIPRING connectors that are part of the belt system,
attaching it to a RETRACTOR (FLOW-CONVERTER) connector, or applying a boundary condition.
SLIPRING connections cannot be used in two-dimensional and axisymmetric analyses in
Abaqus/Explicit.

b b
radius
 ignored
a
a c
Figure 31.1.5–29 Connection type SLIPRING.
Description
The SLIPRING connection does not constrain any component of relative motion. Hence, there is no
restriction on the position of the connector nodes.
The distance between nodes is
31.1.5–65
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The belt material can flow and stretch between nodes a and b. Flow can occur with no stretching (such
as in a rigid belt), stretching can occur with no flow (such as when the flow is constrained at both nodes
of the connector), or both flow and stretching can occur simultaneously (such as in compliant belts). By
convention, the material flow at node a is positive if it enters segment and is positive at node b if it
exits the segment. A reference length can be defined in incremental fashion as
where is the reference length at the end of the current increment, is the reference length at the
beginning of the current increment, is the incremental flow at node a, and is the incremental
flow at node b. The stretch in the belt can then be defined as
and the “strain” in the belt can be computed as
At the beginning of the analysis, the reference length at is
where is the initial stretch of the belt. By default, the initial stretch is meaning that there are
no initial strains in the belt. You can specify initial strains in the belt, , by specifying a connector
constitutive reference. The initial stretch is then computed using
The second available component of relative motion is simply the material flow past node b,
The third component of relative motion is the material flow into node a and is used only for output:
where
Symbol plots in the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE display vector field output for the
SLIPRING connector along the 1-direction of the orientation at the first node instead of along the line
31.1.5–66
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joining the two nodes. If an orientation is not defined for the first node of the connector, the vector is
displayed along the 1-direction of the global coordinate system.
Limitations
At most two SLIPRING connectors can share a common node. The following limitations apply with
respect to the kinetic behavior that can be defined in the SLIPRING connection type:
• Only predefined friction can be defined in the second component of relative motion as outlined
below.
• In Abaqus/Explicit plasticity, damage and lock connector behavior cannot be specified.
• The connectivities of the two adjacent SLIPRING connector elements sharing a common node
b (Figure 31.1.5–29) should be in the typical order a–b and b–c. In addition, any two adjacent
SLIPRING connector elements must refer to the same connector behavior except for the friction
data.
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the SLIPRING connection relates the tension in the belt segment
(kinetic force in component 1) to the tension in the adjacent belt segment . In the simpler case of
frictionless sliding, the two tensions are equal (apart from inertial effects due to the motion of the belt in
dynamic analyses). If frictional effects are included as material flows past node b, the two tensions differ
by the total friction force (CSF2) over the contact arch between the belt and the ring (angle ).
The Coulomb-like frictional effect is a well-known analytical result. In the case when frictional
sliding occurs in the direction illustrated in Figure 31.1.5–29, the tensions in the two segments,
and , are related as follows:
where is the friction coefficient. The friction force is simply the difference
More formally, the frictional relationship is modeled by considering the potential function
Frictional stick occurs if ; and sliding occurs if , in which case the tension force =
. Friction forces do not develop if the kinetic force is compressive. When sliding occurs in
the opposite direction, the sign of the exponent in the potential equation changes.
The friction force is reported as in this connection type. The friction-generating “contact force”
is reported as CNF2= .
In Abaqus/Explicit, by default, the distance between the two nodes of the SLIPRING is not
allowed to become less then one hundredth of the original distance between the nodes, which prevents
the SLIPRING from collapsing to zero length during the analysis. The two nodes of the SLIPRING can
31.1.5–67
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move apart after coming to the minimum distance configuration during the analysis. In addition, the belt
can continue to slip over the nodes while they are stopped at the minimum distance configuration. This
default value of the minimum distance can be overridden by specifying a lower limit of the connector
stop in component 1 of the SLIPRING.
Output
Some of the connector output variables have a somewhat different meaning for this connection type than
usual, as follows:
• CP1 is the current distance between the nodes;
• CP2 is the material flow at node b;
• CP3 is the material flow at node a; and
• CU1 is the strain (dimensionless) in the segment .
Summary
SLIPRING
Basic, assembled, or complex: Complex
Orientation at a: Ignored
31.1.5–68
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SLOT
Connection type SLOT provides a connection where node b stays on the line defined by the orientation
of node a and the initial position of node b. The line of action of the slot is the -direction.
In three-dimensional analysis node b cannot move in the direction normal to the slot; i.e., the
direction. If node b is free to move in the normal direction, connection type SLIDE-PLANE should be
used.
e2a
a
e1a
y0
u1
b
Figure 31.1.5–30 Connection type SLOT.
Description
The line of the slot is defined by the first local direction at node a, , and the initial position of node b.
The SLOT connection constrains the position of node b, , to remain on the line of the slot. Therefore,
the relative position of node b is fixed in the directions perpendicular to the slot:
where is the initial distance from node a to the slot in the local 2-direction. In three dimensions
where is the initial distance from node a to the slot in the local 3-direction. The constraint force in
the slot is
where in two-dimensional analysis.

Node b can move along the line of the slot. The relative position in the slot is the distance between
node b and node a along the -direction and is defined as
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The available component of relative motion is the displacement , which measures the change of the
relative position in length along the slot and is defined as
where is the initial distance between node b and node a along the slot. The connector constitutive
displacement is
The kinetic force in the slot is
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the SLOT connection relates the kinematic constraint forces in the
connector to the friction force (CSF1) in the translation along the slot.
in a direction tangent to the slot axis along which contact occurs, is the friction-producing normal
(contact) force in the direction normal to the slot, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional stick occurs
if ; and sliding occurs if , in which case the friction force is .
The normal force is the sum of a magnitude measure of the friction-producing connector force,
The force magnitude is computed using
The magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions .

The predefined Coulomb-like friction is computed differently when the SLOT connection is used in
combination with a REVOLUTE or an ALIGN connection. See CYLINDRICAL and TRANSLATOR,
respectively, for the predefined friction definition in these cases.
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Summary
SLOT
Connector stops:
Predefined friction parameters: Optional:
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TRANSLATOR
Connection type TRANSLATOR provides a slot constraint between two nodes and aligns their local
directions.
e2a e2b
e1b
a
u1
e1a b
e3a e3b
Figure 31.1.5–31 Connection type TRANSLATOR.
Description
Connection type TRANSLATOR imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions
equivalent to combining connection types SLOT and ALIGN.
The connector constraint forces and moments reported as connector output depend strongly on
the order and location of the nodes in the connector (see “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1). Since
the kinematic constraints are enforced at node b (the second node of the connector element), the
TRANSLATOR constraint. Thus, in most cases the connector output associated with a TRANSLATOR
connection is best interpreted when node b is located at the center of the device enforcing the constraint.
This choice is essential when moment-based friction is modeled in the connector since the contact
forces are derived from the connector forces and moments, as illustrated below. Proper enforcement of
the kinematic constraints is independent of the order or location of the nodes.
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the TRANSLATOR connection relates the kinematic constraint
forces and moments in the connector to the friction force (CSF1) in the translation along the slot.
where the potential represents the magnitude of the frictional tangential traction in the connector in
the local 1-direction, is the friction-producing normal (contact) force in the direction normal to the
slot, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional stick occurs if ; and sliding occurs if , in
which case the friction force is .
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The normal force is the sum of a magnitude measure of contact friction-producing connector
forces, , and a self-equilibrated internal contact force, :
The contact force magnitude is defined by summing the following three contributions:
• a force contribution from torque, , obtained by scaling the torque constraint moment about the
1-direction, , by a length factor, as follows:
where represents the effective radius of the shaft cross-section in the local 2–3 plane (if is
0.0, is ignored);
• a radial force contribution, (the magnitude of the constraint forces enforcing the SLOT
constraint):
and
• a force contribution from “bending,” , obtained by scaling the bending constraint moment,
, by a length factor, as follows:
where L represents a characteristic overlapping length in the slot direction. If L is 0.0, is

ignored.
Thus,
where .
The magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions, is .
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Summary
TRANSLATOR
Kinematic constraints: SLOT + ALIGN
Connector stops:
Predefined friction parameters: Optional: , L,
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UJOINT
Connection type UJOINT joins the position of two nodes and provides a universal constraint between
their rotational degrees of freedom. Connection type UJOINT cannot be used in two-dimensional or
e1a e3b
e2a
e2b
Figure 31.1.5–32 Connection type UJOINT.
Description
Connection type UJOINT imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions equivalent
to combining connection types JOIN and UNIVERSAL.
The connector constraint forces and moments reported as connector output depend strongly on the
order of the nodes and location of the nodes in the connector (see “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1).
UJOINT constraint. Thus, in most cases the connector output associated with a UJOINT connection
is best interpreted when node b is located at the center of the device enforcing the constraint. This
choice is essential when moment-based friction is modeled in the connector since the contact forces
are derived from the connector forces and moments, as illustrated below. Proper enforcement of the
kinematic constraints is independent of the order or location of the nodes.
Friction
Predefined Coulomb-like friction in the UJOINT connection relates the kinematic constraint forces and
moments in the connector to friction moments about the unconstrained rotations (about the two directions
of the connection cross). The UJOINT connection type consists of four hinge-like connections placed
at the four ends of the connection cross (see Figure 31.1.5–32) that generate frictional moments about
the cross axes. The frictional moments in each of these hinges are computed in a fashion similar to the
HINGE connection.
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The constraint forces and moments are used first to compute a reaction force, (the magnitude
of the constraint forces enforcing the JOIN constraint), and a “twisting” constraint moment, (the
magnitude of the constraint moment enforcing the UNIVERSAL connection), as follows:
The two cross directions are given by and . The constraint moment, , acts about an axis
perpendicular to the connection cross given by . Both and are considered
to be applied at the center of the connection cross. The constraint moment, , produces in each of
the four hinges a bending-like moment about :
and a transverse force in the cross plane
where represents a characteristic length of the cross arm between the center of the cross and the ends
of the cross. The scaling factors and are nonlinear functions of the slenderness of the cross
axes (the aspect ratio , where is the average radius of the four pins at the ends of the connection
cross): they can be approximated by assuming the cross arm with rigid bodies for infinitely small aspect
ratios, with Timoshenko beams for small aspect ratios (less than 20), and with Euler-Bernoulli beams
for slender axes (large aspect ratios). Abaqus chooses the appropriate values automatically based on the
user-specified geometric constants and . Figure 31.1.5–33 illustrates the evolution of the scaling
factors as a function of the aspect ratio: as the aspect ratio approaches 0.0, approaches 0.0 and
approaches 0.25; for large aspect ratios, approaches 0.125 and approaches 0.375.
The constraint force, , can be decomposed into axial forces along the two axes of the connection cross
and a “bending” force perpendicular to the connection cross plane:
where
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α axial
β twist
α twist
β axial
Figure 31.1.5–33 Scaling factors in the UJOINT connection.
Friction in the UJOINT connection is the superposition of four HINGE-like frictional effects due
to rotations about the two cross axes. Since the rotations about the local 1- and 3-directions are the only
possible relative motions in the connection, the frictional effects (CSM1 and CSM3) are formally written
in terms of moments generated by tangential tractions and moments generated by contact forces. In the
following equations subscript 1 refers to frictional effects about the local 1-direction, and subscript 3
refers to frictional effects about the local 3-direction. The frictional effects are written as follows:
where the potentials and represent the moment magnitudes of the frictional tangential
tractions in the connector in directions tangent to the cylindrical surface on which contact occurs,
and are the friction-producing normal moments on the same cylindrical surface, and is the
friction coefficient. Frictional stick occurs in a particular direction if or ; and sliding
occurs if or , in which case the friction moments are and .
The normal moments and are the sums of magnitude measures of force-producing
connector moments, and , and self-equilibrated internal contact moments
(such as from a press-fit assembly), and , respectively:
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The factor of two in the above equations comes from the fact that there are two hinges on each cross
direction.
The moment magnitudes and are defined by summing the following contributions:
• moment from axial forces, and , where ,

, and is an average effective friction arm associated with the
constraint force in the axial direction in each of the pins (if is 0.0, and are
ignored); and
• moment from normal forces, and , where and are themselves sums of the
following contributions:
– transverse force contributions, (the magnitude of the total transverse force in the two
hinges along the -direction) and (the magnitude of the total transverse force in the
two hinges along the -direction):
where , is defined above, , and

; and
– force contributions from “bending,” , obtained by scaling the total bending moment,
(the magnitude of the total bending moment on each of the four hinges), by a length
factor, as follows:
where , is defined above, and represents a characteristic

overlapping length between the pins and their sleeves. If is 0.0, is ignored.
Thus,
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The moment magnitudes of the frictional tangential tractions are and .
Summary
UJOINT
Kinematic constraints: JOIN + UNIVERSAL
Connector stops:

Predefined friction parameters: Required: , ; optional: ,
, ,
Contact moments for predefined friction: ,
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UNIVERSAL
Connection type UNIVERSAL provides a connection between two nodes where the rotations are
fixed about one local direction and free about two others. Connection type UNIVERSAL provides
the rotational part of a UJOINT connection. Connection type UNIVERSAL cannot be used in
e1a
e2a
a
e3b
b
e2b
e1a e3b
Figure 31.1.5–34 Connection type UNIVERSAL.
Description
A UNIVERSAL connection constrains the rotation about the shaft directions at two nodes. The shaft
directions at nodes a and b are and , respectively. A UNIVERSAL connection requires that local
direction be perpendicular to . This single constraint is written
This constraint is equivalent to constraining the second Cardan angle to be zero in a Cardan angle
parameterization of the local directions at node b relative to those at node a. If the initial orientation
directions at node b do not satisfy the above constraint condition, the universal constraint will hold the
second Cardan angle fixed at its initial value.
The constraint moment imposed by the UNIVERSAL connection is
A UNIVERSAL connection allows two free rotational components of relative motion between two
nodes. The first and third Cardan angles that position local directions at node b relative to those at node
a are
and
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The two available components of relative motion for the UNIVERSAL connection, and , are the
changes in the two unconstrained Cardan angles when the second Cardan angle is fixed. Therefore,
and
where and are the initial Cardan angles. The connector constitutive rotations are
and
The kinetic moment in the UNIVERSAL connection is
Friction
When used by itself, there is no predefined Coulomb-like friction in the UNIVERSAL connection.
However, when the UNIVERSAL connection is used in combination with the JOIN connection type,
the predefined friction is the same as the UJOINT connection.
Summary
UNIVERSAL
Connector stops:

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WELD
Connection type WELD provides a fully bonded connection between two nodes.
e2a , e2b
e1a , e1b
a, b e3a , e3b
Figure 31.1.5–35 Connection type WELD.
Description
Connection type WELD imposes kinematic constraints and uses local orientation definitions equivalent
to combining connection types JOIN and ALIGN.
Summary
WELD
Kinematic constraints: JOIN + ALIGN
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CONNECTOR ELEMENT BEHAVIOR
31.2 Connector element behavior
• “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1

• “Connector elastic behavior,” Section 31.2.2
• “Connector damping behavior,” Section 31.2.3
• “Connector functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4
• “Connector friction behavior,” Section 31.2.5
• “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6
• “Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7
• “Connector stops and locks,” Section 31.2.8
• “Connector failure behavior,” Section 31.2.9
• “Connector uniaxial behavior,” Section 31.2.10
31.2–1
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31.2.1 CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR
References

• “Connector damping behavior,” Section 31.2.3
• “Connector stops and locks,” Section 31.2.8
• “Connector failure behavior,” Section 31.2.9
• “Connector uniaxial behavior,” Section 31.2.10
• *CONNECTOR CONSTITUTIVE REFERENCE
• “Creating connector sections,” Section 15.12.11 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
• “Defining a reference length,” Section 15.17.12 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
• “Defining time integration,” Section 15.17.13 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
Connector behavior:
• can be defined for connection types with available components of relative motion;
• can incorporate simple spring, dashpot, and node-to-node contact as particular applications;
• may include linear or nonlinear force versus displacement and force versus velocity behavior for
the unconstrained relative motion components;
• can include uncoupled or coupled behavior specifications;
• can allow frictional force in an unconstrained component of relative motion to be generated by any
force or moment in the connection;
• can allow for plasticity definitions for individual components or coupled plasticity definitions using
user-defined yield functions;
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CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR
• can be used to specify sophisticated damage mechanisms with various damage evolution laws;
• can provide user-defined locking criteria to lock in the current position all relative motion in the
connector element or a single unconstrained component of relative motion;
• can be used to specify failure of the connector element; and
• can be used to specify complex uniaxial models by specifying the loading and unloading behavior
in an available component of relative motion.
Assigning a connector behavior to a connector element
You can assign the name of a connector behavior to particular connector elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define the connector behavior:
*CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=name, BEHAVIOR=behavior name
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, NAME=behavior name
Connector→Section→Create: Name: connector section name:
Behavior Options, Add
Connector→Assignment→Create: select wires: Section:
connector section name
Connector behavior models
Connector behaviors allow for modeling of the following types of effects:

• spring-like elastic behavior;
• rigid-like elastic behavior;
• dashpot-like (damping) behavior;
• friction;
• plasticity;
• damage;
• stops;
• locks;
• failure; and
• uniaxial behavior.
Kinetic behavior can be specified only in available components of relative motion. The list of
available components of relative motion for each connector type is given in “Connection-type library,”
Section 31.1.5. A connector behavior can be specified in any of the following ways:
• uncoupled: the behavior is specified separately in individual available components of relative
motion;
• coupled: all or several of the available components of relative motion are used simultaneously in a
coupled manner to define the behavior; or
• combined: a combination of both uncoupled and coupled definitions are used simultaneously.
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A conceptual model illustrating how connector behaviors interact with each other is shown
in Figure 31.2.1–1. Most behaviors (elasticity, damping, stops, locks, friction) act in parallel.
Plasticity models are always defined in conjunction with spring-like or rigid-like elasticity definitions.
Degradation due to damage can be specified either for the elastic-plastic or rigid-plastic response alone
or for the entire kinetic response in the connector. The failure behavior will apply to the entire connector
response.
damage
elastic/rigid plastic elastic/rigid plastic
DMG
ERP
damage failure
damping
first second
DMG FAIL
connector ALL connector
node node
stop/lock
friction
Figure 31.2.1–1 Conceptual illustration of connector behaviors.
Multiple definitions for the same behavior type are permitted. For example, if connector elasticity
(or damping) is defined several times in an uncoupled fashion for the same available component of
relative motion, in a coupled fashion, or in both fashions, the spring-like (or dashpot-like) responses are
added together. Multiple definitions of friction, plasticity, and damage behaviors are permitted as long
as the rules outlined in the corresponding behavior sections are followed. Multiple uncoupled stop and
lock definitions for the same component are permitted, but only one will be enforced at a time.
Defining coupled and uncoupled connector behavior
In many cases connector behavior is specified in an uncoupled manner in individual available components
of relative motion. Coupled behavior can be defined for all or some of the available components of
relative motion in a connector.
For coupled plasticity, damage, and, in certain situations, friction behavior, additional functions
describing the nature of the coupling effects must be defined (see “Connector functions for coupled
behavior,” Section 31.2.4). These functions do not define a behavior by themselves but are used as tools
for building a desired behavior. For example, these functions may be used to define:
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• sophisticated yield functions in the connector force space for coupled plasticity behavior;
• friction-generating contact forces for friction behavior; or
• force or relative motion magnitude measures needed for damage behavior specifications.
Input File Usage: Use the following input to define uncoupled behavior:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION, COMPONENT=n
Use the following input to define coupled behavior:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→connector
behavior: Coupling: Uncoupled or Coupled
Defining nonlinear connector behavior properties to depend on relative positions or constitutive

displacements/rotations
In all nonlinear uncoupled connector kinetic behaviors the independent variable is the connector available
component in the direction for which the response is defined. When modeling the following connector
behaviors, the properties can also depend on relative positions or constitutive displacements/rotations in
several component directions:
• connector elasticity,
• connector damping,
• connector derived components, and
• connector friction.
When modeling connector uniaxial behavior, the properties can also depend on constitutive
displacements/rotations in several component directions; see “Connector uniaxial behavior,”
Section 31.2.10, for more information.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify that the connector behavior properties
are dependent on components of relative position included in the behavior
definition:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION,
INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=POSITION (default)
Use the following option to specify that the connector behavior properties are
dependent on components of constitutive relative displacements or rotations
included in the behavior definition:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION,
INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=CONSTITUTIVE MOTION
In either case the first data line identifies the independent component numbers
to be used in determining the dependencies, and the additional data for the
connector behavior definition begin on the second data line.
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Abaqus/CAE Usage: For elasticity or damping behavior, use the following input to specify that
connector behavior properties are dependent on relative position or constitutive
relative displacements/rotations:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Elasticity
or Damping: Coupling: Coupled on position or Coupled on
motion, select components and enter data
For connector derived components, use the following input to specify that
connector behavior properties are dependent on relative position or constitutive
relative displacements/rotations:
Interaction module: connector section editor:
Add→Friction, Plasticity, or Damage: Force Potential, Initiation
Potential, or Evolution Potential
Specify derived component, Use local directions: Independent
position components or Independent constitutive motion
components, select components and enter data
For friction behavior specifying internal contact forces, use the following input
to specify that connector behavior properties are dependent on relative position
or constitutive relative displacements/rotations:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction: Friction
model: User-defined, Contact Force, Use independent components:
Position or Motion, select components and enter data
Defining reference lengths and angles for constitutive response
In many connector behavior definitions, material-like behavior has a reference position where the force
or moment is zero, which is different from the initial position. This is the case, for example, in a spring
that has nonzero force or moment in the initial configuration. In these situations the most convenient
way to define the connector behavior is relative to the nominal or reference geometry where the forces
or moments vanish.
You can define the translational or angular positions at which constitutive forces and moments are
zero by specifying up to six reference values (one per component of relative motion): three lengths
and three angles (in degrees). The reference lengths and angles affect only spring-like elastic connector
behavior and, if the friction-generating contact force (moment) is a function of the relative displacement
(rotation), connector friction behavior. By default, the reference lengths and angles are the length and
angle values determined from the initial geometry. See “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, for
the meaning of the reference lengths and angles for each connection type.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR CONSTITUTIVE REFERENCE
length 1, length 2, length 3, angle 1, angle 2, angle 3
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Reference
Length: Length associated with CORM
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Defining precompressed or preextended linear elastic behavior

In many cases connectors are precompressed or preextended when installed in assemblies. In such cases
the connector force is nonzero in the initial configuration. While nonlinear elasticity could be used to
define nonzero force in the initial configuration, it is often more convenient to specify a (linear) spring
stiffness plus a reference length or angle at which the force or moment is zero. For example, linear
uncoupled elastic behavior defined with the connection type AXIAL would have force given by the
equation
where . l is the current length of the AXIAL connection, and is the user-defined
constitutive reference length. The connector constitutive displacement quantities, , are defined for
different connection types as described in “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5.
Example
An input file template for a connector model of the shock absorber in Figure 31.2.1–2 is presented in
“Connectors: overview,” Section 31.1.1. A reference angle of 22.5° is defined for the nonlinear torsional
spring as the fourth data item (corresponding to the connector’s fourth component of relative motion) in
the connector constitutive reference:

...
*CONNECTOR CONSTITUTIVE REFERENCE
, , , 22.5
The effect of this reference angle is that the nonlinear torsional spring has a zero moment at an angle of
22.5°.
range
7.5
2
node 11
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Defining the time integration method for constitutive response in Abaqus/Explicit
In Abaqus/Explicit kinematic constraints, stops, locks, and actuated motion in connector elements
are treated with implicit time integration. By default, connector constitutive behavior (for example,
elasticity, damping, and friction) is also integrated implicitly. The advantage of implicit time integration
is that elements with these behaviors do not affect the stability or time incrementation of the analysis
in any way.
When “soft” springs are modeled with connectors, a more traditional explicit time integration for
the constitutive response can be used. This explicit time integration may lead to a small improvement
in computational performance. However, explicit integration of relatively stiff springs will reduce the
global time increment size, since such connector elements are included in the stable time increment size
calculation.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify implicit integration of the constitutive
response:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, INTEGRATION=IMPLICIT
Use the following option to specify explicit integration of the constitutive
response:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, INTEGRATION=EXPLICIT
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Integration:
Integration: Implicit or Explicit
Defining connector behavior in linear perturbation procedures
In linear perturbation procedures (see “General and linear perturbation procedures,” Section 6.1.3) the
connector element kinematics are linearized about the base state. Hence, linearized versions of kinematic
constraints are applied, and the connector behavior is linearized about the state at the end of the previous
general analysis step.
Using several connectors in series or in parallel
Connector element behaviors allow for proper modeling of most physical connection behaviors within
a single connector element. However, in rare circumstances more complex connection behaviors may
require multiple connector elements to be used in parallel or in series. You place connector elements in
parallel by defining two or more connector elements between the same nodes. You place connectors in
series by specifying additional nodes (most often in the same location as the nodes of interest) and then
stringing connector elements between these nodes.
For example, assume that you would like to define a connector stop that exhibits elastic-plastic
behavior upon contact. Since this is not permitted within the context of one connector behavior definition,
you can circumvent the limitation by using two connector elements in series. This concept is illustrated in
Figure 31.2.1–3. The first connector defines the stop, and the second defines the elastic-plastic behavior.
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Since both elements are subject to the same load (because they are in series), the desired behavior is
obtained.
first connector element second connector element
elastic-plastic
stop
node on the node on the
first body additional second body
node
Figure 31.2.1–3 Conceptual illustration of two connector elements/behaviors in series.
Connectors in parallel can be used as well to model complex kinetic behavior. For example,
assume that you need to define an elastic-viscous connector with spring-like and dashpot-like behaviors
in parallel (for example, the strut in an automotive suspension). Assume that damage can occur only
in the dashpot once it is stretched/compressed beyond specified limits. Since this is not permitted
within the context of one connector behavior definition, you can circumvent the limitation by using two
connector elements in parallel. This concept is illustrated in Figure 31.2.1–4.
first connector
element
elastic
node on the DMG

node on the
first body ALL
second body
damping
second connector
element
Figure 31.2.1–4 Conceptual illustration of two connector elements/behaviors in parallel.
The first connector defines the elastic behavior, and the second defines the dashpot behavior. Since
the two connector elements are in parallel, they undergo the same motion (stretching/compression).
A motion-based damage behavior (see “Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7) can be used to
degrade the entire behavior in the second element. Thus, only the dashpot behavior will eventually
degrade.
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Defining connector behavior using tabular data
Tabular data are often used to define connector behaviors, such as nonlinear elasticity, isotropic
hardening, etc. As shown in Figure 31.2.1–5, the data points make up a nonlinear curve in the
constitutive space.
Force, F
Linear extrapolation
F4
Constant extrapolation
F3
F2
Constant extrapolation
F(0)
u1
u u u4
2 3 Displacement, u
F1
Linear extrapolation
Figure 31.2.1–5 Nonlinear connector behaviors defined as tabular data.
The options to define table lookups are described below.
Extrapolation options
By default, the dependent variables are extrapolated as a constant (with a value corresponding to the
endpoints of the curve) outside the specified range of the independent variables. This choice may cause
a zero stiffness response, which may lead to convergence problems. You can specify linear extrapolation
to extrapolate the dependent variables outside the specified range of the independent variables assuming
that the slope given by the end points of the curve remains constant. The extrapolation behavior is
illustrated in Figure 31.2.1–5.
You define the extrapolation choice globally for all connector behaviors but can redefine the
extrapolation choice for the following connector behaviors individually:
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• connector elasticity;
• connector plasticity (connector hardening);
• connector damping;
• derived components for connector elements;
• connector friction;
• connector damage (connector damage initiation and evolution);
• connector locks; and
• connector uniaxial behavior.
Tabular data for connector stop and lock behavior options are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Specifying constant extrapolation for all connector behaviors

You can specify constant extrapolation for tabular data for all connector behaviors.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, EXTRAPOLATION=CONSTANT (default)
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Table Options
tabbed page: Extrapolation: Constant
Specifying linear extrapolation for all connector behaviors

You can specify linear extrapolation for tabular data for all connector behaviors.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, EXTRAPOLATION=LINEAR
tabbed page: Extrapolation: Linear
Redefining the extrapolation choice for individual connector behaviors

You can redefine the extrapolation choice for individual connector behaviors.
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION, EXTRAPOLATION=CONSTANT
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION, EXTRAPOLATION=LINEAR
For example, use the following options to use constant extrapolation for all
connector behaviors except for connector elasticity:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, EXTRAPOLATION=CONSTANT
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, EXTRAPOLATION=LINEAR
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following input for elasticity, damping, friction, plasticity, and damage
behaviors:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Behavior Options
tabbed page: Table Options button: Extrapolation: toggle off Use
behavior settings and choose Constant or Linear
31.2.1–10
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR
Use the following input for connector derived components:

Interaction module: derived component editor: Add: Table
Options button: Extrapolation: toggle off Use behavior settings
and choose Constant or Linear
Regularization options for Abaqus/Explicit

By default, Abaqus/Explicit regularizes the data into tables that are defined in terms of even intervals
of the independent variables since table lookups are most economical if the interpolation is from even
intervals of the independent variables. In some cases, where it is necessary to capture sharp changes in
connector behavior accurately, you can use the user-defined tabular connector behavior data directly by
turning regularization off. However, the table lookups will be more computationally expensive compared
to using regular intervals. Therefore, the use of regularization is almost always recommended.
Abaqus/Explicit uses an error tolerance to regularize the input data. The number of intervals in the
range of each independent variable is chosen such that the error between the piecewise linear regularized
data and each of your defined points is less than the tolerance times the range of the dependent variable.
The default tolerance is 0.03. In some cases where the dependent quantities are defined at uneven
intervals of the independent variables and the range of the independent variable is large compared to
the smallest interval, Abaqus/Explicit may fail to obtain an accurate regularization of your data in a
reasonable number of intervals. In this case Abaqus/Explicit stops after all data are processed and issues
an error message that you must redefine the behavior data. See “Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2,
for a more detailed discussion of data regularization.
You define the choice of regularization and regularization tolerance globally for all connector
behaviors but can redefine the choice of regularization and regularization tolerance for the following
connector behaviors individually:
• connector elasticity;
• connector plasticity (connector hardening)
• connector damping;
• derived components for connector elements;
• connector friction;
• connector damage (connector damage initiation and evolution);
• connector locks; and
• connector uniaxial behavior.
Tabular data for connector stop and lock behavior options are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Specifying the regularization of user-defined tabular data for all connector behaviors
You can specify regularization of tabular data and a regularization tolerance to be used globally for all
connector behaviors.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, REGULARIZE=ON (default),
RTOL=tolerance
31.2.1–11
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR

tabbed page: Regularization: toggle on Regularize data
(Explicit only), Specify: tolerance
Specifying the use of user-defined tabular data without regularization for all connector behaviors
You can specify the use of user-defined tabular data directly by turning regularization off for all connector
behaviors.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, REGULARIZE=OFF
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Table Options tabbed page:
Regularization: toggle off Regularize data (Explicit only)
Redefining the regularization options for individual connector behaviors

You can redefine the choice of regularization and regularization tolerance for individual connector
behaviors.
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION, REGULARIZE=ON, RTOL=tolerance
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR OPTION, REGULARIZE=OFF
For example, use the following options to regularize the user-defined data for
all connector behaviors except for connector elasticity:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, REGULARIZE=ON, RTOL=0.05
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, REGULARIZE=OFF
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following input for elasticity, damping, friction, plasticity, and damage
behaviors:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Behavior Options tabbed
page: Table Options button: Regularization: toggle off Use behavior
settings; toggle on Regularize data (Explicit only) and Specify:
tolerance, or toggle off Regularize data (Explicit only)
Use the following input for connector derived components:
Interaction module: derived component editor: Add: Table Options
button: Regularization: toggle off Use behavior settings; toggle
on Regularize data (Explicit only) and Specify: tolerance, or
toggle off Regularize data (Explicit only)
Evaluation of rate-dependent data

Data for the tabulated isotropic hardening in connector plasticity (“Defining the isotropic hardening
component by specifying tabular data” in “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6) and plastic
motion–based damage initiation criterion (“Plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion” in
“Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7) can be specified as dependent on the equivalent relative
31.2.1–12
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR
plastic motion rate. Loading/unloading data for the rate-dependent connector uniaxial behavior model
can be specified as dependent on the rate of deformation.
Specifying linear intervals for interpolation of rate-dependent data

By default, both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit interpolate rate-dependent data using linear
intervals of the relative motion rate.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify linear interpolation for isotropic hardening
data:
*CONNECTOR HARDENING, RATE INTERPOLATION=LINEAR
Use the following option to specify linear interpolation for damage initiation
data:
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, RATE INTERPOLATION=
LINEAR
Use both of the following options to specify linear interpolation for uniaxial
behavior loading/unloading data:
*CONNECTOR UNIAXIAL BEHAVIOR
*LOADING DATA, RATE INTERPOLATION=LINEAR
Abaqus/Standard always interpolates rate-dependent data using linear intervals
of the equivalent relative plastic motion rate.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following input for isotropic hardening data:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Plasticity:
Isotropic Hardening: Definition: Tabular, Table Options
button: Interpolation: Linear
Use the following input for damage initiation data:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage: Initiation:
Table Options button: Interpolation: Linear
Connector uniaxial behavior cannot be defined in Abaqus/CAE.
Specifying logarithmic intervals for interpolation of rate-dependent data in Abaqus/Explicit

In Abaqus/Explicit you can specify that logarithmic intervals of the relative motion rate be used for
the interpolation of rate-dependent data if the rate dependence of the data is measured at logarithmic
intervals.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify linear interpolation for isotropic hardening
data:
*CONNECTOR HARDENING, RATE INTERPOLATION=LOGARITHMIC
31.2.1–13
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR
Use the following option to specify linear interpolation for damage initiation
data:
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, RATE

INTERPOLATION=LOGARITHMIC
Use both of the following options to specify linear interpolation for uniaxial
behavior loading/unloading data:
*CONNECTOR UNIAXIAL BEHAVIOR

*LOADING DATA, RATE INTERPOLATION=LOGARITHMIC
button: Interpolation: Logarithmic
Table Options button: Interpolation: Logarithmic
Connector uniaxial behavior cannot be defined in Abaqus/CAE.
Filtering the equivalent plastic motion rate in Abaqus/Explicit
Rate-sensitive connector constitutive behavior may introduce nonphysical high-frequency oscillations

in an explicit dynamic analysis. To overcome this problem, Abaqus/Explicit uses a filtered equivalent
plastic motion rate
for the evaluation of rate-dependent data. is the incremental change in equivalent plastic motion
during the time increment , and and are the plastic motion rates at the beginning and end
of the increment, respectively. The factor ( ) facilitates filtering high-frequency oscillations
associated with rate-dependent connector behavior. You can specify the value of the rate filter factor, ,
directly. The default value is 0.9. A value of provides no filtering and should be used with caution.
*CONNECTOR HARDENING, RATE FILTER FACTOR=
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, RATE FILTER FACTOR=
31.2.1–14
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR
button: Filter factor: Specify:
Table Options button: Filter factor: Specify:
31.2.1–15
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
31.2.2 CONNECTOR ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
References

• *CONNECTOR ELASTICITY
• “Defining elasticity,” Section 15.17.1 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
Spring-like elastic connector behavior:

• can be defined in any connector with available components of relative motion;
• can be specified for each available component of relative motion independently, in which case the
behavior can be linear or nonlinear;
• can be specified as dependent on relative positions or constitutive motions in several local directions;
and
• can be specified for all available components of relative motion as coupled linear elastic behavior.
Alternatively, rigid-like behavior can be specified in any of the available components of relative motion
using an automatically chosen stiff spring.
The directions in which the forces and moments act and the displacements and rotations
are measured are determined by the local directions as described in “Connection-type library,”
Section 31.1.5, for each connection type.
Defining linear uncoupled elastic behavior
In the simplest case of linear uncoupled elasticity you define the spring stiffnesses for the selected
components (i.e., for component 1, for component 2, etc.), which are used in the equation
(no sum on )
where is the force or moment in the component of relative motion and is the connector
displacement or rotation in the direction. The elastic stiffness can depend on frequency (in
Abaqus/Standard), temperature, and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further
information about defining data as functions of frequency, temperature, and field variables.
If a frequency-dependent damping behavior is specified in an Abaqus/Standard analysis procedure
other than direction-solution steady-state dynamics, the data for the lowest frequency given will be used.
31.2.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define linear uncoupled elastic connector behavior:
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, NAME=name
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, COMPONENT=component number,
DEPENDENCIES=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Elasticity: Definition:
Linear, Force/Moment: component or components, Coupling: Uncoupled
Defining linear coupled elastic behavior
In the linear coupled case you define the spring stiffness matrix components, , which are used in the
equation
where is the force in the component of relative motion, is the motion of the component, and
is the coupling between the and components. The D matrix is assumed to be symmetric, so
only the upper triangle of the matrix is specified. In connectors with kinematic constraints the entries that
correspond to the constrained components of relative motion will be ignored. The elastic stiffness can
depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further information
about defining data as functions of temperature and field variables.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define linear coupled elastic connector behavior:
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, DEPENDENCIES=n
Linear, Force/Moment: component or components, Coupling: Coupled
Modeling coupled unsymmetric linear stiffness
By definition, linear elastic behavior should be defined by a symmetric spring stiffness matrix. However,
Abaqus/Standard allows you to define an unsymmetric coupled spring stiffness matrix. The intended use
case is to approximate fluid film bearings supporting a rotating structure in a rotordynamic analysis (see
Genta, 2005, and “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3). Abaqus/Standard will not check the stability of
an unsymmetric spring stiffness matrix; therefore, you must ensure that it is defined properly.
In the linear coupled case you define the spring stiffness matrix components, , which are used
in the equation
where is the force in the component of relative motion, is the motion of the component,
and is the coupling between the and components. The D matrix in this case is assumed
to be unsymmetric, so the entire matrix is specified. The entries that correspond to the constrained
31.2.2–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
components of relative motion are ignored. When the unsymmetric matrix storage and solution scheme
are used, the stiffness can depend on frequency, temperature, and field variables. See “Input syntax
rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further information about defining data as functions of frequency, temperature
and field variables.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define unsymmetric linear coupled stiffness
connector behavior:
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, UNSYMM,
FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE=ON
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Unsymmetric linear coupled stiffness behavior is not supported in
Abaqus/CAE.
Defining nonlinear elastic behavior
For nonlinear elasticity you specify forces or moments as nonlinear functions of one or more available
components of relative motion, . These functions can also depend on temperature and
field variables. See “Input syntax rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further information about defining data as
functions of temperature and field variables.
Defining nonlinear elastic behavior that depends on one component direction

By default, each nonlinear force or moment function depends only on the displacement or rotation in the
direction of the specified component of relative motion.
NONLINEAR, DEPENDENCIES=n
Nonlinear, Force/Moment: component or components, Coupling:
Uncoupled
Defining nonlinear elastic behavior that depends on several component directions

Alternatively, the functions can depend on the relative positions or constitutive displacements/rotations
in several component directions, as described in “Defining nonlinear connector behavior properties
to depend on relative positions or constitutive displacements/rotations” in “Connector behavior,”
Section 31.2.1. In this case the operator matrices are unsymmetric when , for
, and unsymmetric matrix storage and solution may be needed in Abaqus/Standard to improve
convergence.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define nonlinear elastic connector behavior that
depends on components of relative position:
31.2.2–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

NONLINEAR, INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=POSITION,
DEPENDENCIES=n
Use the following options to define nonlinear elastic connector behavior that
depends on components of constitutive displacements or rotations:
NONLINEAR, INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=CONSTITUTIVE MOTION,
DEPENDENCIES=n
Coupled on position or Coupled on motion
Examples
The combined connector in Figure 31.2.2–1 has two available components of relative motion: the relative
displacement along the 1-direction (from the SLOT connection) and the rotation around the 1-direction
(from the REVOLUTE connection)—see “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5. Thus, the connector
components of relative motion 1 and 4 can be used to specify connector behavior.
range
7.5
2
node 11
To define a nonlinear torsional spring to resist the relative rotation between the top and the bottom
connection point around the local 1-direction, use the following input:
*CONNECTOR SECTION, ELSET=shock, BEHAVIOR=sbehavior

slot, revolute
ori,
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, COMPONENT=4, NONLINEAR
-900., -0.7
0., 0.0
1250., 0.7
31.2.2–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Although no elastic coupling is assumed to occur between the two available components of relative
motion, you could replace the nonlinear moment versus rotation data with coupled linear elastic behavior
to define the rotational stiffness around the shock’s axis coupled to the axial displacement.
In another application this same connector may have coupled linear elastic behavior, in the sense
that relative rotation and sliding affect each other through a linear coupling. To define a translational
stiffness of 2000.0 units, the constant (the 1st entry of a symmetric matrix) is entered in the connector
elasticity definition. To define a torsional stiffness of 1000.0 units, the constant (the 10th entry of
a symmetric matrix) is entered; and to define a coupling stiffness of 50.0 units between the available
rotation and displacement, the constant (the 7th entry) is entered.
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY
2000.0, , , , , , 50.0,
0.0, 1000.0, , , , , ,
, , , ,
Defining rigid connector behavior
Rigid-like elastic connector behavior can be used to make an otherwise available component of relative
motion rigid. Consider a CARTESIAN connector that has no intrinsic kinematic constraints. If rigid
behavior is specified in the local 2- and 3-directions, the connector will behave in a similar fashion to a
SLOT connector.
This technique of using connectors with available components of relative motion for which rigid
behavior is specified instead of connectors with intrinsically kinematic constraints is particularly useful
when you need to:
• customize the constrained components in a connector with available components of relative motion;
for example, you can constrain the local 1- and 2-directions in a CARTESIAN connector to define
a SLOT-like connector in the 3-direction;
• define rigid plastic behavior (see “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6); or
• define rigid damage behavior (see “Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7).
For example, if you use a SLOT connector, plasticity and damage behavior cannot be specified
in the intrinsically constrained 2- and 3-directions. To resolve the issue, you can use a CARTESIAN
connector with rigid behavior in components 2 and 3 as discussed above and then define rigid plasticity
(and/or damage) in these components. See the examples in “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6,
for illustrations.
In Abaqus/Standard an overconstraint may occur if a rigid component is defined in the same local
direction as an active connector stop, connector lock, or specified connector motion.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define rigid connector behavior for a specified
component of relative motion:
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, RIGID, COMPONENT=n
31.2.2–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Use the following option to define rigid connector behavior for multiple
specified components of relative motion:
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, RIGID

data line listing components to be made rigid
Use the following option to define rigid connector behavior for all available
components of relative motion:

(no data lines)
Rigid, Components: component or components
Enforcing rigid-like elastic behavior
Rigid-like elastic behavior in a particular component is enforced by using a stiff, linear elastic spring in
that component. The stiffness of the spring is chosen automatically and depends on the circumstances
in which the connector is used. In Abaqus/Standard the stiffness is taken to be 10 times larger than the
average stiffness of the surrounding elements to which the connector element attaches. If the average
stiffness cannot be computed (as would be the case when the connector element does not attach to other
elements or attaches to rigid bodies), a stiffness of is used. In Abaqus/Explicit a Courant stiffness
is first computed by considering the average mass at the connector element nodes and the stable time
increment in the analysis. In most cases the Courant stiffness is then used to calculate the value of
the rigid-like elastic behavior using heuristics that depend on modeling circumstances and the precision
(single or double) of the analysis. For example, if plasticity is defined in the connector, the rigid-like
elastic stiffness in components involved in the plasticity definition does not exceed one thousandth of
the initial yield value. If plasticity is not defined, the rigid-like stiffness is computed as a multiple of the
Courant stiffness.
In most cases, the heuristics used in the computation of the rigid-like stiffness produces a stiffness
value that is adequate. If this stiffness does not serve the needs of your application, you can always
customize the elastic stiffness by specifying the linear stiffness value directly.
Due to the different stiffness values used for rigid-like elastic behavior in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit, you may notice a discontinuity in the behavior when such a model is imported from
one solver to the other.
Defining elastic connector behavior in linear perturbation procedures
Available components of relative motion with connector elasticity use the linearized elastic stiffness
from the base state. In direct-solution steady-state dynamic and subspace-based steady-state dynamic
analyses, the linear elastic stiffness defined by an uncoupled connector elasticity behavior may be
frequency dependent.
31.2.2–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Output
The Abaqus output variables available for connectors are listed in “Abaqus/Standard output variable
identifiers,” Section 4.2.1, and “Abaqus/Explicit output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.2. The
following output variables are of particular interest when defining elasticity in connectors:
CU Connector relative displacements/rotations.
CUE Connector elastic displacements/rotations.
CEF Connector elastic forces/moments.
• Genta, G., Dynamics of Rotating Systems, Springer, 2005.
31.2.2–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CONNECTOR DAMPING BEHAVIOR
31.2.3 CONNECTOR DAMPING BEHAVIOR
References

• *CONNECTOR DAMPING
• “Defining damping,” Section 15.17.2 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
Connector damping behavior:

• can be of a dashpot-like viscous nature in transient or steady-state dynamic analyses;
• can be of a “structural” nature, related to complex stiffness, for steady-state dynamics procedures
that support non-diagonal damping;
• can be defined in any connector with available components of relative motion;
• can be specified for each available component of relative motion independently, in which case the
behavior can be linear or nonlinear for viscous nature damping;
• can be specified as dependent on relative positions or constitutive motions in several local directions
for viscous nature damping; and
• can be specified for all available components of relative motion as coupled damping behavior.
The directions in which the forces and moments act and the relative velocities are measured are
determined by the local directions as described in “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, for each
connection type. In dynamic analysis the relative velocities are obtained as part of the integration
operator; in quasi-static analysis in Abaqus/Standard the relative velocities are obtained by dividing the
relative displacement increments by the time increment.
Defining linear uncoupled viscous damping behavior
In the simplest case of linear uncoupled damping you define the damping coefficients for the selected
components (i.e., for component 1, for component 2, etc.), which are used in the equation
(no sum on )
where is the force or moment in the component of relative motion and is the velocity or angular
velocity in the direction. The damping coefficient can depend on frequency (in Abaqus/Standard),
31.2.3–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
temperature, and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further information about
defining data as functions of frequency, temperature, and field variables.
If frequency-dependent damping behavior is specified in an Abaqus/Standard analysis procedure
other than direct solution steady-state dynamics, the data for the lowest frequency given will be used.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define linear uncoupled damping connector
behavior:
*CONNECTOR DAMPING, COMPONENT=component number,
DEPENDENCIES=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damping: Definition:
Linear, Force/Moment: component or components, Coupling: Uncoupled
Defining linear coupled viscous damping behavior
In the linear coupled case you define the damping coefficient matrix components, , which are used in
the equation
where is the force in the component of relative motion, is the velocity in the component, and
is the coupling between the and components. The C matrix is assumed to be symmetric, so
only the upper triangle of the matrix is specified. In connectors with kinematic constraints the entries that
correspond to the constrained components of relative motion will be ignored. The damping coefficient
can depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further
information about defining data as functions of temperature and field variables.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define linear coupled damping connector behavior:
*CONNECTOR DAMPING, DEPENDENCIES=n
Linear, Force/Moment: component or components, Coupling: Coupled
Defining unsymmetric linear coupled viscous damping behavior
As with linear coupled elastic behavior (“Connector elastic behavior,” Section 31.2.2), Abaqus/Standard
allows you to define an unsymmetric coupled viscous damping matrix. In the linear coupled case you
define the damping coefficient matrix components, , which are used in the equation
where is the force in the component of relative motion, is the velocity in the component, and
is the coupling between the and components. The C matrix is assumed to be unsymmetric,
so the entire matrix is specified. The entries that correspond to the constrained components of relative
31.2.3–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
motion are ignored. When the unsymmetric matrix storage and solution scheme are used, the damping
coefficients can depend on frequency, temperature, and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,”
Section 1.2.1, for further information about defining data as functions of frequency, temperature and
field variables.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define unsymmetric linear coupled viscous
damping connector behavior:
*CONNECTOR DAMPING, UNSYMM,
FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE=ON
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Unsymmetric linear coupled viscous damping behavior is not supported in
Abaqus/CAE.
Defining nonlinear viscous damping behavior
For nonlinear damping you specify forces or moments as nonlinear functions of the velocity in the
available components of relative motion directions, . These functions can also depend
on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further information about
defining data as functions of temperature and field variables.
Defining nonlinear viscous damping behavior that depends on one component direction
By default, each nonlinear force or moment function is dependent only on the velocity in the direction
of the specified component of relative motion.
NONLINEAR, DEPENDENCIES=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damping:
Definition: Nonlinear, Force/Moment: component or
components, Coupling: Uncoupled
Defining nonlinear viscous damping behavior that depends on several component directions
Alternatively, the functions can depend on the relative positions or constitutive displacements/rotations
in several component directions, as described in “Defining nonlinear connector behavior properties
to depend on relative positions or constitutive displacements/rotations” in “Connector behavior,”
Section 31.2.1.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define nonlinear damping connector behavior that
depends on components of relative position:
NONLINEAR, INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=POSITION,
DEPENDENCIES=n
31.2.3–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Use the following options to define nonlinear damping connector behavior that
depends on components of constitutive displacements or rotations:
NONLINEAR, INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=CONSTITUTIVE
MOTION, DEPENDENCIES=n
Coupled on position or Coupled on motion
Example
Refer to the example in Figure 31.2.3–1.
range
7.5
2
node 11
In addition to the torsional spring resisting relative rotations, the shock absorber damps translational
motion along the line of the shock with a dashpot. To include a nonlinear dashpot behavior that is
dependent on the relative position between the attachment points, use the following input:

...
*CONNECTOR DAMPING, COMPONENT=1,
INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=POSITION, NONLINEAR
1
1500.0, 0.1, 0.0
1625.0, 0.2, 0.0
1750.0, 0.1, 10.0
1925.0, 0.2, 10.0
Defining linear structural damping behavior
Structural connector damping is supported in steady-state dynamics and modal transient procedures that
support non-diagonal damping (for example, direct solution steady-state dynamics).
31.2.3–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Defining linear uncoupled structural damping behavior

You define the damping coefficients, , for the selected components (i.e., for component 1, for
component 2, etc.), which are used in the equation
where
(no sum on )
is the structural damping matrix, is the imaginary part of the force or moment in the direction of
relative motion, is the displacement in the direction, and is the stiffness matrix. The damping
coefficient can depend on frequency.
TYPE=STRUCTURAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Linear uncoupled structural damping behavior is not supported in
Abaqus/CAE.
Defining linear coupled structural damping behavior

You define 21 damping coefficients (the symmetric half of the 6 × 6 damping coefficient matrix),
which are used in the equation
where
(no sum on )
is the structural damping matrix, is the imaginary part of the force in the direction of relative
motion, is the displacement in the direction, and is the stiffness matrix. The damping
coefficient matrix cannot depend on frequency.
*CONNECTOR DAMPING, TYPE=STRUCTURAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Linear coupled structural damping behavior is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
31.2.3–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Defining connector damping behavior in linear perturbation procedures
In both the direct-solution and subspace-based steady-state dynamic procedures, the viscous or structural
damping defined using an uncoupled connector damping behavior may be frequency dependent. In other
linear perturbation procedures connector damping behavior is ignored.
Output
following output variables are of particular interest when defining damping in connectors:
CV Connector relative velocities/angular velocities.
CVF Connector viscous forces/moments.
31.2.3–6
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CONNECTOR FUNCTIONS
31.2.4 CONNECTOR FUNCTIONS FOR COUPLED BEHAVIOR
References

• *CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT
• *CONNECTOR POTENTIAL
• “Specifying connector derived components,” Section 15.17.15 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual,
in the online HTML version of this manual
• “Specifying potential terms,” Section 15.17.16 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
This section describes how to define two special functions used to specify complex coupled behavior for
a connector element in Abaqus: derived components and potentials.
Connector derived components are user-specified component definitions based on a function of
intrinsic (1 through 6) connector components of relative motion. They can be used:
• to specify the friction-generating normal force in connectors as a complex combination of connector
forces and moments, and
• as an intermediate result in a connector potential function.
Connector potentials are user-defined functions of intrinsic components of relative motion or derived
components. These functions can be quadratic, elliptical, or maximum norms. They can be used to
define:
• the yield function for connector coupled plasticity when several available components of relative
motion are involved simultaneously,
• the potential function for coupled user-defined friction when the slip direction is not aligned with
an available component of relative motion,
• a magnitude measure as a coupled function of connector forces or motions used to detect the
initiation of damage in the connector, and
• an effective motion measure as a coupled function of connector motions to drive damage evolution
in the connector.
31.2.4–1
Abaqus ID:
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CONNECTOR FUNCTIONS
Defining derived components for connector elements
The definition of coupled behavior in connector elements beyond simple linear elasticity or damping
often requires the definition of a resultant force involving several intrinsic (1 through 6) components
or the definition of a “direction” not aligned with any of the intrinsic components. These user-defined
resultants or directions are called derived components. The forces and motions associated with these
derived components are functions of the forces and motions in the intrinsic relative components of motion
in the connector element.
Consider the case of a SLOT connector for which frictional effects (see “Connector friction
behavior,” Section 31.2.5) are defined in the only available component of relative motion (the
1-direction). The two constraints enforced by this connection type will produce two reaction forces
( and ), as shown in Figure 31.2.4–1. Both forces generate friction in the 1-direction in a coupled
fashion.
f3
f2
slot housing
f1
Figure 31.2.4–1 Resultant contact force in a SLOT connector.
A reasonable estimate for the resulting contact force is
where is the collection of connector forces and moments in the intrinsic components. The function
can be specified as a derived component.
Resultant forces that can be defined as derived components may take more complicated forms.
Consider a BUSHING connection type for which a tensile (Mode I) damage mechanism with failure is
to be specified in the 1-direction. You may wish to include the effects of the axial force and of the
resultant of the “flexural” moments and in defining an overall resultant force in the axial direction
upon which damage initiation (and failure) can be triggered, as shown in Figure 31.2.4–2. One choice
would be to define the resultant axial force as
31.2.4–2
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inner cylinder
outer cylinder
rubber
f1 f axial
m2
m3
Figure 31.2.4–2 Resultant axial force in a BUSHING connector.
where is a geometric factor relating translations to rotations with units of one over length. The function
can be specified as a derived component.
A derived component can also be interpreted as a user-specified direction that is not aligned with
the connector component directions. For example, if the motion-based damage with failure criterion in
a CARTESIAN connection with elastic behavior does not align with the intrinsic component directions,
the damage criterion can be defined in terms of a derived component representing a different direction,
as shown in Figure 31.2.4–3. One possible choice for the direction could be
where is the collection of connector relative motions in the components and , , and can be
interpreted as direction cosines ( , , ). The function can be specified as a
derived component.
Functional form of the derived component

The functional form of a derived component in Abaqus is quite general; you specify its exact form.
The derived component is specified as a sum of terms
31.2.4–3
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U transf
α3
α2
α1
Figure 31.2.4–3 User-defined direction in a CARTESIAN connector.
where is a generic name for the connector intrinsic component values (such as forces, , or motions,
), is the term in the sum, and is the number of terms. The appropriate component values for
are selected depending on the context in which the derived component is used. is also a summation
of several contributions and can take one of the following three forms:
• a norm ( -type)
• a direct sum ( -type)
• a Macauley sum ( -type)
31.2.4–4
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where is the term’s sign (plus or minus), are scaling factors, is the component of , and
is the Macauley bracket ( ). In general, the units of
the scaling factors depend on the context. In most cases they are either dimensionless, have units of
length, or have units of one over length. The scaling factors should be chosen such that all the terms in
the resulting derived component have the same units, and these units must be consistent with the use of
the derived component later on in a connector potential or connector contact force.
Defining a derived component with only one term (NT = 1)
Connector derived components are identified by the names given to them. If one term ( ) is sufficient
to define the derived component g, specify only one connector derived component definition.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT,
NAME=derived_component_name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Connector derived component names are not supported in Abaqus/CAE; you
define the individual derived component terms.
Use the following input to define a connector derived component term for a
friction-generating user-defined contact force:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction: Friction
model: User-defined, Contact Force, Specify component:
Derived component, click Edit to display the derived component
editor: click Add and select components
Use the following input to define a connector derived component term as an
intermediate result in a connector potential function:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction, Plasticity, or
Damage: potential contribution editors: Specify derived component, click
Edit to display the derived component editor: click Add and select components
Defining a derived component containing multiple terms (NT > 1)

If several terms ( , , etc.) are needed in the overall definition of the derived component g, you must
define the individual terms.
Input File Usage: You must specify connector derived component definitions with the same
name to define the individual terms. All definitions with the same name will
be summed together to produce the desired derived component g. See the spot
weld example below for an illustration.
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT,
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=derived_component_name
...
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Connector derived component names are not supported in Abaqus/CAE; you
define the individual derived component terms.
31.2.4–5
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Interaction module: derived component editor: click Add and select

components. Repeat, adding terms as necessary.
Specifying a term in the derived component as a norm

By default, a derived component term is computed as the square root of the sum of the squares of each
intrinsic component contribution. If the term has only one contribution ( ), the norm has the same
meaning as the absolute value.
NAME=derived_component_name, OPERATOR=NORM (default)
For example, the following input can be used to define the component
discussed above:
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=axial
1
1.0,
**
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=axial
5, 6
,
**
The axial derived component is .
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: derived component editor: Add: Term operator:
Square root of sum of squares
Specifying a term in the derived component as a direct sum

Alternatively, you can choose to compute a derived component term as the direct sum of the intrinsic
component contributions.
NAME=derived_component_name, OPERATOR=SUM
For example, the following input can be used to define the component
discussed above:
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=transf,
OPERATOR=SUM
1, 2, 3
, ,
**
The transf derived component is .
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: derived component editor: Add: Term
operator: Direct sum
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Specifying a term in the derived component as a Macauley sum

Alternatively, you can choose to compute a derived component term as the Macauley sum of the intrinsic
component contributions.
NAME=derived_component_name, OPERATOR=MACAULEY SUM
For example, the following input can be used to define the first term of the
normal component of the force ( ) in the spotweld example discussed below:
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=normal,
OPERATOR=MACAULEY SUM
3
1.0
**
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: derived component editor: Add: Term
operator: Macauley sum
Specifying the sign of a term

You can specify whether the sign of a derived component term should be positive or negative.
NAME=derived_component_name, SIGN=POSITIVE (default)
NAME=derived_component_name, SIGN=NEGATIVE
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: derived component editor: Add: Overall
term sign: Positive or Negative
Defining the derived component contributions to depend on local directions

The scaling factors used in the definition of the derived component can depend on the relative
positions or constitutive displacements/rotations in several component directions, as described in
“Defining nonlinear connector behavior properties to depend on relative positions or constitutive
displacements/rotations” in “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1. See the first example in “Connector
friction behavior,” Section 31.2.5, for an illustration.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define a connector derived component that depends
on components of relative position:
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, INDEPENDENT
COMPONENTS=POSITION
Use the following option to define a connector derived component that depends
on components of constitutive displacements or rotations:
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, INDEPENDENT
COMPONENTS=CONSTITUTIVE MOTION
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Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: derived component editor: Add: Use local
directions: Independent position components or Independent
constitutive motion components
Requirements for constructing a derived component used in plasticity or friction definitions

When a derived component is used to construct the yield function for a plasticity or friction definition,
the following simple requirements must be satisfied:
• All terms of a derived component must be of a compatible type (see “Functional form of the
derived component”); norm-type terms ( -type) cannot be mixed with direct sum-type terms
( -type) in the same derived component definition but can be mixed with Macauley sum-type
terms ( -type).
• If all terms are norm-type terms, the sign of each term must be positive (the default).
If is greater than 1, the associated functions (potentials) in which the derived component is used
may become non-smooth. More precisely, the normal to the hyper-surface defined by the potential may
experience sudden changes in direction at certain locations. In these cases, Abaqus will automatically
smooth-out the defined functions by slightly changing the derived component functional definition.
These changes should be transparent to the user as the results of the analysis will change only by a
small margin.
Example: spot weld

The spot weld shown in Figure 31.2.4–4 is subjected to loading in the F-direction.
Fs
Fn
Figure 31.2.4–4 Loading of a spot weld connection.
The connector chosen to model the spot weld has six available components of relative motion: three
translations (components 1–3) and three rotations (components 4–6). You have chosen this connection
type because you are modeling a general deformation state. However, you would like to define inelastic
behavior in the connection in terms of a normal and a shear force, as shown in Figure 31.2.4–5, since
experimental data are available in this format.
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Fn
plates spot weld
f3 m3
Fn
m1 m2 f2
Fs f1
Fs
Figure 31.2.4–5 Spot weld connection: derived component definitions.
Therefore, you want to derive the normal and shear components of the force, for example, as follows:
In these equations and have units of length; their interpretation is relatively straightforward if you
consider the spot weld as a short beam with the axis along the spot weld axis (3-direction). If the average
cross-section area of the spot weld is A and the beam’s second moment of inertia about one of the in-plane
axes is (or ), can be interpreted as the square root of the ratio (or ). Furthermore,
if the cross-section is considered to be circular, becomes equal to a fraction of the spot weld radius.
In all cases can be taken to be .
The reasoning above for the interpretation of the calibration constants in the equations is only a
suggestion. In general, any combination of constants that would lead to good comparisons with other
results (experimental, analytical, etc.) is equally valuable.
To define , you would specify the following two connector derived component definitions, each
with the same name:
*PARAMETER
=30.68
A=19.63
=sqrt( )
=
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=normal, OPERATOR=MACAULEY SUM

3
1.0
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*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=normal

4, 5
,
The symbols denote that is specified using a parameter definition. The normal force derived
component is defined as the sum of two terms, . The first connector
derived component defines the first term , while the second defines the second term
.
Similarly, to define , you would specify the following two connector derived component
definitions for the component shear:
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=shear

6
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=shear

1, 2
1.0, 1.0
Defining connector potentials
Connector potentials are user-defined mathematical functions that represent yield surfaces, limiting
surfaces, or magnitude measures in the space spanned by the components of relative motion in the
connector. The functions can be quadratic, general elliptical, or maximum norms. The connector
potential does not define a connector behavior by itself; instead, it is used to define the following
coupled connector behaviors:
• friction,
• plasticity, or
• damage.
Consider the case of a SLIDE-PLANE connection in which frictional sliding occurs in the
connection plane, as shown in Figure 31.2.4–6. The function governing the stick-slip frictional behavior
(see “Connector friction behavior,” Section 31.2.5) can be written as
where is the connector potential defining the pseudo-yield function (the magnitude of the frictional
tangential tractions in the connector in a direction tangent to the connection plane on which contact
occurs), is the friction-producing normal (contact) force, and is the friction coefficient. Frictional
stick occurs if , and sliding occurs if . In this case the potential can be defined as the
magnitude of the frictional tangential tractions,
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normal direction
1
fn
f3
f2 sliding with friction in this plane
Figure 31.2.4–6 Friction in the SLIDE-PLANE connection.
Connector potentials can also be useful in defining connector damage with a force-based coupled
damage initiation criterion. For example, in a connection type with six available components of relative
motion you could define a potential
Damage (with failure) can be initiated when the value of the potential is greater than a user-specified
limiting value (usually 1.0). The units of the and coefficients must be consistent with the units of the
final product. For example, if the intended units of are newtons, the coefficients are dimensionless
while the coefficients have units of one over length.
Connector potentials can take more complicated forms. Assume that coupled plasticity is to be
defined in a spot weld, in which case a plastic yield criterion can be defined as
where is the connector potential defining the yield function and is the yield force/moment. The
potential could be defined as
where and could be the named derived components normal and shear defined in the example
in “Defining derived components for connector elements” above. If has units of force and and
also have units of force, and are dimensionless.
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Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR POTENTIAL

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following input to define connector potentials for friction behavior:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction:
Friction model: User-defined, Slip direction: Compute using
force potential, Force Potential
Use the following input to define connector potentials for plasticity behavior:
Coupling: Coupled, Force Potential
Use the following input to define connector potentials for damage behavior:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage: Coupling:
Coupled, Initiation Potential or Evolution Potential
Functional form of the potential

The functional form of the potential in Abaqus is quite general; you specify its exact form. The
potential is specified as one of the following direct functions of several contributions:
a quadratic form
a general elliptical form
a maximum form
where is a generic name for the connector intrinsic component values (such as forces, , or motions,
), is the contribution to the potential, is the number of contributions, and are positive
numbers (defaults 2.0, ), and is the overall sign of the contribution (1.0 – default, or −1.0).
The appropriate component values for are selected depending on the context in which the potential is
used in. The positive exponents ( , ) and the sign should be chosen such that the contribution
yields a real number.
is a direct function of either an intrinsic connector component (1 through 6) or a derived connector
component. Since derived components are ultimately a function of intrinsic components (see “Defining
derived components for connector elements”), the contribution is ultimately a function of . is
defined as
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where
is the function used to generate the contribution:
• absolute value (default, ),
• Macauley bracket ( ), or
• identity (X);
is the value of the identified component (intrinsic or derived);
is a shift factor (default 0.0); and
is a scaling factor (default 1.0).
The function can be the identity function only if . The units of the various
coefficients in the equations above depend on the context in which the potential is used. In most cases
the coefficients in the equations above are either dimensionless, have units of length, or have units of one
over length. In all cases you must be careful in defining potentials for which the units are consistent.
Defining the potential as a quadratic or general elliptical form
To define a general elliptical form of the potential, you must specify the inverse of the overall exponent,
. You can also define the exponents if they are different from the default value, which is the specified
value of .
Input File Usage: To define a quadratic form of the potential, you can omit specifying since its
default value is 2.0. Use the following option:
*CONNECTOR POTENTIAL
component name or number, , , , ,
...
Use the following option to define a general elliptical form of the potential:
*CONNECTOR POTENTIAL, OPERATOR=SUM, EXPONENT=
...
Each data line defines one contribution to the potential, . The function
can be ABS (absolute value and the default), MACAULEY (Macauley bracket),
or NONE (identity).
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: friction, plasticity, or
damage behavior option: Force Potential, Initiation Potential, or
Evolution Potential: Operator: Sum, Exponent: 2 (for quadratic form)
or (for elliptical form), select Add and enter data for the potential
contribution. Repeat, adding contributions as necessary.
31.2.4–13
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Defining the potential as a maximum form

Alternatively, you can define the potential as a maximum form.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR POTENTIAL, OPERATOR=MAX
...
Each data line defines one contribution to the potential, . The function
can be ABS (absolute value and the default), MACAULEY (Macauley bracket),
or NONE (identity).
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: friction, plasticity, or damage
behavior option: Force Potential, Initiation Potential, or Evolution
Potential: Operator: Maximum, select Add and enter data for the potential
contribution. Repeat, adding contributions as necessary.
Requirements for constructing a potential used in plasticity or friction definitions
The connector potential, , can be defined using intrinsic components of relative motion, derived
components, or both. A particular contribution to the potential may be one of the following two types:
• A norm-type contribution ( ) defined using the absolute value or the Macauley bracket functions
or using a combination of norm-type and Macauley sum-type derived components (see
“Requirements for constructing a derived component used in plasticity or friction definitions”) with
any of the available functions.
• A sum-type contribution ( ) defined using an intrinsic component of relative motion or a derived
component of type (see “Requirements for constructing a derived component used in plasticity
or friction definitions”) together with the identity function.
When used in the context of connector plasticity or connector friction, the potential must be constructed
such that the following requirements are satisfied:
• All contributions to the potential must be of the same type. Mixed and contributions are
not allowed in the same potential definition.
• If all terms are -type terms, the sign of each term must be positive (the default).
• The positive numbers and cannot be smaller than 1.0 and must be equal (the default).
Example: spot weld
Referring to the spot weld shown in Figure 31.2.4–5 and the yield function defined above, you
would define this potential using the derived components normal and shear with the following input:
*PARAMETER
=0.02
=0.05
=1.5
*CONNECTOR POTENTIAL, EXPONENT=
normal, , , MACAULEY
shear, , , ABS
31.2.4–14
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Output
The Abaqus/Explicit output variables available for connectors are listed in “Abaqus/Explicit output
variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.2. The following variables (available only in Abaqus/Explicit ) are of
particular interest when defining connector functions for coupled behavior:
CDERF Connector derived force/moment with the connector derived component name
appended to the output variable. If the connector derived component is used with
connector plasticity, connector friction, and connector damage initiation (type
force), the derived components used to form the potential represent forces and this
quantity is available for both field and history output. If connector friction is used
with contact force, the derived components are not used to form a potential, and
the derived force is in fact the connector normal force CNF (which is available for
connector history output.)
CDERU Connector derived displacement/rotation with the connector derived component
name appended to the output variable. If the connector derived component is
used with motion type for the connector damage initiation and connector damage
evolution, the derived components to form the potential represent displacements
and this quantity is available for both field and history output.
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31.2.5 CONNECTOR FRICTION BEHAVIOR
References

• *CHANGE FRICTION
• *CONNECTOR FRICTION
• *FRICTION
• “Defining friction,” Section 15.17.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML version
of this manual
Overview
Frictional effects can be defined in any connector with available components of relative motion. A
typical connector might have several pieces that are in relative motion and are contacting with friction.
Therefore, both frictional forces and frictional moments may develop in the connector available
components of relative motion.
To define connector friction in Abaqus, you must specify the following:
• the friction law as governed by a friction coefficient;
• the contributions to the friction-generating connector contact forces or moments; and
• the local “tangent” direction in which the friction forces/moments act.
The friction coefficient can be
• expressed in a general form in terms of slip rate, contact force, temperature, and field variables;
• defined by a static and kinetic term with a smooth transition zone defined by an exponential curve;
and
• limited by a tangential maximum force, , which is the maximum value of tangential force that
can be carried by the connector before sliding occurs.
Abaqus provides two alternatives for specifying the other aspects of friction interactions in connectors:
• Predefined friction interactions for which you need to specify a set of parameters that are
characteristic of the connection type for which friction is modeled. Abaqus automatically
defines the contact force contributions and the local “tangent” directions in which friction occurs.
31.2.5–1
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Predefined friction interactions represent common cases and are available for many connection
types (see “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5). If desired, known internal contact forces
(such as from a press-fit assembly) can be defined as well.
• User-defined friction interactions for which you define all friction-generating contact force
contributions and the local “tangent” directions along which friction occurs. The user-defined
friction interactions can be used if predefined friction is not available for the connection type of
interest or if the predefined friction interaction does not adequately describe the mechanism being
analyzed. Although more complicated to utilize, user-defined interactions:
– are very general in nature due to flexibility in defining arbitrary sliding directions via connector
potentials and contact forces via connector derived components;
– allow for the specification of sliding directions, contact forces, and additional internal contact
forces as functions of connector relative position or motion, temperature, and field variables
(the internal contact forces can also be dependent on accumulated slip); and
– allow for several friction definitions to be used in the same connection applied in different
Friction formulation in connectors
The basic concept of Coulomb friction between two contacting bodies is the relation of the maximum
allowable frictional (shear) force across an interface to the contact force between the contacting bodies.
In the basic form of the Coulomb friction model, two contacting surfaces can carry shear forces, , up
to a certain magnitude across their interface before they start sliding relative to one another; this state is
known as sticking. The Coulomb friction model defines this critical shear force as , where is the
coefficient of friction and is the contact force. The stick/slip calculations determine when a point
transitions from sticking to slipping or from slipping to sticking. Mathematically, the relationship can
be formalized as
Frictional stick occurs if ; and sliding occurs if , in which case the friction force is .
Friction in connectors is based on the analogy that contacting surfaces of various parts inside
a connector device transmit tangential as well as normal forces across their interfaces. The normal
(contact) forces, , are typically generated by kinematic constraints or by elastic forces/moments in the
connector. Connector friction can be used to model tangential (shear) forces, , in the space spanned
by the available components of relative motion for both stick and slip conditions. Figure 31.2.5–1
illustrates the simplest frictional mechanism in connectors, a SLOT connector in a two-dimensional
analysis. The local tangent direction in which frictional sliding occurs is the 1-direction (tangential
traction ), and the normal force is developed by the kinematic constraint enforcing the SLOT
constraint in the 2-direction, . The friction model is defined in this case by
31.2.5–2
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f2
f1
Figure 31.2.5–1 Friction in a two-dimensional SLOT connection.
which in case of slip predicts a friction force as expected. In this case the friction model
is straightforward to understand as the slip direction is along an intrinsic (1 through 6) component of
relative motion and the normal force is given only by the force in one other single component orthogonal
to the sliding direction.
In many connectors the definition of the tangential tractions is more complex. For example, friction
may develop in a tangent direction that spans two or more available components of relative motion.
Consider the case of frictional sliding in a SLIDE-PLANE connection as illustrated in “Connector
functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4. In this case the friction-generating normal force is
given by the constraint force in the 1-direction, . However, the magnitude of the tangential
tractions is given by
thus including contributions from two components of relative motion. The instantaneous direction of
frictional slip in the 2–3 plane is not known a priori.
In many connectors the normal force may have contributions from several connector components.
Consider the case of a three-dimensional SLOT as illustrated in “Connector functions for coupled
behavior,” Section 31.2.4. In this case the magnitude of the tangential tractions is given by , but
the normal force is generated by constraint forces in both the 2- and 3-directions and can be written as
In the most general case both the tangential tractions and the normal force may have contributions
from several components. Further, the component directions may include both translations (forces) and
rotations (moments). Thus, friction modeling in connectors is defined in a more general form, as follows.
First, the function governing the stick-slip condition is defined as
where is the collection of forces in the connector; is the connector potential (see “Connector
functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4), which represents the magnitude of the frictional
31.2.5–3
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tangential tractions in the connector in a direction tangent to the surface on which contact occurs; and
is the friction-producing normal (contact) force on the same contact surface. Frictional stick occurs
if ; and sliding occurs if , in which case the friction force is .
The normal force, , is the sum of a magnitude measure of contact force-producing connector
forces, , and a self-equilibrated internal contact force (such as from a press-fit assembly),
:
The function is given by a connector derived component definition as illustrated in “Connector

functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4. Using this formalism, we can easily reconstruct the
examples illustrated above:
• In the two-dimensional SLOT case, and .
• In the SLIDE-PLANE case, and .
• In the three-dimensional SLOT case, and .
See the examples at the end of this section for more complex illustrations of friction definitions in
connectors.
If frictional effects are defined for a rotational component of relative motion (such as in a HINGE
connector), it is often more convenient to define “tangential” moments and “normal” moments instead
of tangential tractions/forces and normal forces. The pseudo-yield function governing the stick/slip
behavior is defined in a similar fashion:
where the “normal” moment is written as
is the self-equilibrated friction-generating internal “contact” moment (for example, from press fit).
See “Specifying friction in a HINGE connection” at the end of this section for an illustration.
Predefined friction behavior
Predefined friction interactions allow you to model typical frictional mechanisms in commonly used
connector types without having to define the mechanics of the frictional response. Instead of specifying
the potential, , directly to define the magnitude measure of the tangential tractions and the contact force
via a derived component, you specify:
• a set of friction-related parameters associated with the connection type, which include geometric
parameters specific to the connection type and, optionally, the internal contact force or contact
moment ; and
• the friction law (governed by the friction coefficient) as described in “Defining the friction
coefficient.”
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Abaqus then automatically generates internally the potential, , and the contact force, , based on
the connection type and geometric parameters provided. Table 31.2.5–1 shows the connection types for
which predefined friction interactions are available and the associated friction-related parameters. The
meanings of the geometric parameters as well as the corresponding potentials and derived components
automatically generated by Abaqus are described in “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5.
Table 31.2.5–1 Predefined friction-related parameters.
Connection type Friction-related parameters

Geometric Internal contact
parameters force/moment
CYLINDRICAL R, L
HINGE , ,
PLANAR R ,
SLIDE-PLANE None
SLOT None
TRANSLATOR ,L
UJOINT , , , ,
SLIPRING None None
See the examples at the end of this section for illustrations of predefined friction.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR FRICTION, PREDEFINED
friction-related parameters outlined in Table 31.2.5–1
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction: Friction
model: Predefined, Predefined Friction Parameters, enter the
friction-related parameters outlined in Table 31.2.5–1 in the data table
User-defined friction behavior
User-defined friction behavior can be used if predefined friction is not available for the connection type
of interest or if the predefined friction interaction does not describe adequately the mechanism being
analyzed. For user-defined friction you must specify:
• “tangent” direction information, as follows:
– if the slip direction is known, you specify directly the direction in which friction
forces/moments act, from which Abaqus constructs the potential ;
– if the slip direction is unknown, you specify the potential from which Abaqus computes
the instantaneous slip direction;
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• the friction-producing normal force, , or normal moment, , by defining at least one of the
following:
– the contact force or contact moment ; and/or
– the internal contact force or contact moment ; and
• the friction law (governed by the friction coefficient) as described in “Defining the friction
coefficient.”
Specifying the slip direction aligned with an available component of relative motion
The friction tangent direction is identified by specifying an available component (1–6) to define friction
forces or moments in a specified intrinsic connector local direction. This is the natural choice in cases
when the connector element has only one available component of relative motion (for example, SLOT,
REVOLUTE, or TRANSLATOR); in these cases the relative slip between the various parts forming
the physical connection occurs in one local direction only. In connections with two or more available
components of relative motion, specifying a particular available component of relative motion allows you
to specify frictional effects in that direction only, if desired. For example, in the case of a CYLINDRICAL
connection, specifying component 1 defines frictional effects only in translation while rotation around
the axis is ignored for friction.
Abaqus constructs the potential, , automatically as
where is the force/moment in the specified component i.

Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR FRICTION, COMPONENT=i
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction: Friction
model: User-defined, Slip direction: Specify direction, component
Specifying the potential when the slip direction is unknown

In connection types with two or more available components of relative motion, frictional slipping
is not necessarily solely along one of the available components of relative motion. In such cases
the instantaneous slip direction is not known, as illustrated in the SLIDE-PLANE case in “Friction
formulation in connectors.” Another example is the CYLINDRICAL connection in which frictional
sliding occurs in a direction tangent to the cylindrical surface, thus involving simultaneously a
translational slip in the local 1-direction and a rotational slip about the same axis (see the first example at
the end of this section for an illustration). Thus, frictional slip may occur in a coupled fashion spanning
several available components simultaneously.
In such cases you must specify the magnitude measure of the tangential tractions on the assumed
contact surface using a connector potential definition, . Abaqus then computes the instantaneous slip
direction simultaneously with the stick-slip determination similar to the surface-based three-dimensional
frictional contact computations described in “Coulomb friction,” Section 5.2.3 of the Abaqus Theory
Manual. This procedure is best illustrated for the SLIDE-PLANE case, as follows:
• First, the potential is evaluated.
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• Slipping occurs if the pseudo-yield function .

• The two vector components (the local 2- and 3-directions) of the instantaneous slip direction are
given by the ratios of the two shear forces, and , normalized by the magnitude of the potential.
In general, this strategy is extended to the space spanned by the available components of relative
motion associated with the connection type that ultimately participate in the potential definition (see
“Connector functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4). For example, up to two components for
SLIDE-PLANE or CYLINDRICAL connections, three components for CARDAN connections, and six
components for a user-assembled connection using CARTESIAN and CARDAN connections can be
included in the potential. See the examples below for several illustrations.
Input File Usage: Use the following two options to specify coupled user-defined friction:
*CONNECTOR FRICTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction:
Friction model: User-defined, Slip direction: Compute using
force potential, Force Potential
Specifying the contact force

You specify the friction-generating user-defined contact force, , or contact moment,
, by referring to either an intrinsic component of relative motion number (1 through 6) or a named
connector derived component (see “Defining derived components for connector elements” in “Connector
functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4).
In the latter case the scaling parameters used in the definition of can be made functions of
identified local directions, temperature, and field variables. It is often desirable to include contributions
from both connector forces and moments in the definition of the derived component. In these cases the
scaling parameters used to define the derived components should have units of length or one over length
for meaningful contact force/moment definitions.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define a contact force for connector friction using
an intrinsic connector component:
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, CONTACT FORCE=component number (1–6)
Use the following options to define a contact force for connector friction using
a connector derived component:
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, CONTACT FORCE=derived_component_name
Friction model: User-defined, Contact Force, Specify
component: Intrinsic component or Derived component,
component or specify derived component
Connector derived component names are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
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Specifying the internal contact force

Internal contact forces such as contact interference may occur in connectors during the physical
assembly of the various pieces forming the connector (for example, a press-fit shaft into the sleeve
of a CYLINDRICAL connection). When relative motion occurs between the connector parts, these
self-equilibrating contact stresses will produce contact forces, , or contact moments, ; see
“Friction formulation in connectors.”
The internal contact forces/moments are created by specifying a contact force/moment curve
(positive values only) as a function of accumulated slip, temperature, and field variables. The
accumulated slip is computed as the sum of the absolute values of all slip increments in an instantaneous
slip direction. Consequently, the accumulated slip is monotonically increasing for oscillatory or periodic
motion and can be used to model dependencies related to wear or heat generation in the connection.
Input File Usage: The internal contact forces limiting curve is defined on the data lines
of the *CONNECTOR FRICTION option.
Friction model: User-defined, Contact Force, and enter the
Internal Contact Force in the data table
Specifying the internal contact force to depend on local directions
The internal contact force can also be defined as dependent on either connector relative positions or
constitutive relative motions.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define an internal contact force that depends on
components of relative position:
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=POSITION
Use the following option to define an internal contact force that depends on
components of constitutive displacements or rotations:
*CONNECTOR FRICTION,
INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=CONSTITUTIVE MOTION
Friction model: User-defined, Contact Force, Use independent
components: Position or Motion
Defining the friction coefficient
The connector friction definition uses the standard friction model described in “Frictional behavior,”
Section 36.1.5, to define the friction coefficient. The anisotropic friction and friction data associated
with the second contact direction are ignored for connector elements. If the friction coefficients are
not specified or are set to zero, the connector friction has no effect on the connector behavior. If the
equivalent shear force/moment limit, , is specified (see “Using the optional shear stress limit” in
“Frictional behavior,” Section 36.1.5), the limiting friction force in the pseudo-yield function
(see “Friction formulation in connectors”) is replaced by .
Rough, Lagrange, and user-defined friction cannot be used in connector elements.
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*CONNECTOR FRICTION
*FRICTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction: Tangential

Behavior, Friction Coefficient, and enter the Friction Coeff. in the data table
Changing the friction coefficients during an Abaqus/Standard analysis
In Abaqus/Standard the friction coefficients can be changed during the analysis as for any analysis
including friction (see “Changing friction properties during an Abaqus/Standard analysis” in “Frictional
behavior,” Section 36.1.5, for details).
Controlling the unsymmetric solver in Abaqus/Standard
In Abaqus/Standard friction constraints produce unsymmetric terms when the connector nodes are sliding
relative to each other. These terms have a strong effect on the convergence rate if frictional stresses have
a substantial influence on the overall displacement field and the magnitude of the frictional stresses is
highly solution dependent. Abaqus/Standard will automatically use the unsymmetric solution method
if the coefficient of friction is greater than 0.2. If desired, you can turn off the unsymmetric solution
method as described in “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2.
Defining the stick stiffness
Abaqus determines whether the connector is sticking or slipping in a similar fashion as for all
contact interactions (see “Frictional behavior,” Section 36.1.5), as outlined in “Friction formulation in
connectors.” If the model is sticking, the elastic stiffness of the response is determined by the optional
stick stiffness that is specified as part of the connector friction definition.
If the stick stiffness is not specified, Abaqus will compute a usually appropriate stick stiffness. In
Abaqus/Standard a maximum allowable elastic slip length (or angle) is first defined using either the value
of the slip tolerance, , together with an automatically computed characteristic length (angle) in the
model or the absolute magnitude of the allowable elastic slip, , to be used in the stiffness method for
sticking friction directly (see “Stiffness method for imposing frictional constraints in Abaqus/Standard”
in “Frictional behavior,” Section 36.1.5). The elastic stick stiffness is then determined by simply dividing
the current connector limiting friction force by this maximum allowable elastic slip length (angle). In
Abaqus/Explicit the elastic stick stiffness is determined from the Courant (stability) condition.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR FRICTION, STICK STIFFNESS=elastic stiffness
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Friction: Stick
stiffness: Specify: elastic stiffness
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Using multiple connector friction definitions
Multiple connector frictions can be used as part of the same connector behavior definition. However,
only one connector friction definition can be used to define friction interactions for each available
component of relative motion. If predefined friction is used, only one connector friction definition can
be associated with a connector behavior definition. At most one coupled user-defined friction definition
can be associated with a connector behavior definition. Additional connector friction definitions are
permitted for the same connector behavior definition only if the component relative motion spaces
for each definition do not overlap; for example, you could define uncoupled connector friction in
components 1, 2, and 6 and coupled connector friction (by defining a potential) using components 3, 4,
and 5. All connector friction definitions act in parallel and will be summed if necessary. For a particular
connector element there will be as many stick-slip calculations as connector friction definitions. See the
examples below.
Examples
The following examples illustrate how to define friction in connector elements.
Equivalent ways of specifying friction behavior in a CYLINDRICAL connection

In the example in Figure 31.2.5–2 assume Coulomb-like friction affects the translational motion along
the shock and the rotational motion about the shock axis.
li
2r
The coefficient of friction is , and the overlapping length for the two parts of the shock is
length units in the undeformed configuration. An average radius of the two cylinders is considered
to be units. It is also assumed that the axial motion in the connection is relatively small so
that the overlapping length between the connector parts does not change much. The friction-generating
contact force has contributions from two sources:
• the normal force from the inner walls pushing against each other (the vector magnitude of the
Lagrange multipliers imposing the SLOT constraint), and
• the “bending” in the REVOLUTE constraint (the vector magnitude of the Lagrange multipliers
imposing the REVOLUTE constraint).
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See “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, for a detailed discussion of predefined contact forces
and tangential tractions in the CYLINDRICAL connection. Two equivalent alternatives to model these
frictional effects are shown below:
A. Using the Abaqus predefined friction behavior:
*PARAMETER
r=0.24
=0.55
...
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, PREDEFINED
,
*FRICTION
0.15
Using a predefined connector friction behavior yields the most compact definition of frictional
effects. This definition requires only the specification of the two friction-relevant geometrical
scaling constants.
B. Using a user-defined frictional behavior:
*PARAMETER
r=0.24
=0.55
=1.0
=2.0/
...
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, NAME=shock
2, 3
,
**( )
5, 6
,
**( )
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, CONTACT FORCE=normal
1,
4,
*FRICTION
0.15
The contact force “normal” is defined by
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The connector potential defines the magnitude of the tangential tractions as
This force magnitude is tangent to the cylindrical surface of the connector on which contact occurs.
The choice of normal force definition and potential in this case ensures that the same frictional
effects defined in Case A are modeled.
Specifying friction interactions in a CYLINDRICAL connection accounting for position

dependencies
In the example in Figure 31.2.5–2 assume that large axial motion occurs between the two connector
parts and, hence, the overlapping length will change significantly during the analysis. For the sake of
discussion, assume that the two connector nodes are specified to be overlapped in the initial configuration.
Thus, at CP1=0.0 the initial overlap is as specified above. If during the analysis the connector
relative position along the 1-component reaches CP1=0.45 units, the final overlap would be
. If the connection is subjected to a “bending-like” loading, one can argue that as the
overlapping length decreases, the contact forces developed between the two parts become increasingly
higher. Use the following user-defined friction behavior definitions to model this dependence of the
contact force on relative positions:
*PARAMETER
r=0.24
=0.55
=0.1
=1.0
=2.0/
=2.0/
...
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, NAME=shock
2, 3
,
**( )
INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=POSITION
1
5, 6
, , 0
**( at CP1=0.0)
, , 0.45
**( at CP1=0.45)
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1,
4,
*FRICTION
0.15
Specifying friction due to assembly contact interference

Assume a CYLINDRICAL connector element in which the shaft was press-fit into the sleeve, as shown
in the initial configuration (relative motion = 0.0) in Figure 31.2.5–3.
2r
Figure 31.2.5–3 CYLINDRICAL connection with slightly conical pin.
The shaft is not perfectly cylindrical but slightly conical so that its cross-section diameter is increasing in
a linear fashion along the shaft direction. If the relative displacement along the shaft direction becomes
positive, the contact forces will increase (more contact interference); if the relative displacements become
negative (less interference), they will decrease. An exponential decay model is assumed to model the
transition from a static coefficient of friction to a kinetic one. Only the positive contact force versus
displacement values need to be specified. The following user-defined friction behavior definitions can
be used:
*PARAMETER
r=0.24
...
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=CONSTITUTIVE MOTION
1
** (independent component 1)
0.70, -0.7854
0.85, -0.3927
1.0 , 0.0
1.15, 0.3927
1.30, 0.7854
1,
4, ...
*FRICTION, EXPONENTIAL DECAY
0.25, 0.10, 0.2
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The internal contact forces are specified directly on the data lines to model known contact interference
forces as a function of the connector constitutive component of relative motion along component 1. Since
no intrinsic component of relative motion number or named connector derived component was specified
to define the contact force, the only contribution to the contact force is the specified internal contact force.
Specifying friction in a HINGE connection

This example illustrates the use of a connector friction definition to specify frictional effects in a HINGE
connection. The friction behavior defines friction moments about the 1-direction, since there are no other
available components of relative motion. As illustrated in “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5, the
three geometrical scaling constants that need to be specified for predefined friction are the radius of the
pin cross-section, =0.12; the effective friction arm in the axial direction, =0.14; and the overlapping
length between the pin and the sleeve, =0.65. The friction coefficient is assumed to be =0.15. It
is assumed that the connector has been assembled with initial known contact interference-producing
contact moments of units. The following input could be used to specify the predefined
friction behavior in the HINGE connection:
*PARAMETER
=0.12
=0.14
=0.65
...
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, PREDEFINED
, , , 100.0
* FRICTION
0.15
Alternatively, a user-defined friction behavior could be specified to define identical frictional effects
(see “Connection-type library,” Section 31.1.5). Moreover, a reduction of the interference contact forces
as the pin wears due to accumulated sliding can be modeled in this case by specifying the internal contact
forces/moments to be functions of accumulated slip. The following input can be used:
*PARAMETER
=0.12
=0.14
=0.65
=
=
=2.0*
...
*CONNECTOR DERIVED COMPONENT, NAME=contact_moment
1,
,
** ( )
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2, 3
,
**( )
5, 6
,
**( )
*CONNECTOR FRICTION, COMPONENT=4, CONTACT FORCE=contact_moment
100, 0.0
90 , 1000.0
** interference contact moments decreasing due to wear effects
*FRICTION
0.15
The additional friction moments due to contact interference are modeled by specifying decreasing
internal contact moments as a function of accumulated rotational slip about the 1-direction. The
connector derived component definitions are used to define a contact moment-producing friction in the
same direction (component 4). The contact moment is defined by
The connector potential is defined automatically by Abaqus as .
Specifying friction in a ball-in-socket connection

This example illustrates the specification of frictional effects in a ball-in-socket connection.
While the first choice in defining a ball-in-socket connection is JOIN and ROTATION, other
rotation parameterizations could be used (JOIN and CARDAN, JOIN and EULER, or JOIN and
FLEXION-TORSION). Assuming that the radius of the ball is and the coefficient of friction
is , the following lines can be used to define the friction interactions:
*PARAMETER
=0.30
...
1, 2, 3
1.0, 1.0, 1.0
**( )
4,
5,
6,
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*FRICTION
0.15
The computed connector friction moments and the friction-induced moments at the connector nodes are
dependent on the connection type.
Defining connector friction behavior in linear perturbation procedures
Frictional slipping is not allowed in linear perturbation procedures. If a connector is slipping at the end
of the last general analysis step, it will slip freely during the current linear perturbation step. Otherwise,
Abaqus will allow the connector to slip elastically with the specified stick stiffness or enforce a sticking
condition if a stick stiffness is not specified.
Output
following variables are of particular interest when defining friction in connectors:
CSF Connector friction forces/moments. In addition to the usual six components
associated with connector output variables, CSF includes the scalar CSFC, which
is the friction force generated by a coupled friction definition.
CNF Connector normal forces/moments. CNF includes the scalar CNFC, which is the
friction-generating normal force associated with a coupled friction definition.
CASU Connector accumulated slip. CASU includes the scalar CASUC, which is the
accumulated slip associated with a coupled friction definition.
CIVC Connector instantaneous velocity associated with a coupled friction definition.
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CONNECTOR PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
31.2.6 CONNECTOR PLASTIC BEHAVIOR
References

• *CONNECTOR HARDENING
• *CONNECTOR PLASTICITY
• “Defining plasticity,” Section 15.17.6 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
Connector plasticity in Abaqus:

• can be used to model plastic/irreversible deformations of parts forming an actual connection device;
for example,
– the pin or the sleeve in a door hinge may deform plastically if the forces/moments acting on
them are large enough;
– connection elements in automotive suspension systems may deform irreversibly due to abusive
loading; or
– spot welds in a car frame and rivets in an airplane could undergo inelastic deformations if the
forces acting on the structural members they are a part of are larger than intended;
• is defined in terms of resultant forces and moments in the connector;
• uses perfect plasticity or isotropic/kinematic hardening behavior models;
• can be used when rate-dependent effects are important;
• can be specified in any connectors with available components of relative motion;
• can be used for available components of relative motion for which either elastic or rigid behavior
was specified;
• can be used in an uncoupled fashion to define elastic-plastic or rigid plastic response in individual
available components of relative motion; and
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• can be used to specify coupled elastic-plastic or rigid plastic behavior, in which case the responses
in several available components of relative motion are involved simultaneously in a coupled fashion
to define plasticity effects.
To define connector plasticity in Abaqus, the following are necessary:
• the elastic or rigid behavior prior to the onset of plasticity;
• a yield function upon which plastic flow will be initiated; and
• hardening behavior to define the initial yield value and, optionally, the yield value evolution after
plastic motion initiation.
Plasticity formulation in connectors
The plasticity formulation in connectors is similar to the plasticity formulation in metal plasticity (see
“Classical metal plasticity,” Section 23.2.1). In connectors the stress ( ) corresponds to the force ( ),
the strain ( ) corresponds to the constitutive motion ( ), the plastic strain ( ) corresponds to the plastic
relative motion ( ), and the equivalent plastic strain ( ) corresponds to the equivalent plastic relative
motion ( ). The yield function is defined as
where is the collection of forces and moments in the available components of relative motion that
ultimately contribute to the yield function; the connector potential, , defines a magnitude of
connector tractions similar to defining an equivalent state of stress in Mises plasticity and is either
automatically defined by Abaqus or user-defined; and is the yield force/moment. The connector
relative motions, , remain elastic as long as ; and when plastic flow occurs, .
If yielding occurs, the plastic flow rule is assumed to be associated; thus, the plastic relative motions
are defined by
where is the rate of plastic relative motion and is the equivalent plastic relative motion rate.
Loading and unloading behavior

Abaqus allows for the following three types of behaviors associated with a plasticity definition when the
connector is not actively yielding:
• Linear elastic behavior, shown in Figure 31.2.6–1(a), is the most common case since similar
behavior can be modeled in metal plasticity, for example, by specifying the Young’s modulus.
Elastic motion occurs prior to plasticity onset, and unloading from a plastic state occurs on a
straight line parallel to the initial loading.
• Rigid behavior, shown in Figure 31.2.6–1(b), assumes that the slope in the linear elastic behavior is
infinite; thus, the elastic motion prior to plasticity onset is zero, and unloading from a plastic state
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F
plasticity onset
linear elastic
(a) unloading/reloading
0 U
linear elasticity
F plasticity onset
(b) rigid
unloading/reloading
0 U
F plasticity
user-specified
onset
F0 nonlinear elasticity
C nonlinear elastic
(c) unloading/reloading
Fl 0
I
0 U
0c
Figure 31.2.6–1 Linear elastic-plastic (a), rigid plastic (b),

and nonlinear elastic-plastic (c) response.
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occurs on a vertical line. In practice, the rigid behavior is enforced using an automatically chosen
high penalty stiffness.
• Nonlinear elastic behavior, shown in Figure 31.2.6–1(c), in which the initial elastic loading occurs
along the defined nonlinear path. Elastic unloading occurs along a nonlinear curve (C Oc ) that
is simply the user-defined nonlinear elastic curve motion shifted such that it passes through point
C. The user-defined nonlinear elastic behavior must be such that the unloading path (C Oc ) does
not intersect with the loading path (O I C); otherwise, a local instability will occur.
Other behaviors (such as damping or friction) can be specified in addition to the elastic/rigid/plastic
specifications but will not be considered in the plasticity calculations since they are considered to be in
parallel with the elastic-plastic/rigid plastic behavior (see the conceptual model in “Connector behavior,”
Section 31.2.1).
Defining elastic-plastic or rigid plastic behavior
As is the case with any other connector behavior type, connector plasticity can be defined only for
available components of relative motion. For example, you cannot define plastic behavior in a BEAM
connector or in components 2 and 3 of a SLOT connector since these components are not available for
behavior definitions. The solution to this problem is to:
• define a connection type with available components of relative motion that best models the
kinematics of your connection device both before and after plasticity onset;
• define the desired components as rigid (see “Connector elastic behavior,” Section 31.2.2); and
• specify rigid plastic behavior in some or all of these components.
For example, to define rigid plasticity for an otherwise rigid beam-like connector, you could
use a PROJECTION CARTESIAN connection together with a PROJECTION FLEXION-TORSION
connection, define all components as rigid, and proceed with your plasticity definitions.
Elastic-plastic behavior is usually specified for available components of relative motion for which
spring-like behavior is specified and for which plastic deformation may occur.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define rigid plasticity in connectors:
*CONNECTOR PLASTICITY
*CONNECTOR HARDENING
Use the following options to define elastic-plasticity in connectors:
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following input to define rigid plasticity in connectors:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Elasticity,
Definition: Rigid; Add→Plasticity
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Use the following input to define elastic-plasticity in connectors:

Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Elasticity;
Add→Plasticity
Defining uncoupled plastic behavior
Uncoupled elastic-plastic or rigid plastic behavior, specified for each component of relative motion
independently, is similar to one-dimensional plasticity. You must define elastic or rigid behavior in
the specified component of relative motion. In this case the connector potential function is chosen
automatically as
where is the force or moment in the available component of relative motion for which plastic
behavior is specified. The associated plastic flow in this case becomes
where is the rate of plastic relative motion and is the equivalent plastic relative motion rate in the
component.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define uncoupled rigid plastic connector behavior:
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, RIGID, COMPONENT=i
*CONNECTOR PLASTICITY, COMPONENT=i
Use the following options to define uncoupled elastic-plastic connector
behavior:
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, COMPONENT=i
*CONNECTOR PLASTICITY, COMPONENT=i
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following input to define uncoupled rigid plastic connector behavior:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Elasticity, Definition:
Rigid; Add→Plasticity, Coupling: Uncoupled
Use the following input to define uncoupled elastic-plastic connector behavior:
Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Elasticity,
Definition: Linear or Nonlinear, Coupling: Uncoupled;
Add→Plasticity, Coupling: Uncoupled
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Defining coupled plastic behavior
You should define coupled plasticity in connectors when several available components of relative motion
are involved simultaneously in a coupled fashion in the definition of the yield function . In this case
you must define the potential, P, via a connector potential definition. Plastic flow eventually occurs only
in the intrinsic components of relative motion that are ultimately involved in the potential. Elastic or
rigid behavior should be specified for all components of relative motion that are involved in the potential
definition. The elastic/rigid behavior for these components can be specified in an uncoupled fashion,
in a coupled fashion, or in a combination of both. All elasticity definitions specified in a connector
behavior that are pertinent to the components of relative motion involved in the potential definition are
used collectively to define the elasticity for the coupled elastic-plastic or rigid plastic definition.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define coupled elastic-plastic or rigid plastic
connector behavior:
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Elasticity;
Add→Plasticity, Coupling: Coupled, Force Potential
Mode-mix ratio
If the coupled plasticity definition includes at least two terms in the associated potential definition (see
“Defining derived components for connector elements” in “Connector functions for coupled behavior,”
Section 31.2.4), a mode-mix ratio can be defined to reflect the relative weight of the first two terms in
their contribution to the potential. The mode-mix ratio can be used in plastic motion-based connector
damage definitions (see “Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7) to specify dependencies in both
damage initiation and damage evolution. It is defined as
where is the force/moment in the first component specified for the plasticity potential and is
the force/moment in the second component specified for the same potential. if ,
if , and is somewhere in between −1.0 and 1.0 if neither is 0.0.
Defining the plastic hardening behavior
Abaqus provides a number of hardening models varying from simple perfect plasticity to nonlinear
isotropic/kinematic hardening. Connector hardening is analogous to the hardening models used in
Abaqus for metals subjected to cyclic loading and described in “Models for metals subjected to cyclic
loading,” Section 23.2.2.
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Defining perfect plasticity

Perfect plasticity means that the yield force does not change with plastic relative motion.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define perfect plasticity:
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Plasticity:

Specify isotropic hardening, Isotropic Hardening, and enter
the Yield Force/Moment in the data table
Defining nonlinear isotropic hardening

Isotropic hardening behavior defines the evolution of the yield surface size, , as a function of the
equivalent plastic relative motion, . This evolution can be introduced by specifying directly as a
function of in tabular form or by using the simple exponential law
where is the yield value at zero plastic relative motion and and b are material parameters.
is the maximum change in the size of the yield surface, and b defines the rate at which the size of the
yield surface changes as plastic deformation develops. When the equivalent force defining the size of
the yield surface remains constant ( ), there is no isotropic hardening.
Defining the isotropic hardening component by specifying tabular data

Isotropic hardening can be introduced by specifying the equivalent force defining the size of the yield
surface, , as a tabular function of the equivalent relative plastic motion, , and, if required, of the
equivalent relative plastic motion rate, , temperature, and/or other predefined field variables. The
yield value at a given state is simply interpolated from this table of data.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR HARDENING, TYPE=ISOTROPIC,
DEFINITION=TABULAR (default)
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Plasticity: Specify
isotropic hardening, Isotropic Hardening, Definition: Tabular
Defining the isotropic hardening component using the exponential law

Specify the material parameters of the exponential law ( , , and b) directly if they are already
calibrated from test data. These parameters can be specified as functions of temperature and/or field
variables.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR HARDENING, TYPE=ISOTROPIC,
DEFINITION=EXPONENTIAL LAW
isotropic hardening, Isotropic Hardening, Definition: Exponential law
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Defining nonlinear kinematic hardening

When nonlinear kinematic hardening is specified, the center of the yield surface is allowed to translate
in the force space. The backforce, , is the current center of the yield surface and is interpreted similar
to the backstress discussed in “Classical metal plasticity,” Section 23.2.1.
The yield surface is defined by the function
where is the yield value and is the potential with respect to the backforce .
The kinematic hardening component is defined to be an additive combination of a purely kinematic
term (the linear Ziegler hardening law) and a relaxation term (the recall term) that introduces the
nonlinearity. When temperature and field variable dependencies are omitted, the hardening law is
where C and are material parameters that must be calibrated from cyclic test data. C is the initial
kinematic hardening modulus, and determines the rate at which the kinematic hardening modulus
decreases with increasing plastic deformation. When C and are zero, the model reduces to an isotropic
hardening model. When is zero, the linear Ziegler hardening law is recovered. Refer to “Models
for metals subjected to cyclic loading,” Section 23.2.2, for a discussion of calibrating the material
parameters.
Defining the kinematic hardening component by specifying half-cycle test data

If limited test data are available, C and can be based on the force-constitutive motion data obtained
from the first half cycle of a unidirectional tension or compression experiment. An example of such test
data is shown in Figure 31.2.6–2. This approach is usually adequate when the simulation will involve
only a few cycles of loading.
For each data point ( ) a value of is obtained from the test data as
where is the user-defined size of the yield surface at the corresponding plastic motion for the isotropic
hardening definition or the initial yield force if the isotropic hardening component is not defined.
Integration of the backforce evolution law over a half cycle yields the expression
which is used for calibrating C and .

When test data are given as functions of temperature and/or field variables, it is recommended that
a data check analysis be run first. During the data check run, Abaqus will determine several pairs of
material parameters (C, ), where each pair will correspond to a given combination of temperature and/or
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F F3, upl3
F1, u1pl F2, upl2
F0
upl
Figure 31.2.6–2 Half-cycle of force-motion data.
field variables. Since Abaqus requires the parameter to be a constant, the data check analysis will
terminate with an error message if is not a constant. However, an appropriate constant value of may
be determined from the information provided in the data file during the data check run. The values for
the parameter C and the constant can then be entered directly as described below.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR HARDENING, TYPE=KINEMATIC,
DEFINITION=HALF CYCLE (default)
kinematic hardening, Kinematic Hardening, Definition: Half-cycle
Defining the kinematic hardening component by specifying test data from a stabilized cycle
Force-constitutive motion data can be obtained from the stabilized cycle of a specimen that is subjected
to symmetric cycles. A stabilized cycle is obtained by cycling the specimen over a fixed motion range
until a steady-state condition is reached; that is, until the force-motion curve no longer changes shape
from one cycle to the next. Such a stabilized cycle is shown in Figure 31.2.6–3. See “Models for metals
subjected to cyclic loading,” Section 23.2.2, for information on how the data should be processed before
they are specified in the connector hardening definition.
DEFINITION=STABILIZED
kinematic hardening, Kinematic Hardening, Definition: Stabilized
Defining the kinematic hardening component by specifying the material parameters directly
The parameters C and can be specified directly if they are already calibrated from test data. The
parameter C can be provided as a function of temperature and/or field variables, but temperature and
field variable dependence of is not available. The algorithm currently used to integrate the nonlinear
isotropic/kinematic hardening model does not provide accurate solutions if the value of changes
significantly in an increment due to temperature and/or field variable dependence.
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F Fn
Fi
F2
F1
Δu upli = ui −F i − up0
E
ui u
up0
Figure 31.2.6–3 Force-motion data for a stabilized cycle.

DEFINITION=PARAMETERS
kinematic hardening, Kinematic Hardening, Definition: Parameters
Defining nonlinear isotropic/kinematic hardening

The evolution law of the combined isotropic/kinematic model consists of two components: an isotropic
hardening component, which describes the change in the equivalent force defining the size of the yield
surface, , as a function of plastic relative motion, and a nonlinear kinematic hardening component,
which describes the translation of the yield surface in force space through the backforce, .
At most two connector hardening definitions, one isotropic and one kinematic, can be associated
with a connector plasticity definition. If only one connector hardening definition is specified, it can be
either isotropic or kinematic.
Input File Usage: Use the following two options to define nonlinear isotropic/kinematic
hardening:
*CONNECTOR HARDENING, TYPE=KINEMATIC
*CONNECTOR HARDENING, TYPE=ISOTROPIC
isotropic hardening and Specify kinematic hardening
Using multiple plasticity definitions
Multiple connector plasticity definitions can be used as part of the same connector behavior definition.
However, only one connector plasticity definition can be used to define plasticity for each available
component of relative motion. At most one coupled plasticity definition can be associated with a
connector behavior definition. Additional connector plasticity definitions are permitted for the same
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connector behavior definition only if the two spaces do not overlap; for example, you could define
uncoupled connector plasticity for components 1, 2, and 6 and have one coupled connector plasticity
definition involving components 3, 4, and 5.
Each connector plasticity definition must have its own hardening definition.
Examples
Illustrations of uncoupled and coupled plasticity behaviors are shown in the following examples.
Uncoupled plasticity in a SLOT-like connector

Consider a SLOT connector that you have used to model a physical device efficiently. You have examined
the reaction forces enforcing the SLOT constraint in the local 2- and 3-directions; since they appear to
be quite large, you need to assess whether plastic deformations in the device may occur. One option that
you have is to create detailed meshes for the slot and the pin in the device, define the contact interactions
between them, and use elastic-plastic material definitions for the underlying materials. While this is the
most accurate modeling solution, it may be impractical, especially when the device you are modeling is
part of a larger model. Alternatively, you can do the following:
• use a CARTESIAN connection type instead of the SLOT connection with the first axis aligned with
the slot direction;
• define components 2 and 3 as rigid; and
• define rigid plasticity separately in each of the components.
The following input can be used:
*CONNECTOR SECTION, BEHAVIOR=slot

CARTESIAN
orientation at node a
*CONNECTOR BEHAVIOR, NAME=slot
2, 3
*CONNECTOR PLASTICITY, COMPONENT=2
100, 0.0
110, 0.12
*CONNECTOR PLASTICITY, COMPONENT=3
50, 0.0
75, 0.23
The yield forces that you specify in the connector hardening definitions are obtained from an experimental
result or are assessed from a “virtual experiment,” as follows:
• Use the meshed model of the slot discussed above.
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• Run two simple separate analyses by constraining the slot part of the device and driving the pin into
the slot walls using a boundary condition.
• Plot the reaction force at the pin node against its motion.
• Use these data to create the force-motion hardening curve to be specified in the connector hardening
definition.
Coupled plasticity in a spot weld

Referring to the spot weld shown in Figure 31.2.6–4 and to the yield function described in “Defining
connector potentials” in “Connector functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4,
you could complete the plasticity definition, for example, by specifying tabular isotropic hardening and
kinematic hardening via parameters.
Fs
Fn
Figure 31.2.6–4 Spot weld connection.
*PARAMETER
=0.02
=0.05
*CONNECTOR POTENTIAL, EXPONENT=a
normal, , , MACAULEY
shear, , , ABS
,
,
*CONNECTOR HARDENING, TYPE=KINEMATIC, DEFINITION=PARAMETERS
C,
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Defining plastic connector behavior in linear perturbation procedures
Plastic relative motions are not allowed during linear perturbation analyses. Therefore, the connector
relative motions will be linear elastic perturbations about the plastically deformed base state, similar to
metal plasticity.
Output
following output variables are of particular interest when defining plasticity in connectors:
CUE Connector elastic displacements/rotations.
CUP Connector plastic displacements/rotations.
CUPEQ Connector equivalent plastic relative displacements/rotations. In addition to the
usual six components associated with connector output variables, CUPEQ includes
the scalar CUPEQC, which is the equivalent plastic relative motion associated with
a coupled plasticity definition.
CALPHAF Connector kinematic hardening shift forces/moments.
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CONNECTOR DAMAGE BEHAVIOR
31.2.7 CONNECTOR DAMAGE BEHAVIOR
References

• *CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION
• *CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION
• *CONNECTOR PLASTICITY
• *SECTION CONTROLS
• “Defining damage,” Section 15.17.7 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
Connector damage behavior:

• can be specified in any connectors with available components of relative motion;
• can be used to degrade the elastic, elastic-plastic, or rigid plastic response in connector elements;
• can use a force-based, motion-based, or plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion upon
which response degradation may be triggered;
• can use either a (plastic) motion-based or an energy-based damage evolution law to degrade the
force response in the connector;
• can be defined in terms of several competing damage mechanisms; and
• can be used only as an indicator of proximity to the damage initiation point without degrading the
connector response.
Damage formulation in connectors
If relative forces or motions in a connection exceed critical values, the connector starts undergoing
irreversible damage (degradation). Upon additional loading there is further evolution of damage leading
to eventual failure. If damage has occurred, the force response in the connector component i will change
according to the following general form:
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where is a scalar damage variable and is the response in the available connector component of
relative motion i if damage were not present (effective response).
To define a connector damage mechanism, you specify the following:
• a criterion for damage initiation; and
• a damage evolution law that specifies how the damage variable d evolves (optional).
Prior to damage initiation, d has a value of 0.0; thus, the force response in the connector does not change.
Once damage has been initiated, the damage variable will monotonically evolve up to the maximum
value of 1.0 if damage evolution is specified. Complete failure occurs when d = 1.0.
Abaqus allows you to specify a maximum degradation value (the default value is 1.0); damage
evolution will stop when the damage variable reaches this value, and the element will be deleted from
the mesh by default. Alternatively, you can specify that the damaged connector elements remain in
the analysis with no further damage evolution. The maximum degradation value is used to evaluate
the damaged stiffness in the remaining part of the analysis. This functionality is discussed in detail
in “Controlling element deletion and maximum degradation for materials with damage evolution” in
“Section controls,” Section 27.1.4.
Defining connector damage initiation
The degradation process in connectors initiates when forces or relative motions in the connector satisfy
certain criteria. Three different criteria types can be used to trigger damage in connectors: criteria
based on force, plastic motion, or constitutive motion. Connector damage initiation criteria for the
available components of relative motion can be specified for each component independently (uncoupled).
Alternatively, connector damage initiation criteria that couple all or some of the available components
of relative motion in the connector can be defined.
The damage initiation criterion can depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax
rules,” Section 1.2.1, for further information about defining data as functions of temperature and field
variables.
Force-based damage initiation criterion

By default, the damage initiation criterion is specified in terms of forces/moments in the connector.
Elastic or rigid connector behavior must be defined for the components involved in the initiation. You
provide the lower (compression) limit, , and the upper (tension) limit, , for the force/moment
damage initiation values. If the force is outside the range specified by the two limit values, damage is
initiated. The output variable CDIF can be used to monitor the proximity to the damage initiation point.
Defining uncoupled force-based damage initiation

For an uncoupled force-based damage initiation criterion, the connector force in the specified component
is compared to the specified limit values. Damage is initiated when the force in the specified component
i, , is for the first time outside the range ( or ).
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, COMPONENT=component
number, CRITERION=FORCE (default), DEPENDENCIES=n
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Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage: Coupling:

Uncoupled, Initiation criterion: Force
Defining coupled force-based damage initiation

For a coupled force-based damage initiation criterion, a connector potential, , must be specified
to define an equivalent force magnitude (scalar). The equivalent force magnitude is compared to
the specified limit values to assess damage initiation. Damage is initiated when the equivalent force
magnitude, , is for the first time outside the range ( or ).
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=FORCE (default),
DEPENDENCIES=n
Coupled, Initiation criterion: Force, Initiation Potential
Plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion

The damage initiation criterion can be specified in terms of an equivalent relative plastic motion in the
connector. You provide the relative equivalent plastic displacement/rotation at which damage will be
initiated as a function of the relative equivalent plastic rate. The output variable CDIP can be used to
monitor the proximity to the damage initiation point.
Defining uncoupled plastic damage initiation

For an uncoupled elastic-plastic or rigid plastic damage initiation criterion, uncoupled connector
plasticity in the specified component of relative motion must be defined (see “Connector plastic
behavior,” Section 31.2.6). When the equivalent relative plastic motion as defined by the associated
plasticity definition is greater than the specified limit value for the first time, damage is initiated.
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, COMPONENT=component
number, CRITERION=PLASTIC MOTION, DEPENDENCIES=n
*CONNECTOR PLASTICITY, COMPONENT=component number
or
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage: Initiation
criterion: Plastic motion; Add→Plasticity
Defining coupled plastic damage initiation

For a coupled elastic-plastic or rigid plastic damage initiation criterion, coupled connector plasticity
must be defined. The connector potential used in the coupled connector plasticity function defines an
equivalent relative plastic motion. This equivalent relative plastic motion is compared to the specified
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limit values to assess damage initiation. The equivalent relative plastic motion at which damage is
initiated can be a function of the mode-mix ratio (see “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6).
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION,
CRITERION=PLASTIC MOTION, DEPENDENCIES=n
Coupled, Initiation criterion: Plastic motion; Add→Plasticity:
Coupling: Coupled, Force Potential
Constitutive motion-based damage initiation criterion

The damage initiation criterion can be specified in terms of relative constitutive displacements/rotations
in the connector. You provide the lower (compression) limit, , and the upper (tension) limit, ,
for the constitutive displacement/rotation damage initiation values. If the motion is outside the range
specified by the two limit values, damage is initiated. The output variable CDIM can be used to monitor
the proximity to the damage initiation point.
Defining uncoupled constitutive motion-based damage initiation

For an uncoupled motion-based damage initiation criterion, the connector relative constitutive motion in
the specified component is compared to the specified limit values. Damage is initiated when the relative
constitutive displacement/rotation in the specified component i, , is for the first time outside the range
( or ).
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, COMPONENT=component
number, CRITERION=MOTION, DEPENDENCIES=n
Uncoupled, Initiation criterion: Motion
Defining coupled constitutive motion-based damage initiation

For a coupled motion-based damage initiation criterion, a connector potential, , must be specified
to define an equivalent motion magnitude (scalar), where is the collection of all available components
of relative motion in the connector. The equivalent motion magnitude is compared to the specified limit
values to assess damage initiation. Damage is initiated when the equivalent motion magnitude, , is
for the first time outside the range ( or ).
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=MOTION,
DEPENDENCIES=n
Coupled, Initiation criterion: Motion, Initiation Potential
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Defining connector damage evolution
Connector damage evolution specifies the evolution law for the damage variable. Upon evolution, the
connector response will be degraded. The evolution of damage can be based on an energy dissipation
criterion or on relative (plastic) motions. In the motion-based criteria the damage variable, d, can be
defined as a linear, exponential, or tabular function of relative motions.
The damage evolution law can depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,”
Section 1.2.1, for further information about defining data as functions of temperature and field variables.
Specifying the affected components
By default (i.e., the affected components are not specified explicitly), only the elastic/rigid or
elastic/rigid-plastic response in the connector will be damaged. The response due to friction, damping,
and stop/lock behavior will not be degraded. For an uncoupled connector damage mechanism
(uncoupled damage initiation criterion), only the specified component of relative motion will undergo
damage. For coupled connector damage initiation, the components that will be degraded by default are
chosen as follows:
• If a force-based or constitutive motion-based damage initiation criterion is used, the intrinsic

available components (1 through 6) that ultimately contribute to the connector potential for damage
initiation will be affected.
• If a plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion is used, the intrinsic available components
that ultimately contribute to the connector potential used in the coupled plasticity definition will be
affected.
Alternatively, you can specify the available components of relative motion that will be affected
by the damage evolution law directly. In this case the entire connector response (elasto/rigid-plastic,
friction, damping, constraint forces and moments, etc.) in the affected components will be damaged.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, AFFECTED COMPONENTS
The first data line identifies the component numbers that will be damaged, and
the additional data for the connector damage evolution definition begins on the
second data line.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage: Specify
damage evolution, Evolution, Specify affected components
Defining a motion-based linear damage evolution law
The linear form of the damage evolution law is illustrated here in the context of linear elasticity, although
it can be used in any situation. Assume that the connector response is linear elastic and that after damage
initiation a linear damage evolution is desired, as illustrated in Figure 31.2.7–1.
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linear elastic response

(no damage)
F damage
initiation
effective response
Feff (if damage was not present)
I
d Feff
actual current response in the
Fc connector with damage
C Fc = (1-d) Feff
E
damaged response
(1-d) E
0 U
Uo Uc Uf
unloading/reloading curve
Figure 31.2.7–1 Linear damage evolution law for linear elastic connector behavior.
If damage were not specified, the response would be linear elastic (a straight line passing through the
origin). Assume that damage has initiated at point I as triggered by a force-based or motion-based
criterion, for example; the corresponding constitutive motion at this point is . If the connector is
loaded further such that the constitutive motion increases to , the connector force response at point C
becomes . The response is diminished by when compared to the effective response
(the elastic response with no damage). Thus, . If unloading occurs at point C, the
unloading curve of slope is followed. As long as the constitutive motion does not exceed ,
the damage variable, d, stays constant at the value obtained when point C is first reached. If further
loading occurs, further damage occurs until the ultimate failure motion, , is reached (d = 1) and the
connector component loses the ability to carry any load. Thus, one possible loading/unloading sequence
is O I C O C .
The linear damage evolution law defines a truly linear damaged force response only in the case
of linear elastic or rigid behavior with optional perfect plasticity. If nonlinear elasticity or plasticity
with hardening are defined for the damaged components, an approximate linear damaged response is
observed.
Defining the linear evolution law for a force-based or constitutive motion-based damage initiation
criterion
If an uncoupled damage initiation criterion is used in component i, you specify the difference between
the constitutive relative motion at ultimate failure, , and the constitutive relative motion at damage
initiation, , in the specified component ( ).
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If a coupled damage initiation criterion is used, an equivalent constitutive relative motion, , must
be defined for damage evolution purposes. A connector potential definition is used to define .
You specify the difference between the equivalent motion at ultimate failure, , and the equivalent
motion at damage initiation, ( ).
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define a linear evolution law for an uncoupled
initiation criterion:
COMPONENT=component number, CRITERION=FORCE or MOTION
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION,
SOFTENING=LINEAR
Use the following options to define a linear evolution law for a coupled
CRITERION=FORCE or MOTION
SOFTENING=LINEAR
The second *CONNECTOR POTENTIAL option defines .
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following input to define a linear evolution law for an uncoupled
Uncoupled, Initiation criterion: Force or Motion; Specify damage
evolution, Evolution type: Motion, Evolution softening: Linear
Use the following input to define a linear evolution law for a coupled initiation
criterion:
Coupled, Initiation criterion: Force or Motion; Specify damage
evolution, Evolution type: Motion, Evolution softening: Linear;
Initiation Potential; Evolution Potential
Defining the linear evolution law for a plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion
You can specify the difference between the associated equivalent plastic relative motion at ultimate
failure, , and the associated equivalent plastic relative motion at damage initiation, ( ),
as a function of the mode-mix ratio, , defined in “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6. The
equivalent plastic relative motions are calculated from the associated plasticity definition (either coupled
or uncoupled).
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=PLASTIC MOTION
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SOFTENING=LINEAR
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage: Initiation
criterion: Plastic motion; Specify damage evolution, Evolution
type: Motion, Evolution softening: Linear
Defining a motion-based exponential damage evolution law

The exponential damage evolution law is illustrated in the context of a linear elastic-plastic response
with hardening, although it can be used in any situation. The force response in a particular connector
component is shown in Figure 31.2.7–2.
plasticity with hardening

(no damage)
plasticity damage
F onset initiation
Feff
I
d Feff
E
elastic Fc
response C actual response
(1-d) E with damage
U
U opl U cpl U fpl
Figure 31.2.7–2 Exponential damage evolution law for linear

elastic-plastic connector behavior with hardening.
Assume that damage is initiated at point I as triggered by a plastic motion–based damage initiation
criterion. If further loading occurs until point C, the response is . Unloading from
point C occurs along the damaged elastic line of slope . Upon unloading/reloading, the damage
variable remains constant until point C is reached again. Further loading (beyond point C) leads to an
increasingly damaged response until the ultimate failure point, , is reached (d = 1). The damage
variable d is given by the following equation:
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The damaged response will appear to be truly exponential only if either linear elasticity or perfect
plasticity is used. An approximate exponential degradation is obtained if plasticity with hardening is
present.
You specify the difference between the relative motions at ultimate failure and at damage initiation
and the exponential coefficient . The difference between the relative motions is interpreted in the same
way as described in “Defining a motion-based linear damage evolution law,” as follows:
• If an uncoupled force-based or constitutive motion-based damage initiation criterion is used, the
difference between the relative motions at ultimate failure and at damage initiation in the specified
component i, , is specified.
• If a coupled force-based or constitutive motion-based damage initiation criterion is used, an
equivalent relative motion is defined using a connector potential ( ). The difference
between the relative motions at ultimate failure and at damage initiation, , is specified.
• If a plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion is used, the difference between the equivalent
relative plastic motions at ultimate failure and at damage initiation, , is specified. The
equivalent plastic relative motion is calculated from the associated plasticity definition. The data
can also be functions of the mode-mix ratio .
In the first two cases the equation for the damage variable is similar to that given above for plastic
motion–based damage initiation except that (equivalent) constitutive relative motions are used instead
of equivalent relative plastic motions.
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION,
SOFTENING=EXPONENTIAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage:
Specify damage evolution, Evolution type: Motion,
Evolution softening: Exponential
Defining a motion-based tabular damage evolution law

You can also specify the damage variable directly as a tabular function of the differences between the
relative motions at ultimate failure and the relative motions at damage initiation. The differences between
the relative motions are interpreted in the same way as described in “Defining a motion-based linear
damage evolution law,” as follows:
• If an uncoupled force-based or constitutive motion-based damage initiation criterion is used, the
differences between the constitutive relative motions at ultimate failure and at damage initiation in
the specified component i, , are used to define the tabular data.
• If a coupled force-based or constitutive motion-based damage initiation criterion is used, an
equivalent relative motion is defined using a connector potential ( ). The differences
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between the relative motions at ultimate failure and at damage initiation, , are used to define
the tabular data.
• If a plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion is used, the differences between the equivalent
relative plastic motions at ultimate failure and at damage initiation, , are used. The
equivalent plastic relative motion is calculated from the associated plasticity definition. The tabular
data can also be functions of the mode-mix ratio .
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION,
SOFTENING=TABULAR, DEPENDENCIES=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Damage:
Specify damage evolution, Evolution type: Motion,
Evolution softening: Tabular
Defining a damage evolution law using post-damage initiation dissipation energies

This damage evolution law is illustrated in the context of nonlinear elasticity, as shown in
Figure 31.2.7–3.
damage initiation
F
nonlinear elastic response

E
Feff (no damage)
nonlinear elastic d Feff

response Fc C
Gc actual response
with damage
0 U
Uo Uc
Figure 31.2.7–3 Post-damage initiation dissipation energy

evolution law for nonlinear elastic connector behavior.
Assume that damage is initiated at point I when the constitutive relative motion is as triggered by
a force-based or a motion-based damage initiation criterion, for example. The response at point C will
be . Unloading from point C occurs along the CO curve, which is the original
nonlinear elastic response curve (OE) scaled down by the ( ) factor. Damage remains constant on
the unloading/reloading curve (C O C), and it increases only if loading increases beyond point C.
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Instantaneous failure can be specified upon initiation if is specified as 0.0. In all other cases
ultimate failure (d = 1) would occur (in theory) at infinite motion since an exponential-like response
that asymptotically goes to zero is generated. Abaqus will set d = 1 when the damage dissipated energy
reaches 0.99 .
You specify the post-damage initiation dissipated energy at ultimate failure, . If a plastic
motion–based initiation criterion is used, can be specified as a function of the mode-mix ratio .
Input File Usage: *CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=ENERGY,
DEPENDENCIES=n
damage evolution, Evolution type: Energy
Using multiple damage mechanisms
At most three uncoupled damage mechanisms (pairs of connector damage initiation criteria and connector
damage evolution laws) can be defined for each available component of relative motion, one for each type
of initiation criterion (force, motion, and plastic motion). In addition, three coupled damage mechanisms
can be defined (one for each type of initiation criterion). Coupled and uncoupled damage definitions can
be combined; only one overall damage variable per component will be used to damage the response in a
particular available component of relative motion. Only the overall damage will be output.
Specifying the contribution of each damage mechanism

When several damage mechanisms are defined for the same connector behavior, you can specify the
contribution of each damage mechanism to the overall damage effect for a particular component of
relative motion. By default, the damage value associated with a particular mechanism will be compared
to the damage values from any other damage mechanisms defined for the connector behavior, and only
the maximum value will be considered for the overall damage. Alternatively, you can specify that the
damage values for the mechanisms associated with the connector behavior should be combined in a
multiplicative fashion to obtain the overall damage. See the last example below for an illustration.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify that only the maximum damage value
associated with a particular connector behavior should contribute to the overall
damage effect:
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, DEGRADATION=MAXIMUM
Use the following option to specify that all the damage values associated with
a particular connector behavior should contribute in a multiplicative way to the
overall damage effect:
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION,
DEGRADATION=MULTIPLICATIVE
damage evolution, Evolution, Degradation: Maximum or Multiplicative
31.2.7–11
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Examples
The examples that follow illustrate several methods for defining damage mechanisms.
Uncoupled damage
The following input could be used to define a simple uncoupled damage mechanism:
*CONNECTOR ELASTICITY, COMPONENT=1
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, COMPONENT=1, CRITERION=FORCE
force_compress, force_tens
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=ENERGY
0.0
Damage will initiate when the elastic force in component 1 is either smaller than force_compress or larger
than force_tens. Only the elastic response in component 1 will be damaged. Since the dissipated energy
specified for damage evolution is 0.0, the damage evolves catastrophically instantaneously after it has
initiated.
Coupled rigid plasticity with plasticity-based damage

Referring to the spot weld in Figure 31.2.7–4 for which coupled plasticity is defined in “Connector plastic
behavior,” Section 31.2.6, a plastic motion–based damage initiation and evolution with dependencies on
the mode-mix ratio can be specified as follows:
Fs
Fn
Figure 31.2.7–4 Spot weld connection.
*PARAMETER
=0.25
=0.35
=0.45
=0.75
=0.78
=0.82
31.2.7–12
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=0.85
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=PLASTIC MOTION
, 0.0
, 0.5
, 1.0
* CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION, SOFTENING=LINEAR
, 0.0
, 0.3
, 0.5
, 1.0
The equivalent plastic relative motion on the data lines is defined by the associated coupled plasticity
definition illustrated in “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6. For the damage evolution the post-
damage-initiation equivalent plastic relative motion should be specified. The second column in all the
data lines represents the mode-mix ratios as defined in “Connector plastic behavior,” Section 31.2.6. In
this particular case the mode-mix ratio is . The data point at 0.0 comes from a pure
“shear” experiment, and the data point at 1.0 comes from a pure “normal” experiment. Data for the
values in between come from combined “shear-normal” experiments.
Coupled rigid plasticity with force-based damage initiation and motion-based damage evolution
Referring to the spot weld in Figure 31.2.7–4 and using the derived components normal and shear
defined in “Defining derived components for connector elements” in “Connector functions for coupled
behavior,” Section 31.2.4, an alternative way to define damage in the spot weld is to use:
*PARAMETER
=2
=0.85
=120.0
=115.0
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=FORCE
, 1.0
normal,
shear,
**
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION, SOFTENING=EXPONENTIAL
,
1
2
3
**
31.2.7–13
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Damage will be initiated when the force magnitude defined by the first connector potential definition
exceeds the specified value of 1.0. The scale factors and in the first potential definition are used in
this case to define a force magnitude that would be 1.0 at damage initiation. A motion-based exponential
decay damage evolution law is chosen. The second connector potential definition is associated with the
connector damage evolution definition and defines an equivalent motion, , in the connection. When the
equivalent post-initiation motion, (where is at damage initiation), reaches , ultimate
failure occurs. All components (1 through 6) are affected in this case since they all ultimately contribute
to the first connector potential definition (see “Defining derived components for connector elements” in
“Connector functions for coupled behavior,” Section 31.2.4, for the specific definitions associated with
the normal and shear derived components).
Elastic-plasticity with four competing damage mechanisms

This example illustrates how to specify the contributions of multiple damage mechanisms to the overall
damage effect and the components of relative motion affected by the damage evolution law. Most of the
data line entries or parameters are not given for conciseness.
** first damage mechanism: force-based damage initiation

** damage variable
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, COMPONENT=4, CRITERION=FORCE
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION, SOFTENING=EXPONENTIAL,
DEGRADATION=MAXIMUM, AFFECTED COMPONENTS
4, 6
**
** second damage mechanism: motion-based damage initiation
** damage variable
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, COMPONENT=4, CRITERION=MOTION
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION, SOFTENING=LINEAR,
DEGRADATION=MULTIPLICATIVE, AFFECTED COMPONENTS
1, 2, 6
**
** third damage mechanism: plastic motion–based damage initiation
** damage variable
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, COMPONENT=4,
CRITERION=PLASTIC MOTION
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=MOTION, SOFTENING=TABULAR,
DEGRADATION=MULTIPLICATIVE, AFFECTED COMPONENTS
1, 2
**
** fourth damage mechanism: coupled force-based damage initiation
** damage variable
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=FORCE
31.2.7–14
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** using components 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
*CONNECTOR DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=ENERGY, DEGRADATION=MAXIMUM,
AFFECTED COMPONENTS
1, 3, 4, 6
Four damage mechanisms (connector damage initiation/connector damage evolution pairs) are specified:
three uncoupled and one coupled. The first line of each damage evolution definition establishes the
components that will be damaged by the mechanism. The overall damage in a particular component
is determined by contributions from all the mechanisms that affect that component. For example, the
overall damage in component 1, , is determined by the second, third, and fourth damage mechanisms
as follows:
and use multiplicative degradation; therefore, they are multiplied first: .

uses maximum degradation, so is compared to and the minimum
value is taken.
For example, assume that at a particular time t, =0.5, =0.3, and =0.2 and at time ,
=0.6 (the only one increasing) while and stay the same. The overall damage variable gets
closer to the ultimate damage value faster when all three damage mechanisms are used than if we use
only the mechanism:
while
Complete failure occurs when reaches 0.0.

, where i refers to the available component of relative motion. The overall
damage variables for the other components are determined as follows (based on the specified affected
components for each damage evolution law):
31.2.7–15
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Maximum degradation and choice of element removal in Abaqus/Standard
You have control over how Abaqus/Standard treats connector elements with severe damage. By default,
the upper bound to the overall damage variable at a material point is . You can reduce this
upper bound as discussed in “Controlling element deletion and maximum degradation for materials with
damage evolution” in “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4.
By default, once the overall damage variable in at least one component reaches , the connector
elements are removed (deleted). See “Controlling element deletion and maximum degradation for
materials with damage evolution” in “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4, for details. Once removed,
connector elements offer no resistance to subsequent deformation.
Alternatively, you can specify that a connector element should remain in the model even after the
overall damage variable reaches . In this case, once the overall damage variable reaches ,
the element stiffness remains constant at times the undamaged stiffness.
Viscous regularization in Abaqus/Standard
Damage causes a softening response in connector elements, which often leads to convergence difficulties
in an implicit code such as Abaqus/Standard. One technique for overcoming convergence difficulties is
applying viscous regularization to the constitutive response by introducing a viscous damage variable,
, as defined by the evolution equation
where is the damage variable evaluated in the inviscid backbone model and is the viscosity parameter
representing the relaxation time. The damaged response of the viscous material is given as
As a result of viscous regularization, the damped damage variable does not obey the specified evolution
law exactly (only the backbone damage variable does).
Input File Usage: *SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, VISCOSITY=
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Viscous regularization is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Defining connector damage behavior in linear perturbation procedures
Damage cannot be initiated and damage variables do not evolve during linear perturbation analyses.
Consequently, during a linear perturbation step damage is “frozen” in the state attained at the end of the
previous general step.
31.2.7–16
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Output
following variables are of particular interest when damage is defined in connectors:
CDMG Connector overall damage variable.
CDIF Force-based connector damage initiation variable. In addition to the usual six
components associated with connector output variables, CDIF includes the scalar
CDIFC, which is the damage initiation criterion value associated with a coupled
force-based damage initiation criterion.
CDIM Motion-based connector damage initiation variable. CDIM includes the scalar
CDIMC, which is the damage initiation criterion value associated with a coupled
motion-based damage initiation criterion.
CDIP Plastic motion–based connector damage initiation variable. CDIP includes the
scalar CDIPC, which is the damage initiation criterion value associated with a
coupled plastic motion–based damage initiation criterion.
ALLDMD Energy dissipated by damage.
ALLCD Energy dissipated by viscous regularization.
31.2.7–17
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CONNECTOR STOPS AND LOCKS
31.2.8 CONNECTOR STOPS AND LOCKS
References

• *CONNECTOR LOCK
• *CONNECTOR STOP
• “Defining a stop,” Section 15.17.9 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML version
of this manual
• “Defining a lock,” Section 15.17.10 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML version
of this manual
Overview
Connector stops and locks can be:
• specified in any connector with available components of relative motion;

• used to specify contact-enforced stops in individual components of relative motion; and
• used to lock in position an available component of relative motion when a certain criterion is met.
Defining connector stops
In the physical construction of most connectors the admissible position of one body relative to the other
is limited by a certain range. In Abaqus these limits are modeled as built-in inequality constraints. You
specify the available components of relative motion for which the connector stops are to be defined and
the lower and upper limit values of the connector’s admissible range of positions in the directions of the
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define a connector stop:
*CONNECTOR STOP, COMPONENT=component number
lower limit, upper limit
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Stop:
Components: component or components, Lower bound: lower
limit, Upper bound: upper limit
31.2.8–1
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Example
Since the shock in Figure 31.2.8–1 has finite length, contact with the ends of the shock determines the
upper and lower limit values of the distance that node b can be from node a.
range
7.5
2
node 11
Assume that the maximum length of the shock is 15.0 units and that the minimum length is 7.5 units.
Modify the input file presented in “Connectors: overview,” Section 31.1.1, that is associated with the
example in Figure 31.2.8–1 to include the following lines:
...
*CONNECTOR STOP, COMPONENT=1
7.5, 15.0
Defining connector locks
Connector mechanisms may have devices designed to lock the connector in place once a desired
configuration is achieved. For example, a revolute connection might have a falling-pin mechanism that
locks the rotational motion after achieving a desired angle. A user-defined connector locking criterion
can be defined for connector elements that contain available components of relative motion. You can
select the component of relative motion for which the locking criterion is defined.
Connector locks can be used to specify connector behavior for constrained as well as available
components of relative motion. Limit values for force or moment can be specified for all components
of relative motion involved in the connection. The force/moment used in evaluating the criterion is
as computed in the output variable CTF. In addition, limit values can be specified for relative position
corresponding to the available components of relative motion. If no other behavior is specified for an
available component of relative motion, a force locking criterion will not be useful because CTF is zero.
In Abaqus/Explicit you can also specify the limiting values of velocity in the available components
as a criterion for locking. Velocity-dependent locking criteria are useful in modeling seatbelt systems in
automobiles (see “Seat belt analysis of a simplified crash dummy,” Section 3.3.1 of the Abaqus Example
Problems Manual). Moreover, the limiting values can be dependent on temperature and field variables.
Field variable dependencies can be used to model time-dependent locks.
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If the locking criterion specified for the selected component of relative motion is met, either all
components lock or a single available component locks in place. By default, all components of relative
motion are locked in place upon meeting the locking criterion. In this case the connector element will
be completely kinematically locked from that point on. In dynamic analyses this locking may introduce
high accelerations. You can specify if only a selected component of relative motion is locked.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define a connector lock:
*CONNECTOR LOCK, COMPONENT=component number,
LOCK=ALL or component number
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Lock: Components:
component or components, Lock: All or Specify component
Example
In the example in Figure 31.2.8–1 assume that relative rotations about the shock will lock if the force in
the local 3-direction exceeds 500.0 units of force.

*CONNECTOR LOCK, COMPONENT=3, LOCK=4
, , -500.0, 500.0
Defining connector stops and locks in linear perturbation procedures
The status of connector locks or stops cannot change during a linear perturbation analysis; all connector
stop and connector lock definitions remain in the same status as in the base state.
Output
following output variables are of particular interest when defining stops and locks in connectors:
CSLST Flags for connector stops and locks.
CRF Connector reaction forces/moments.
At a given time and for a particular component of relative motion i, the output variable CSLSTi
is 1 if the connector is actually stopped or locked in that component (stop or lock criteria are met). In
that case, the correspondent CRF output variable will most likely be nonzero and equal to the actual
force/moment required to enforce the stop or lock constraint. Since CRF is included in the calculation
of CTF, the latter will change as well when the lock or stop is active.
If the stop or lock criteria are not met at a given time for a particular component i, the output variable
CSLSTi is 0 and in most cases the corespondent reaction force CRF is zero (the only possible exception
is when a connector motion is also applied in that component).
31.2.8–3
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CONNECTOR FAILURE BEHAVIOR
31.2.9 CONNECTOR FAILURE BEHAVIOR
References

• *CONNECTOR FAILURE
• “Defining failure,” Section 15.17.11 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML
Overview
Connector failure behavior:

• can be defined in any connector with available components of relative motion in Abaqus/Standard;
• can be defined in any connector in Abaqus/Explicit;
• can be used in Abaqus/Standard to fail all or specified components of relative motion if a failure
criterion is met;
• can be used in Abaqus/Explicit to fail all or specified components if a failure criterion is met;
• can be triggered if either a connector relative motion or connector force in a specified component
is outside a specified range; and
• can be replaced in most cases by the more sophisticated connector damage initiation/evolution
behavior (see “Connector damage behavior,” Section 31.2.7).
Defining connector failure behavior
A typical connector might have pieces that break if a relative motion component, force, or moment
becomes too large. Abaqus provides a way to define which components of relative motion will break
and the criteria used to release these components. You can select the component of relative motion on
which the failure criterion is based.
In Abaqus/Standard connector failure can be used to specify connector behavior based on available
components of relative motion. In Abaqus/Explicit connector failure can be used to specify connector
behavior based on constrained as well as available components of relative motion. Limit values for force
or moment can be specified for all components of relative motion involved in the connection. In addition,
for connectors with available components of relative motion, limit values can be specified for the relative
positions corresponding to an available component.
In Abaqus/Standard if the failure criterion specified for the selected component of relative motion
is met, either all components of relative motion fail or a single available component fails. By default,
31.2.9–1
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all components of relative motion are released upon meeting the failure criterion. The nodal force
contributions for all released components from the connector element will be removed during the
increment when the failure criterion is met.
In Abaqus/Explicit if the failure criterion specified for the selected component is met, either all
components or a single available component fails. By default, all components are released upon meeting
the failure criterion. The nodal force contributions for all released components from the connector
element will be removed during the increment when the failure criterion is met.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define connector failure:
*CONNECTOR FAILURE, COMPONENT=component number,
RELEASE=ALL or component number
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Interaction module: connector section editor: Add→Failure: Components:
component or components, Release: All or Specify component
Viscous damping in Abaqus/Standard

In Abaqus/Standard the sudden release of the failed connection may lead to convergence problems. To
avoid convergence problems, you can add viscous damping to the components. Damping forces in the
component are calculated as , where is the user-defined damping coefficient and is the
velocity of the failed component. Viscous damping is applied only if a selected available component of
relative motion is released.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to add viscous damping to failed components in
Abaqus/Standard:
*SECTION CONTROLS, NAME=name, VISCOSITY=
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Viscous regularization is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Example
In the example in Figure 31.2.9–1 assume that the shock absorber pulls apart if the tensile force in the
shock exceeds 800.0 units of force.
range
7.5
2
node 11
31.2.9–2
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...
*CONNECTOR FAILURE, COMPONENT=1, RELEASE=ALL
, , , 800.0
Output
following output variables are of particular interest when defining failure in connectors:
CFAILST Flags for connector failure status.
ALLVD Energy dissipated by viscous damping added to failed components.
At any given time and for a particular component of relative motion i, the output variable CFAILSTi
is 1 if the connector fails in that particular component of relative motion (failure criteria are met).
If the failure criteria are not met at a given time for a particular component i, the output variable
CFAILSTi is 0.
31.2.9–3
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CONNECTOR UNIAXIAL BEHAVIOR
31.2.10 CONNECTOR UNIAXIAL BEHAVIOR
References

• *LOADING DATA
• *UNLOADING DATA
Overview
Connector uniaxial behavior:

• can be defined in any connector with available components of relative motion by specifying the
loading and unloading behavior;
• can be specified for each available component of relative motion independently;
• can define separate response in the tensile and compressive directions;
• can exhibit nonlinear elastic behavior, damaged elastic behavior, or elastic-plastic type behavior
with permanent deformation upon complete unloading;
• can have an unloading response specified; and
• can be specified as dependent on constitutive motions in several local directions.
The local directions for each connection type (as described in “Connection-type library,”
Section 31.1.5) determine the directions in which the forces and moments act and in which the
displacements and rotations are measured.
Specifying uniaxial behavior for an available component of relative motion
Uniaxial behavior can be specified for an available component of relative motion by defining the loading
and unloading response for that component. For each component, separate loading/unloading response
data can be defined for the response in the tensile and compressive directions. The loading and unloading
response can be classified according to three available behavior types:
• nonlinear elastic behavior;
• damaged elastic behavior; and
• elastic-plastic type behavior with permanent deformation.
To define the loading response, you specify forces or moments as nonlinear functions of the
components of relative motion. These functions can also depend on temperature, field variables, and
31.2.10–1
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constitutive displacements/rotations in the other component directions. See “Input syntax rules,”
Section 1.2.1, for further information about defining data as functions of temperature and field variables.
The unloading response can be defined in the following ways:
• You can specify several unloading curves that express the forces or moments as nonlinear functions
of the components of relative motion; Abaqus interpolates these curves to create an unloading curve
that passes through the point of unloading in an analysis.
• You can specify an energy dissipation factor (and a permanent deformation factor for models
with permanent deformation), from which Abaqus calculates an exponential/quadratic unloading
function.
• You can specify the forces or moments as nonlinear functions of the components of relative motion,
as well as a transition slope; the connector unloads along the specified transition slope until it
intersects the specified unloading function, at which point it unloads according to the function.
(This unloading definition is referred to as combined unloading.)
• You can specify the forces or moments as nonlinear functions of the components of relative motion;
Abaqus shifts the specified unloading function along the strain axis so that it passes through the
point of unloading in an analysis.
The behavior type that is specified for the loading response dictates the type of unloading you can define,
as summarized in Table 31.2.10–1. The different behavior types, as well as the associated loading and
unloading curves, are discussed in more detail in the sections that follow.
Table 31.2.10–1 Available unloading definitions for the uniaxial behavior types.
Material behavior Unloading definition

type
Interpolated Quadratic Exponential Combined Shifted
Rate-dependent
elastic
Damaged elastic
Permanent
deformation
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define connector uniaxial behavior:
*CONNECTOR UNIAXIAL BEHAVIOR, COMPONENT=component number
*LOADING DATA, DIRECTION=deformation direction,
TYPE=behavior type
data lines to define loading data
*UNLOADING DATA
data lines to define unloading data
31.2.10–2
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Defining the deformation direction
The loading/unloading data can be defined separately for tension and compression by specifying the
deformation direction. If the deformation direction is defined (tension or compression), the tabular values
defining tensile or compressive behavior should be specified with positive values of forces/moments and
displacements/rotations in the specified component of relative motion and the loading data must start at
the origin. If the behavior is not defined in a loading direction, the force response will be zero in that
direction (the connector has no resistance in that direction).
If the deformation direction is not defined, the data apply to both tension and compression. However,
the behavior is then considered to be nonlinear elastic and no damage or permanent deformation can be
specified. The response data will be considered to be symmetric about the origin if either tensile or
compressive data are omitted.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define tensile behavior:
*LOADING DATA, DIRECTION=TENSION
Use the following option to define compressive behavior:
*LOADING DATA, DIRECTION=COMPRESSION

Use the following option to define both tensile compressive behavior in a single
table:
*LOADING DATA
Behavior that depends on relative positions or motions in multiple component directions
By default, the loading and unloading functions depend only on the displacement or rotation in the
direction of the component of relative motion specified for the connector uniaxial behavior definition
(see “Connector behavior,” Section 31.2.1, for details). However, it is also possible to define loading and
unloading functions that depend on the constitutive displacements and rotations in multiple component
directions.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define connector uniaxial behavior that depends on
the relative displacements and/or rotations in several component directions:
*LOADING DATA, INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS=CONSTITUTIVE
MOTION
Defining rate-independent nonlinear elastic behavior
When the loading response is rate independent, the unloading response is also rate independent and
occurs along the same user-specified loading curve as illustrated in Figure 31.2.10–1. An unloading
curve does not need to be specified.
31.2.10–3
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Loading curve
0 U
Figure 31.2.10–1 Nonlinear elastic loading.
Input File Usage: *LOADING DATA, TYPE=ELASTIC
Defining rate-dependent behavior
The rate-dependent models require the specification of force-displacement curves at different rates of
deformation to describe both loading and unloading behavior. If unloading behavior is not specified,
the unloading occurs along the loading curve with the smallest rate of deformation. As the rate of
deformation changes, the response is obtained by interpolation of the specified loading/unloading data.
Unphysical jumps in the forces due to sudden changes in the rate of deformation are prevented using a
technique based on viscoplastic regularization. This technique also helps model relaxation effects in a
very simplistic manner, with the relaxation time given as , where , , and are
material parameters and is the stretch. is a linear viscosity parameter that controls the relaxation
time when . Small values of this parameter should be used. is a nonlinear viscosity parameter
that controls the relaxation time at higher values of . The smaller this value, the shorter the relaxation
time. controls the sensitivity of the relaxation speed to the stretch in the component of relative motion.
Suggested values of these parameters are , , and . Figure 31.2.10–2
illustrates the loading/unloading behavior as the connector is loaded at a rate and then unloaded at a
rate .
Figure 31.2.10–3 shows the loading/unloading response of a connector element for two different
relaxation times and with . The larger the relaxation time, the longer it takes to achieve the
specified loading/unloading response for the applied deformation rate.
31.2.10–4
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F u
3
u2
u1
u
u1
u
u2
u
u3
Figure 31.2.10–2 Rate-dependent loading/unloading.
Figure 31.2.10–3 Rate-dependent loading/unloading.
Input File Usage: Use the following options when the unloading is also rate dependent:
*LOADING DATA, TYPE=ELASTIC, RATE DEPENDENT
*UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=INTERPOLATED CURVE,
RATE DEPENDENT
Use the following options when the unloading is rate independent:
*LOADING DATA, TYPE=ELASTIC, RATE DEPENDENT
*UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=INTERPOLATED CURVE
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Defining models with damage
The damage models dissipate energy upon unloading, and there is no permanent deformation upon
complete unloading. The unloading behavior controls the amount of energy dissipated by damage
mechanisms and can be specified in one of the following ways:
• an analytical unloading curve (exponential/quadratic);
• an unloading curve interpolated from multiple user-specified unloading curves; or
• unloading along a transition unloading curve (constant slope specified by user) to the user-specified
unloading curve (combined unloading).
For an overview of the different available behaviors, see “Specifying uniaxial behavior for an available
component of relative motion” above. The various unloading types are discussed in the sections that
follow.
Defining onset of damage

You can specify the onset of damage by defining the displacement below which unloading occurs along
the loading curve.
Input File Usage: *LOADING DATA, TYPE=DAMAGE, DAMAGE ONSET=value
Specifying exponential/quadratic unloading

The damage model in Figure 31.2.10–4 is based on an analytical unloading curve that is derived from
an energy dissipation factor, (fraction of energy that is dissipated at any displacement level). As the
connector is loaded, the force follows the path given by the loading curve. If the connector is unloaded
(for example, at point B), the force follows the unloading curve . Reloading after unloading follows
the unloading curve until the loading is such that the displacement becomes greater than ,
after which the loading path follows the loading curve. The arrows shown in Figure 31.2.10–4 illustrate
the loading/unloading paths of this model.
The unloading response follows the loading curve when the calculated unloading curve lies above
the loading curve to prevent energy generation and follows a zero force response when the unloading
curve yields a negative response. In such cases the dissipated energy will be less than the value specified
by the energy dissipation factor.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define quadratic unloading behavior:
*UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=QUADRATIC
Use the following option to define exponential unloading behavior:
*UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=EXPONENTIAL
Specifying interpolated curve unloading

The damage model in Figure 31.2.10–5 illustrates an interpolated unloading response based on multiple
unloading curves that intersect the primary loading curve at increasing values of forces/displacements.
You can specify as many unloading curves as are necessary to define the unloading response. Each
31.2.10–6
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Primary loading curve

B D
exponential/quadratic
C unloading
max
0 UB U
Figure 31.2.10–4 Exponential/quadratic unloading.
unloading curve always starts at point O, the point of zero force and zero displacements, since the damage
models do not allow any permanent deformation. The unloading curves are stored in normalized form
so that they intersect the loading curve at a unit force for a unit displacement, and the interpolation
occurs between these normalized curves. If unloading occurs from a maximum displacement for which
an unloading curve is not specified, the unloading is interpolated from neighboring unloading curves. As
the connector is loaded, the force follows the path given by the loading curve. If the connector is unloaded
(for example, at point B), the force follows the unloading curve . Reloading after unloading follows
the unloading path until the loading is such that the displacement becomes greater than , after
which the loading path follows the loading curve.
F
D
B
A C
Unloading curves
max
0 UB U
Figure 31.2.10–5 Interpolated curve unloading
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If the loading curve depends on the constitutive displacements/rotations in several component

directions, the unloading curves also depend on the same component directions. The unloading curves
also have the same temperature and field variable dependencies as the loading curve.
Input File Usage: *UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=INTERPOLATED CURVE
Specifying combined unloading

As illustrated in Figure 31.2.10–6, you can specify an unloading curve in addition to the loading
curve as well as a constant transition slope that connects the loading curve to the unloading
curve. As the connector is loaded, the force follows the path given by the loading curve. If the connector
is unloaded (for example, at point B), the force follows the unloading curve . The path is
defined by the constant transition slope, and lies on the specified unloading curve. Reloading after
unloading follows the unloading path until the loading is such that the displacement becomes
greater than , after which the loading path follows the loading curve.

B D
transition curve
A E
unloading curve
C
max
0 UB U
Figure 31.2.10–6 Combined unloading.

directions, the unloading curve also depends on the same component directions. The unloading curve
also has the same temperature and field variable dependencies as the loading curve.
Input File Usage: *UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=COMBINED
Defining models with permanent deformation
These models dissipate energy upon unloading and exhibit permanent deformation upon complete
unloading. The unloading behavior controls the amount of energy dissipated as well as the amount of
permanent deformation. The unloading behavior can be specified in one of the following ways:
• an analytical unloading curve (exponential/quadratic);
31.2.10–8
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• an unloading curve interpolated from multiple user-specified unloading curves; or

• an unloading curve obtained by shifting the user-specified unloading curve to the point of unloading.
For an overview of the different available behaviors, see “Specifying uniaxial behavior for an available
component of relative motion” above. The various unloading types are discussed in the sections that
follow.
Defining the onset of permanent deformation
By default, the onset of yield will be obtained as soon as the slope of the loading curve decreases by 10%
from the maximum slope recorded up to that point while traversing along the loading curve. To override
the default method of determining the onset of yield, you can specify either a value for the decrease
in slope of the loading curve other than the default value of 10% (slope drop = 0.1) or by defining the
displacement below which unloading occurs along the loading curve. If a slope drop is specified, the
onset of yield will be obtained as soon as the slope of the loading curve decreases by the specified factor
from the maximum slope recorded up to that point.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to specify the onset of yield by defining the
displacement below which unloading occurs along the loading curve:
*LOADING DATA, TYPE=PERMANENT DEFORMATION,
YIELD ONSET=value
Use the following options to specify the onset of yield by defining a slope drop
for the loading curve:
*LOADING DATA, TYPE=PERMANENT DEFORMATION,
SLOPE DROP=value
Specifying exponential/quadratic unloading

The model in Figure 31.2.10–7 illustrates an analytical unloading curve that is derived based on an energy
dissipation factor, (fraction of energy that is dissipated at any displacement level) and a permanent
deformation factor, . As the connector is loaded, the force follows the path given by the loading curve.
If the connector is unloaded (for example, at point B), the force follows the unloading curve . The
point D corresponds to the permanent deformation, . Reloading after unloading follows the
unloading curve until the loading is such that the displacement becomes greater than , after
which the loading path follows the loading curve. The arrows shown in Figure 31.2.10–7 illustrate the
loading/unloading paths of this model.
The unloading response follows the loading curve when the calculated unloading curve lies above
the loading curve to prevent energy generation and follows a zero force response when the unloading
curve yields a negative response. In such cases the dissipated energy will be less than the value specified
by the energy dissipation factor.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define quadratic unloading behavior:
*UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=QUADRATIC
Use the following option to define exponential unloading behavior:
*UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=EXPONENTIAL
31.2.10–9
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B E
exponential/quadratic
C unloading
0 D max
UB U
max
DpUB
Figure 31.2.10–7 Exponential/quadratic unloading.
Specifying interpolated curve unloading

The model in Figure 31.2.10–8 illustrates an interpolated unloading response based on multiple unloading
curves that intersect the primary loading curve at increasing values of forces/displacements. You can
specify as many unloading curves as are necessary to define the unloading response. The first point of
each unloading curve defines the permanent deformation if the connector is completely unloaded. The
unloading curves are stored in normalized form so that they intersect the loading curve at a unit force for
a unit displacement, and the interpolation occurs between these normalized curves. If unloading occurs
from a maximum displacement for which an unloading curve is not specified, the unloading curve is
interpolated from neighboring unloading curves. As the connector is loaded, the force follows the path
given by the loading curve. If the connector is unloaded (for example, at point B), the force follows the
unloading curve . Reloading after unloading follows the unloading path until the loading is
such that the displacement becomes greater than , after which the loading path follows the loading
curve.
directions, the unloading curves also depends on the same component directions. The unloading curve
Input File Usage: *UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=INTERPOLATED CURVE
Specifying shifted curve unloading

You can specify an unloading curve passing through the origin in addition to the loading curve. The
actual unloading curve is obtained by horizontally shifting the user-specified unloading curve to pass
through the point of unloading as shown in Figure 31.2.10–9. The permanent deformation upon complete
unloading is the horizontal shift applied to the unloading curve.
31.2.10–10
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B E
A
C
Unloading curves
max
0 D UB U
Figure 31.2.10–8 Interpolated curve unloading.
unloading curve
F
E
B Primary loading curve
A
shifted unloading curve
0 D Umax
B
U
Figure 31.2.10–9 Shifted curve unloading.

directions, the unloading curve also depends on the same component directions. The unloading curve
Input File Usage: *UNLOADING DATA, DEFINITION=SHIFTED CURVE
31.2.10–11
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Using different uniaxial models in tension and compression
When appropriate, different uniaxial behavior models can be used in tension and compression. For
example, a model with permanent deformation and exponential unloading in tension can be combined
with a nonlinear elastic model in compression (see Figure 31.2.10–10).
A
unloading
nonlinear
elastic
Figure 31.2.10–10 Different uniaxial models in tension and compression.
Output
following output variables are of particular interest when defining uniaxial behavior in connectors:
CU Connector relative displacements/rotations.
CUF Connector uniaxial forces/moments.
31.2.10–12
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SPECIAL-PURPOSE ELEMENTS
32. Special-Purpose Elements
Spring elements 32.1

Dashpot elements 32.2
Flexible joint elements 32.3
Distributing coupling elements 32.4
Cohesive elements 32.5
Gasket elements 32.6
Surface elements 32.7
Tube support elements 32.8
Line spring elements 32.9
Elastic-plastic joints 32.10
Drag chain elements 32.11
Pipe-soil elements 32.12
Acoustic interface elements 32.13
Eulerian elements 32.14
User-defined elements 32.15
Abaqus ID:
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SPRING ELEMENTS
32.1 Spring elements
• “Springs,” Section 32.1.1

• “Spring element library,” Section 32.1.2
32.1–1
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SPRINGS
32.1.1 SPRINGS
References
• “Spring element library,” Section 32.1.2

• *SPRING
• “Defining springs and dashpots,” Section 37.1 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
Spring elements:
• can couple a force with a relative displacement;
• in Abaqus/Standard can couple a moment with a relative rotation;
• can be linear or nonlinear;
• if linear, can be dependent on frequency in direct-solution steady-state dynamic analysis;
• can be dependent on temperature and field variables; and
• can be used to assign a structural damping factor to form the imaginary part of spring stiffness.
The terms “force” and “displacement” are used throughout the description of spring elements. When
the spring is associated with displacement degrees of freedom, these variables are the force and relative
displacement in the spring. If the springs are associated with rotational degrees of freedom, they are
torsional springs; these variables will then be the moment transmitted by the spring and the relative
rotation across the spring.
Viscoelastic spring behavior can be modeled in Abaqus/Standard by combining frequency-
dependent springs and frequency-dependent dashpots.
Spring elements are used to model actual physical springs as well as idealizations of axial or torsional
components. They can also model restraints to prevent rigid body motion.
They are also used to represent structural dampers by specifying structural damping factors to form
the imaginary part of the spring stiffness.
SPRING1 and SPRING2 elements are available only in Abaqus/Standard. SPRING1 is between a node
and ground, acting in a fixed direction. SPRING2 is between two nodes, acting in a fixed direction.
The SPRINGA element is available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit. SPRINGA acts
between two nodes, with its line of action being the line joining the two nodes, so that this line of action
can rotate in large-displacement analysis.
32.1.1–1
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SPRINGS
The spring behavior can be linear or nonlinear in any of the spring elements in Abaqus.
Element types SPRING1 and SPRING2 can be associated with displacement or rotational degrees
of freedom (in the latter case, as torsional springs). However, the use of torsional springs in large-
displacement analysis requires careful consideration of the definition of total rotation at a node; therefore,
connector elements (“Connectors: overview,” Section 31.1.1) are usually a better approach to providing
torsional springs for large-displacement cases.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a spring element between a node and
ground, acting in a fixed direction:
*ELEMENT, TYPE=SPRING1
Use the following option to specify a spring element between two nodes, acting
in a fixed direction:
*ELEMENT, TYPE=SPRING2
Use the following option to specify a spring element between two nodes with
its line of action being the line joining the two nodes:
*ELEMENT, TYPE=SPRINGA
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property or Interaction module: Special→Springs/Dashpots→Create,
then select one of the following:
Connect points to ground: select points: toggle on Spring stiffness
(equivalent to SPRING1)
Connect two points: select points: Axis: Specify fixed direction:
toggle on Spring stiffness
(equivalent to SPRING2)
Connect two points: select points: Axis: Follow line of action:
toggle on Spring stiffness
(equivalent to SPRINGA)
Stability considerations in Abaqus/Explicit
A SPRINGA element introduces a stiffness between two degrees of freedom without introducing an
associated mass. In an explicit dynamic procedure this represents an unconditionally unstable element.
The nodes to which the spring is attached must have some mass contribution from adjacent elements; if
this condition is not satisfied, Abaqus/Explicit will issue an error message. If the spring is not too stiff
(relative to the stiffness of the adjacent elements), the stable time increment determined by the explicit
dynamics procedure (“Explicit dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.3) will suffice to ensure stability of the
calculations.
Abaqus/Explicit does not use the springs in the determination of the stable time increment. During
the data check phase of the analysis, Abaqus/Explicit computes the minimum of the stable time increment
for all the elements in the mesh except the spring elements. The program then uses this minimum stable
time increment and the stiffness of each of the springs to determine the mass required for each spring
to give the same stable time increment. If this mass is too large compared to the mass of the model,
Abaqus/Explicit will issue an error message that the spring is too stiff compared to the model definition.
32.1.1–2
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SPRINGS
Relative displacement definition
The relative displacement definition depends on the element type.
SPRING1 elements
The relative displacement across a SPRING1 element is the ith component of displacement of the spring’s
node:
where i is defined as described below and can be in a local direction (see “Defining the direction of action
for SPRING1 and SPRING2 elements”).
SPRING2 elements
The relative displacement across a SPRING2 element is the difference between the ith component of
displacement of the spring’s first node and the jth component of displacement of the spring’s second
node:
where i and j are defined as described below and can be in local directions (see “Defining the direction
of action for SPRING1 and SPRING2 elements”).
It is important to understand how the SPRING2 element will behave according to the above relative
displacement equation since the element can produce counterintuitive results. For example, a SPRING2
element set up in the following way will be a “compressive” spring:
i j
1 2
If the nodes displace so that and , the spring appears to be in compression, while the
force in the SPRING2 element is positive. To obtain a “tensile” spring, the SPRING2 element should be
set up in the following way:
j i
2 1
32.1.1–3
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SPRINGS
SPRINGA elements
For geometrically linear analysis the relative displacement is measured along the direction of the
SPRINGA element in the reference configuration:
where is the reference position of the first node of the spring and is the reference position of its
second node.
For geometrically nonlinear analysis the relative displacement across a SPRINGA element is the
change in length in the spring between the initial and the current configuration:
where is the current length of the spring and is the value of l in the initial
configuration. Here and are the current positions of the nodes of the spring.
In either case the force in a SPRINGA element is positive in tension.
Defining spring behavior
The spring behavior can be linear or nonlinear. In either case you must associate the spring behavior
Input File Usage: *SPRING, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of spring elements.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property or Interaction module: Special→Springs/Dashpots→Create:
select connectivity type: select points
Defining linear spring behavior

You define linear spring behavior by specifying a constant spring stiffness (force per relative
displacement).
The spring stiffness can depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,”
Section 1.2.1, for further information about defining data as functions of temperature and independent
field variables.
For direct-solution steady-state dynamic analysis the spring stiffness can depend on frequency, as
well as on temperature and field variables. If a frequency-dependent spring stiffness is specified for any
other analysis procedure in Abaqus/Standard, the data for the lowest frequency given will be used.
Input File Usage: *SPRING, DEPENDENCIES=n
first data line
spring stiffness, frequency, temperature, field variable 1, etc.
...
32.1.1–4
Abaqus ID:
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SPRINGS

select connectivity type: select points: Property: Spring stiffness:
spring stiffness
Defining the spring stiffness as a function of frequency, temperature, and
field variables is not supported in Abaqus/CAE when you define springs as
engineering features; instead, you can define connectors that have spring-like
elastic behavior (see “Connector elastic behavior,” Section 31.2.2).
Defining nonlinear spring behavior

You define nonlinear spring behavior by giving pairs of force–relative displacement values. These values
should be given in ascending order of relative displacement and should be provided over a sufficiently
wide range of relative displacement values so that the behavior is defined correctly. Abaqus assumes that
the force remains constant (which results in zero stiffness) outside the range given (see Figure 32.1.1–1).
Force, F
F4
Continuation assumed
F3 if u > u4
F2
F(0)
u1
u2 u3 u4
Displacement, u
F1
if u < u1
Figure 32.1.1–1 Nonlinear spring force–relative displacement relationship.
Initial forces in nonlinear springs should be defined as part of the relationship by giving a
nonzero force, , at zero relative displacement.
The spring stiffness can depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,”
field variables.
32.1.1–5
Abaqus ID:
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SPRINGS
Abaqus/Explicit will regularize the data into tables that are defined in terms of even intervals of the
independent variables. In some cases where the force is defined at uneven intervals of the independent
variable (relative displacement) and the range of the independent variable is large compared to the
smallest interval, Abaqus/Explicit may fail to obtain an accurate regularization of your data in a
reasonable number of intervals. In this case the program will stop after all data are processed with an
error message that you must redefine the material data. See “Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2,
for a more detailed discussion of data regularization.
Input File Usage: *SPRING, NONLINEAR, DEPENDENCIES=n
first data line
force, relative displacement, temperature, field variable 1, etc.
...
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Defining nonlinear spring behavior is not supported in Abaqus/CAE when
you define springs as engineering features; instead, you can define connectors
that have spring-like elastic behavior (see “Connector elastic behavior,”
Section 31.2.2).
Defining the direction of action for SPRING1 and SPRING2 elements
You define the direction of action for SPRING1 and SPRING2 elements by giving the degree of freedom
at each node of the element. This degree of freedom may be in a local coordinate system (“Orientations,”
Section 2.2.5). The local system is assumed to be fixed: even in large-displacement analysis SPRING1
and SPRING2 elements act in a fixed direction throughout the analysis.
Input File Usage: *SPRING, ORIENTATION=name
dof at node 1, dof at node 2
Connect points to ground: select points: Orientation: Edit:
select orientation
Orientation: Edit: select orientation
Defining linear spring behavior with complex stiffness
Springs can be used to simulate structural dampers that contribute to the imaginary part of the element
stiffness forming an elemental structural damping matrix. You specify both the real part of the spring
stiffness for particular degrees of freedom and the structural damping factor, s. The imaginary part of
the spring stiffness is calculated as and represents structural damping. These data can be frequency
dependent.
Input File Usage: *SPRING, COMPLEX STIFFNESS
first data line
real spring stiffness, structural damping factor, frequency
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Linear spring behavior with complex stiffness is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
32.1.1–6
Abaqus ID:
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SPRING LIBRARY
32.1.2 SPRING ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Springs,” Section 32.1.1

• *SPRING
Overview
This section provides a reference to the spring elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
SPRINGA Axial spring between two nodes, whose line of action is the line joining the two nodes.
This line of action may rotate in large-displacement analysis.
SPRING1(S) Spring between a node and ground, acting in a fixed direction
SPRING2(S) Spring between two nodes, acting in a fixed direction

SPRINGA: 1, 2, 3. The translational degree of freedom in the 3-direction is not activated in an
Abaqus/Standard analysis if both nodes of the element are connected to two-dimensional entities such
as two-dimensional analytical rigid surfaces, two-dimensional beam elements, etc.
SPRING1 or SPRING2: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. If you specify a local orientation for the spring, these are
local degrees of freedom. Otherwise, these are global degrees of freedom.

None.
SPRINGA: X, Y, Z. These coordinates are used in the calculation of the action of the element.
SPRING1 or SPRING2: None. The element nodes do not need to have coordinates defined since the
action associated with these elements is defined by specifying the degrees of freedom involved.
Input File Usage: *SPRING

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property or Interaction module: Special→Springs/Dashpots→Create
32.1.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
SPRING LIBRARY
None.
Element output
S11 Force in the spring.

E11 Relative displacement across the spring.
SPRINGA SPRING1
2 1
SPRING2
32.1.2–2
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DASHPOT ELEMENTS
32.2 Dashpot elements
• “Dashpots,” Section 32.2.1

• “Dashpot element library,” Section 32.2.2
32.2–1
Abaqus ID:
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DASHPOTS
32.2.1 DASHPOTS
References
• “Dashpot element library,” Section 32.2.2

• *DASHPOT
• “Defining springs and dashpots,” Section 37.1 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
Dashpot elements:
• can couple a force with a relative velocity;
• in Abaqus/Standard can couple a moment with a relative angular velocity;
• can be linear or nonlinear;
• if linear, can be dependent on frequency in direct-solution steady-state dynamic analysis;
• can be dependent on temperature and field variables; and
• can be used in any stress analysis procedure.
The terms “force” and “velocity” are used throughout the description of dashpot elements. When
the dashpot is associated with displacement degrees of freedom, these variables are the force and relative
velocity in the dashpot. If the dashpots are associated with rotational degrees of freedom, they are
torsional dashpots; these variables will then be the moment transmitted by the dashpot and the relative
angular velocity across the dashpot.
In dynamic analysis the velocities are obtained as part of the integration operator; in quasi-static
analysis in Abaqus/Standard the velocities are obtained by dividing the displacement increments by the
time increment.
Dashpots are used to model relative velocity-dependent force or torsional resistance. They can also
provide viscous energy dissipation mechanisms.
Dashpots are often useful in unstable, nonlinear, static analyses where the modified Riks algorithm
is not appropriate (see “Unstable collapse and postbuckling analysis,” Section 6.2.4, for a discussion of
the modified Riks algorithm) and where the automatic time stepping algorithm is used because sudden
shifts in configuration can be controlled by the forces that arise in the dashpots. In such cases the
magnitude of the damping must be chosen in conjunction with the time period so that enough damping is
available to control such difficulties but the damping forces are negligible when a stable static response is
obtained. See also the contact damping available with contact elements in Abaqus/Standard (see “Contact
damping,” Section 36.1.3).
32.2.1–1
Abaqus ID:
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DASHPOTS
DASHPOT1 and DASHPOT2 elements are available only in Abaqus/Standard. DASHPOT1 is between
a specified degree of freedom and ground. DASHPOT2 is between two specified degrees of freedom.
The DASHPOTA element is available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit. DASHPOTA
is between two nodes with its line of action being the line joining the two nodes.
The dashpot behavior can be linear or nonlinear in any of these elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify a dashpot element between a specified
degree of freedom and ground:
*ELEMENT, TYPE=DASHPOT1
Use the following option to specify a dashpot element between two degrees of
freedom:
*ELEMENT, TYPE=DASHPOT2
Use the following option to specify a dashpot element between two nodes with
its line of action being the line joining the two nodes:
*ELEMENT, TYPE=DASHPOTA
Connect points to ground: select points: toggle on Dashpot coefficient
(equivalent to DASHPOT1)
toggle on Dashpot coefficient
(equivalent to DASHPOT2)
Connect two points: select points: Axis: Follow line of action:
toggle on Dashpot coefficient
(equivalent to DASHPOTA)
Stability considerations in Abaqus/Explicit
Abaqus/Explicit does not take dashpots into account when determining the stable time step; therefore,
care should be taken when introducing dashpots into the mesh.
A DASHPOTA element introduces a damping force between two degrees of freedom without
introducing any stiffness between these degrees of freedom and without introducing any mass at the
nodes. This can cause a reduction in the stable time increment. For example, consider a simple system
of a truss element and a dashpot element as shown in Figure 32.2.1–1.
The dynamic equation for this system is
or
32.2.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DASHPOTS
EA
k=
L
ρAL
⇒ m=
2
c
Figure 32.2.1–1 A simple truss and dashpot system.
where
and
The stable time increment for the spring-dashpot system is
As the dashpot coefficient c is increased, the stable time increment, , will be reduced.
To avoid this reduction in the stable time increment, dashpots should be used in parallel with spring
or truss elements, where the stiffness of the spring or truss elements is chosen so that the stable time
increment of the dashpot and spring or truss is larger than the stable critical time increment that is
calculated by Abaqus/Explicit. If this requires springs or trusses that have unacceptable forces, specify
the time increment size directly for the step (see “Explicit dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.3).
Relative velocity definition
The relative velocity definition depends on the element type.
DASHPOT1 elements
The relative velocity across a DASHPOT1 element is the ith component of velocity of the dashpot’s
node:
where i is defined as described below and can be in a local direction (see “Defining the direction of action
for DASHPOT1 and DASHPOT2 elements”).
32.2.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DASHPOTS
DASHPOT2 elements
The relative velocity across a DASHPOT2 element is the difference between the ith component of
velocity at the dashpot’s first node and the jth component of velocity of the dashpot’s second node:
where i and j are defined as described below and can be in local directions (see “Defining the direction
of action for DASHPOT1 and DASHPOT2 elements”).
It is important to understand how the DASHPOT2 element will behave according to the above
relative displacement equation since the element can produce counterintuitive results. For example, a
DASHPOT2 element set up in the following way will be a “compressive” dashpot:
i j
1 2
If the nodes have velocities such that and , the dashpot is compressed while the force
in the dashpot is positive. To obtain a “tensile” dashpot, the DASHPOT2 element should be set up in the
following way:
j i
2 1
DASHPOTA elements
The relative velocity across a DASHPOTA element is the difference between the velocity of the dashpot’s
second node and the dashpot’s first node, taken in the direction of the current axis of the dashpot.
For geometrically linear analysis,
where is the reference position of the dashpot’s first node, is the reference position of the dashpot’s
second node, and is the reference length of the dashpot.
For geometrically nonlinear analysis,
where is the current position of the dashpot’s first node, is the current position of the dashpot’s
second node, and l is the current length of the dashpot.
In either case the force in a DASHPOTA element is positive if the dashpot is extending.
32.2.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DASHPOTS
Defining dashpot behavior
The dashpot behavior can be linear or nonlinear. In either case you must associate the dashpot behavior
Input File Usage: *DASHPOT, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of dashpot elements.
select connectivity type: select points
Linear dashpot behavior
You define linear dashpot behavior by specifying a constant dashpot coefficient (force per relative
velocity).
The dashpot coefficient can depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,”
field variables.
For direct-solution steady-state dynamic analysis the dashpot coefficient can depend on frequency,
as well as on temperature and field variables. If a frequency-dependent dashpot coefficient is specified
for any other analysis procedure in Abaqus/Standard, the data for the lowest frequency given will be
used.
Input File Usage: *DASHPOT, DEPENDENCIES=n
first data line
dashpot coefficient, frequency, temperature, field variable 1, etc.
...
select connectivity type: select points: Property: Dashpot coefficient:
dashpot coefficient
Defining the dashpot coefficient as a function of frequency, temperature, and
field variables is not supported in Abaqus/CAE when you define dashpots as
engineering features; instead, you can define connectors that have dashpot-like
damping behavior (see “Connector damping behavior,” Section 31.2.3).
Nonlinear dashpot behavior
You define nonlinear dashpot behavior by giving pairs of force–relative velocity values. These values
should be given in ascending order of relative velocity and should be provided over a sufficiently wide
range of relative velocity values so that the behavior is defined correctly. Abaqus assumes that the force
remains constant outside the range given (see Figure 32.2.1–2). In addition, the curve should pass through
the origin. That is, the force should be zero at zero relative velocity.
32.2.1–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DASHPOTS
Force, F
F4
if v > v4
F3
F2
v1
v v3 v
2 4 Relative velocity, v
F1
if v < v1
Figure 32.2.1–2 Nonlinear dashpot force-relative velocity relationship.
The dashpot coefficient can depend on temperature and field variables. See “Input syntax rules,”
field variables.
Abaqus/Explicit will regularize the data into tables that are defined in terms of even intervals of the
independent variables. In some cases where the force is defined at uneven intervals of the independent
variable (relative velocity) and the range of the independent variable is large compared to the smallest
interval, Abaqus/Explicit may fail to obtain an accurate regularization of your data in a reasonable
number of intervals. In this case the program will stop after all data are processed with an error message
that you must redefine the material data. See “Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2, for a more
detailed discussion of data regularization.
Input File Usage: *DASHPOT, NONLINEAR, DEPENDENCIES=n
first data line
force, relative velocity, temperature, field variable 1, etc.
...
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Defining nonlinear dashpot behavior is not supported in Abaqus/CAE when
you define dashpots as engineering features; instead, you can define connectors
32.2.1–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DASHPOTS
that have dashpot-like damping behavior (see “Connector damping behavior,”

Section 31.2.3).
Defining the direction of action for DASHPOT1 and DASHPOT2 elements
You define the direction of action for DASHPOT1 and DASHPOT2 elements by giving the degree of
freedom at each node of the element. This degree of freedom may be in a local coordinate system
(“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5). This local system is assumed to be fixed: even in large-displacement
analysis DASHPOT1 and DASHPOT2 elements act in a fixed direction throughout the analysis.
Input File Usage: *DASHPOT, ORIENTATION=name
dof at node 1, dof at node 2
Connect points to ground: select points: Orientation: Edit:
select orientation
Orientation: Edit: select orientation
Dashpots within substructures
Dashpots cannot be used within substructures. You can define Rayleigh damping within the substructure
definition or on the usage level to create damping within a substructure; see “Defining substructure
damping” in “Using substructures,” Section 10.1.1, for more information.
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DASHPOT LIBRARY
32.2.2 DASHPOT ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Dashpots,” Section 32.2.1

• *DASHPOT
Overview
This section provides a reference to the dashpot elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
DASHPOTA Axial dashpot between two nodes, whose line of action is the line joining the two nodes
DASHPOT1(S) Dashpot between a node and ground, acting in a fixed direction
(S)
DASHPOT2 Dashpot between two nodes, acting in a fixed direction

DASHPOTA: 1, 2, 3. The translational degree of freedom in the 3-direction is not activated in an
Abaqus/Standard analysis if both nodes of the element are connected to two-dimensional entities such
as two-dimensional analytical rigid surfaces, two-dimensional beam elements, etc.
DASHPOT1 or DASHPOT2: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. If you specify a local orientation for the dashpot, these
are local degrees of freedom. Otherwise, these are global degrees of freedom.

None.
DASHPOTA: X, Y, Z. These coordinates are used in the calculation of the action of the element.
DASHPOT1 or DASHPOT2: None. The element nodes do not need to have coordinates defined since
the action associated with these elements is defined by specifying the degrees of freedom involved.
Input File Usage: *DASHPOT

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property or Interaction module: Special→Springs/Dashpots→Create
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DASHPOT LIBRARY
None.
Element output
S11 The force in the dashpot.

E11 The relative displacement across the dashpot.
ER11 The relative velocity across the dashpot (available only from Abaqus/Standard).
DASHPOTA
DASHPOT2 DASHPOT1 1
2
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FLEXIBLE JOINT ELEMENTS
32.3 Flexible joint elements
• “Flexible joint element,” Section 32.3.1

• “Flexible joint element library,” Section 32.3.2
32.3–1
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FLEXIBLE JOINT
32.3.1 FLEXIBLE JOINT ELEMENT
References
• “Flexible joint element library,” Section 32.3.2

• *JOINT
• *DASHPOT
• *SPRING
Overview
JOINTC elements:
• are used to model joint interactions; and
• are made up of translational and rotational springs and parallel dashpots in a local, corotational
coordinate system.
Details of the element formulation can be found in “Flexible joint element,” Section 3.9.6 of the Abaqus
Theory Manual.
The JOINTC element is provided to model the interaction between two nodes that are (almost) coincident
geometrically and that represent a joint with internal stiffness and/or damping (such as a rubber bushing
in a car suspension system) so that the second node of the joint can displace and rotate slightly with
respect to the first node.
Joints that have only one or two axes of rotation and no relative displacement are better modeled by
the REVOLUTE- or UNIVERSAL-type MPCs (see “General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2).
Similar functionality is available using connectors; see “Connectors: overview,” Section 31.1.1.
Defining the joint behavior
The joint behavior consists of linear or nonlinear springs and dashpots in parallel, coupling the
corresponding components of relative displacement and of relative rotation in the joint. You define the
spring and dashpot behavior as described in “Springs,” Section 32.1.1, and “Dashpots,” Section 32.2.1.
Each spring or dashpot definition defines the behavior for one of the six local directions; up to six
spring and six dashpot definitions can be included. If no specification is given for a particular local
relative motion in the joint, the joint is assumed to have no stiffness with respect to that component.
The joint behavior can be defined in a local coordinate system that rotates with the motion of the
first node of the element (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5). If a local coordinate system is not defined, the
global system is used.
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FLEXIBLE JOINT
You must associate the joint behavior with a set of JOINTC elements.
The kinematic behavior of JOINTC elements is described in detail in “Flexible joint element,”
Section 3.9.6 of the Abaqus Theory Manual.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define the joint behavior:
*JOINT, ELSET=name, ORIENTATION=name
*DASHPOT
*SPRING
Up to six *SPRING and *DASHPOT options can appear.
Using JOINTC elements in large-displacement analyses
In large-displacement analysis the formulation for the relationship between moments and rotations limits
the usefulness of these elements to small relative rotations. The relative rotation across a JOINTC
element should be of a magnitude to qualify as a small rotation.
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FLEXIBLE JOINT LIBRARY
32.3.2 FLEXIBLE JOINT ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Flexible joint element,” Section 32.3.1

• *JOINT
Overview
This section provides a reference to the flexible joint elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
JOINTC Joint interaction element

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
None.
None. The element nodes do not need to have coordinates defined since the action associated with these
elements is defined by specifying the degrees of freedom involved.
Input File Usage: *JOINT
None.
Element output
S11 Total direct force in the first local direction.

S22 Total direct force in the second local direction.
S33 Total direct force in the third local direction.
S12 Total moment about the first local direction.
S13 Total moment about the second local direction.
S23 Total moment about the third local direction.
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FLEXIBLE JOINT LIBRARY
The relative displacements and rotations corresponding to the forces and moments above are chosen by
requesting the corresponding “strains.”
Two nodes. The rotation at the first node of the element defines the rotation of the local axis system.
2
1
{
JOINT C
x
( local system, defined by a local orientation, attached to node 1 )
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DISTRIBUTING COUPLING ELEMENTS
32.4 Distributing coupling elements
• “Distributing coupling elements,” Section 32.4.1

• “Distributing coupling element library,” Section 32.4.2
32.4–1
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DISTRIBUTING COUPLINGS
32.4.1 DISTRIBUTING COUPLING ELEMENTS
References
• “Distributing coupling element library,” Section 32.4.2

• *DISTRIBUTING COUPLING
Overview
Distributing coupling elements:

• can be used to distribute forces and moments on a reference node to a collection of nodes;
• can be used to prescribe an average displacement and rotation to a collection of nodes;
• can be used to distribute mass to a collection of nodes;
• can control the force and mass distribution through the use of weight factors specified for each
coupling node;
• can be used to create a flexible coupling between structural and solid elements; and
• can be used with two- or three-dimensional stress/displacement elements.
If distribution of mass is not required, the preferred method for defining a distributing constraint is
described in “Coupling constraints,” Section 34.3.2.
The distributing coupling element constrains the motion of the coupling nodes to the translation and
rotation of the element node. This constraint is enforced in an average sense and in a way that enables
control of the transmission of loads. These characteristics make the distributing coupling element useful
in a number of applications:
• The element can be used to prescribe a displacement and rotation condition on a boundary in cases
where relative motion among the nodes on the boundary is required. An example of such a case is
prescribing a twist on the end of a structure that is expected to warp and/or deform within the end
surface (see Figure 32.4.1–1).
• The element can be used to provide, through the motion of the reference node, a weighted average
of the motion of the coupling nodes.
• The element can be used to distribute loads, where the load distribution can be described with
moment-of-inertia expressions. Examples of such cases include the classic bolt-pattern and weld-
pattern load distribution expressions.
• The element can be used as a coupling between two parts (structural-solid) to transfer forces and
moments. In comparison to MPCs and the kinematic coupling constraint, the distributing coupling
element can be considered a more “flexible” connection.
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y
z
warping is permitted
by the coupling element
x
DCOUP3D
element node
(NODE 1)
prescribed
rotation
Group of coupling
nodes (COUPLESET)
Figure 32.4.1–1 DCOUP3D element used to impart a rotation on the

surface of a structure without constraining motion within the surface.
Two- and three-dimensional distributing coupling elements are available. Element DCOUP2D describes
behavior only in the global X–Y plane. Element DCOUP2D can be used in an axisymmetric analysis;
however, its use requires care in selecting the load distributing weight factors. For example, a uniform
axial load distribution to a structure would require specification of load distribution weight factors
in proportion to the radius of the coupling nodes. Since the radius of these nodes will change with
deformation, this use of DCOUP2D would only approximate the correct load distribution behavior in a
large-displacement analysis.
Defining the distributing coupling
To define a distributing coupling, you specify the coupling nodes to which loads and mass are to be
distributed, along with the corresponding weighting of the distribution. A minimum of two coupling
nodes is required.
Input File Usage: *DISTRIBUTING COUPLING, ELSET=name
node number or node set, weight_factor_1
...
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Example
This example (see Figure 32.4.1–1) illustrates the use of the DCOUP3D element to impart a rotation to
the surface of a structure that is expected to deform in a general way. In this case warping and motion
within the plane of the end surface are expected to occur.
*ELEMENT, TYPE=DCOUP3D, ELSET=ROTATEELEMENT

1001, 1
*DISTRIBUTING COUPLING, ELSET=ROTATEELEMENT
COUPLESET, 1.0
…
*STEP, NLGEOM
…
*BOUNDARY
1, 6, 6, 1.0
…
*END STEP
Defining the load distribution
The element distributes loads such that the resultants of the forces on the coupling nodes are equal to the
forces and moments on the element node. For cases of more than a few coupling nodes, the distribution
of the forces is not determined by equilibrium alone, and the user-specified weight factors are used to
define the distribution. The weight factors are dimensionless and are normalized within each element
so that the sum of all weight factors is one. As a consequence, the normalized weight factors describe
the proportion of the total element force and moment that is transmitted through the particular coupling
node. In the case of transmission of forces alone, the proportion of force transmitted through the node is
simply the normalized weight factor. In the general case of transmission of forces and moments, the force
distribution follows that of a classic bolt-pattern analysis, where the weight factors could be considered
the areas of particular bolt cross-sections. Refer to “Distributing coupling elements,” Section 3.9.8 of
the Abaqus Theory Manual, for specific details of the load distribution.
In the example shown in Figure 32.4.1–1 the weight factor distribution chosen is homogeneous,
with a value of 1.0. For the rotation depicted, a more accurate load distribution would reflect the fact
that the shear forces on nodes near the edge of the slot will diminish to zero, which could be described
by choosing individual weight factors for nodes near the slot edge. If the loading on the element were
along the axis of the structure, the homogeneous distribution shown would be appropriate. For cases
where different loading modes require different descriptions of the weight factor distribution, multiple
distributing coupling elements with different element nodes and different weight factors can be used.
Colinear coupling node arrangements

The distributing coupling element transmits moments at the element node as a force distribution among
the coupling nodes, even if these nodes have rotational degrees of freedom. Thus, when the coupling
node arrangement is colinear, the element is not capable of transmitting all components of a moment
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at the element node. Specifically, the moment component that is parallel to the colinear coupling node
arrangement will not be transmitted. When this case arises, a warning message is issued that identifies
the axis about which the element will not transmit a moment.
Use with nonuniform meshes

When the distributing coupling element is used with coupling nodes attached to elements of varying
size, care should be taken in selecting the weight factors. The weight factor selected for a node should
generally scale with the size of the elements attached to that node.
Defining the mass distribution
The mass distribution is analogous to the force distribution; the specified element mass is distributed to
the coupling nodes in proportion to the weight factors.
Input File Usage: *DISTRIBUTING COUPLING, ELSET=name, MASS=total_element_mass
...
Output
Element nodal forces (the force the element places on the element and coupling nodes) are available
through element variable NFORC. Element kinetic energy is available in dynamic procedures through
the whole element variable ELKE.
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DISTRIBUTING COUPLING LIBRARY
32.4.2 DISTRIBUTING COUPLING ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Distributing coupling elements,” Section 32.4.1

• *DISTRIBUTING COUPLING
Overview
This section provides a reference to the distributing coupling elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
DCOUP2D Two-dimensional distributing coupling element

DCOUP3D Three-dimensional distributing coupling element
DCOUP2D: 1, 2, 6
DCOUP3D: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
None.
DCOUP2D: X, Y
DCOUP3D: X, Y, Z
You must identify a minimum of two nodes to which the distributing coupling element distributes loads
and mass; in addition, you can specify the element mass.
Input File Usage: *DISTRIBUTING COUPLING
None.
Element output
ELKE Element kinetic energy.
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DISTRIBUTING COUPLING LIBRARY
NFORC Element nodal forces.
1 node is defined with the element. Additional nodes forming the coupling are defined in the element
property definition.
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COHESIVE ELEMENTS
32.5 Cohesive elements
• “Cohesive elements: overview,” Section 32.5.1

• “Choosing a cohesive element,” Section 32.5.2
• “Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3
• “Defining the cohesive element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.5.4
• “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a continuum approach,”
Section 32.5.5
• “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,”
Section 32.5.6
• “Defining the constitutive response of fluid within the cohesive element gap,” Section 32.5.7
• “Two-dimensional cohesive element library,” Section 32.5.8
• “Three-dimensional cohesive element library,” Section 32.5.9
• “Axisymmetric cohesive element library,” Section 32.5.10
32.5–1
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COHESIVE ELEMENTS: OVERVIEW
32.5.1 COHESIVE ELEMENTS: OVERVIEW
Abaqus offers a library of cohesive elements to model the behavior of adhesive joints, interfaces in composites,
and other situations where the integrity and strength of interfaces may be of interest.
Overview
Modeling with cohesive elements consists of:

• choosing the appropriate cohesive element type (“Choosing a cohesive element,” Section 32.5.2);
• including the cohesive elements in a finite element model, connecting them to other components,
and understanding typical modeling issues that arise during modeling using cohesive elements
(“Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3);
• defining the initial geometry of the cohesive elements (“Defining the cohesive element’s initial
geometry,” Section 32.5.4); and
• defining the mechanical, and optionally the fluid, constitutive behavior of the cohesive elements.
The mechanical constitutive behavior of the cohesive elements can be defined:
• with a continuum-based constitutive model (“Modeling of an adhesive layer of finite thickness”
in “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a continuum approach,”
Section 32.5.5),
• with a uniaxial stress-based constitutive model useful in modeling gaskets and/or single adhesive
patches (“Modeling of gaskets and/or small adhesive patches” in “Defining the constitutive response
of cohesive elements using a continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5), or
• by using a constitutive model specified directly in terms of traction versus separation (“Defining the
constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6).
When pore pressure cohesive elements are used in soils procedures in Abaqus/Standard, the fluid
constitutive behavior of the cohesive elements can be defined (“Defining the constitutive response of
fluid within the cohesive element gap,” Section 32.5.7):
• by defining the tangential fluid flow relationship, and
• by defining a fluid leak-off coefficient that accounts for caking or fouling effects in rock fracture.
Cohesive elements are useful in modeling adhesives, bonded interfaces, gaskets, and rock fracture.
The constitutive response of these elements depends on the specific application and is based on certain
assumptions about the deformation and stress states that are appropriate for each application area. The
nature of the mechanical constitutive response may broadly be classified to be based on:
• a continuum description of the material;
• a traction-separation description of the interface; or
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• a uniaxial stress state appropriate for modeling gaskets and/or laterally unconstrained adhesive
patches.
Each of these constitutive response types is discussed briefly below.
Continuum-based modeling
The modeling of adhesive joints involves situations where two bodies are connected together by a glue-
like material (see Figure 32.5.1–1). A continuum-based modeling of the adhesive is appropriate when the
glue has a finite thickness. The macroscopic properties, such as stiffness and strength, of the adhesive
material can be measured experimentally and used directly for modeling purposes (see “Defining the
constitutive response of cohesive elements using a continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5, for details).
The adhesive material is generally more compliant than the surrounding material. The cohesive elements
model the initial loading, the initiation of damage, and the propagation of damage leading to eventual
failure in the material.
Figure 32.5.1–1 Typical peel test using cohesive elements to model finite-thickness adhesives.
In three-dimensional problems the continuum-based constitutive model assumes one direct

(through-thickness) strain, two transverse shear strains, and all (six) stress components to be active at
a material point. In two-dimensional problems it assumes one direct (through-thickness) strain, one
transverse shear strain, and all (four) stress components to be active at a material point.
Traction-separation-based modeling
The modeling of bonded interfaces in composite materials often involves situations where the
intermediate glue material is very thin and for all practical purposes may be considered to be of zero
thickness (see Figure 32.5.1–2). In this case the macroscopic material properties are not relevant
directly, and the analyst must resort to concepts derived from fracture mechanics—such as the amount
of energy required to create new surfaces (see “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements
using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6, for details). The cohesive elements model the
32.5.1–2
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stiffener
skin
bond line
debonding
Debonding along skin-stringer interface.
Figure 32.5.1–2 Debonding along a skin-stringer interface: typical situation for

traction-separation-based modeling.
initial loading, the initiation of damage, and the propagation of damage leading to eventual failure at the
bonded interface. The behavior of the interface prior to initiation of damage is often described as linear
elastic in terms of a penalty stiffness that degrades under tensile and/or shear loading but is unaffected
by pure compression.
You may use the cohesive elements in areas of the model where you expect cracks to develop.
However, the model need not have any crack to begin with. In fact, the precise locations (among all
areas modeled with cohesive elements) where cracks initiate, as well as the evolution characteristics of
such cracks, are determined as part of the solution. The cracks are restricted to propagate along the layer
of cohesive elements and will not deflect into the surrounding material.
In three-dimensional problems the traction-separation-based model assumes three components of
separation—one normal to the interface and two parallel to it; and the corresponding stress components
are assumed to be active at a material point. In two-dimensional problems the traction-separation-based
model assumes two components of separation—one normal to the interface and the other parallel to it;
and the corresponding stress components are assumed to be active at a material point.
Modeling of gaskets and/or laterally unconstrained adhesive patches
Cohesive elements also provide some limited capabilities for modeling gaskets (see Figure 32.5.1–3).
The constitutive response of gaskets modeled with cohesive elements can be defined using only
macroscopic properties such as stiffness and strength (see “Defining the constitutive response of
cohesive elements using a continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5, for details). No specialized gasket
behavior (typically defined in terms of pressure versus closure) is available. Compared to the class
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flanges
gasket gasket
fasteners
Figure 32.5.1–3 Typical application involving gaskets.
of gasket elements available in Abaqus/Standard (“Gasket elements: overview,” Section 32.6.1), the
cohesive elements
• are fully nonlinear (can be used with finite strains and rotations);
• can have mass in a dynamic analysis; and
• are available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit.
It is assumed that the gaskets are subjected to a uniaxial stress state. A uniaxial stress state is also
appropriate for modeling small adhesive patches that are unconstrained in the lateral direction.
Any material model in Abaqus that is available for use with a one-dimensional element (beams,
trusses, or rebars)—including, for example, the hyperelastic and the elastomeric foam material models
(useful in this context for modeling gaskets, sealants, or shock absorbers made out of poron)—can be
used with this approach.
Spatial representation of a cohesive element
Figure 32.5.1–4 demonstrates the key geometrical features that are used to define cohesive elements. The
connectivity of cohesive elements is like that of continuum elements, but it is useful to think of cohesive
elements as being composed of two faces separated by a thickness. The relative motion of the bottom
and top faces measured along the thickness direction (local 3-direction for three-dimensional elements;
local 2-direction for two-dimensional elements—see “Defining the cohesive element’s initial geometry,”
Section 32.5.4, for further details on local directions) represents opening or closing of the interface. The
relative change in position of the bottom and top faces measured in the plane orthogonal to the thickness
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thickness direction
top face
cohesive element node
midsurface
bottom face
Figure 32.5.1–4 Spatial representation of a three-dimensional cohesive element.
direction quantifies the transverse shear behavior of the cohesive element. Stretching and shearing of
the midsurface of the element (the surface halfway between the bottom and top faces) are associated
with membrane strains in the cohesive element; however, it is assumed that the cohesive elements do not
generate any stresses in a purely membrane response. Figure 32.5.1–5 shows the different deformation
modes of a cohesive element.
through-thickness
cohesive behavior
layer
transverse shear
membrane stretch
membrane stretch membrane shear
Figure 32.5.1–5 Deformation modes of a cohesive element.
General issues related to modeling with cohesive elements
While using cohesive elements, you should be mindful of important issues that are specific to these
elements. Such issues include special considerations associated with using cohesive elements in
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conjunction with contact interactions, potential degradation of the stable time increment size in
Abaqus/Explicit, and potential convergence problems in Abaqus/Standard. These issues are discussed
in detail in “Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3. Cohesive elements are typically used to
bond components together. “Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3, also discusses methods
for connecting a cohesive layer to adjacent components.
Procedures with which cohesive elements are allowed
Cohesive elements without pore pressure degrees of freedom can be used in all stress/displacement
analysis types. Although they do not have any degrees of freedom other than displacement, they can be
used in coupled procedures to bond together components made out of coupled temperature-displacement
elements, and in Abaqus/Standard coupled pore pressure-displacement elements and/or piezoelectric
elements, to simulate mechanical failure of interfaces. The response of the cohesive element in such
coupled procedures is mechanical only (for example, no heat transfer occurs across the interface in a
coupled temperature-displacement problem).
Cohesive elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom can be used in coupled pore fluid
diffusion/stress analyses (“Coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress analysis,” Section 6.8.1). The
mechanical response of the coupled pore pressure–displacement element is the same as the equivalent
displacement-only element, except that the gap fluid pressure is considered as a traction on open faces.
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COHESIVE ELEMENTS
32.5.2 CHOOSING A COHESIVE ELEMENT
Products: Abaqus/Standard Abaqus/Explicit
References

• “Two-dimensional cohesive element library,” Section 32.5.8
• “Three-dimensional cohesive element library,” Section 32.5.9
• “Axisymmetric cohesive element library,” Section 32.5.10
Overview
The Abaqus cohesive element library includes:

• elements for two-dimensional analyses;
• elements for three-dimensional analyses; and
• elements for axisymmetric analyses.
Naming convention
The cohesive elements used in Abaqus are named as follows:
COH 3D 8 P
pore pressure (optional)
number of nodes
two-dimensional (2D), three-dimensional (3D),

cohesive element
For example, COH2D4 is a 4-node, two-dimensional cohesive element.
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MODELING WITH COHESIVE ELEMENTS
32.5.3 MODELING WITH COHESIVE ELEMENTS
References

• *COHESIVE SECTION
• Chapter 21, “Adhesive joints and bonded interfaces,” of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
Cohesive elements:
• are used to model adhesives between two components, each of which may be deformable or rigid;
• are used to model interfacial debonding using a cohesive zone framework;
• are used to model gaskets and/or small adhesive patches;
• can be connected to the adjacent components by sharing nodes, by using mesh tie constraints, or by
using MPCs type TIE or PIN; and
• may interact with other components via contact for gasket applications.
This section discusses the techniques that are available to discretize cohesive zones and assemble them
in a model representing several components that are bonded to one another. It also discusses several
common modeling issues related to cohesive elements.
Discretizing cohesive zones using cohesive elements
The cohesive zone must be discretized with a single layer of cohesive elements through the thickness.
If the cohesive zone represents an adhesive material with a finite thickness, the continuum macroscopic
properties of this material can be used directly for modeling the constitutive response of the cohesive
zone. Alternatively, if the cohesive zone represents an infinitesimally thin layer of adhesive at a bonded
interface, it may be more relevant to define the response of the interface directly in terms of the traction
at the interface versus the relative motion across the interface. Finally, if the cohesive zone represents
a small adhesive patch or a gasket with no lateral constraint, a uniaxial stress state provides a good
approximation to the state of these elements. Abaqus provides modeling capabilities for all the above
cases. The details are discussed in later sections.
Connecting cohesive elements to other components
At least one of either the top or the bottom face of the cohesive element must be constrained to another
component. In most applications it is appropriate to have both faces of the cohesive elements tied to
neighboring components. If only one face of the cohesive element is constrained and the other face
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is free, the cohesive element exhibits one or (for three-dimensional elements) more singular modes of
deformation due to the lack of membrane stiffness. The singular modes can propagate from one cohesive
element to the adjacent one but can be suppressed by constraining the nodes on the side face at the end
of a series of cohesive elements.
In some cases it may be convenient and appropriate to have cohesive elements share nodes with the
elements on the surfaces of the adjacent components. More generally, when the mesh in the cohesive
zone is not matched to the mesh of the adjacent components, cohesive elements can be tied to other
components. When cohesive elements are used to model gaskets, it may be more appropriate to tie or
share nodes on one side and define contact on the other side as discussed below. This will prevent the
gaskets from being subjected to tensile stresses.
Having cohesive elements share nodes with other elements

When the cohesive elements and their neighboring parts have matched meshes, it is straightforward to
connect cohesive elements to other components in a model simply by sharing nodes (see Figure 32.5.3–1).
Part 1
pore pressure
cohesive elements
Explicitly internally
defined node generated nodes
Part 2
Figure 32.5.3–1 Cohesive elements sharing nodes with other Abaqus elements.
When these elements are used as adhesives or to model debonding, this method can be used to obtain
initial results from a model—more accurate local results (in the decohesion zone) would typically be
obtained with the cohesive zone more refined than the elements of the surrounding components. When
these elements are used to model gaskets, this approach is suitable in situations when no frictional slip
occurs between the gaskets and the surrounding components. The method of sharing nodes in gasket
applications will lead to tensile stresses in the gasket should the parts connected to the gasket be pulled
apart. Defining contact on one side of the cohesive elements will avoid such tensile stresses.
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Connecting cohesive elements to other components by using surface-based tie constraints

If the two neighboring parts do not have matched meshes, such as when the discretization level in the
cohesive layer is different (typically finer) from the discretization level in the surrounding structures,
the top and/or bottom surfaces of the cohesive layer can be tied to the surrounding structures using a tie
constraint (“Mesh tie constraints,” Section 34.3.1). Figure 32.5.3–2 shows an example in which a finer
discretization is used for the cohesive layer than for the neighboring parts.
Part 1
tie constraints cohesive elements
Part 2
Figure 32.5.3–2 Independent meshes with tie constraints.
Contact interactions between cohesive elements and other components

For some applications involving gaskets it is appropriate to define contact on one side of the cohesive
element (see Figure 32.5.3–3). Contact can be defined with either the general contact algorithm
in Abaqus/Explicit (“Defining general contact interactions in Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 35.4.1)
or the contact pair algorithm in Abaqus/Standard (“Defining contact pairs in Abaqus/Standard,”
Section 35.3.1) or Abaqus/Explicit (“Defining contact pairs in Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 35.5.1). If
pure master-slave contact is used, typically the surface of the cohesive elements should be the slave
surface and the surface of the neighboring part should be the master surface. This choice of master
and slave is based on the cohesive zone typically being composed of softer materials and having a
finer discretization. The second consideration also suggests that mismatched meshes will often be used
in analyses involving cohesive elements. If mismatched meshes are used, the pressure distribution
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Part 1
contact interaction
cohesive elements
tie constraints
Part 2
Figure 32.5.3–3 Contact interaction on one side of a cohesive zone.
on the cohesive elements may not be predicted accurately; submodeling (“Submodeling: overview,”
Section 10.2.1) may be required to obtain accurate local results.
Using cohesive elements in large-displacement analyses
Cohesive elements can be used in large-displacement analyses. The assembly containing the cohesive
elements can undergo finite displacement as well as finite rotation.
Selecting the broad class of the constitutive response of cohesive elements
As discussed earlier, cohesive elements can be used to model finite-thickness adhesives, negligibly thin
adhesive layers for debonding applications, as well as gaskets and/or small adhesive patches. You must
choose one of these broad classes of applications when you define the section properties of cohesive
elements. The detailed implications of each choice are discussed in “Defining the constitutive response of
cohesive elements using a continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5, and “Defining the constitutive response
of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to model a finite-thickness adhesive layer using a
continuum-based constitutive response:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=CONTINUUM
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Use the following option to model a negligibly (geometrically) thin layer of

adhesive using a traction-separation-based response:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=TRACTION SEPARATION
Use the following option to use cohesive elements as gaskets and/or small
adhesive patches:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=GASKET
and Cohesive as the section Type: Response: Continuum, Traction
Separation, or Gasket
Assigning a material behavior to a cohesive element
You assign the name of a material definition to a particular element set. The constitutive behavior for this
element set is defined entirely by the constitutive thickness of the cohesive layer (discussed in “Specifying
the constitutive thickness” in “Defining the cohesive element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.5.4) and the
material properties referring to the same name.
The constitutive behavior of the cohesive elements can be defined either in terms of a material
model provided in Abaqus or a user-defined material model (see “User-defined mechanical material
behavior,” Section 26.7.1). When cohesive elements are used in applications involving a finite-thickness
adhesive, any available material model in Abaqus, including material models for progressive damage, can
be used. For applications involving gasket and/or small finite-thickness adhesive patches, any material
model that can be used with one-dimensional elements (such as beams, trusses, and rebars), including
material models for progressive damage, can be used. For further details, see “Defining the constitutive
response of cohesive elements using a continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5. For applications in which
the behavior of cohesive elements is defined directly in terms of traction versus separation, the response
can be defined only in terms of a linear elastic relation (between the traction and the separation) along
with progressive damage (see “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-
separation description,” Section 32.5.6).
To define the constitutive behavior of cohesive elements, you assign the name of a material model
to a particular element set through the section definition. The actual material model for a user-defined
material model is defined in user subroutine UMAT in Abaqus/Standard or VUMAT in Abaqus/Explicit.
Input File Usage: *COHESIVE SECTION, ELSET=name, MATERIAL=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: cohesive section editor: Material: name
Using cohesive elements in coupled pore fluid diffusion/stress analyses
Cohesive elements with, or without, pore pressure degrees of freedom can be used in coupled pore
fluid diffusion/stress analyses. Cohesive elements without pore pressure degrees of freedom will only
contribute mechanically, and surfaces exposed when cohesive elements open will be impermeable to
fluid flow.
Cohesive elements with pore pressure degrees of freedom provide a more general response,
including the ability to model tangential flow and leakage flow from the gap into the adjacent material.
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These elements have additional pore pressure nodes in the gap interior, and you can choose to define
these nodes explicitly or have them generated automatically by Abaqus/Standard.
In a typical use you will have these gap interior nodes generated for you for the majority of cohesive
elements in the model. You invoke automatic node generation as discussed in “By defining the bottom-
face element connectivity and an integer offset” in “Defining the cohesive element’s initial geometry,”
Section 32.5.4.
Defining contact between surrounding components
Cohesive elements are used to bond two different components. Often the cohesive elements completely
degrade in tension and/or shear as a result of the deformation. Subsequently, the components that are
initially bonded together by cohesive elements may come into contact with each other. Approaches for
modeling this kind of contact include the following:
• In certain situations this kind of contact can be handled by the cohesive element itself. By default,
cohesive elements retain their resistance to compression even if their resistance to other deformation
modes is completely degraded. As a result, the cohesive elements resist interpenetration of the
surrounding components even after the cohesive element has completely degraded in tension and/or
shear. This approach works best when the top and the bottom faces of the cohesive element do not
displace tangentially by a significant amount relative to each other during the deformation. In other
words, to model the situation described above, the deformation of the cohesive elements should be
limited to “small sliding.”
• Another possible approach is to define contact between the surfaces of the surrounding components
that could potentially come into contact and to delete the cohesive elements once they are completely
damaged. Thus, contact is modeled throughout the analysis. This approach is not recommended if
the geometric thickness of the cohesive elements in the model is very small or zero (the geometric
thickness of the cohesive elements may be different from the constitutive thickness you specify
while defining the section properties of the cohesive elements—see “Specifying the constitutive
thickness” in “Defining the cohesive element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.5.4) because contact
will effectively cause nonphysical resistance to compression of the cohesive layer while the cohesive
elements are still active. If frictional contact is modeled, there may also be nonphysical shearing
forces.
This is the behavior that will occur by default with the general contact algorithm in
Abaqus/Explicit. Figure 32.5.3–4, Figure 32.5.3–5, and Figure 32.5.3–6 show the default surface
for general contact. This surface:
– is insensitive to whether the cohesive elements and neighboring elements share nodes, are tied
together, or are not connected; and
– does not include faces of cohesive elements.
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Part 1 ⇒
all element-based
surfaces
Part 2
Figure 32.5.3–4 Default surface when cohesive elements share nodes with surrounding elements.
Part 1 ⇒
all element-based
surfaces
Part 2
Figure 32.5.3–5 Default surface when cohesive elements are tied to the surrounding elements.
Part 1
⇒
contact interaction
cohesive elements all element-
tie constraints
based surfaces
Part 2
Figure 32.5.3–6 Default surface when cohesive elements are tied on one side and
interact through contact on the other side.
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Figure 32.5.3–7 shows the situation when the surfaces of the cohesive elements are also added to
the default surface. Abaqus/Explicit generates a contact exclusion automatically so that the general
contact algorithm avoids consideration of contact between the bottom surface of the cohesive
elements and the top surface of Part 2 since these surfaces are tied together.
Part 1 ⇒
contact interaction
cohesive elements all element-
tie constraints
based surfaces
Part 2
Figure 32.5.3–7 Top and bottom faces of the cohesive element along with the default surface when
cohesive elements are tied on one side and interact through contact on the other side.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to add the top and bottom faces of the cohesive
elements to the default general contact surface (the cohesive elements
are included in the element set COH_ELEMS):
*SURFACE, NAME=DEFAULT_PLUS_COH
,
COH_ELEMS,
*CONTACT
*CONTACT INCLUSIONS
DEFAULT_PLUS_COH,
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Any module except Sketch, Job, and Visualization:
Tools→Surface→Create: Name: default_plus_coh:
pick faces in viewport
Interaction module: Create Interaction: General contact (Explicit):
Included surface pairs: Selected surface pairs: Edit, select
the surfaces in the columns on the left, and click the arrows in the
middle to transfer them to the list of included pairs
• For general contact in Abaqus/Explicit, yet another approach for modeling contact between the
surrounding structures involves activating contact only when the cohesive elements are completely
degraded and deleted from the model (see “Maximum degradation and choice of element removal”
in “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,”
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Section 32.5.6). For this approach the cohesive elements must share nodes with the neighboring
element and the general contact definition must include surfaces on the top and bottom faces of the
cohesive elements, as shown in Figure 32.5.3–8. Since each surface face of the cohesive elements
directly opposes a surface face of a neighboring element, the general contact algorithm does not
consider these faces active while both parent elements are active. However, if the cohesive element
fails, the opposing surface faces become active.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to include the top and bottom faces of
the cohesive elements in the general contact definition (the cohesive
elements are included in the element set COH_ELEMS):
*SURFACE, NAME=gc_surf
,
COH_ELEMS,
*CONTACT
*CONTACT INCLUSIONS
gc_surf,
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Any module except Sketch, Job, and Visualization:
Tools→Surface→Create: Name: gc_surf: pick faces in viewport
Interaction module: Create Interaction: General contact (Explicit):
Included surface pairs: Selected surface pairs: Edit, select
the surfaces in the columns on the left, and click the arrows in the
middle to transfer them to the list of included pairs
Part 1
⇒ ⇒
cohesive elements
all element-
based surfaces
Part 2 and bottom
and top faces
of cohesive
elements
Figure 32.5.3–8 Surfaces that are involved in general contact when cohesive elements
are included in the surface definition and erosion is used.
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Stable time increment in Abaqus/Explicit
The stable time increment for a cohesive element in Abaqus/Explicit is equal to the time, , required
for a stress wave to travel across the constitutive thickness, , of the cohesive layer:
where is the wave speed and and represent the bulk stiffness and the density, respectively,
of the adhesive material. In terms of the expression for the wave speed, the stable time increment can be
written as
For cases in which the constitutive response is defined in terms of traction versus separation,
the slope of the traction versus separation relationship is and the density is specified as
mass per unit area rather than per unit volume: (see “Defining the constitutive response of
cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6, for further details on this
issue). Therefore, for traction versus separation the expression for the time increment becomes
It is quite common that the time increment of cohesive elements will be significantly less than that of
the other elements in the model, unless you take some action to alter one or more of the factors influencing
the time increment. This requires some judgement on your part. The following discussions provide some
recommendations for controlling the time increment for the different methods of defining the material
response. However, Abaqus/Standard may be preferable in some applications where it is necessary to
model a thin, stiff cohesive layer without approximations.
Constitutive response defined in terms of a continuum or uniaxial stress-state approach

For constitutive response defined in terms of a continuum or uniaxial stress-state approach, the ratio of
the stable time increment of the cohesive elements to that of the other elements is given by
where the subscripts “c” and “e” stand for the cohesive elements and the surrounding elements,
respectively. The thickness of the cohesive layer is often smaller than a characteristic length of the
other elements in the model, so the quantity is often small. The quantity under the radical will
depend on the materials involved. For an epoxy adhesive between steel components, the quantity under
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the radical is on the order of unity. The stable time increment of the cohesive element can be increased
by artificially
• increasing the constitutive thickness, ;
• increasing the density, ;
• reducing the stiffness, ; or
• some combination of the above.
In many cases the most attractive option will be to increase the density, which is also referred to as mass
scaling (“Mass scaling,” Section 11.6.1). However, if the thickness of the cohesive zone is very small,
the mass scaling required to achieve a reasonable time increment may affect the results significantly.
In such cases it may be necessary to artificially reduce the cohesive stiffness in addition to some mass
scaling. This approach involves the use of a stiffness that is different from the measured stiffness of the
interface; however, if the peak strength and the fracture energy remain unchanged, the global response
will not be affected significantly in many cases.
Constitutive response defined in terms of traction versus separation

For constitutive response defined in terms of traction versus separation, the ratio of the stable time
increment of the cohesive elements to that for the other elements is given by
where the subscripts “c” and “e” stand for the cohesive elements and the surrounding elements,
respectively.
One way to ensure that the cohesive elements will have no adverse effect on the stable time
increment is to choose material properties such that , which implies
This is accomplished if, for example, the cohesive element stiffness and density per unit area are chosen
such that
where represents the characteristic length of the neighboring non-cohesive elements. By choosing
, the stiffness in the cohesive layer relative to the surrounding elements will be similar to the
default stiffness used by penalty contact in Abaqus/Explicit (relative to the equivalent one-dimensional
stiffness of the surrounding elements). This approach involves the use of a stiffness that is likely to
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be different from the measured stiffness of the interface; however, if the peak strength and the fracture
energy remain unchanged, the global response will not be affected significantly in many cases.
Convergence issues in Abaqus/Standard
In many problems cohesive elements are modeled as undergoing progressive damage leading to failure.
The modeling of progressive damage involves softening in the material response, which is known to lead
to convergence difficulties in an implicit solution procedure, such as in Abaqus/Standard. Convergence
difficulties may also occur during unstable crack propagation, when the energy available is higher than
the fracture toughness of the material. Several methods are available to help avoid these convergence
problems.
Using viscous regularization

Abaqus/Standard provides a viscous regularization capability that helps in improving the convergence
for these kinds of problems. This capability is discussed in detail in “Using viscous regularization
with cohesive elements, connector elements, and elements that can be used with the damage evolution
models for ductile metals and fiber-reinforced composites in Abaqus/Standard” in “Section controls,”
Section 27.1.4, and “Viscous regularization in Abaqus/Standard” in “Defining the constitutive response
Using automatic stabilization

Another approach to help convergence behavior is the use of automatic stabilization (see “Static stress
analysis,” Section 6.2.2, and “Solving nonlinear problems,” Section 7.1.1, for further details), which is
useful when a problem is unstable due to local instabilities. Generally, if sufficient viscous regularization
is used (as measured by the viscosity coefficient—see “Viscous regularization in Abaqus/Standard”
in “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,”
Section 32.5.6, for further details), the use of the automatic stabilization technique is not necessary.
In problems where a small amount or no viscous regularization is used, automatic stabilization will
improve the convergence characteristics.
Using nondefault solution controls

The use of nondefault solution controls (see “Commonly used control parameters,” Section 7.2.2, and
“Convergence criteria for nonlinear problems,” Section 7.2.3, for further details) and activation of the
line search technique (“Improving the efficiency of the solution by using the line search algorithm” in
“Convergence criteria for nonlinear problems,” Section 7.2.3) may be useful in improving the solution
efficiency.
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COHESIVE GEOMETRY
32.5.4 DEFINING THE COHESIVE ELEMENT’S INITIAL GEOMETRY
References

Overview
The initial geometry of a cohesive element is defined:
• by the nodal connectivity of the element and the position of these nodes;
• by the stack direction, which can be used to specify the top and the bottom faces of the cohesive
element independent of the nodal connectivity; and
• by the magnitude of the initial constitutive thickness, which can either correspond to the geometric
thickness implied by the nodal positions and stack direction or be specified directly.
Defining the element connectivity
The connectivity of a cohesive element is like that of a continuum element; however, it is useful to think
of a cohesive element as being composed of two faces (a bottom and a top face) separated by the cohesive
zone thickness. The element has nodes on its bottom face and corresponding nodes on its top face. Pore
pressure cohesive elements include a third, middle face, which is used to model fluid flow within the
element.
Three methods are available to define the element connectivity.
By directly defining the element’s complete connectivity

The complete connectivity of a cohesive element can be given directly (see “Defining cohesive elements”
in “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1).
By defining the bottom-face element connectivity and an integer offset

Alternatively, you can specify the connectivity of the bottom face plus a positive integer offset (see
“Defining cohesive elements” in “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1) that will be used to determine the
remaining cohesive element nodes.
Input File Usage: *ELEMENT, OFFSET=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Element offsets are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
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Use with displacement cohesive elements
The integer offset will be used to define node numbers of the top face of the cohesive element. Abaqus
will automatically position the nodes of the top face to be coincident with those of the bottom face unless
the nodes of the top face have already been assigned coordinates directly with a node definition (“Node
definition,” Section 2.1.1).
Use with pore pressure-displacement cohesive elements
When you define only the bottom face nodes, the integer offset will first be used to define the node
numbers of the top face of the cohesive element, with the numbering of the top-face nodes offset from
the bottom face node numbers. The integer offset will again be used to define the middle surface node
numbers offset, with the numbering of the middle-face nodes offset from the top face node numbers.
Abaqus will automatically position the nodes of the top and middle faces to be coincident with those of
the bottom face unless the nodes of the top face have already been assigned coordinates directly with a
node definition (“Node definition,” Section 2.1.1).
By defining the bottom- and top-face element connectivities and an integer offset
For pore pressure cohesive elements, you also can specify the connectivity of the bottom and top faces
plus a positive integer offset (see “Defining cohesive elements” in “Element definition,” Section 2.2.1)
that will be used to determine the middle face cohesive element nodes.
When you define the bottom and top face nodes, the integer offset will be used to define the node
numbers of the middle face, with the numbering of the middle-face nodes offset from the bottom face
node numbers. Abaqus will automatically position the nodes of the middle face to be halfway between
those of the bottom and top faces unless the nodes of the middle face have already been assigned
coordinates directly with a node definition (“Node definition,” Section 2.1.1).
Input File Usage: *ELEMENT, OFFSET=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Element offsets are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Specifying the out-of-plane thickness for two-dimensional elements
For two-dimensional cohesive elements the out-of-plane thickness is required. You specify this
additional information in the cohesive section definition; the default value is 1.0.
Input File Usage: *COHESIVE SECTION
first data line
out-of-plane thickness
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: cohesive section editor: toggle on Out-of-plane thickness:
and specify the out-of-plane thickness
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Specifying the constitutive thickness
You can specify the constitutive thickness of the cohesive element directly or allow Abaqus to compute
it based on nodal coordinates such that the constitutive thickness is equal to the geometric thickness. The
default behavior depends on the nature of the application.
If the geometric thickness of the cohesive element is very small compared to its surface dimensions,
the thickness computed from the nodal coordinates may be inaccurate. In such cases you can specify a
constant thickness directly when defining the section properties of these elements.
The characteristic element length of a cohesive element is equal to its constitutive thickness. The
characteristic element length is often useful in defining the evolution of damage in materials (see “Mesh
dependency” in “Progressive damage and failure,” Section 24.1.1).
When the cohesive element response is based on a continuum approach
When the response of the cohesive elements is based on a continuum approach, by default the constitutive
thickness of the element is computed by Abaqus based on the nodal coordinates. You can override this
default by specifying the constitutive thickness directly.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to have Abaqus compute the thickness based on the
nodal coordinates:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=CONTINUUM,
THICKNESS=GEOMETRY (default)
Use the following option to specify the thickness directly:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=CONTINUUM,
THICKNESS=SPECIFIED
thickness (1.0 by default)
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: cohesive section editor: Response: Continuum: Initial
thickness: Use nodal coordinates, Specify: thickness, or Use analysis
default
When the cohesive element response is based on a traction-separation approach

When the response of the cohesive elements is based on a traction-separation approach, Abaqus assumes
by default that the constitutive thickness is equal to one. This default value is motivated by the fact
that the geometric thickness of cohesive elements is often equal to (or very close to) zero for the kinds
of applications in which a traction-separation-based constitutive response is appropriate. This default
choice ensures that nominal strains are equal to the relative separation displacements (see “Defining
the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6,
for further details). You can override this default by specifying another value or specifying that the
constitutive thickness should be equal to the geometric thickness.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify the thickness directly:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=TRACTION SEPARATION,
THICKNESS=SPECIFIED (default)
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Use the following option to have Abaqus compute the thickness based on the
nodal coordinates:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=TRACTION SEPARATION,
THICKNESS=GEOMETRY
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: cohesive section editor: Response: Traction Separation:
Initial thickness: Specify: thickness, Use analysis default, or Use nodal
coordinates
When the cohesive element response is based on a uniaxial stress state

When the response of the cohesive elements is based on a uniaxial stress state, there is no default method
for computing the constitutive thickness. You must indicate your choice of the method of determining
the constitutive thickness.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify the thickness:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=GASKET,
THICKNESS=SPECIFIED
Use the following option to have Abaqus compute the thickness based on the
nodal coordinates:
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=GASKET,
THICKNESS=GEOMETRY
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: cohesive section editor: Response: Gasket: Initial
thickness: Specify: thickness or Use nodal coordinates
Element thickness direction definition
It is important to define the orientation of cohesive elements correctly, since the behavior of the elements
is different in the thickness and in-plane directions. By default, the top and bottom faces of cohesive
elements are as shown in Figure 32.5.4–1 for three-dimensional cohesive elements and Figure 32.5.4–2
for two-dimensional and axisymmetric cohesive elements. Options for overriding the default orientation
of cohesive elements are discussed below along with an explanation of how the local thickness direction
and in-plane direction vectors are established.
Setting the stack direction equal to an isoparametric direction

The “stack direction” refers to the isoparametric direction along which the top and bottom faces of
a cohesive element are stacked. By default, the top and bottom faces are stacked along the third
isoparametric direction in three-dimensional cohesive elements and along the second isoparametric
direction in two-dimensional and axisymmetric cohesive elements. You can choose to stack the top
and bottom faces along an alternate isoparametric direction for most element types (the COH3D6
element can have only the third isoparametric direction as the stack direction). The choice of the
isoparametric direction depends on the element connectivity. For a mesh-independent specification,
32.5.4–4
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6
8
n 3
n top face
4
5 7
thickness 4
direction 1 6 3
1
5 thickness
z 2 direction
2 bottom face
y
Figure 32.5.4–1 Default thickness direction for three-dimensional cohesive elements.
4 3
thickness
direction
y (z)
1 2
x (r)
Figure 32.5.4–2 Default thickness direction for two-dimensional

and axisymmetric cohesive elements.
use an orientation-based method as described below. The isoparametric direction choices for
three-dimensional cohesive elements are shown in Figure 32.5.4–3.
8 F5
F6 7
F2 6
5
6 F4 F5 3 F4
F3 4 F2
3 3 4 5 3
2 F3
1 1
2 1 2
F1 Stack direction F1 Stack direction
Stack direction = 1 Stack direction = 2 Stack direction = 3 Stack direction = 3

from face 6 to face 4 from face 3 to face 5 from face 1 to face 2 from face 1 to face 2
Figure 32.5.4–3 Stack directions for COH3D8 (left) and COH3D6 (right) elements.
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Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the element top and bottom faces based on
the element’s isoparametric directions:
*COHESIVE SECTION, STACK DIRECTION=n
Abaqus/CAE Usage: You cannot define the stack direction based on isoparametric directions in
Abaqus/CAE. The stack direction will correspond to the default discussed
above.
Setting the stack direction based on a user-defined orientation

You can also control the orientation of the stack direction through a user-defined local orientation
(“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5). When you define an orientation for cohesive elements, you also specify
an axis about which the local 1 and 2 material directions may be rotated. This axis also defines an
approximate normal direction. The stack direction will be the element isoparametric direction that is
closest to this approximate normal (see Figure 32.5.4–4).
Local cylindrical orientation cylor1:

a = 0, 0, 0
b = 10, 0, 0
x'
Cohesive section, stack direction
ε
based on cylor1 3
x'
b
ε 2
(10, 0, 0)
ε 1
Z
Y
ABAQUS selects the isoparametric direction  3 that is
X closest to the 1st (i.e., x 1, or radial) axis, at the center.
Global a
(0, 0, 0)
Figure 32.5.4–4 Example illustrating the use of a cylindrical system to define the stack direction.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the element thickness direction based on a
user-defined orientation:
*COHESIVE SECTION, STACK DIRECTION=ORIENTATION,
ORIENTATION=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: You cannot define the stack direction based on an orientation definition in
Abaqus/CAE. The stack direction will correspond to the default discussed
above.
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COHESIVE GEOMETRY
Verifying the stack direction

The stack direction can be verified visually in Abaqus/CAE by using the stack direction query tool (see
“Understanding the role of the Query toolset,” Section 71.1 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual). For
three-dimensional elements Abaqus/CAE colors the top face purple and the bottom face brown. For
two-dimensional and axisymmetric elements, arrows indicate the orientation of the element. In addition,
Abaqus/CAE highlights any element faces and edges that have inconsistent orientations.
Alternatively, the material axes can be plotted in the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE to verify
that the 3-axis points in the desired normal direction for three-dimensional elements; and if the element
is oriented improperly, one of the in-plane axes (either the 1- or 2-axis) will point in the normal direction.
For two-dimensional and axisymmetric elements, the stack direction is consistent with the 2-axis material
direction.
Thickness direction computation for two-dimensional and axisymmetric elements

To compute the thickness direction for two-dimensional and axisymmetric elements, Abaqus forms
a midsurface by averaging the coordinates of the node pairs forming the bottom and top surfaces
of the element. This midsurface passes through the integration points of the element, as shown in
Figure 32.5.4–5 for the default choice of the bottom and top surfaces. For each integration point Abaqus
computes a tangent whose direction is defined by the sequence of nodes given on the bottom and top
surfaces. The thickness direction is then obtained as the cross product of the out-of-plane and tangent
directions.
midsurface
n1
n2
4 3
t1
t2
1 2
Figure 32.5.4–5 Thickness direction for a two-dimensional or axisymmetric element.
Thickness direction computation for three-dimensional elements

To compute the thickness direction for three-dimensional elements, Abaqus forms a midsurface by
averaging the coordinates of the node pairs forming the bottom and top surfaces of the element. This
midsurface passes through the integration points of the element, as shown in Figure 32.5.4–6 for the
default choice of the bottom and top surfaces. Abaqus computes the thickness direction as the normal
to the midsurface at each integration point; the positive direction is obtained with the right-hand rule
going around the nodes of the element on the bottom or top surface.
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COHESIVE GEOMETRY
midsurface
8
5 n4
n1 7
n3
6 n2
1 4
3
2
Figure 32.5.4–6 Thickness direction for a three-dimensional element.
Local directions at integration points
Abaqus computes default local directions at each integration point. The local directions are used for
output of all quantities that describe the current deformation state of a cohesive element. Details of local
directions are discussed separately below for cohesive elements with two versus three local directions.
Local directions for two-dimensional and axisymmetric cohesive elements

The local 2-direction for two-dimensional and axisymmetric cohesive elements corresponds to the
thickness direction, which is computed as discussed above in “Element thickness direction definition.”
The local 1-direction is defined such that the cross product between the local 1- and 2-directions gives
the out-of-plane direction (see Figure 32.5.4–7). You cannot modify either local direction for these
elements for a given stack orientation. Transverse shear behavior is defined in the 1–2 plane for these
elements.
4 3
2
1
1 2
Figure 32.5.4–7 Local directions for two-dimensional and axisymmetric cohesive elements.
Local directions for three-dimensional cohesive elements

The local 3-direction for three-dimensional cohesive elements corresponds to the thickness direction,
which is computed as discussed above in “Element thickness direction definition” and cannot be modified
for a given stack orientation. The local 1- and 2-directions are normal to the thickness direction and, by
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COHESIVE GEOMETRY
default, are defined by the standard Abaqus convention for local directions on surfaces (“Conventions,”
Section 1.2.2). The default local directions for a three-dimensional cohesive element are shown in
Figure 32.5.4–8.
projection of x-axis 8
onto surface
7
5
3 6
1 3
2
1
2
Figure 32.5.4–8 Local directions for three-dimensional cohesive elements.
Transverse shear behavior is defined in the local 1–3 and 2–3 planes for these elements. You can modify
the local 1- and 2-directions for three-dimensional cohesive elements in the plane normal to the thickness
direction by using a local orientation definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5).
Input File Usage: *COHESIVE SECTION, ELSET=name, ORIENTATION=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Assign→Material Orientation: select region: select
orientation
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COHESIVE ELEMENTS TREATED AS A CONTINUUM
32.5.5 DEFINING THE CONSTITUTIVE RESPONSE OF COHESIVE ELEMENTS USING A

CONTINUUM APPROACH
References

Section 32.5.6
• “Progressive damage and failure,” Section 24.1.1
Overview
The features described in this section are used to model cohesive elements using a continuum approach,
which assumes that the cohesive zone contains material of finite thickness that can be modeled using the
conventional material models in Abaqus. If the cohesive zone is very thin and for all practical purposes
may be considered to be of zero thickness, the constitutive response is commonly described in terms of
a traction-separation law; this alternative approach is discussed in “Defining the constitutive response of
cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,” Section 32.5.6.
The constitutive response of cohesive elements modeled as a continuum:
• can be defined in terms of macroscopic material properties such as stiffness and strength using
conventional material models;
• can be specified in terms of either a built-in material model or a user-defined material model;
• can include the effects of material damage and failure in Abaqus/Explicit; and
• can also include the effects of material damage and failure in a low-cycle fatigue analysis in
Abaqus/Standard.
Behavior of cohesive elements with conventional material models
The implementation of the conventional material models (including user-defined models) in Abaqus for
cohesive elements is based on certain assumptions regarding the state of the deformation in the cohesive
layer. Two different classes of problems are considered: modeling of an adhesive layer of finite thickness
and modeling of gaskets.
Modeling of damage with cohesive elements for these classes of problems can be carried out only in
Abaqus/Explicit (see “Progressive damage and failure,” Section 24.1.1, for details regarding the damage
models currently available in Abaqus/Explicit). You may need to alter the damage model for an adhesive
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material to account for the fact that the failure of an adhesive bond may occur at the interface between
the adhesive and the adherend rather than within the adhesive material.
When used with conventional material models in Abaqus, cohesive elements use true stress and
strain measures. When used with a material model that is based on a traction-separation description
(see “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a traction-separation description,”
Section 32.5.6, for details on this approach), cohesive elements use nominal stress and strain measures.
The frequency characteristics of cohesive elements are accounted for by the algorithms
to automatically choose the time increment in Abaqus/Explicit (“Explicit dynamic analysis,”
Section 6.3.3). In many applications involving adhesives or gaskets cohesive elements may be quite
thin compared to the other elements, which tends to decrease the stable time increment. See “Stable
time increment in Abaqus/Explicit” in “Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3, for further
discussion on this topic, including suggestions on how to avoid significant reductions in the stable time
increment when using cohesive elements.
Modeling of an adhesive layer of finite thickness

For adhesive layers with finite thickness it is assumed that the cohesive layer is subjected to only one
direct component of strain, which is the through-thickness strain, and to two transverse shear strain
components (one transverse shear strain component for two-dimensional problems). The other two direct
components of the strain (the direct membrane strains) and the in-plane (membrane) shear strain are
assumed to be zero for the constitutive calculations. More specifically, the through-thickness and the
transverse shear strains are computed from the element kinematics. However, the membrane strains are
not computed based on the element kinematics; they are simply assumed to be zero for the constitutive
calculations. These assumptions are appropriate in situations where a relatively thin and compliant
layer of adhesive bonds two relatively rigid (compared to the adhesive) parts. The above kinematic
assumptions are approximately correct everywhere inside the cohesive layer except around its outer
edges.
An additional linear elastic transverse shear behavior can be defined to provide more stability to
cohesive elements, particularly after damage has occurred. The transverse shear behavior is assumed to
be independent of the regular material response and does not undergo any damage.
Input File Usage: Use the following options (the second option is needed only to define uncoupled
transverse shear response):
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=CONTINUUM
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Create Section: select Other as the section Category and
Cohesive as the section Type: Response: Continuum
Transverse shear behavior is not supported in Abaqus/CAE for cohesive
sections.
Modeling of gaskets and/or small adhesive patches

The modeling of gaskets and/or small adhesive patches involves situations where there are no lateral
constraints on the cohesive layer. Hence, the layers are free to expand in the lateral direction in a stress-
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free manner. Application areas include individual spot welds and gaskets. The constitutive calculations
assume only one direct stress component, which is the through-thickness normal stress. All other stress
components, including the transverse shear stress components, are assumed to be zero.
The gasket modeling capability that is offered with this option has some advantages compared
to the family of gasket elements in Abaqus/Standard. The cohesive elements are fully nonlinear (the
element kinematics properly account for finite strains as well as finite rotations), can contribute mass
and damping in a dynamic analysis, and are available in Abaqus/Explicit. The gasket response modeled
in the above manner is similar to modeling using the special-purpose gasket elements in Abaqus/Standard
with thickness-direction behavior only (see “Including gasket elements in a model,” Section 32.6.3).
Uncoupled, linear-elastic transverse shear behavior, if desired, can be defined. The transverse shear
behavior may either define the response of the gasket and/or adhesive patch or provide stability after
damage has occurred in the response in the thickness direction. There is no damage associated with the
transverse shear response.
Input File Usage: Use the following options (the second option is needed only to define uncoupled
transverse shear response):
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=GASKET
Cohesive as the section Type: Response: Gasket
Transverse shear behavior is not supported in Abaqus/CAE for cohesive
sections.
Output
All standard output variables in Abaqus (“Abaqus/Standard output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.1,
and “Abaqus/Explicit output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.2) are available for cohesive elements that
are used with conventional material models. The stresses due to the additional transverse shear response
are reported separately using the output variables TSHR13 and (in three dimensions) TSHR23. These
stresses are not added to the usual material point stresses reported using the output variable S.
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COHESIVE ELEMENTS DEFINED IN TERMS OF TRACTION-SEPARATION
32.5.6 DEFINING THE CONSTITUTIVE RESPONSE OF COHESIVE ELEMENTS USING A

TRACTION-SEPARATION DESCRIPTION
References

• “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a continuum approach,”
Section 32.5.5
• *DAMAGE EVOLUTION
• *DAMAGE INITIATION
• “Defining damage,” Section 12.9.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online HTML version
of this manual
Overview
The features described in this section are primarily intended for bonded interfaces where the interface
thickness is negligibly small. In such cases it may be straightforward to define the constitutive response
of the cohesive layer directly in terms of traction versus separation. If the interface adhesive layer has
a finite thickness and macroscopic properties (such as stiffness and strength) of the adhesive material
are available, it may be more appropriate to model the response using conventional material models.
The former approach is discussed in this section, while the latter approach is discussed in “Defining the
constitutive response of cohesive elements using a continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5.
Cohesive behavior defined directly in terms of a traction-separation law:
• can be used to model the delamination at interfaces in composites directly in terms of traction versus
separation;
• allows specification of material data such as the fracture energy as a function of the ratio of normal
to shear deformation (mode mix) at the interface;
• assumes a linear elastic traction-separation law prior to damage;
• can be used in combination with linear viscoelasticity in Abaqus/Explicit (“Defining viscoelastic
behavior for traction-separation elasticity in Abaqus/Explicit” in “Time domain viscoelasticity,”
Section 22.7.1) to describe rate-dependent delamination behavior;
• assumes that failure of the elements is characterized by progressive degradation of the material
stiffness, which is driven by a damage process;
• allows multiple damage mechanisms; and
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• can be used with user subroutine UMAT in Abaqus/Standard or VUMAT in Abaqus/Explicit to specify
user-defined traction-separation laws.
Defining constitutive response in terms of traction-separation laws
To define the constitutive response of the cohesive element directly in terms of traction versus separation,
you choose a traction-separation response when defining the section behavior of the cohesive elements.
Input File Usage: *COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=TRACTION SEPARATION
Cohesive as the section Type: Response: Traction Separation
Linear elastic traction-separation behavior
The available traction-separation model in Abaqus assumes initially linear elastic behavior (see
“Defining elasticity in terms of tractions and separations for cohesive elements” in “Linear elastic
behavior,” Section 22.2.1) followed by the initiation and evolution of damage. The elastic behavior is
written in terms of an elastic constitutive matrix that relates the nominal stresses to the nominal strains
across the interface. The nominal stresses are the force components divided by the original area at each
integration point, while the nominal strains are the separations divided by the original thickness at each
integration point. The default value of the original constitutive thickness is 1.0 if traction-separation
response is specified, which ensures that the nominal strain is equal to the separation (i.e., relative
displacements of the top and bottom faces). The constitutive thickness used for traction-separation
response is typically different from the geometric thickness (which is typically close or equal to zero).
See “Specifying the constitutive thickness” in “Defining the cohesive element’s initial geometry,”
Section 32.5.4, for a discussion on how to modify the constitutive thickness.
The nominal traction stress vector, , consists of three components (two components in
two-dimensional problems): , , and (in three-dimensional problems) , which represent the normal
(along the local 3-direction in three dimensions and along the local 2-direction in two dimensions) and
the two shear tractions (along the local 1- and 2-directions in three dimensions and along the local
1-direction in two dimensions), respectively. The corresponding separations are denoted by , , and
. Denoting by the original thickness of the cohesive element, the nominal strains can be defined as
The elastic behavior can then be written as
The elasticity matrix provides fully coupled behavior between all components of the traction vector and
separation vector and can depend on temperature and/or field variables. Set the off-diagonal terms in the
elasticity matrix to zero if uncoupled behavior between the normal and shear components is desired.
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Input File Usage: Use the following option to define uncoupled traction-separation behavior:
*ELASTIC, TYPE=TRACTION
Use the following option to define coupled traction-separation behavior:
*ELASTIC, TYPE=COUPLED TRACTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option to define uncoupled traction-separation behavior:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical→Elasticity→Elastic:
Type: Traction
Use the following option to define coupled traction-separation behavior:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical→Elasticity→Elastic:
Type: Coupled Traction
Interpretation of material properties
The material parameters, such as the interfacial elastic stiffness, for a traction-separation model can be
better understood by studying the equation that represents the displacement of a truss of length L, elastic
stiffness E, and original area A, due to an axial load P:
This equation can be rewritten as
where is the nominal stress and is the stiffness that relates the nominal stress to the
displacement. Likewise, the total mass of the truss, assuming a density , is given by
The above equations suggest that the actual length L may be replaced with 1.0 (to ensure that the strain is
the same as the displacement) if the stiffness and the density are appropriately reinterpreted. In particular,
the stiffness is and the density is , where the true length of the truss is used in
these equations. The density represents mass per unit area instead of mass per unit volume.
These ideas can be carried over to a cohesive layer of initial thickness . If the adhesive material has
stiffness and density , the stiffness of the interface (relating the nominal traction to the displacement)
is given by and the density of the interface is given by . As discussed earlier,
the default choice of the constitutive thickness for modeling the response in terms of traction versus
separation is 1.0 regardless of the actual thickness of the cohesive layer. With this choice, the nominal
strains are equal to the corresponding separations. When the constitutive thickness of the cohesive layer
is “artificially” set to 1.0, ideally you should specify and (if needed) as the material stiffness and
density, respectively, as calculated with the true thickness of the cohesive layer.
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The above formulae provide a recipe for estimating the parameters required for modeling the
traction-separation behavior of an interface in terms of the material properties of the bulk adhesive
material. As the thickness of the interface layer tends to zero, the above equations imply that the
stiffness, , tends to infinity and the density, , tends to zero. This stiffness is often chosen as a penalty
parameter. A very large penalty stiffness is detrimental to the stable time increment in Abaqus/Explicit
and may result in ill-conditioning of the element operator in Abaqus/Standard. Recommendations for
the choice of the stiffness and density of an interface for an Abaqus/Explicit analysis such that the stable
time increment is not adversely affected are provided in “Stable time increment in Abaqus/Explicit” in
“Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3.
Modeling rate-dependent traction-separation behavior in Abaqus/Explicit
Time domain viscoelasticity can be used in Abaqus/Explicit to model rate-dependent behavior of

cohesive elements with traction-separation elasticity. The evolution equation for the normal and two
shear nominal tractions take the form:
where , , and are the instantaneous nominal tractions at time t in the normal and the two
local shear directions, respectively. The functions and represent the dimensionless shear
and normal relaxation moduli, respectively. See “Defining viscoelastic behavior for traction-separation
elasticity in Abaqus/Explicit” in “Time domain viscoelasticity,” Section 22.7.1, for additional details and
usage information.
You can also combine time domain viscoelasticity with the models for progressive damage and
failure described in the next sections. This combination allows modeling rate-dependent behavior both
during the initial elastic response (prior to damage initiation), as well as during damage progression.
Damage modeling
Both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit allow modeling of progressive damage and failure in
cohesive layers whose response is defined in terms of traction-separation. By comparison, only
Abaqus/Explicit allows modeling of progressive damage and failure for cohesive elements modeled
with conventional materials (“Defining the constitutive response of cohesive elements using a
continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5). Damage of the traction-separation response is defined within
the same general framework used for conventional materials (see “Progressive damage and failure,”
Section 24.1.1). This general framework allows the combination of several damage mechanisms acting
simultaneously on the same material. Each failure mechanism consists of three ingredients: a damage
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initiation criterion, a damage evolution law, and a choice of element removal (or deletion) upon reaching
a completely damaged state. While this general framework is the same for traction-separation response
and conventional materials, many details of how the various ingredients are defined are different.
Therefore, the details of damage modeling for traction-separation response are presented below.
The initial response of the cohesive element is assumed to be linear as discussed above. However,
once a damage initiation criterion is met, material damage can occur according to a user-defined damage
evolution law. Figure 32.5.6–1 shows a typical traction-separation response with a failure mechanism.
If the damage initiation criterion is specified without a corresponding damage evolution model, Abaqus
will evaluate the damage initiation criterion for output purposes only; there is no effect on the response
of the cohesive element (i.e., no damage will occur). The cohesive layer does not undergo damage under
pure compression.
traction
o o o
t n(ts, t t )
δ n (δ s ,δ t ) δ n (δ s ,δ t )
o o o f f f
separation
Figure 32.5.6–1 Typical traction-separation response.
Damage initiation
As the name implies, damage initiation refers to the beginning of degradation of the response of a material
point. The process of degradation begins when the stresses and/or strains satisfy certain damage initiation
criteria that you specify. Several damage initiation criteria are available and are discussed below. Each
damage initiation criterion also has an output variable associated with it to indicate whether the criterion
is met. A value of 1 or higher indicates that the initiation criterion has been met (see “Output,” for further
details). Damage initiation criteria that do not have an associated evolution law affect only output. Thus,
you can use these criteria to evaluate the propensity of the material to undergo damage without actually
modeling the damage process (i.e., without actually specifying damage evolution).
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In the discussion below, , , and represent the peak values of the nominal stress when the
deformation is either purely normal to the interface or purely in the first or the second shear direction,
respectively. Likewise, , , and represent the peak values of the nominal strain when the
deformation is either purely normal to the interface or purely in the first or the second shear direction,
respectively. With the initial constitutive thickness , the nominal strain components are equal to
the respective components of the relative displacement— , , and —between the top and bottom of
the cohesive layer. The symbol used in the discussion below represents the Macaulay bracket with
the usual interpretation. The Macaulay brackets are used to signify that a pure compressive deformation
or stress state does not initiate damage.
Maximum nominal stress criterion

Damage is assumed to initiate when the maximum nominal stress ratio (as defined in the expression
below) reaches a value of one. This criterion can be represented as
Input File Usage: *DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=MAXS

Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Mechanical→Damage for Traction-
Separation Laws→Maxs Damage
Maximum nominal strain criterion

Damage is assumed to initiate when the maximum nominal strain ratio (as defined in the expression
below) reaches a value of one. This criterion can be represented as
Input File Usage: *DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=MAXE

Separation Laws→Maxe Damage
Quadratic nominal stress criterion

Damage is assumed to initiate when a quadratic interaction function involving the nominal stress ratios
(as defined in the expression below) reaches a value of one. This criterion can be represented as
Input File Usage: *DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=QUADS

Separation Laws→Quads Damage
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Quadratic nominal strain criterion

Damage is assumed to initiate when a quadratic interaction function involving the nominal strain ratios
(as defined in the expression below) reaches a value of one. This criterion can be represented as
Input File Usage: *DAMAGE INITIATION, CRITERION=QUADE

Separation Laws→Quade Damage
Damage evolution
The damage evolution law describes the rate at which the material stiffness is degraded once the
corresponding initiation criterion is reached. The general framework for describing the evolution of
damage in bulk materials (as opposed to interfaces modeled using cohesive elements) is described in
“Damage evolution and element removal for ductile metals,” Section 24.2.3. Conceptually, similar
ideas apply for describing damage evolution in cohesive elements with a constitutive response that is
described in terms of traction versus separation; however, many details are different.
A scalar damage variable, D, represents the overall damage in the material and captures the
combined effects of all the active mechanisms. It initially has a value of 0. If damage evolution is
modeled, D monotonically evolves from 0 to 1 upon further loading after the initiation of damage. The
stress components of the traction-separation model are affected by the damage according to
otherwise (no damage to compressive stiffness);
where , and are the stress components predicted by the elastic traction-separation behavior for the
current strains without damage.
To describe the evolution of damage under a combination of normal and shear deformation across
the interface, it is useful to introduce an effective displacement (Camanho and Davila, 2002) defined as
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Mixed-mode definition
The mode mix of the deformation fields in the cohesive zone quantify the relative proportions of normal
and shear deformation. Abaqus uses two measures of mode mix, one based on energies and the other
based on tractions. You can choose one of these measures when you specify the mode dependence
of the damage evolution process. Denoting by , , and the work done by the tractions and
their conjugate relative displacements in the normal, first, and second shear directions, respectively, and
defining , the mode-mix definitions based on energies are as follows:
Clearly, only two of the three quantities defined above are independent. It is also useful to define the
quantity to denote the portion of the total work done by the shear traction and the
corresponding relative displacement components. As discussed later, Abaqus requires that you specify
material properties related to damage evolution as functions of (or, equivalently,
) and .
The corresponding definitions of the mode mix based on traction components are given by
where is a measure of the effective shear traction. The angular measures used in the above
definition (before they are normalized by the factor ) are illustrated in Figure 32.5.6–2.
The mode-mix ratios defined in terms of energies and tractions can be quite different in general.
The following example illustrates this point. In terms of energies a deformation in the purely normal
direction is one for which and , irrespective of the values of the normal and the
shear tractions. In particular, for a material with coupled traction-separation behavior both the normal
and shear tractions may be nonzero for a deformation in the purely normal direction. For this case
the definition of mode mix based on energies would indicate a purely normal deformation, while the
definition based on tractions would suggest a mix of both normal and shear deformation.
There are two components to the definition of the evolution of damage. The first component involves
specifying either the effective displacement at complete failure, , relative to the effective displacement
at the initiation of damage, ; or the energy dissipated due to failure, (see Figure 32.5.6–3). The
second component to the definition of damage evolution is the specification of the nature of the evolution
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normal
tn
~t
φ1
tt
Shear 2
φ2
τ
ts
Shear 1
Figure 32.5.6–2 Mode mix measures based on traction.
traction
c
G
B
O δm δm
o f
separation
Figure 32.5.6–3 Linear damage evolution.
of the damage variable, D, between initiation of damage and final failure. This can be done by either
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defining linear or exponential softening laws or specifying D directly as a tabular function of the effective
displacement relative to the effective displacement at damage initiation. The material data described
above will in general be functions of the mode mix, temperature, and/or field variables.
Figure 32.5.6–4 is a schematic representation of the dependence of damage initiation and evolution
on the mode mix, for a traction-separation response with isotropic shear behavior.
Figure 32.5.6–4 Illustration of mixed-mode response in cohesive elements.
The figure shows the traction on the vertical axis and the magnitudes of the normal and the shear
separations along the two horizontal axes. The unshaded triangles in the two vertical coordinate planes
represent the response under pure normal and pure shear deformation, respectively. All intermediate
vertical planes (that contain the vertical axis) represent the damage response under mixed mode
conditions with different mode mixes. The dependence of the damage evolution data on the mode mix
can be defined either in tabular form or, in the case of an energy-based definition, analytically. The
manner in which the damage evolution data are specified as a function of the mode mix is discussed
later in this section.
Unloading subsequent to damage initiation is always assumed to occur linearly toward the origin
of the traction-separation plane, as shown in Figure 32.5.6–3. Reloading subsequent to unloading also
occurs along the same linear path until the softening envelope (line AB) is reached. Once the softening
envelope is reached, further reloading follows this envelope as indicated by the arrow in Figure 32.5.6–3.
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Input File Usage: Use the following option to use the mode-mix definition based on energies:
*DAMAGE EVOLUTION, MODE MIX RATIO=ENERGY
Use the following option to use the mode-mix definition based on tractions:
*DAMAGE EVOLUTION, MODE MIX RATIO=TRACTION
Separation Laws→Quade Damage, Maxe Damage, Quads Damage,
or Maxs Damage: Suboptions→Damage Evolution: Mode mix ratio:
Energy or Traction
Evolution based on effective displacement

You specify the quantity (i.e., the effective displacement at complete failure, , relative to
the effective displacement at damage initiation, , as shown in Figure 32.5.6–3) as a tabular function
of the mode mix, temperature, and/or field variables. In addition, you also choose either a linear or an
exponential softening law that defines the detailed evolution (between initiation and complete failure)
of the damage variable, D, as a function of the effective displacement beyond damage initiation.
Alternatively, instead of using linear or exponential softening, you can specify the damage variable,
D, directly as a tabular function of the effective displacement after the initiation of damage, ;
mode mix; temperature; and/or field variables.
Linear damage evolution

For linear softening (see Figure 32.5.6–3) Abaqus uses an evolution of the damage variable, D, that
reduces (in the case of damage evolution under a constant mode mix, temperature, and field variables)
to the expression proposed by Camanho and Davila (2002), namely:
In the preceding expression and in all later references, refers to the maximum value of the effective
displacement attained during the loading history. The assumption of a constant mode mix at a material
point between initiation of damage and final failure is customary for problems involving monotonic
damage (or monotonic fracture).
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify linear damage evolution:
*DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=DISPLACEMENT,
SOFTENING=LINEAR
Separation Laws→Quade Damage, Maxe Damage, Quads Damage, or
Maxs Damage: Suboptions→Damage Evolution: Type: Displacement:
Softening: Linear
32.5.6–11
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Exponential damage evolution

For exponential softening (see Figure 32.5.6–5) Abaqus uses an evolution of the damage variable, D, that
reduces (in the case of damage evolution under a constant mode mix, temperature, and field variables) to
In the expression above is a non-dimensional material parameter that defines the rate of damage
evolution and is the exponential function.
traction
δm δm
o f
separation
Figure 32.5.6–5 Exponential damage evolution.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify exponential softening:
Softening: Exponential
Tabular damage evolution
For tabular softening you define the evolution of D directly in tabular form. D must be specified as
a function of the effective displacement relative to the effective displacement at initiation, mode mix,
temperature, and/or field variables.
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Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the damage variable directly in tabular form:
SOFTENING=TABULAR
Softening: Tabular
Evolution based on energy

Damage evolution can be defined based on the energy that is dissipated as a result of the damage process,
also called the fracture energy. The fracture energy is equal to the area under the traction-separation curve
(see Figure 32.5.6–3). You specify the fracture energy as a material property and choose either a linear
or an exponential softening behavior. Abaqus ensures that the area under the linear or the exponential
damaged response is equal to the fracture energy.
The dependence of the fracture energy on the mode mix can be specified either directly in tabular
form or by using analytical forms as described below. When the analytical forms are used, the mode-mix
ratio is assumed to be defined in terms of energies.
Tabular form
The simplest way to define the dependence of the fracture energy is to specify it directly as a function of
the mode mix in tabular form.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify fracture energy as a function of the mode
mix in tabular form:
*DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=ENERGY,
MIXED MODE BEHAVIOR=TABULAR
Maxs Damage: Suboptions→Damage Evolution: Type: Energy: Mixed
mode behavior: Tabular
Power law form

The dependence of the fracture energy on the mode mix can be defined based on a power law fracture
criterion. The power law criterion states that failure under mixed-mode conditions is governed by a
power law interaction of the energies required to cause failure in the individual (normal and two shear)
modes. It is given by
The mixed-mode fracture energy when the above condition is satisfied. In other words,
32.5.6–13
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You specify the quantities , , and , which refer to the critical fracture energies required to cause
failure in the normal, the first, and the second shear directions, respectively.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the fracture energy as a function of the mode
mix using the analytical power law fracture criterion:
MIXED MODE BEHAVIOR=POWER LAW, POWER=
mode behavior: Power Law: Toggle on Power and enter the exponent value
Benzeggagh-Kenane (BK) form

The Benzeggagh-Kenane fracture criterion (Benzeggagh and Kenane, 1996) is particularly useful when
the critical fracture energies during deformation purely along the first and the second shear directions are
the same; i.e., . It is given by
where , , and is a material parameter. You specify , , and .

Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the fracture energy as a function of the mode
mix using the analytical BK fracture criterion:
MIXED MODE BEHAVIOR=BK, POWER=
mode behavior: Bk: Toggle on Power and enter the exponent value
Linear damage evolution

For linear softening (see Figure 32.5.6–3) Abaqus uses an evolution of the damage variable, D, that
reduces to
where with as the effective traction at damage initiation. refers to the

maximum value of the effective displacement attained during the loading history.
32.5.6–14
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Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify linear damage evolution:
*DAMAGE EVOLUTION, TYPE=ENERGY, SOFTENING=LINEAR
or Maxs Damage: Suboptions→Damage Evolution: Type: Energy:
Softening: Linear
Exponential damage evolution

For exponential softening Abaqus uses an evolution of the damage variable, D, that reduces to
In the expression above and are the effective traction and displacement, respectively. is the
elastic energy at damage initiation. In this case the traction might not drop immediately after damage
initiation, which is different from what is seen in Figure 32.5.6–5.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify exponential softening:
or Maxs Damage: Suboptions→Damage Evolution: Type: Energy:
Softening: Exponential
Defining damage evolution data as a tabular function of mode mix

As discussed earlier, the material data defining the evolution of damage can be tabular functions of the
mode mix. The manner in which this dependence must be defined in Abaqus is outlined below for mode-
mix definitions based on energy and traction, respectively. In the following discussion it is assumed
that the evolution is defined in terms of energy. Similar observations can also be made for evolution
definitions based on effective displacement.
Mode mix based on energy

For an energy-based definition of mode mix, in the most general case of a three-dimensional state of
deformation with anisotropic shear behavior the fracture energy, , must be defined as a function of
and . The quantity is a measure of the fraction of
the total deformation that is shear, while is a measure of the fraction of the
total shear deformation that is in the second shear direction. Figure 32.5.6–6 shows a schematic of the
fracture energy versus mode mix behavior.
32.5.6–15
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c
G
c
G
s Modes n
-s c
G
n
Mo
des
s-t
c c
G Modes n-t G
t n
1.0 1.0
( (
m 2 + m3 =
Gs
GT
A B m3
( (
m 2 + m3 =
Gt
GS
Figure 32.5.6–6 Fracture energy as a function of mode mix.
The limiting cases of pure normal and pure shear deformations in the first and second shear directions are
denoted in Figure 32.5.6–6 by , , and , respectively. The lines labeled “Modes n-s,” “Modes
n-t,” and “Modes s-t” show the transition in behavior between the pure normal and the pure shear in
the first direction, pure normal and pure shear in the second direction, and pure shears in the first and
second directions, respectively. In general, must be specified as a function of at various
fixed values of . In the discussion that follows we refer to a data set of versus
corresponding to a fixed as a “data block.” The following guidelines are
useful in defining the fracture energy as a function of the mode mix:
• For a two-dimensional problem needs to be defined as a function of ( in this case)
only. The data column corresponding to must be left blank. Hence, essentially
only one “data block” is needed.
• For a three-dimensional problem with isotropic shear response, the shear behavior is defined by the
sum and not by the individual values of and . Therefore, in this case a single
“data block” (the “data block” for ) also suffices to define the fracture energy
as a function of the mode mix.
• In the most general case of three-dimensional problems with anisotropic shear behavior, several
“data blocks” would be needed. As discussed earlier, each “data block” would contain versus
at a fixed value of . In each “data block” can vary between
32.5.6–16
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0 and . The case (the first data point in any “data block”), which corresponds to
a purely normal mode, can never be achieved when (i.e., the only valid point
on line OB in Figure 32.5.6–6 is the point O, which corresponds to a purely normal deformation).
However, in the tabular definition of the fracture energy as a function of mode mix, this point simply
serves to set a limit that ensures a continuous change in fracture energy as a purely normal state
is approached from various combinations of normal and shear deformations. Hence, the fracture
energy of the first data point in each “data block” must always be set equal to the fracture energy in
a purely normal mode of deformation ( ).
As an example of the anisotropic shear case, consider that you want to input three “data blocks”
corresponding to fixed values of 0., 0.2, and 1.0, respectively. For each of the
three “data blocks,” the first data point must be for the reasons discussed above. The rest
of the data points in each “data block” define the variation of the fracture energy with increasing
proportions of shear deformation.
Mode mix based on traction

The fracture energy needs to be specified in tabular form of versus and . Thus, needs to
be specified as a function of at various fixed values of . A “data block” in this case corresponds
to a set of data for versus , at a fixed value of . In each “data block” may vary from 0
(purely normal deformation) to 1 (purely shear deformation). An important restriction is that each data
block must specify the same value of the fracture energy for . This restriction ensures that the
energy required for fracture as the traction vector approaches the normal direction does not depend on
the orientation of the projection of the traction vector on the shear plane (see Figure 32.5.6–2).
Evaluating damage when multiple criteria are active

When multiple damage initiation criteria and associated evolution definitions are used for the same
material, each evolution definition results in its own damage variable, , where the subscript i represents
the ith damage system. The overall damage variable, D, is computed based on the individual as
explained in “Evaluating overall damage when multiple criteria are active” in “Damage evolution and
element removal for ductile metals,” Section 24.2.3, for damage in bulk materials.
Maximum degradation and choice of element removal
You have control over how Abaqus treats cohesive elements with severe damage. By default, the upper
bound to the overall damage variable at a material point is . You can reduce this upper bound
as discussed in “Controlling element deletion and maximum degradation for materials with damage
evolution” in “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4. You can control what happens to the cohesive element
when the damage reaches this limit, as discussed below.
By default, once the overall damage variable reaches at all of its material points and none
of its material points are in compression, the cohesive elements, except for the pore pressure cohesive
elements, are removed (deleted). See “Controlling element deletion and maximum degradation for
materials with damage evolution” in “Section controls,” Section 27.1.4, for details. This element
removal approach is often appropriate for modeling complete fracture of the bond and separation of
32.5.6–17
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components. Once removed, cohesive elements offer no resistance to subsequent penetration of the
components, so it may be necessary to model contact between the components as discussed in “Defining
contact between surrounding components” in “Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3.
Alternatively, you can specify that a cohesive element should remain in the model even after the
overall damage variable reaches . In this case the stiffness of the element in tension and/or shear
remains constant (degraded by a factor of 1 − over the initial undamaged stiffness). This choice
is appropriate if the cohesive elements must resist interpenetration of the surrounding components
even after they have completely degraded in tension and/or shear (see “Defining contact between
surrounding components” in “Modeling with cohesive elements,” Section 32.5.3). In Abaqus/Explicit
it is recommended that you suppress bulk viscosity in the cohesive elements by setting the scale factors
for the linear and quadratic bulk viscosity parameters to zero using section controls (see “Section
controls,” Section 27.1.4).
Uncoupled transverse shear response
An optional linear elastic transverse shear behavior can be defined to provide additional stability to
cohesive elements, particularly after damage has occurred. The transverse shear behavior is assumed
to be independent of the regular material response and does not undergo any damage.
*COHESIVE SECTION, RESPONSE=TRACTION SEPARATION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Transverse shear behavior is not supported in Abaqus/CAE for cohesive
sections.
Viscous regularization in Abaqus/Standard
Material models exhibiting softening behavior and stiffness degradation often lead to severe convergence
difficulties in implicit analysis programs, such as Abaqus/Standard. A common technique to overcome
some of these convergence difficulties is the use of viscous regularization of the constitutive equations,
which causes the tangent stiffness matrix of the softening material to be positive for sufficiently small
time increments.
The traction-separation laws can be regularized in Abaqus/Standard using viscosity by permitting
stresses to be outside the limits set by the traction-separation law. The regularization process involves
the use of a viscous stiffness degradation variable, , which is defined by the evolution equation:
where is the viscosity parameter representing the relaxation time of the viscous system and D is the
degradation variable evaluated in the inviscid backbone model. The damaged response of the viscous
material is given as
32.5.6–18
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Using viscous regularization with a small value of the viscosity parameter (small compared to the
characteristic time increment) usually helps improve the rate of convergence of the model in the
softening regime, without compromising results. The basic idea is that the solution of the viscous
system relaxes to that of the inviscid case as , where t represents time. You can specify
the value of the viscosity parameter as part of the section controls definition (see “Using viscous
regularization with cohesive elements, connector elements, and elements that can be used with the
damage evolution models for ductile metals and fiber-reinforced composites in Abaqus/Standard” in
“Section controls,” Section 27.1.4). If the viscosity parameter is different from zero, output results of
the stiffness degradation refer to the viscous value, . The default value of the viscosity parameter
is zero so that no viscous regularization is performed. Use of viscous regularization for improving
the convergence behavior of delamination and debonding problems is discussed in “Delamination
analysis of laminated composites,” Section 2.7.1 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, and “Analysis of
skin-stiffener debonding under tension,” Section 1.4.5 of the Abaqus Example Problems Manual.
The approximate amount of energy associated with viscous regularization over the whole model or
over an element set is available using output variable ALLCD.
Output
In addition to the standard output identifiers available in Abaqus (“Abaqus/Standard output variable
identifiers,” Section 4.2.1, and “Abaqus/Explicit output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.2), the
following variables have special meaning for cohesive elements with traction-separation behavior:
STATUS Status of element (the status of an element is 1.0 if the element is active, 0.0 if the
element is not).
SDEG Overall value of the scalar damage variable, D.
DMICRT All damage initiation criteria components.
MAXSCRT Maximum value of the nominal stress damage initiation criterion at a material point
during the analysis. It is evaluated as
MAXECRT Maximum value of the nominal strain damage initiation criterion at a material point
during the analysis. It is evaluated as
QUADSCRT Maximum value of the quadratic nominal stress damage initiation criterion at a
material point during the analysis. It is evaluated as
QUADECRT Maximum value of the quadratic nominal strain damage initiation criterion at a
material point during the analysis. It is evaluated as
ALLCD The approximate amount of energy over the whole model or over an element set
that is associated with viscous regularization in Abaqus/Standard. Corresponding
output variables (such as CENER, ELCD, and ECDDEN) represent the energy
associated with viscous regularization at the integration point level and element
level (the last quantity represents the energy per unit volume in the element),
respectively.
32.5.6–19
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For the variables above that indicate whether a certain damage initiation criterion has been satisfied
or not, a value that is less than 1.0 indicates that the criterion has not been satisfied, while a value of 1.0 or
higher indicates that the criterion has been satisfied. If damage evolution is specified for this criterion, the
maximum value of this variable does not exceed 1.0. However, if damage evolution is not specified for
the initiation criterion, this variable can have values higher than 1.0. The extent to which the variable is
higher than 1.0 may be considered to be a measure of the extent to which this criterion has been violated.
Additional references
• Benzeggagh, M. L., and M. Kenane, “Measurement of Mixed-Mode Delamination Fracture

Toughness of Unidirectional Glass/Epoxy Composites with Mixed-Mode Bending Apparatus,”
Composites Science and Technology, vol. 56, pp. 439–449, 1996.
• Camanho, P. P., and C. G. Davila, “Mixed-Mode Decohesion Finite Elements for the Simulation
of Delamination in Composite Materials,” NASA/TM-2002–211737, pp. 1–37, 2002.
32.5.6–20
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COHESIVE ELEMENT GAP FLUID BEHAVIOR
32.5.7 DEFINING THE CONSTITUTIVE RESPONSE OF FLUID WITHIN THE COHESIVE

ELEMENT GAP
References

Section 32.5.6
• *FLUID LEAKOFF
• *GAP FLOW
Overview
The cohesive element fluid flow model:

• is typically used in geotechnical applications, where fluid flow continuity within the gap and through
the interface must be maintained;
• enables fluid pressure on the cohesive element surface to contribute to its mechanical behavior,
which enables the modeling of hydraulically driven fracture;
• enables modeling of an additional resistance layer on the surface of the cohesive element; and
• can be used only in conjunction with traction-separation behavior.
The features described in this section are used to model fluid flow within and across surfaces of pore
pressure cohesive elements.
Defining pore fluid flow properties
The fluid constitutive response comprises:

• Tangential flow within the gap, which can be modeled with either a Newtonian or power law model;
and
• Normal flow across the gap, which can reflect resistance due to caking or fouling effects.
The flow patterns of the pore fluid in the element are shown in Figure 32.5.7–1. The fluid is assumed to be
incompressible, and the formulation is based on a statement of flow continuity that considers tangential
and normal flow and the rate of opening of the cohesive element.
Specifying the fluid flow properties
You can assign tangential and normal flow properties separately.
32.5.7–1
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cohesive elements
normal
tangential flow flow
Figure 32.5.7–1 Flow within cohesive elements.
Tangential flow
By default, there is no tangential flow of pore fluid within the cohesive element. To allow tangential
flow, define a gap flow property in conjunction with the pore fluid material definition.
Newtonian fluid
In the case of a Newtonian fluid the volume flow rate density vector is given by the expression
where is the tangential permeability (the resistance to the fluid flow), is the pressure gradient along
the cohesive element, and is the gap opening.
In Abaqus the gap opening, , is defined as
where and are the current and original cohesive element geometrical thicknesses, respectively;
and is the initial gap opening, which has a default value of 0.002.
Abaqus defines the tangential permeability, or the resistance to flow, according to Reynold’s
equation:
where is the fluid viscosity and is the gap opening. You can also specify an upper limit on the value
of .
32.5.7–2
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Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the initial gap opening directly:
*SECTION CONTROLS, INITIAL GAP OPENING
Use the following option to define the tangential flow in a Newtonian fluid:
*GAP FLOW, TYPE=NEWTONIAN, KMAX
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Initial gap opening is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Property module: material editor: Other→Pore Fluid→Gap Flow: Type:
Newtonian: Toggle on Maximum Permeability and enter the value of
Power law fluid

In the case of a power law fluid the constitutive relation is defined as
where is the shear stress, is the shear strain rate, is the fluid consistency, and is the power law
coefficient. Abaqus defines the tangential volume flow rate density as
where is the gap opening.

Input File Usage: *GAP FLOW, TYPE=POWER LAW
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Other→Pore Fluid→Gap
Flow: Type: Power law
Normal flow across gap surfaces

You can permit normal flow by defining a fluid leakoff coefficient for the pore fluid material. This
coefficient defines a pressure-flow relationship between the cohesive element’s middle nodes and their
adjacent surface nodes. The fluid leakoff coefficients can be interpreted as the permeability of a finite
layer of material on the cohesive element surfaces, as shown in Figure 32.5.7–2. The normal flow is
defined as
and
where and are the flow rates into the top and bottom surfaces, respectively; is the midface
pressure; and and are the pore pressures on the top and bottom surfaces, respectively.
Input File Usage: *FLUID LEAKOFF
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Other→Pore Fluid→Fluid
Leakoff: Type: Coefficients
32.5.7–3
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Pt
Pi
Pb
permeable layer
Figure 32.5.7–2 Leakoff coefficient interpretation as a permeable layer.
Defining leakoff coefficients as a function of temperature and field variables

You can optionally define leakoff coefficients as functions of temperature and field variables.
Input File Usage: *FLUID LEAKOFF, DEPENDENCIES
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Other→Pore Fluid→Fluid Leakoff:
Type: Coefficients: Toggle on Use temperature-dependent data
and select the number of field variables.
Defining leakoff coefficients in a user subroutine

User subroutine UFLUIDLEAKOFF can also be used to define more complex leakoff behavior, including
the ability to define a time accumulated resistance, or fouling, through the use of solution-dependent state
variables.
Input File Usage: *FLUID LEAKOFF, USER
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Other→Pore Fluid→Fluid
Leakoff: Type: User
Tangential and normal flow combinations

Table 32.5.7–1 shows the permitted combinations of tangential and normal flow and the effects of each
combination.
Initially open elements
When the opening of the cohesive element is driven primarily by entry of fluid into the gap, you will
have to define one or more elements as initially open, since tangential flow is possible only in an open
element. Identify initially open elements as initial conditions.
Input File Usage: *INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=INITIAL GAP
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Initial gap definition is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
32.5.7–4
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Table 32.5.7–1 Effects of flow property definition combinations.
Normal flow is defined Normal flow is undefined

Tangential flow Tangential and normal flow are Tangential flow is modeled. Pore pressure
is defined modeled. continuity is enforced between facing nodes
in the cohesive element only when the
element is closed. Otherwise, the surfaces
are impermeable in the normal direction.
Tangential flow Normal flow is modeled. Tangential flow is not modeled. Pore
is undefined pressure continuity is always enforced
between facing nodes in the cohesive
element.
Use of unsymmetric matrix storage and solution
The pore pressure cohesive element matrices are unsymmetric; therefore, unsymmetric matrix storage
and solution may be needed to improve convergence (see “Matrix storage and solution scheme in
Abaqus/Standard” in “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2).
Additional considerations
Your use of cohesive element fluid properties and your property values can impact your solution in some
cases.
Large coefficient values

You must make sure that the tangential permeability or fluid leakoff coefficients are not excessively large.
If either coefficient is many orders of magnitude higher than the permeability in the adjacent continuum
elements, matrix conditioning problems may occur, leading to solver singularities and unreliable results.
Use in total pore pressure simulations

Definition of tangential flow properties may result in inaccurate results if the total pore pressure
formulation is used and the hydrostatic pressure gradient contributes significantly to the tangential flow
in the gap. The total pore pressure formulation is invoked if you apply gravity distributed loads to all
elements in the model. The results will be accurate if the hydrostatic pressure gradient (i.e., the gravity
vector) is perpendicular to the cohesive element.
Output
The following output variables are available when flow is enabled in pore pressure cohesive elements:
GFVR Gap fluid volume rate.
PFOPEN Fracture opening.
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LEAKVRT Leak-off flow rate at element top.

ALEAKVRT Accumulated leak-off flow volume at element top.
LEAKVRB Leak-off flow rate at element bottom.
ALEAKVRB Accumulated leak-off flow volume at element bottom.
32.5.7–6
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2-D COHESIVE ELEMENT LIBRARY
32.5.8 TWO-DIMENSIONAL COHESIVE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

Overview
This section provides a reference to the two-dimensional cohesive elements available in Abaqus/Standard
Element types
General element
COH2D4 4-node two-dimensional cohesive element

1, 2

None.
Pore pressure element

COH2D4P(S) 6-node displacement and pore pressure two-dimensional cohesive element

1, 2, 8 at nodes on the top and bottom faces
8 at nodes on the middle face

None.
32.5.8–1
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You can define the element’s initial constitutive thickness and the out-of-plane width. The default initial
constitutive thickness of cohesive elements depends on the response of these elements. For continuum
response, the default initial constitutive thickness is computed based on the nodal coordinates. For
traction-separation response, the default initial constitutive thickness is assumed to be 1.0. For response
based on a uniaxial stress state, there is no default; you must indicate your choice of the method for
computing the initial constitutive thickness. See “Specifying the constitutive thickness” in “Defining the
cohesive element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.5.4, for details.
Abaqus calculates the thickness direction automatically based on the midsurface of the element.
Category and Cohesive as the section Type
Distributed loads


Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Explicit.
velocity).
32.5.8–2
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velocity).
velocity).
acceleration).
Abaqus/Explicit.
acceleration).
SBF(E) Not supported FL−5 T2 Stagnation body force in global X-
and Y-directions.
VBF(E) Not supported FL−4 T Viscous body force in global X- and
Y-directions.
motion.
Distributed loads
32.5.8–3
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Abaqus/Explicit.
surface.
motion.
Element output
Stress, strain, and other tensor components available for output depend on whether the cohesive elements
are used to model adhesive joints, gaskets, or delamination problems. You indicate the intended usage
of the cohesive elements by choosing an appropriate response type when defining the section properties
of these elements. The available response types are discussed in “Defining the constitutive response of
Cohesive elements using a continuum response

Stress and other tensors (including strain tensors) are available for elements with continuum response.
Both the stress tensor and the strain tensor contain true values. For the constitutive calculations using
a continuum response, only the direct through-thickness and the transverse shear strains are assumed to
be nonzero. All the other strain components (i.e., the membrane strains) are assumed to be zero (see
“Modeling of an adhesive layer of finite thickness” in “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive
elements using a continuum approach,” Section 32.5.5, for details). All tensors have the same number
of components. For example, the stress components are as follows:
S11 Direct membrane stress.

S22 Direct through-thickness stress.
S12 Transverse shear stress.
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Cohesive elements using a uniaxial stress state

Stress and other tensors (including strain tensors) are available for cohesive elements with uniaxial stress
response. Both the stress tensor and the strain tensor contain true values. For the constitutive calculations
using a uniaxial stress response, only the direct through-thickness stress is assumed to be nonzero. All
the other stress components (i.e., the membrane and transverse shear stresses) are assumed to be zero (see
“Modeling of gaskets and/or small adhesive patches” in “Defining the constitutive response of cohesive
Cohesive elements using a traction-separation response

Stress and other tensors (including strain tensors) are available for elements with traction-separation
response. Both the stress tensor and the strain tensor contain nominal values. The output variables E,
LE, and NE all contain the nominal strain when the response of cohesive elements is defined in terms
of traction versus separation. All tensors have the same number of components. For example, the stress

4 face 3 3 4 3
face 4 face 2 5 6
Y
1 face 1 2 1 2
X 4 - node element 6 - node element
Element faces
Face 1 1 – 2 face
Face 2 2 – 3 face
Face 3 3 – 4 face
Face 4 4 – 1 face
32.5.8–5
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4 3 4 3
1 2 5 1 2 6
1 2 1 2
32.5.8–6
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32.5.9 THREE-DIMENSIONAL COHESIVE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

Overview
This section provides a reference to the three-dimensional cohesive elements available in

Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
General elements
COH3D6 6-node three-dimensional cohesive element
COH3D8 8-node three-dimensional cohesive element
1, 2, 3
None.
COH3D6P 9-node displacement and pore pressure three-dimensional cohesive element
COH3D8P 12-node displacement and pore pressure three-dimensional cohesive element
1, 2, 3, 8 at nodes on the top and bottom faces
8 at nodes on the middle face
None.
32.5.9–1
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You can define the element’s initial constitutive thickness. The default initial constitutive thickness of
cohesive elements depends on the response of these elements. For continuum response, the default
initial constitutive thickness is computed based on the nodal coordinates. For traction-separation
response, the default initial constitutive thickness is assumed to be 1.0. For response based on a uniaxial
stress state, there is no default; you must indicate your choice of the method for computing the initial
constitutive thickness. See “Specifying the constitutive thickness” in “Defining the cohesive element’s
initial geometry,” Section 32.5.4, for details.
Abaqus computes the thickness direction automatically based on the midsurface of the element.
Distributed loads

−3
−3
−3
BXNU Body force FL Nonuniform body force in global
Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Explicit.
32.5.9–2
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velocity).

velocity).

velocity).

acceleration).

Abaqus/Explicit.

acceleration).

and Z-directions.

motion.
32.5.9–3
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Distributed loads

−2
PNU Pressure FL Nonuniform pressure on the element
Abaqus/Explicit.
surface.
motion.
Element output

32.5.9–4
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S12 In-plane membrane shear stress.


32.5.9–5
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face 2 face 5
4 6 4 6
face 3
face 4 7 9
5 5
1 3 1 3
8
face 1
2 2
face 2
face 5
8 7 8 7
12 11
face 6 4 4
3 3
6 face 4 6
5 5
9 10
1 2 1 2
face 1 face 3
Z 8 - node element 1 2 - node element
Y
X
Element faces for COH3D6

Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 face
Face 2 4 – 6 – 5 face
Face 3 1 – 4 – 5 – 2 face
Face 4 2 – 5 – 6 – 3 face
Face 5 3 – 6 – 4 – 1 face
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Element faces for COH3D8

Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 face
Face 2 5 – 8 – 7 – 6 face
Face 3 1 – 5 – 6 – 2 face
Face 4 2 – 6 – 7 – 3 face
Face 5 3 – 7 – 8 – 4 face
Face 6 4 – 8 – 5 – 1 face
4 6 4 6
1 5 3 7 1 5 9 3
1 3 1 3
2 8 2
2 2
8 7 8 7
4 3 12 4 11
3
4 4
3 3
5 6 5 6
2
2 10
1 9 1
1 2 1 2
8 - node element 1 2 - node element
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AXISYMMETRIC COHESIVE ELEMENT LIBRARY
32.5.10 AXISYMMETRIC COHESIVE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric cohesive elements available in Abaqus/Standard
Element types
General element
COHAX4 4-node axisymmetric cohesive element
1, 2 ( , )
None.
Pore pressure element
COHAX4P 6-node displacement and pore pressure axisymmetric cohesive element
1, 2, 8
None.
You can define the element’s initial constitutive thickness. The default initial constitutive thickness of
cohesive elements depends on the response of these elements. For continuum response, the default
32.5.10–1
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initial constitutive thickness is computed based on the nodal coordinates. For traction-separation
response, the default initial constitutive thickness is assumed to be 1.0. For response based on a uniaxial
stress state, there is no default; you must indicate your choice of the method for computing the initial
constitutive thickness. See “Specifying the constitutive thickness” in “Defining the cohesive element’s
initial geometry,” Section 32.5.4, for details.
Abaqus calculates the thickness direction automatically based on the midsurface of the element.
Distributed loads

BR Body force FL−3 Body force in radial direction.

BY Body force FL−3 Body force in axial direction.
BRNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in radial
Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−3 Nonuniform body force in axial
Abaqus/Explicit.
velocity).
velocity).
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acceleration).
Abaqus/Explicit.
axial directions.
(E) −4
VBF Not supported FL T Viscous body force in radial and axial
directions.
motion.
Distributed loads


−2
PNU Pressure FL Nonuniform pressure on the element
Abaqus/Explicit.
surface.
32.5.10–3
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motion.
Element output


32.5.10–4
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4 face 3 3 4 3
face 4 face 2 5 6
z
1 face 1 2 1 2
r 4 - node element 6 - node element
Element faces
Face 1 1 – 2 face
Face 2 2 – 3 face
Face 3 3 – 4 face
Face 4 4 – 1 face
4 3 4 3
1 2 5 1 2 6
1 2 1 2
32.5.10–5
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GASKET ELEMENTS
32.6 Gasket elements
• “Gasket elements: overview,” Section 32.6.1

• “Choosing a gasket element,” Section 32.6.2
• “Including gasket elements in a model,” Section 32.6.3
• “Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4
• “Defining the gasket behavior using a material model,” Section 32.6.5
• “Defining the gasket behavior directly using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6
• “Two-dimensional gasket element library,” Section 32.6.7
• “Three-dimensional gasket element library,” Section 32.6.8
• “Axisymmetric gasket element library,” Section 32.6.9
32.6–1
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GASKET ELEMENTS: OVERVIEW
32.6.1 GASKET ELEMENTS: OVERVIEW
Abaqus/Standard offers a library of gasket elements to model the behavior of gaskets.
Overview
Gasket modeling consists of:

• choosing the appropriate gasket element type (“Choosing a gasket element,” Section 32.6.2);
• including the gasket elements in a finite element model (“Including gasket elements in a model,”
Section 32.6.3);
• defining the initial geometry of the gasket (“Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,”
Section 32.6.4); and
• defining the gasket behavior with either a material model (“Defining the gasket behavior using a
material model,” Section 32.6.5) or a gasket behavior model (“Defining the gasket behavior directly
using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6).
Motivation for gasket elements
Gaskets are constructed in many ways and from many materials. Some types of gaskets consist of
several layers of preformed metal, possibly with thin elastomeric coatings or elastomeric inserts (see
Figure 32.6.1–1). Others use plastics together with elastomeric inserts.
Section A−A
A A
Figure 32.6.1–1 Typical gasket consisting of several layers of preformed metal.
Gaskets are usually very thin and act as sealing components between structural components. They
are carefully designed to provide appropriate pressure-closure behaviors through their thickness (the
thin direction of the gaskets) so that they maintain their sealing action as the components undergo
deformations due to thermal and mechanical loads. It is difficult to use solid continuum elements
32.6.1–1
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to model the through-thickness behavior of gaskets with the material library available. Therefore,
Abaqus/Standard offers a variety of gasket elements that have through-thickness behaviors specifically
designed for the study of gaskets.
The gasket behavior models are separate from the models in the material library and assume that the
thickness-direction, transverse shear, and membrane behaviors are uncoupled (see “Defining the gasket
behavior directly using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6, for details). For a gasket behavior that
is not readily addressed by these special behavior models, such as occurs when coupled behaviors or
through-thickness tensile behavior must be considered, Abaqus/Standard provides a versatile alternative
by allowing a gasket element to use either a built-in or user-defined material model (see “Defining the
gasket behavior using a material model,” Section 32.6.5, for details).
Spatial representation of a gasket element
Figure 32.6.1–2 demonstrates the key geometrical features that are used to define gasket elements. Gasket
elements are composed of two surfaces separated by a thickness. The relative motion of the bottom and
top surfaces measured along the thickness direction to the gasket quantifies the thickness-direction (local
1-direction) behavior of the gasket element. The relative change in position of the bottom and top surfaces
measured in the plane orthogonal to the thickness direction quantifies the transverse shear behavior of
the gasket element. The stretching and shearing of the midsurface of the element (the surface halfway
between the bottom and top surfaces) quantifies the membrane behavior of the gasket element.
normal
top face (SPOS) direction
gasket element node
midsurface
bottom face (SNEG)
Figure 32.6.1–2 Spatial representation of a gasket element.
Local behavior directions defined at the integration points
The thickness direction defined at the integration points of gasket elements constitutes the local
1-direction. The transverse shear behavior is defined in the local 1–2 and 1–3 planes. The membrane
behavior is defined in the 2–3 plane. The local 2- and 3-directions are not defined for elements that have
nodes with only one degree of freedom because these elements consider only the thickness-direction
behavior of a gasket. The local directions are used to specify the gasket behavior and for output of all
32.6.1–2
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quantities that describe the current deformation state of a gasket. Abaqus/Standard computes the local
directions by default. You can also define them for some element types.
Default local directions

Abaqus/Standard computes the local 1-direction as explained in “Defining the gasket element’s initial
geometry,” Section 32.6.4.
For two-dimensional and axisymmetric gasket elements, the local 2-direction is defined so that the
cross product between the local 1- and 2-directions gives the out-of-plane direction (see Figure 32.6.1–3).
3 4
1
2
1 2
Figure 32.6.1–3 Local directions for two-dimensional and axisymmetric gasket elements.
For three-dimensional area and three-dimensional link elements, the local 2- and 3-directions are
normal to the local 1-direction (see Figure 32.6.1–4) and are defined by the standard Abaqus convention
for local directions on surfaces in space (see “Conventions,” Section 1.2.2).
projection of x-axis 8
onto surface
7
5
1 6
2 3
3
1
2
Figure 32.6.1–4 Local directions for three-dimensional area

and three-dimensional link gasket elements.
For three-dimensional line elements, the local 2-direction is obtained by the projection of the tangent
to the midsurface of the element onto the plane orthogonal to the local 1-direction (see Figure 32.6.1–5).
The local 3-direction is then obtained by the cross product of the local 1- and 2-directions.
32.6.1–3
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1 3
midsurface
2
t 4
t = tangent vector
2
Figure 32.6.1–5 Local directions for three-dimensional line gasket elements.
Specifying the local directions

You can define the local 1-direction as explained in “Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,”
Section 32.6.4. The local 2- and 3-directions can be defined using local orientations (“Orientations,”
Section 2.2.5) for three-dimensional area and three-dimensional link elements that consider transverse
shear and membrane deformations.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to associate a local orientation with a particular gasket
element set:
*GASKET SECTION, ELSET=name, ORIENTATION=name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: Assign→Material Orientation
Procedures with which gasket elements are allowed
Gasket elements can be used in static, static perturbation, quasi-static, dynamic, and frequency analyses.
However, gasket elements are assumed to have no mass; therefore, the density cannot be defined for
gasket elements.
32.6.1–4
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GASKET ELEMENTS
32.6.2 CHOOSING A GASKET ELEMENT
References

• “Two-dimensional gasket element library,” Section 32.6.7
• “Three-dimensional gasket element library,” Section 32.6.8
• “Axisymmetric gasket element library,” Section 32.6.9
• Chapter 32, “Gaskets,” of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
The Abaqus/Standard gasket element library includes:

• elements for two-dimensional analyses;
• elements for three-dimensional analyses;
• elements for axisymmetric analyses;
• elements that account for the thickness-direction behavior of gaskets only; and
• elements that account for the thickness-direction, membrane, and transverse shear behaviors of
gaskets.
Naming convention
The gasket elements used in Abaqus/Standard are named as follows:
GK 3D 12 M N
Optional:
thickness-direction behavior only (N)
Optional:
line element (L),
element for use with modified
tetrahedral elements (M)
number of nodes
plane strain (PE), plane stress (PS),

two-dimensional (2D), three-dimensional (3D),
gasket element
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GASKET ELEMENTS
For example, GKPE4 is a 4-node, plane strain gasket element that accounts for thickness-direction,
membrane, and transverse shear behaviors.
Elements for general use versus elements with thickness-direction behavior only
Abaqus/Standard offers two classes of gasket elements. In both classes material properties can be
specified by either special gasket behavior models or built-in material models, including user-defined
materials (see “Defining the gasket behavior directly using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6,
and “Defining the gasket behavior using a material model,” Section 32.6.5). The first class is a collection
of gasket elements that have all displacement degrees of freedom active at their nodes. These elements
are necessary when the membrane and/or transverse shear behavior of the gasket is of importance (see
Figure 32.6.2–1). The thickness-direction, transverse shear, and membrane behaviors can be defined
as uncoupled behaviors only, when the elements are used in conjunction with special gasket behavior
models. In some cases the membrane effects are only secondary; in such cases it is possible to model
only the thickness-direction and transverse shear behaviors. These elements are suited for analyses
where both thickness-direction behavior and frictional effects are important.
normal
gasket behavior
transverse shear
membrane stretch
membrane stretch membrane shear
Figure 32.6.2–1 Different deformation modes of gaskets.
In the second class of gasket elements deformation is measured only in the thickness direction. The
response of the gasket to any other deformation mode is ignored. The nodes of these elements have
only one displacement degree of freedom, which lies in the thickness direction of the gasket. This class
of elements is intended as a means to reduce the computational cost of an analysis when the thickness-
direction behavior of the gasket is the only behavior of importance. This behavior can be specified easily
in terms of pressure in the gasket versus gasket closure. Frictional forces cannot be transmitted by such
elements, and any thermal expansion or stretching of the gasket in its plane is not accounted for.
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GASKET ELEMENTS
Elements for two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and axisymmetric analyses
For both classes of gasket elements Abaqus/Standard offers a choice of two-dimensional,

three-dimensional, and axisymmetric elements. Plane stress and plane strain elements are provided
for two-dimensional analyses to represent thin gaskets or thick gaskets in the out-of-plane direction,
respectively. Axisymmetric gasket elements are provided for cases where the geometry and loading of
the structure are axisymmetric.
Abaqus/Standard offers 2-node or link elements for two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and
axisymmetric analyses; three-dimensional line elements; and a three-dimensional 12-node element for
use with modified tetrahedral elements. These elements have specific characteristics that are useful
when modeling gaskets.
Link elements
Because link gasket elements have two nodes, their geometry defines only one dimension of the
gasket—the through-thickness dimension. A link gasket element might typically be used to model a
washer used under a bolt, when the bolt itself is modeled with a truss element. For two-dimensional and
three-dimensional link elements the cross-section of the gasket is undetermined. For axisymmetric link
elements the width of the element is undetermined. The reduction in dimensionality of these elements
offers flexibility in the specification of the gasket behavior and can prove to be very efficient in some
cases; see “Defining the gasket behavior directly using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6, for
further details.
Three-dimensional line elements

Three-dimensional line gasket elements are typically used to model narrow, thicker features in gaskets,
such as an elastomeric insert around a hole. Since they are used in three-dimensional analyses, their
width is undetermined from the element’s geometry. This reduction in dimensionality offers flexibility
in the specification of the gasket behavior and can prove to be very efficient in some cases; see “Defining
the gasket behavior directly using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6, for further details.
12-node elements for use with modified tetrahedral elements

The 12-node gasket elements have the same contact properties as the modified 10-node tetrahedra; these
elements have consistent nodal forces at the corner and midside nodes. They are primarily intended for
use with the modified tetrahedral elements but can also be used in conjunction with other solid continuum
elements by using contact pairs. In the latter case the solution may be noisy for badly mismatched meshes.
32.6.2–3
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MODELING WITH GASKET ELEMENTS
32.6.3 INCLUDING GASKET ELEMENTS IN A MODEL
References

• “Contact interaction analysis: overview,” Section 35.1.1
• “General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2
• Chapter 32, “Gaskets,” of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual
Overview
Gasket elements:
• are used to model gaskets and other seals between two components, each of which may be
deformable or rigid; and
• are connected to the adjacent components by sharing nodes, by using surface-based tie constraints,
by using MPCs type TIE or PIN, or by using contact pairs.
This section discusses the techniques that are available to discretize gaskets and assemble them in a
model representing several components, such as an internal combustion engine. The methods described
all apply to gasket elements that have all displacement degrees of freedom active at their nodes. For
the most part they also apply to gasket elements with only thickness-direction behavior; exceptions are
discussed later in this section.
Discretizing gaskets using gasket elements
Gaskets are generally manufactured as independent components. The gasket behavior is usually
measured by performing a compression experiment on the gasket. In this case the gasket can be
discretized as a single layer of gasket elements.
Gaskets are sometimes made of several layers of materials. If the behavior of the gasket is obtained
by compression testing of the entire gasket, the gasket can again be discretized as a single layer of
gasket elements. However, if the behavior of the gasket is obtained by compression testing of each
layer constituting the gasket, the gasket can be discretized with a corresponding set of layers of gasket
elements.
Discretizing gaskets with multiple layers

If layers of gasket elements are used in the thickness direction and these layers do not have the same
element layout in the plane of the gasket, use surface-based tie constraints, mesh refinement MPCs, or
tied contact pairs to connect the different layers of the gasket. If tied contact pairs are used, assign
a positive value to the adjustment zone depth, a, for the contact pairs (see “Adjusting initial surface
32.6.3–1
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positions and specifying initial clearances in Abaqus/Standard contact pairs,” Section 35.3.5) so that all
slave nodes are properly tied at the beginning of the analysis.
Assembling gaskets to other components in a model
The easiest method to connect gasket elements that use all displacement components at their nodes to
other components in a model is to define the mesh so that the gasket elements can share nodes with
the elements on the surfaces of the adjacent components. More generally, when the gasket mesh is
not matched to the meshing of the surfaces of the adjacent components or when the gasket elements
that consider only thickness-direction behavior are used, gasket elements can be connected to other
components by using contact pairs.
Connecting gaskets to other components by using contact pairs or surface-based constraints

Gaskets are usually composed of materials that are softer than the materials that compose the neighboring
components. In addition, the discretization of gaskets will usually be finer than the discretization of
neighboring parts. These two facts suggest that the contacting surfaces of a gasket should be the slave
surfaces and that the contacting surfaces of neighboring parts should be the master surfaces. The second
consideration also suggests that mismatched meshes will often be used in analyses involving gaskets.
If mismatched meshes are used, the pressure distribution on a compressed gasket may not be predicted
accurately; submodeling (“Submodeling: overview,” Section 10.2.1) may be required to obtain accurate
local results. Two techniques are available to connect gasket elements to other parts in the model when
surface-based constraints are used.
Using a regular contact pair and a tied contact pair or a surface-based constraint
This technique is required when the gasket membrane behavior is not defined. Use a tied contact pair
(“Defining tied contact in Abaqus/Standard,” Section 35.3.7) or a tie constraint (“Mesh tie constraints,”
Section 34.3.1) on one side of the gasket and a regular contact pair on the other side, as shown in
Figure 32.6.3–1. Because a regular contact pair is used on one side of the gasket, tensile stresses cannot
develop in the gasket thickness direction should the components surrounding the gasket be pulled apart.
Assign a positive value to the adjustment zone depth, a, for the tied contact pair (see “Adjusting
initial surface positions and specifying initial clearances in Abaqus/Standard contact pairs,”
Section 35.3.5) or, if necessary, specify a position tolerance for the tie constraint (see “Mesh tie
constraints,” Section 34.3.1) so that all slave nodes are properly tied at the beginning of the analysis.
This technique allows for frictional slip on only one side of the gasket.
Using a regular contact pair and a contact pair that does not allow separation
This technique allows for frictional slip to be transmitted on both sides of the gasket. It is recommended
when membrane behavior is defined for the gasket since it allows for the gasket membrane to stretch
or contract as a result of frictional effects considered on both sides of the gasket. A contact pair or
a constraint pair that does not allow for separation of the surfaces (“Contact pressure-overclosure
relationships,” Section 36.1.2) should be used on one side of the gasket and a regular contact pair on the
other, as shown in Figure 32.6.3–2.
32.6.3–2
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part 1
tied contact pair

contact pair
or tied constraint pair
gasket element
part 2
Figure 32.6.3–1 Connecting gaskets to other parts using contact pairs.
part 1
contact pair or constraint pair

that does not allow for contact pair
separation of the surfaces
gasket element with
membrane behavior defined
part 2
Figure 32.6.3–2 Connecting gaskets to other parts when the gasket membrane behavior is defined.
Assign a positive value to the adjustment zone depth, a, for the contact pair (see “Adjusting initial
surface positions and specifying initial clearances in Abaqus/Standard contact pairs,” Section 35.3.5) so
that the surfaces are in contact at the beginning of the analysis. Use the no separation contact pressure-
overclosure relationship (see “Contact pressure-overclosure relationships,” Section 36.1.2) so that these
surfaces do not separate during the analysis. This technique will prevent rigid body modes of the gasket
in its thickness direction. You may still need to prevent rigid body modes in the plane of the gasket until
frictional forces develop between the gasket and the adjacent components.
32.6.3–3
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Having gasket elements share nodes with other elements

When the gaskets and their neighboring parts have matched meshes, it is straightforward to connect
gaskets to other components in a model simply by sharing nodes (see Figure 32.6.3–3).
Part 1
gasket element
Part 2
Figure 32.6.3–3 Gasket elements sharing nodes with other Abaqus elements.
This method of connecting gaskets to other components is suited for cases when no frictional slip occurs
between the gasket and the other components. It can be used whether or not the membrane behavior of
the gasket elements is defined; however, if the gasket membrane behavior is defined, using a contact pair
approach will lead to more realistic results since the difference in membrane stiffness between the gasket
and its neighboring parts may lead to frictional slip. The method of sharing nodes will also lead to some
small tensile stresses in the gasket should the parts connected to the gasket be pulled apart, as a result
of the numerical stabilization technique added to the gasket thickness-direction behavior (see “Defining
the gasket behavior directly using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6). The contact pair approach
will avoid such tensile stresses. This node-sharing approach cannot be used with the gasket elements
that consider only thickness-direction behavior.
Using gasket elements that model thickness-direction behavior only
In general, the modeling techniques discussed earlier can be used with gasket elements that model
thickness-direction behavior only. However, these elements have only one displacement degree
of freedom per node and cannot share nodes with elements that have all displacement degrees of
freedom active at a node. They can, however, share nodes with other gasket elements that model
thickness-direction behavior only.
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Discretizing a gasket with gasket elements that model thickness-direction behavior only
When discretizing a gasket with several layers of gasket elements along the gasket direction, it is
recommended that all the nodes belonging to a cross-section of the gasket have the same thickness
direction (see Figure 32.6.3–4). An approximate solution will be generated if the thickness direction
changes, since only the magnitude of the force is transmitted from one gasket element to the next
through the thickness of the gasket.
n
n
cross
section
Figure 32.6.3–4 Discretizing a gasket using several layers of

elements with thickness-direction behavior only.
Connecting gaskets to other components when gasket elements with thickness-direction

behavior only are chosen
Contact pairs can be used to connect the gasket mesh to adjacent components, as explained above, but
only frictionless, small-sliding contact can be used.
MPC type PIN or TIE can also be used to connect a one degree of freedom node of a gasket element
to another coincident node that has all its displacement degrees of freedom active (see Figure 32.6.3–5).
Abaqus/Standard automatically constrains the single displacement degree of freedom node to the global
displacements of the other node.
Surface-based tie constraints cannot be used to connect gasket elements that model
thickness-direction behavior only.
Additional considerations when using gasket elements
Several cases require special consideration when using gasket elements.
32.6.3–5
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1 d.o.f.
part 1
Use
TIE- or
gasket
PIN-type
elements
MPC
2 d.o.f.
part 2
coincident node
Figure 32.6.3–5 Connecting gasket elements with thickness-direction

behavior only to other parts by using MPCs.
Using gasket elements in large-displacement analyses

Gasket elements are small-strain, small-displacement elements. They can be used in large-displacement
analyses. However, the local directions of the gasket elements are not updated with the solution,
so incorrect results will be generated if the assembly containing the gasket elements undergoes any
significant amount of rotation.
Using 12-node gasket elements

These elements are primarily for use when the adjacent components are modeled with modified 10-node
tetrahedral elements (element type C3D10M). When the contact pair approach is used, such elements can
also be placed adjacent to other three-dimensional solid continuum elements; however, if the meshes are
badly mismatched, the solution may be noisy.
Using 18-node gasket elements

These elements are intended to share nodes with 21 to 27-node brick elements. They can also be
connected to a mesh composed of 21 to 27-node brick elements or a mesh composed of 20-node brick
elements when the contact pair approach is used.
Abaqus/Standard allows the node numbers and the coordinates of the midface nodes in the 18-node
gasket elements to be generated automatically if the faces are part of contact surfaces, similar to the way
that midface nodes are generated for 20-node brick element faces on which a contact surface is defined.
This feature is invoked by leaving the entries for nodes 17 and 18 in the element connectivity blank.
32.6.3–6
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Using the three-dimensional line gasket elements

Three-dimensional line gasket elements are typically used to model narrow, thicker features in gaskets,
such as an elastomeric insert around a hole. A typical mesh for such a case is presented in Figure 32.6.3–6.
The gasket is discretized mainly with three-dimensional area elements. The insert is modeled with
three-dimensional line elements that may or may not be connected to the area elements. These gasket
elements are connected to surrounding components using two sets of contact pairs, and the area elements
will typically have initial gaps specified in the gasket property definition so that the thicker inserts develop
pressure on contact before the area elements do.
nodes of the line gasket elements
area gasket elements

three-dimensional line gasket elements
Figure 32.6.3–6 Typical use of three-dimensional line gasket

elements to model inserts in gaskets.
If three-dimensional line gasket elements that have all displacement degrees of freedom active at
their nodes are used to discretize a gasket and the local 3-direction is the same at all the nodes of these
elements (this is the case when all elements lie in a plane), the nodes of these elements can move in the
local 3-direction without creating any strain in the elements (see “Defining the gasket behavior directly
using a gasket behavior model,” Section 32.6.6, for additional details about the local direction of three-
dimensional line elements). In such a case you should make sure that these elements are restrained
properly in the local 3-direction.
32.6.3–7
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GASKET GEOMETRY
32.6.4 DEFINING THE GASKET ELEMENT’S INITIAL GEOMETRY
References

• *GASKET SECTION
• “Creating gasket sections,” Section 12.13.15 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
The initial gasket geometry:

• is defined by the nodal coordinates of the element; and
• is also defined by the thickness direction and initial thickness, each of which can be calculated by
Abaqus/Standard or user-defined.
Defining the element geometry
A gasket element is basically composed of two surfaces (a bottom and a top surface) separated by the
gasket thickness. The element has nodes on its bottom face and corresponding nodes on its top face.
Two methods are available to define the element geometry.
By defining the element’s nodes

You can define the geometry of the gasket element by defining the coordinates of all the element’s
nodes. You can define elements with constant or varying thickness. If the gasket element is very thin
in comparison to dimensions in its surfaces, the thickness of the element calculated from the nodal
coordinates may be inaccurate. In this case you can specify a constant thickness directly.
By defining the bottom surface of the element

You can specify a list of only the nodes on the bottom surface of the gasket element and the positive offset
number that will be used to define the corresponding nodes on the top surface of the gasket element.
Abaqus/Standard will create the nodes of the top face coincident with those of the bottom face unless
the nodes of the top face have already been assigned coordinates. If the bottom and top nodes coincide,
you must specify the thickness of the gasket element.
Specifying the element thickness

You can specify the gasket element thickness as part of its section property definition.
Input File Usage: *GASKET SECTION
thickness
32.6.4–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GASKET GEOMETRY
Gasket as the section Type: Initial thickness: Specify: thickness
Additional quantities needed to specify the element geometry

For three-dimensional area elements, the element geometry is defined entirely by the location of the top
and bottom surfaces and the element thickness. For two- and three-dimensional link elements (elements
with two nodes, one on each face) you should specify the cross-sectional area of the element. For
axisymmetric link elements you should specify the width of the element. For general two-dimensional
elements the out-of-plane thickness is required. For three-dimensional line elements you should also
specify the width of the element. This additional information is specified as part of the gasket section
property definition; if it is not specified but is needed, it is assumed to have a value of 1.0.
, , , additional geometric data (cross-sectional area, width,
or out-of-plane thickness)
and Gasket as the section Type: Cross-sectional area, width, or
out-of-plane thickness: additional geometric data
Default element thickness-direction definition
Gaskets are usually manufactured to have a desired behavior in their thickness direction. Therefore, it is
important to define the thickness directions of gasket elements accurately. Abaqus/Standard computes
these directions by default. The method that Abaqus/Standard uses depends on the gasket element type.
Link elements
Abaqus/Standard computes the thickness direction for a two-dimensional, three-dimensional, or
axisymmetric link element by subtracting the coordinates of node 1 from those of node 2, as shown in
Figure 32.6.4–1. The computed thickness direction is then assigned to each node. If the gasket element
is very thin, the thickness direction may not be predicted accurately. You can overwrite this direction,
as explained below in “Specifying the thickness direction explicitly.”
Two-dimensional and axisymmetric elements

To compute the thickness direction for two-dimensional and axisymmetric elements, Abaqus/Standard
forms a midsurface by averaging the coordinates of the node pairs forming the bottom and top surfaces
of the element. This midsurface passes through the integration points of the element, as shown in
Figure 32.6.4–2. For each integration point Abaqus/Standard computes a tangent whose direction is
defined by the sequence of nodes given on the bottom and top surfaces. The thickness direction is
then obtained as the cross product of the out-of-plane and tangent directions. The thickness direction
computed at each integration point is then assigned to the nodes on either side of the integration point.
32.6.4–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GASKET GEOMETRY
n
2
n
1
Figure 32.6.4–1 Thickness direction for a link element.
n2 midsurface
n1 4 5 n3
6
n2
n1 t1 t2 n3
n2
n1 t3
n3
1 2
3
Figure 32.6.4–2 Thickness direction for a two-dimensional or axisymmetric element.
Three-dimensional area elements

To compute the thickness direction for three-dimensional area elements, Abaqus/Standard forms
a midsurface by averaging the coordinates of the node pairs forming the bottom and top surfaces
of the element. This midsurface passes through the integration points of the element, as shown
in Figure 32.6.4–3. Abaqus/Standard computes the thickness direction to the midsurface at each
integration point; the positive direction is obtained with the right-hand rule going around the nodes of
the element on the bottom or top surface. The thickness direction computed at each integration point is
assigned to the nodes on either side of the integration point.
Three-dimensional line elements

To compute the thickness direction for three-dimensional line elements, Abaqus/Standard computes
the thickness direction at each integration point of the line element by differencing the coordinates of
the element’s surface nodes associated with the integration point. The thickness direction will point
from the node on the bottom face to the node on the top face of the element. The thickness direction
computed at each integration point is then assigned to the nodes on either side of the integration point
(see Figure 32.6.4–4).
32.6.4–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GASKET GEOMETRY
n4
midsurface
n1 8
n3
5 n4 7
n1
n2 n3
n4
n1 n2 6
4 n3
1
n2
3
2
Figure 32.6.4–3 Thickness direction for a three-dimensional area element.
n1
4
n1 n2
5
n1 n2
n3
1 n2 6
n3
2
n3
3
Figure 32.6.4–4 Thickness direction for a three-dimensional line element.
If the gasket element is very thin, the computation of the thickness direction may not be accurate. You
can overwrite this definition as explained below in “Specifying the thickness direction explicitly.”
Creating a smooth gasket
Gasket elements can be used in a single layer or can be stacked in multiple layers (see “Including gasket
elements in a model,” Section 32.6.3, for further details). The thickness directions computed at the nodes
of gasket elements on an element-by-element basis are averaged at nodes shared by two or more gasket
elements. This averaging process ensures that, if the gasket is not planar, it has a thickness direction
that varies smoothly even though the gasket has been discretized by elements. You must ensure that the
connectivities of the elements are such that the thickness direction does not reverse from one element
to the next for this process to work properly. Once the averaging process is complete, the thickness
directions at the nodes of a given element may vary significantly along the gasket midsurface and through
32.6.4–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GASKET GEOMETRY
its thickness, as shown in Figure 32.6.4–5. The thickness directions at any of the nodes of an element
should not vary in direction by more than 20°. In addition, the thickness directions of two associated
nodes through the thickness direction should not vary in direction by more than 5°. Abaqus/Standard
will require that the gasket be remeshed when such conditions are not met.
multi-layered thickness
gasket direction
20°
5°
5°
3 4
1
midsurface 2
Figure 32.6.4–5 Result of the averaging process.
Specifying the thickness direction explicitly

For cases when the above averaging process is not satisfactory, two methods are provided to specify the
thickness direction of gasket elements.
Specifying the thickness direction as part of the gasket section definition

You can specify the components of the thickness direction as part of the gasket section definition. In
this case all nodes of the gasket elements using this section definition are assigned the same thickness
direction. The thickness direction specified at the nodes of the element will be averaged at nodes shared
by two or more elements.
, , , , component 1, component 2, component 3
Abaqus/CAE Usage: You cannot specify the gasket thickness direction in Abaqus/CAE.
Specifying the thickness direction by specifying a normal direction at the nodes

You can define the thickness direction at a particular integration point of a gasket element by specifying
a normal direction for the node on the bottom face of the element that is associated with the integration
point (see “Normal definitions at nodes,” Section 2.1.4). The thickness direction will not be averaged if
32.6.4–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GASKET GEOMETRY
this node belongs to more than one element. The thickness direction specified at the bottom node will
also be assigned at the top node associated with the same integration point. This thickness direction
will not be averaged if the top node belongs to more than one element; however, you can overwrite
this thickness direction by specifying a normal at this node if it is the bottom node of another element.
This last situation can occur only in cases when gasket elements are stacked up through the thickness
direction of the gasket. If this method is used to specify conflicting thickness directions at the same
node, Abaqus/Standard will issue an error message. Thickness directions specified using this method
will overwrite any thickness directions specified at a gasket node as part of the gasket section definition.
Input File Usage: *NORMAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: User-specified nodal normals are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Creating fold lines

It is possible to introduce a fold line in a gasket by creating gaskets with coincident nodes and using
MPC type TIE or PIN (“General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2) to constrain the displacement
of these nodes. However, fold lines are rarely needed in the analysis of gaskets, since almost all gaskets
are manufactured with smoothly varying surfaces.
Verifying the thickness direction

Thickness direction definitions can be checked by examining the analysis input file processor output.
The direction cosines of the thickness directions obtained at the nodes of gasket elements are listed under
GASKET THICKNESS DIRECTIONS in the data (.dat) file.
Specifying an initial gap and an initial void in the thickness direction of a gasket element
The construction of gaskets in their through-thickness direction may be complex; for example, certain
automotive gaskets are usually composed of several layers of metal and/or elastomeric inserts, and it is
likely that the layers do not all touch until the gasket is compressed. The inter-layer spaces in a gasket
are referred to in Abaqus as the initial void. The initial void is used only for calculating thermal strain
and creep strain. It is also possible that the gasket surface geometry is such that pressure will not start
building up until the gasket has been compressed by a certain amount. The gasket closure that is needed
to generate a pressure is referred to in Abaqus as the initial gap. Figure 32.6.4–6 shows a schematic
representation of the initial gap and initial void in a typical gasket. You can specify both the initial gap
and initial void as part of the gasket section property definition. The initial thickness of the element
should include the initial gap and the initial void.
, initial gap, initial void
Gasket as the section Type: Initial gap: initial gap, Initial void: initial void
32.6.4–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GASKET GEOMETRY
initial gap
metallic plate metallic frame
initial void
spacers
Figure 32.6.4–6 Schematic representation of an initial gap

and an initial void in a typical gasket.
Stability of unsupported gasket elements
Gasket elements that extend outside neighboring components (unsupported gasket elements) can be
troublesome and should be avoided. If a gasket element is completely or partially unsupported, incorrect
areas can result in an incorrect stiffness, and numerical singularity problems can occur in the equation
solver. Minor extensions (caused by numerical roundoff in mesh generation) will not usually cause a
problem because Abaqus/Standard automatically extends the master surfaces a small amount beyond
the edge of the model. Numerical problems can occur in the direction tangential to the gasket (if general
gasket elements are used and no membrane stiffness is specified) as well as in the direction normal to
the gasket. The numerical singularity problems normal to the gasket can be treated by stabilizing the
elements with a small artificial stiffness. By default, Abaqus/Standard automatically applies a small
stabilization stiffness (on the order of 10−9 times the initial compressive stiffness in the thickness
direction) to all types of gasket elements except the link elements. For persistent numerical singularity
problems in unsupported gasket elements the following treatment methods can be considered. First,
make sure that an adequate membrane elasticity is specified. Second, specify a higher value for the
artificial stiffness for the gasket section. If problems still persist, consider trimming, “skinning,” and
using MPCs (see “General multi-point constraints,” Section 34.2.2).
Input File Usage: Use the following option to change the artificial stiffness for a gasket section:
*GASKET SECTION, STABILIZATION STIFFNESS=stiffness_value
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the following option to change the artificial stiffness for a gasket section:
Property module: Create Section: select Other as the section Category and
Gasket as the section Type: Stabilization stiffness: Specify: stiffness_value
32.6.4–7
Abaqus ID:
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MATERIAL DEFINITION OF GASKET BEHAVIOR
32.6.5 DEFINING THE GASKET BEHAVIOR USING A MATERIAL MODEL
References

• “UMAT,” Section 1.1.40 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• “Creating and editing materials,” Section 12.7 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
The gasket behavior defined by a material model:

• can be specified in terms of a built-in material model or a user-defined small-strain material model;
• considers only the thickness behavior and assumes a uniaxial stress state for gasket elements that
model thickness-direction behavior only;
• admits both compressive and tensile stresses in the thickness direction;
• is defined in terms of small-strain measures and, hence, finite-strain material models such as
hyperelastic and hyperfoam cannot be used;
• is restricted to small-strain elasticity models for line gasket elements that use the built-in material
models;
• causes Abaqus/Standard to use the reference thickness to convert the relative displacements at the
top and bottom surfaces of the gasket to strains and uses these strains in conjunction with the
constitutive law to obtain the stresses; and
• makes the notions of “initial gap” and “initial void” in the thickness direction irrelevant
(consequently, Abaqus/Standard ignores such data specified as part of the gasket section property
definition).
Assigning a gasket behavior to a gasket element
To define the gasket behavior by a material model, you must assign a gasket section definition to a region
of your model and assign the name of a material definition to the gasket section definition. The gasket
behavior for this region is defined entirely by the gasket thickness and the material properties specified
by the material definition referring to the same name.
The gasket behavior can be defined in terms of a built-in or a user-defined material model. In the
latter case the actual material model is defined in user subroutine UMAT.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define the gasket behavior in terms of a built-in
material model:
*GASKET SECTION, ELSET=name, MATERIAL=name
*MATERIAL, NAME=name
32.6.5–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
MATERIAL DEFINITION OF GASKET BEHAVIOR
Use the following options to define the gasket behavior in terms of a user-
defined material model:
*GASKET SECTION, ELSET=name, MATERIAL=name
*MATERIAL, NAME=name
*USER MATERIAL, CONSTANTS=n
Create Material: Name: name, enter data for any materials that are valid for
gasket sections except those found under Other→Gasket
Create Section: select Other as the section Category and Gasket
as the section Type: Material: name
Tensile behavior modeling
Tensile behavior modeling can be desirable when gaskets carry (limited) tensile stresses, such as occurs
when adhesives are present. Undesired tensile behavior can be avoided by using appropriate contact
pairs and/or implementing a user-defined no-tension material model in user subroutine UMAT.
Specific output for material definition of gasket behavior
The output variables for stresses and strains are the same as those used for solid elements: tensile and
compressive stresses/strains are indicated as positive and negative quantities, respectively. However, for
all stress/strain output variables the 11-component refers to the through-thickness direction; the 22-, 33-,
and 23-components refer to two direct and one shear membrane component, respectively; the remaining
12- and 13-components refer to the transverse shear components. For details about these definitions, see
“Gasket elements: overview,” Section 32.6.1. The output variable NE is available to output nominal
(effective) strains for gasket elements defined using a material model; however, NE is identical to E in
this case.
32.6.5–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DIRECT DEFINITION OF GASKET BEHAVIOR
32.6.6 DEFINING THE GASKET BEHAVIOR DIRECTLY USING A GASKET BEHAVIOR

MODEL
References

• “Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4
• “Defining gasket behavior,” Section 12.12.4 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
The gasket behavior defined by a gasket behavior model:

• can be specified in terms of uncoupled thickness direction, membrane, and transverse shear behavior
only;
• can be nonlinear elastic with damage or nonlinear elastic-plastic in the thickness direction;
• can consider creep effects in the thickness direction when rate-independent elastic-plastic modeling
is used;
• can consider the dynamic stiffness and damping characteristics in the thickness direction when
elastic-damage modeling is used;
• will be linear elastic in the membrane and transverse shear directions; and
• can consider thermal effects in the thickness and membrane directions.
Assigning a gasket behavior to a gasket element
To define the gasket behavior by a gasket behavior model, you must assign a gasket section definition to a
region of your model and assign the name of a gasket behavior definition to the gasket section definition.
The gasket behavior for this region is defined entirely by the properties specified by the gasket behavior
definition referring to the same name.
Input File Usage: Use both of the following options to define the gasket behavior in terms of a
gasket behavior model:
*GASKET SECTION, ELSET=name, BEHAVIOR=name
*GASKET BEHAVIOR, NAME=name
Material editor: Name: name, enter data for any materials found under
Other→Gasket
Create Section: select Other as the section Category and Gasket
as the section Type: Material: name
32.6.6–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Specifying a gasket behavior
The thickness-direction, transverse shear, and membrane behaviors are defined to be uncoupled. Each
behavior is specified independently.
You must specify the thickness-direction behavior. You can specify multiple thickness-direction
behaviors to define the loading and unloading characteristics. You can obtain an average contact pressure
output when the thickness-direction behavior is defined as force or force per unit length versus closure.
The transverse shear and membrane behaviors are optional for gasket elements that have all
displacement degrees of freedom active at their nodes. You can define one or both of these behaviors.
When thermal and rate-dependent effects are important, you can define thermal expansion and creep
behavior for gaskets; user subroutines UEXPAN and CREEP can be used to define these behaviors.
You cannot specify density for gasket elements since they have no mass matrix.
Input File Usage: Use the first two options and any of the following options to specify a gasket
behavior:
*GASKET BEHAVIOR, NAME=name
*GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR
*GASKET ELASTICITY
*GASKET CONTACT AREA
*EXPANSION
*CREEP
*DEPVAR
*USER OUTPUT VARIABLES
The *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR option can be repeated to define
the loading and unloading characteristics of the thickness-direction behavior.
The *GASKET ELASTICITY option can be repeated to define both transverse
shear and membrane behaviors. The other options cannot be repeated within
a single behavior definition. The order in which these options are specified
has no importance, but they must appear immediately after the *GASKET
BEHAVIOR option.
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Use the first option and any of the following options to specify a gasket
behavior:
Property module: material editor:
Other→Gasket→Gasket Thickness Behavior
Other→Gasket→Gasket Transverse Shear Elasticity and/or Gasket
Membrane Elasticity
Mechanical→Expansion
Mechanical→Plasticity→Creep
General→Depvar
General→User Output Variables
32.6.6–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Defining the thickness-direction behavior of the gasket
To define the thickness-direction behavior of gaskets, Abaqus/Standard offers a nonlinear elastic model
with damage and a nonlinear elastic-plastic model with the possibility of considering creep effects.
Thermal effects in the thickness direction can also be accounted for.
Abaqus/Standard measures the thickness-direction deformation as the closure between the bottom
and top faces of the gasket element; therefore, the thickness-direction behavior must always be defined
in terms of closure. The closure is the sum of the elastic closure, plastic closure, creep closure, thermal
closure, plus any initial gap in the thickness direction. As explained below, the behavior can be defined
as pressure versus closure, force versus closure, or force per unit length versus closure. In all cases the
thickness-direction behavior can be defined as a function of temperature and/or field variables.
Input File Usage: *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, DEPENDENCIES
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Other→Gasket→Gasket
Thickness Behavior
Choosing a unit system used to define the thickness-direction behavior

The thickness-direction behavior can be defined in terms of pressure versus closure, force versus closure,
or force per unit length versus closure.
Prescribing the thickness-direction behavior as pressure versus closure

You can define the thickness-direction behavior in terms of pressure and closure for all gasket element
types. The pressure is available for output or visualization.
Input File Usage: *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, VARIABLE=STRESS
Thickness Behavior: Units: Stress
Prescribing the thickness-direction behavior as force or force per unit length versus closure
You can define the thickness-direction behavior in terms of force or force per unit length and closure only
for link elements and three-dimensional line elements. This method is suited for cases where the gasket
cross-section in the 1–2 or 1–3 plane varies greatly with deformation because it would be too expensive
to model such a deformation with a full two- or three-dimensional model. In such cases a model with link
elements or three-dimensional line elements can give meaningful answers as long as the deformation is
quantified in terms of force or force per unit length (see Figure 32.6.6–1).
When using two- or three-dimensional link elements, you must specify the thickness-direction
behavior as force versus closure. When using axisymmetric link elements or three-dimensional line
elements, you must specify the thickness-direction behavior as force per unit length versus closure.
Input File Usage: *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, VARIABLE=FORCE
Thickness Behavior: Units: Force
32.6.6–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
top block
bottom
bottom block
gasket
block
undeformed configuration deformed configuration
force or force per unit length
top block
gasket
element
bottom block
model for analysis
Figure 32.6.6–1 Modeling complex deformations with link or three-dimensional line elements.
Defining a nonlinear elastic model with damage

The nonlinear elastic model with damage is illustrated in Figure 32.6.6–2.
pressure D
loading
curves
B
C
E unloading
curves
closure
A Cmax
B
Cmax
D
Figure 32.6.6–2 Elastic model with damage.
32.6.6–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
As the gasket is compressed, the pressure (or force, or force per unit length) follows the path given by
the loading curve. If the gasket is unloaded, for example at point B, the pressure follows the unloading
curve . Reloading after unloading follows the unloading curve until the loading is such that
the closure becomes greater than , after which the loading path follows the loading curve . The
arrows shown in the figure illustrate the loading/unloading paths of this model.
Defining the loading curve

To define the loading curve in piecewise linear form, you provide data points of pressure versus elastic
closure, starting with point A. For negative elastic closures, the model gives zero pressure (or force).
For closures larger than the last user-specified closure, the pressure-closure relationship is extrapolated
based on the last slope computed from the user-specified data.
Input File Usage: *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, TYPE=DAMAGE,
DIRECTION=LOADING
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Other→Gasket→Gasket Thickness
Behavior: Type: Damage, Loading
Defining the unloading curve

To define the unloading curves ( , , and so on), you provide data points of pressure (or force)
versus elastic closure up to a given maximum closure ( , or , and so on). You can specify
as many unloading curves as are necessary. Each unloading curve always starts at point A, the point of
zero pressure for zero elastic closure, since the damaged elasticity model does not allow any permanent
deformation. If unloading occurs from a maximum closure for which an unloading curve is not specified,
the unloading is interpolated from neighboring unloading curves. The unloading curves are stored in
normalized form so that they intersect the loading curve at a unit stress (or unit force) for a unit elastic
closure, and the interpolation occurs between these normalized curves. If unloading curves are not
specified, the loading/unloading will follow the loading curve.
Input File Usage: *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, TYPE=DAMAGE,
DIRECTION=UNLOADING
Thickness Behavior: Type: Damage, Unloading, toggle on
Include user-specified unloading curves
Defining the behavior for elements with an initial gap

For cases when the load in the gasket does not increase as soon as the gasket is compressed (see
Figure 32.6.6–3), you can specify an initial gap as part of the gasket section property definition (see
“Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4) and define the loading/unloading
curves as if the initial gap were not present (the case of Figure 32.6.6–2). This method is convenient
when many gasket elements refer to the same gasket behavior and the only difference is the initial gap.
32.6.6–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
pressure D
loading
curves
B
C
E unloading
curves
closure
initial gap
Figure 32.6.6–3 Elastic model with damage and initial gap.
Defining a nonlinear elastic-plastic model

The nonlinear elastic-plastic model is illustrated in Figure 32.6.6–4. As the gasket is compressed, the
pressure (or force) follows the path given by the loading curve . The loading curve is a
nonlinear elastic curve until point B is reached. At point B the slope of the loading curves decreases
by more than 10%, which is assumed to correspond with the onset of plastic deformation. The value
of 10% was chosen as a reasonable minimum value that can be expected at the onset of yield. If yield
starts at a point at which no decrease in the slope occurs, numerical difficulties may occur. If the elastic
part of the loading curve has a changing slope, the curve should be defined such that the slope does not
decrease by more than 10% at any given point. After point B plastic deformation starts taking place.
If unloading occurs before point B is reached, unloading will take place along the initial loading curve.
Once loading has gone beyond point B, unloading will take place along an unloading curve such as curve
. The unloading is assumed to be entirely elastic. The amount of closure at point D represents the
plastic closure for the unloading curve . Reloading after unloading follows the same curve until
the gasket yields, after which the loading curve is followed. Plastic deformation takes place until
the last point M on the loading curve is reached. Beyond point M, the curve is followed for both
loading and unloading; this behavior represents the behavior of a crushed gasket, which is assumed to
be entirely elastic and can be specified in a piecewise-linear fashion, even beyond point M. The arrows
shown in the figure illustrate the loading/unloading paths for the elastic-plastic model.
Abaqus/Standard will automatically convert the curves so that the unloading curves become curves
of pressure (or force) versus elastic closure for a given plastic closure. The loading curve will be
transformed into an elastic loading/unloading curve defined at zero plastic closure (the portion of
the curve) and a yield curve (the portion of the curve). By default, the onset of yield (point B)
will be obtained as soon as the slope of the loading curve decreases by 10% from the maximum
slope recorded up to that point while traveling along the loading curve from point A to point M.
32.6.6–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
pressure
E
C
B
A D F N
closure
plastic closure at point D
Figure 32.6.6–4 Elastic-plastic model.
Abaqus/Standard offers two alternatives to allow you to override this default method of determining the
onset of yield as described below. If only a loading curve is provided, the unloading will be based on
the curve , independent of the level of plasticity.
Defining the loading curve

To define the loading curve in piecewise linear form, you provide data points of pressure (or force, or
force per unit length) versus closure (where closure represents the elastic plus the plastic closure), starting
with point A. The last closure value given represents the closure at which the gasket is assumed crushed
(point M in Figure 32.6.6–4); at this point, the maximum permanent deformation is reached. For negative
closures the model gives zero pressure (or force).
To override the default method of determining the onset of yield, you can specify either a value
for the decrease in slope other than the default value of 10% or the closure value at which onset of yield
occurs. The specified value must correspond to a point on the loading curve at which the slope decreases.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the loading curve and use the default method
for determining the onset of yield:
*GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, TYPE=ELASTIC-PLASTIC,
DIRECTION=LOADING
Use the following option to define the loading curve and specify a nondefault
value for the decrease in slope that defines the onset of yield:
DIRECTION=LOADING, SLOPE DROP=drop
32.6.6–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Use the following option to define the loading curve and specify the closure
value that defines the onset of yield:

DIRECTION=LOADING, YIELD ONSET=closure_value
Behavior: Type: Elastic-Plastic, Loading, Yield onset method: Relative
slope drop drop or Yield onset method: Closure value closure_value
Defining the unloading curve
To define the unloading curves ( , , and so on), you provide data points of pressure (or force,
or force per unit length) versus closure (elastic plus plastic) for each given plastic closure (closure at
points D, F, and so on) in ascending values of closure. You can specify as many unloading curves as
are necessary. If unloading occurs at a plastic closure for which an unloading curve is not specified, the
unloading curve is interpolated from neighboring unloading curves. If no unloading curves are specified,
unloading is assumed to follow a curve similar to the initial nonlinear elastic segment of the loading
curve. The unloading curves are stored in normalized form so that they intersect the yield curve at a unit
stress (or unit force) for a unit elastic closure, and the interpolation occurs between these normalized
curves.
If the loading curve includes highly nonlinear behavior after the onset of yield, the interpolated
unloading may give unreasonable behavior (such as the interpolated unloading path crossing over the
user-defined loading curve). You should specify as many user-defined unloading curves as are needed to
create regions for which interpolated unloading response is appropriate. For example, Figure 32.6.6–5
illustrates a loading curve that includes a sharp decrease in the hardening slope well after the onset of
yield. In this case it is insufficient to specify only one unloading curve at the gasket crush point (the
end of the loading data). If unloading were to take place from point C, the unloading path would cross
over the loading path. At least one additional unloading curve is required, after the sharp decrease in
hardening slope, to prevent the interpolated unloading path crossing the loading curve.
Input File Usage: *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, TYPE=ELASTIC-PLASTIC,
DIRECTION=UNLOADING
Behavior: Type: Elastic-Plastic, Unloading, toggle on Include
user-specified unloading curves
Defining the behavior for elements with an initial gap
For cases when the load in the gasket does not increase as soon as the gasket is compressed (see
Figure 32.6.6–6), you can specify an initial gap as part of the gasket section property definition (see
“Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4) and define the loading/unloading
curves as if the initial gap were not present (the case of Figure 32.6.6–4). This method is convenient
when many gasket elements refer to the same gasket behavior and the only difference is the initial gap.
32.6.6–8
Abaqus ID:
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pressure P
point where user-defined
unloading response M
should be specified
gasket crush
C point
interpolated
unloading
response
onset of yield
A B
N closure
Figure 32.6.6–5 Elastic-plastic behavior with complex loading curve.
pressure
M
E
C
B
A D F N
closure
initial gap
Figure 32.6.6–6 Elastic-plastic model with initial gap.
32.6.6–9
Abaqus ID:
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Numerical stabilization of the thickness-direction behavior

The damage and elastic-plastic models described above have zero stiffness at zero pressure. To
overcome numerical problems caused by this zero stiffness, Abaqus/Standard automatically adds a
small stiffness (by default, equal to 10−3 times the initial compressive stiffness) in the thickness direction
of the gasket when the pressure obtained from the specified gasket thickness behavior is zero. This
numerical stabilization ensures that the gasket element always returns to its stress-free thickness when
it is totally unloaded. Hence, if the gasket surfaces are pulled apart, a small force will arise from the
stabilization process. You can change the default stiffness.
Input File Usage: *GASKET THICKNESS BEHAVIOR, DIRECTION=LOADING,
TENSILE STIFFNESS FACTOR=factor
Behavior: Loading, Tensile stiffness factor: factor
Defining the transverse shear behavior of the gasket
You can define the elastic transverse shear stiffness of the gasket. Abaqus/Standard measures the relative
displacement between the bottom and top of the gasket element along the local 2- or 3-directions to define
the transverse shear in the gasket. Therefore, you should always define the elastic transverse stiffness as
stress (or force, or force per unit length) per unit displacement. You can specify the stiffness as a function
of temperature and field variables. The same stiffness is used for the shear in the 1–2 plane and the shear
in the 1–3 plane. For each set of temperature and/or field variables, the first slope of the initial loading
curve for the gasket’s thickness-direction behavior will be used to compute the transverse shear stiffness
if the transverse shear behavior is not defined explicitly.
Input File Usage: *GASKET ELASTICITY, COMPONENT=TRANSVERSE
SHEAR, DEPENDENCIES
Transverse Shear Elasticity
Choosing a unit system to define the transverse shear behavior

The transverse shear stiffness is defined with units of stress per unit displacement, force per unit
displacement, or force per unit length per unit displacement. The unit system used to define the
transverse shear behavior must be consistent with the unit system used for the thickness-direction
behavior.
Providing the stiffness with units of stress per unit displacement

You can define the transverse shear stiffness in units of stress per unit displacement for all gasket element
types. The stiffness will be used to compute transverse shear stresses, which are available for output or
visualization.
SHEAR, VARIABLE=STRESS
32.6.6–10
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

Transverse Shear Elasticity: Units: Stress
Providing the stiffness with other units

You can define the transverse shear stiffness in units of force (or force per unit length) per unit
displacement only for link elements and three-dimensional line elements. This method is suited for
cases where the gasket cross-section in the 1–2 or 1–3 plane varies greatly with deformation because it
would be too expensive to model such a deformation mechanism with a full two- or three-dimensional
model, as explained earlier.
When using two- or three-dimensional link elements, you must specify the stiffness in terms of
units of force per unit displacement. Abaqus/Standard will use this stiffness to compute transverse shear
forces, which are available for output or visualization. When using axisymmetric link elements and
three-dimensional line elements, you must specify the stiffness in terms of units of force per unit length
per unit displacement. Abaqus/Standard will use this stiffness to compute transverse shear forces per
unit length, which are available for output or visualization.
SHEAR, VARIABLE=FORCE
Transverse Shear Elasticity: Units: Force
Defining the membrane behavior of the gasket
You can define the linear elastic behavior of the gasket by giving Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
These data can be provided as a function of temperature and/or field variables. If you do not specify the
linear elastic behavior of the gasket, the gasket has no membrane stiffness. In this case you must ensure
that the nodes of the elements are restrained adequately in the directions orthogonal to the thickness
direction of the gasket.
Input File Usage: *GASKET ELASTICITY, COMPONENT=MEMBRANE, DEPENDENCIES
Membrane Elasticity
Defining thermal expansion for the membrane and thickness-direction behaviors
You can define isotropic thermal expansion to specify the same coefficient of thermal expansion for the
membrane and thickness-direction behaviors.
Alternatively, you can define orthotropic thermal expansion to specify three different coefficients
of thermal expansion. The first coefficient will apply to the thermal expansion of the gasket in the
thickness direction; the other two coefficients will apply to the expansion of the gasket in the local 2-
and 3-directions, respectively.
The membrane thermal strains, , are obtained as explained in “Thermal expansion,”
Section 26.1.2. Abaqus/Standard computes the thermal closure for the thickness direction as
32.6.6–11
Abaqus ID:
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initial gap initial void initial thickness
so that the “mechanical” closure is obtained as
You can specify the initial gap and initial void as part of the gasket section definition; the initial thickness
is obtained directly from the nodal coordinates of the gasket elements, or you can specify it as part of the
gasket section definition (see “Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4).
If user subroutine UEXPAN is used to define the thermal expansion of the gasket, the incremental
thermal strains must be provided in the subroutine. The thermal closure will be obtained from the thermal
strain in the thickness direction, as described above.
Input File Usage: Use either of the following options to define the thermal expansion directly:
*EXPANSION, TYPE=ISO
*EXPANSION, TYPE=ORTHO
Use either of the following options to define the thermal expansion in user
subroutine UEXPAN:
*EXPANSION, TYPE=ISO, USER
*EXPANSION, TYPE=ORTHO, USER
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Mechanical→Expansion: Use
user subroutine UEXPAN (optional)
Defining creep behavior for the thickness-direction behavior
You can define creep behavior in the thickness direction of the gasket only when the elastic-plastic model
(see “Defining a nonlinear elastic-plastic model” above) is used. The creep closure rate will be obtained
as
initial thickness initial gap initial void
where is obtained as explained in “Rate-dependent plasticity: creep and swelling,” Section 23.2.4.
You can specify the initial gap and initial void as part of the gasket section definition; the initial thickness
is obtained directly from the nodal coordinates of the gasket elements, or you can specify it as part of the
gasket section definition (see “Defining the gasket element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4).
If user subroutine CREEP is used to define the rate-dependent thickness-direction response of the
gasket, the compressive creep strain increment must be provided in the subroutine. The creep closure
will be obtained from the creep strain, as described above.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the creep behavior directly:
*CREEP
32.6.6–12
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Use the following option to define the creep behavior in user subroutine CREEP:
*CREEP, LAW=USER
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Mechanical→Plasticity→Creep:
Law: User-defined (optional)
Defining viscoelastic behavior for the thickness-direction behavior
You can define viscoelastic behavior in the thickness direction of the gasket only when the elastic-
damage model (see “Defining a nonlinear elastic model with damage” above) is used. Only frequency
domain viscoelastic behavior is supported. This behavior is useful for modeling the steady-state dynamic
response of automotive components with gaskets about some pre-loaded base state, such as would be
obtained at the end of a nonlinear sealing analysis, to determine the noise-vibration-harshness (NVH)
characteristics of the system.
During the nonlinear sealing analysis step the frequency-domain viscoelastic behavior is ignored,
and the material response is determined by the long-term elastic properties of the material. It is
generally accepted (Zubeck and Marlow, 2002) that the dynamic stiffness and damping characteristics
of automotive components such as gaskets and grommets vary with the frequency of excitation as
well as the level of preload. These structural properties also depend on the geometry and the level of
confinement of the gasket. This capability allows the direct specification of such dynamic properties as
quantified by the effective storage and loss moduli in the thickness-direction, as tabular functions of the
frequency of excitation and the level of preload. The preload is quantified by the amount of closure in
the base state about which the steady-state dynamic response is desired.
In determining the dynamic response of the gasket, the long-term elastic response is assumed to be
defined by the nonlinear elastic model with damage. The steady-state dynamic response is assumed to
be a perturbation about a base state defined by this elastic damage behavior at a certain value of closure.
The viscoelastic response can be specified using two approaches, as discussed below.
Direct specification of the properties

The first approach involves direct (tabular) specification of the thickness-direction loss and storage
moduli as functions of excitation frequency at different levels of closure.
Input File Usage: *VISCOELASTIC, TYPE=TRACTION, PRELOAD=UNIAXIAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Mechanical→Elasticity→Viscoelastic:
Domain: Frequency and Frequency: Tabular
Specification of properties in terms of ratios

The second approach allows the specification of the ratio of both the thickness-direction storage and
the loss moduli to the long-term thickness-direction elastic modulus. These ratios can be specified
as tabular functions of the excitation frequency but are assumed to be independent of the amount of
closure. The actual storage or loss modulus at any given level of closure is computed by multiplying the
appropriate ratio with the long-term elastic modulus at the current value of closure (of the base state).
See “Frequency domain viscoelasticity,” Section 22.7.2, for a summary of the second approach in the
32.6.6–13
Abaqus ID:
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context of continuum material viscoelastic properties (the approach used here is just a one-dimensional
specialization of the more general approach presented there).
Input File Usage: *VISCOELASTIC, TYPE=TRACTION
Abaqus/CAE Usage: Property module: material editor: Mechanical→Elasticity→Viscoelastic:
Domain: Frequency and Frequency: Tabular
Defining the contact area for average contact pressure output
When the thickness-direction behavior of the gasket is defined in terms of force or force per unit length
versus closure, Abaqus/Standard will provide the thickness-direction force or force per unit length as
output variable S11. In this case you can define either a contact width or contact area versus closure
curve that will be used to obtain the average “contact” pressure at each integration point as output variable
CS11. This average pressure considers the changing contact area that occurs as a result of the deformation
of a gasket, as shown in Figure 32.6.6–1. The closure used for input of this curve corresponds to the total
mechanical closure, defined as the sum of the elastic, plastic, and creep closures.
When two- and three-dimensional link gasket elements are used, you should specify the contact
area versus mechanical closure in tabular form. When axisymmetric link and three-dimensional line
elements are used, you should specify the contact width versus mechanical closure in tabular form. A
typical curve is shown in Figure 32.6.6–7.
area
mechanical closure
Figure 32.6.6–7 Specification of contact area versus mechanical

closure for output of average pressure.
You must specify the area at zero closure, then the area at increasing closures. The area is constant
when the mechanical closure is negative and is extrapolated from the slope computed from the last two
user-specified data points if the closure reaches values that are greater than the last user-specified closure.
Area versus closure curves can be provided as a function of temperature and field variables.
Input File Usage: *GASKET CONTACT AREA, DEPENDENCIES
32.6.6–14
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

Behavior: Units: Force, Suboptions→Contact Area
Specific output for directly defined gasket behavior
Output variable E is usually used in Abaqus/Standard to output strain. For gasket elements with behavior
defined by a gasket behavior model this output variable has thickness-direction and transverse shear
components with units of displacement and membrane strains. Output variable NE is used to output an
effective strain. The effective strain components are computed as follows:
NE11 E11 initial thickness initial gap) for perturbation steps; otherwise
NE11 E11 initial gap initial thickness initial gap)); and
NE22 E22
NE33 E33
NE12 E12 initial thickness
NE13 E13 (initial thickness
NE23 E23
The output variables THE, PE, or CE can also be used for gasket elements to output generalized
thermal strains, plastic strains, or creep strains, respectively.
For all stress/strain output variables the 11-component refers to the through-thickness direction;
the 22-, 33- and 23-components refer to two direct and one shear membrane component, respectively;
the remaining 12- and 13-components refer to the transverse shear components. For details about these
definitions, see “Gasket elements: overview,” Section 32.6.1.
The output of the elastic strain energy (output variable ALLSE) also contains the energy due to
damage or change in elasticity as a function of plasticity. Therefore, this energy is usually not fully
recoverable.
• Zubeck, M. W., and R. S. Marlow, “Local-Global Finite Element Analysis for Cam Cover Noise
Reduction,” Society of Automotive Engineering, Inc., no. SAE 2003–01–1725, 2003.
32.6.6–15
Abaqus ID:
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2-D GASKET ELEMENT LIBRARY
32.6.7 TWO-DIMENSIONAL GASKET ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *GASKET SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the two-dimensional gasket elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
Link elements
GK2D2 2-node, two-dimensional gasket element
GK2D2N 2-node, two-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only

1 for gasket elements with thickness-direction behavior only.
1, 2 for other gasket elements.

None.
General elements
GKPS4 4-node, plane stress gasket element
GKPE4 4-node, plane strain gasket element
GKPS4N 4-node, two-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only
GKPS6 6-node, plane stress gasket element
GKPE6 6-node, plane strain gasket element
GKPS6N 6-node, two-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only

32.6.7–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

None.
You must define the element’s cross-sectional area (for link elements) or out-of-plane width (for general
elements), initial gap, and initial void.
You can specify the thickness direction as part of the gasket section definition or by specifying a normal
direction at the nodes; you can specify the element thickness as part of the gasket section definition.
Otherwise, Abaqus/Standard will calculate the thickness direction. For link elements the thickness
direction is the direction from the first to the second node and the thickness is the distance between
the nodes. For general elements the thickness direction is based on the midsurface of the element and
the thicknesses at the integration points are based on the nodal positions. See “Defining the gasket
element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4, for more details.
Category and Gasket as the section Type
None.
Element output
GK2D2 elements
S11 Pressure or thickness-direction force in the gasket element.
CS11 Contact pressure in the gasket element (only available if S11 is the force in the gasket
element and the gasket response is not defined using a material model).
S12 Shear stress or shear force.
E11 Gasket closure if the gasket response is defined directly using a gasket behavior
model; strain if the gasket response is defined using a material model.
E12 Shear motion if the gasket response is defined directly using a gasket behavior model;
strain if the gasket response is defined using a material model.
NE11 Effective thickness-direction strain in the gasket element.
NE12 Effective shear strain in the gasket element.
32.6.7–2
Abaqus ID:
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GK2D2N elements

CS11 Contact pressure in the gasket element (only available if S11 is the force in the gasket
element and the gasket response is not defined using a material model).
General elements with thickness-direction behavior only
S11 Pressure in the gasket element.

Other general elements

S33 Direct membrane stress (only available for plane strain elements).
S12 Shear stress.
E22 Direct membrane strain.
E33 Direct membrane strain (only available for plane strain elements).
NE22 Direct membrane strain.
NE33 Direct membrane strain (only available for plane strain elements).
NE12 Effective shear strain.
32.6.7–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Node ordering and integration point numbering
Link elements
2 - node element
General elements
3 4 4 5 6
1 2 1 2 3
32.6.7–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
32.6.8 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GASKET ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *GASKET SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the three-dimensional gasket elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
Link elements
GK3D2 2-node, three-dimensional gasket element
GK3D2N 2-node, three-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only

1, 2, 3 for other gasket elements.

None.
Line elements
GK3D4L 4-node, three-dimensional line gasket element
GK3D4LN 4-node, three-dimensional line gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only
GK3D6L 6-node, three-dimensional line gasket element
GK3D6LN 6-node, three-dimensional line gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only


None.
32.6.8–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Area elements
GK3D12M 12-node, three-dimensional gasket element
GK3D12MN 12-node, three-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only


None.
You must define the element’s initial gap and initial void, as well as the cross-sectional area (for link
elements) or width (for line elements).
Otherwise, Abaqus/Standard will calculate the thickness direction and the thickness. For link elements
the thickness direction is the direction from the first to the second node and the thickness is the distance
between the nodes. For line elements the thickness direction is the direction from the bottom node to
the top node associated with the integration point and the thicknesses are the distances between these
same bottom and top nodes. For area elements the thickness direction is based on the midsurface of the
element and the thicknesses at the integration points are based on the nodal positions. See “Defining the
gasket element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4, for more details.
32.6.8–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
None.
Element output
GK3D2 elements
CS11 Contact pressure in the gasket element (only available if S11 is a force and the gasket
response is not defined using a material model).
GK3D2N elements
CS11 Contact pressure in the gasket element (only available if S11 is a force and the gasket
response is not defined using a material model.)
Line elements with thickness-direction behavior only

S11 Pressure or thickness-direction force per unit length in the gasket element.
CS11 Contact pressure in the gasket element (only available if S11 is a force per unit length
and the gasket response is not defined using a material model).
32.6.8–3
Abaqus ID:
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Other line elements

S12 Shear stress or shear force per unit length.
Area elements with thickness-direction behavior only

Other area elements

S23 Membrane shear stress.
32.6.8–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
E12 Transverse shear motion if the gasket response is defined directly using a gasket
behavior model; strain if the gasket response is defined using a material model.
E13 Transverse shear motion if the gasket response is defined directly using a gasket
behavior model; strain if the gasket response is defined using a material model.
E23 Membrane shear strain.
NE12 Membrane shear strain.
Link elements
2 - node element
Line elements
5
3 4 4 6
1 2 1 2
3
32.6.8–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Area elements
12 9
4 6 7
10 6 11
5
3
1 3
1 8
5
4
2 2
11
8 7
15 14
12
4 18 3 10
3
16
7 6
6 13
5
4
9 17 2
8 5
1 2
1
Integration points are indicated with an X and have the same numbers as the bottom face nodes, except
that the point between nodes 17 and 18 in the 18-node gasket element is integration point number 9.
32.6.8–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
AXISYMMETRIC GASKET ELEMENT LIBRARY
32.6.9 AXISYMMETRIC GASKET ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *GASKET SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric gasket elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
Link elements
GKAX2 2-node, axisymmetric gasket element
GKAX2N 2-node, axisymmetric gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only


None.
General elements


None.
32.6.9–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
You must define the element’s initial gap and initial void. In addition, for link elements you must define
the element’s width.
Otherwise, Abaqus/Standard will calculate the thickness direction and the thickness. For link elements
the thickness direction is the direction from the first to the second node and the thickness is the distance
between the nodes. For general elements the thickness direction is based on the midsurface of the element
and the thicknesses at the integration points are based on the nodal positions. See “Defining the gasket
element’s initial geometry,” Section 32.6.4, for more details.
None.
Element output
GKAX2 elements
S22 Hoop stress.
E22 Hoop strain.
NE11 Effective thickness-direction strain.
NE22 Hoop strain.
32.6.9–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GKAX2N elements
General elements with thickness-direction behavior only

Other general elements

S33 Hoop stress.
S12 Shear stress.
E33 Hoop strain.
32.6.9–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Link elements
2 - node element
General elements
3 4 4 5 6
1 2 1 2 3
32.6.9–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
SURFACE ELEMENTS
32.7 Surface elements
• “Surface elements,” Section 32.7.1

• “General surface element library,” Section 32.7.2
• “Cylindrical surface element library,” Section 32.7.3
• “Axisymmetric surface element library,” Section 32.7.4
32.7–1
Abaqus ID:
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SURFACE ELEMENTS
32.7.1 SURFACE ELEMENTS
References
• “General surface element library,” Section 32.7.2

• “Cylindrical surface element library,” Section 32.7.3
• “Axisymmetric surface element library,” Section 32.7.4
• *SURFACE SECTION
• “Creating surface sections,” Section 12.13.9 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
Surface elements:
• are defined just like membrane elements—as surfaces in space;
• have no inherent stiffness;
• may have mass per unit area;
• may be used to define rigid bodies;
• may be used in the definition of surfaces and surface-based tie constraints;
• behave just like membrane elements with zero thickness;
• may be used with rebar layers;
• can be embedded in solid elements;
• can transmit only in-plane forces; and
• have no bending stiffness or transverse shear stiffness.
Surface elements are useful in several special modeling cases:

• They are used to carry rebar layers to represent thin stiffening components in solid structures.
The stiffness and mass of the rebar layers are added to the surface elements (see “Defining
reinforcement,” Section 2.2.3). The reinforced surface elements can also be embedded in “host”
solid elements (see “Embedded elements,” Section 34.4.1).
• They are used to bring additional mass into the model in the form of a mass per unit area; for
example, to spread the mass of fuel in a tank over the tank surface, particularly when the tank is
modeled with solid elements.
• They are used to specify a surface used in a constraint, when that surface does not have structural
properties.
32.7.1–1
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SURFACE ELEMENTS
• When used in conjunction with a surface-based tie constraint, they are used to specify distributed
surface loading, such as incident wave loading, on beam elements.
• In Abaqus/Explicit (when used in conjunction with a surface-based tie constraint) they can be used
to specify a complex surface on beam elements for use in general contact. The stiffness of the
penalty springs used to enforce contact constraints is approximately proportional to the mass of the
surface nodes. Contact will not be enforced if the surface nodes have no mass.
• In Abaqus/Explicit they can be used to define all or part of the boundary for a surface-based fluid
cavity (for example, see “Hydrostatic fluid elements: modeling an airspring,” Section 1.1.9 of the
Abaqus Example Problems Manual).
In addition to the general surface elements available in both Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,
cylindrical surface elements and axisymmetric surface elements are available in Abaqus/Standard only.
General surface elements

General surface elements should be used in three-dimensional models in which the deformation of the
structure can evolve in three dimensions.
Cylindrical surface elements

Cylindrical surface elements are available in Abaqus/Standard for precise modeling of regions in a
structure with circular geometry, such as a tire. The elements make use of trigonometric functions to
interpolate displacements along the circumferential direction and use regular isoparametric interpolation
in the in-plane direction. They use three nodes along the circumferential direction and can span a
segment between 0° and 180°. Elements with both first-order and second-order interpolation in the
in-plane direction are available.
These elements can be used in the same mesh with regular surface elements. They can also be
embedded in general solid and cylindrical elements.
Axisymmetric surface elements

The axisymmetric surface elements available in Abaqus/Standard are divided into two categories: those
that do not allow twist about the symmetry axis and those that do. These elements are referred to as the
regular and generalized axisymmetric surface elements, respectively.
The generalized axisymmetric surface elements (axisymmetric surface elements with twist)
allow a circumferential component of loading, which may cause twist about the symmetry axis. The
circumferential load component is independent of the circumferential coordinate . Since there is no
dependence of the loading on the circumferential coordinate, the deformation is axisymmetric.
The generalized axisymmetric surface elements cannot be used in dynamic or eigenfrequency
extraction procedures.
32.7.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
SURFACE ELEMENTS
Naming convention
The naming convention for surface elements depends on the element dimensionality.

General surface elements in Abaqus are named as follows:
SF M 3D 4 R
number of nodes
three-dimensional
membrane-like
surface
For example, SFM3D4R is a three-dimensional, 4-node surface element with reduced integration.

Cylindrical surface elements in Abaqus/Standard are named as follows:
SF M CL 6
number of nodes
cylindrical
membrane-like
surface
For example, SFMCL6 is a 6-node cylindrical surface element with circumferential interpolation.

Axisymmetric surface elements in Abaqus/Standard are named as follows:
32.7.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
SURFACE ELEMENTS
SF M G AX 2
axisymmetric
generalized (optional)
membrane-like
surface
For example, SFMAX2 is a regular axisymmetric, quadratic-interpolation surface element.
The “top” surface of a surface element is the surface in the positive normal direction (defined below) and
is called the SPOS face for contact definition. The “bottom” surface is in the negative direction along
the normal and is called the SNEG face for contact definition.

For general surface elements the positive normal direction is defined by the right-hand rule going around
the nodes of the element in the order that they are specified in the element definition. See Figure 32.7.1–1.
n face SPOS
4 3
n 3
1 2
Z
Y
1
face SNEG
X 2
Figure 32.7.1–1 Positive normals for general surface elements.

The positive normal direction is defined by the right-hand rule going around the nodes of the element in
the order that they are specified in the element definition. See Figure 32.7.1–2.
32.7.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
SURFACE ELEMENTS
3 face SNEG
5 3
2 6
7 2
9
4
n 6 4 5
1 8
face SPOS
1
Figure 32.7.1–2 Positive normals for cylindrical surface elements.

For axisymmetric surface elements the positive normal is defined by a 90° counterclockwise rotation
n face SPOS
face SNEG
z 1
Figure 32.7.1–3 Positive normals for axisymmetric surface elements.
You must associate the surface section properties with a region of your model.
Input File Usage: *SURFACE SECTION, ELSET=name
where the ELSET parameter refers to a set of surface elements.
Create Section: select Shell as the section Category and Surface as the
section Type
32.7.1–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
SURFACE ELEMENTS
Using a surface element to carry rebar layers

You can define layers of reinforcement that are carried by the surface element. The stiffness and mass
due to the rebar layers are added to the surface element.
*SURFACE SECTION, ELSET=name
*REBAR LAYER
and Surface as the section Type, Rebar Layers
Using a surface element to bring additional mass into the model

You can define the mass per unit area carried by the surface element.
Input File Usage: *SURFACE SECTION, ELSET=name, DENSITY=number
and Surface as the section Type, toggle on Density: number
Using a surface element in a constraint

Surface elements can be used to define a surface in Abaqus, and this surface can be used in a surface-
based tie constraint (see “Mesh tie constraints,” Section 34.3.1).
*SURFACE, NAME=surface_name
*TIE, NAME=name
surface_name, master_name
Abaqus/CAE Usage: In Abaqus/CAE you can select one or more faces directly in the viewport when
you are prompted to select a surface. In addition, you can define surfaces as
collections of faces and edges using the Surface toolset.
Interaction module: Create Constraint: Tie
32.7.1–6
Abaqus ID:
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GENERAL SURFACE LIBRARY
32.7.2 GENERAL SURFACE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *REBAR LAYER
Overview
This section provides a reference to the surface elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
SFM3D3 3-node triangle

(S)
SFM3D4 4-node quadrilateral
SFM3D4R 4-node quadrilateral, reduced integration
(S)
SFM3D6 6-node triangle
(S)
SFM3D8 8-node quadrilateral
(S)
SFM3D8R 8-node quadrilateral, reduced integration
1, 2, 3
None.
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define surface element properties:
*SURFACE SECTION
If rebar are being defined, use the following option in conjunction with the
*SURFACE SECTION option:
*REBAR LAYER
32.7.2–1
Abaqus ID:
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Use the following option to define a mass density per unit area:
*SURFACE SECTION, DENSITY=number
and Surface as the section Type, Rebar Layers (optional)
You cannot define the mass per unit area for a surface section in Abaqus/CAE.
Distributed loads
Distributed loads are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3. Gravity, centrifugal,
rotary acceleration, and Coriolis force loads apply only if the surface elements have rebar defined or if
the elements have a defined density.
BX Body force FL−2 Body force in the global X-direction.

−2
BY Body force FL Body force in the global Y-direction.
−2
−2
BXNU Body force FL Nonuniform body force in the
Abaqus/Explicit.
BYNU Body force FL−2 Nonuniform body force in the
Abaqus/Explicit.
BZNU Body force FL−2 Nonuniform body force in the
Abaqus/Explicit.
per unit area, is the angular speed).
32.7.2–2
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CORIO(S) Coriolis force FL−3 T Coriolis force (magnitude is input as
(ML−2 T−1 ) , where is the mass density per
unit area, is the angular speed). The
load stiffness due to Coriolis loading
is not accounted for in direct steady-
state dynamics analysis.
acceleration).
normal.
element normal.
acceleration).
reference surface.
32.7.2–3
Abaqus ID:
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reference surface.
and Z-directions.
VP(E) Not supported FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure applied
to the element reference surface.
The pressure is proportional to the
velocity normal to the element face
and opposing the motion.
Foundations

F Elastic FL−2 Elastic foundation.

foundation
Distributed loads


32.7.2–4
Abaqus ID:
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normal.
normal.
the surface normal.
reference surface.
reference surface.
VP(E) Pressure FL−3 T Viscous surface pressure applied to
the element reference surface. The
32.7.2–5
Abaqus ID:
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Surface-based incident wave loading is also available for these elements. See “Acoustic and shock
Element output
Output is currently available only when the surface element is used to carry rebar layers. See “Defining
reinforcement,” Section 2.2.3, for details.
3 3
4
1 2 1 2
3 4 7 3
6 5 8 6
4
1 2 1 5 2
32.7.2–6
Abaqus ID:
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3 3
6 3 5
1 1 2
4
1 2 1 2
3 3
4 4
4
3
1
1 2
1 2 1 2
integration element
4 7 3 4 7 3
7 8 9 3 4
8 4 5 6 6 8 6
1 2 3 1 2
1 5 2 1 5 2
integration element
32.7.2–7
Abaqus ID:
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CYLINDRICAL SURFACE ELEMENTS
32.7.3 CYLINDRICAL SURFACE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *REBAR LAYER
Overview
This section provides a reference to the cylindrical surface elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
SFMCL6 6-node cylindrical surface

SFMCL9 9-node cylindrical surface

1, 2, 3

None.
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define surface element properties:
*SURFACE SECTION
*REBAR LAYER
32.7.3–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Distributed loads
Distributed loads are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3. Gravity, centrifugal,
rotary acceleration, and Coriolis force loads apply only if the surface elements have rebar defined or if
the elements have a defined density.

(*DLOAD)
BX FL−3 Body force in the global X-direction.

BY FL−2 Body force in the global Y-direction.
−2
BZ FL Body force in the global Z-direction.
BYNU FL−2 Nonuniform body force in the global
Y-direction with magnitude supplied via
where is the mass density per unit area,
is the angular speed).
where is the angular speed).
where is the mass density per unit area,
is the angular speed). The load stiffness
due to Coriolis loading is not accounted for
in direct steady-state dynamics analysis.
HP FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure applied to the element
reference surface and linear in global Z. The
32.7.3–2
Abaqus ID:
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(*DLOAD)
pressure is positive in the direction of the
P FL−2 Pressure applied to the element reference
surface. The pressure is positive in the
direction of the positive element normal.
PNU FL−2 Nonuniform pressure applied to the element
surface.
UTRACLOAD.
surface.
UTRACLOAD.
Foundations

(*FOUNDATION)
F FL−2 Elastic foundation.
Distributed loads
32.7.3–3
Abaqus ID:
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(*DSLOAD)
HP FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure on the element

reference surface and linear in global Z.
P FL−2 Pressure on the element reference surface.

PNU FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on the element

is positive in the direction opposite to the
surface normal.

surface.

UTRACLOAD.

surface.

UTRACLOAD.
Element output
32.7.3–4
Abaqus ID:
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3 3
5 6
2 7 2
9
4 5
4
6 8
1 1
3 3
5 6
4
2 2 7 2
9
1 3 2
4 4 5
6 1
8
1 1
32.7.3–5
Abaqus ID:
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AXISYMMETRIC SURFACE LIBRARY
32.7.4 AXISYMMETRIC SURFACE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References

• *REBAR LAYER
Overview
This section provides a reference to the axisymmetric surface elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Conventions
Coordinate 1 is r, coordinate 2 is z. At , the r-direction corresponds to the global X-direction

and the z-direction corresponds to the global Y-direction. This is important when data must be given in
global directions. Coordinate 1 should be greater than or equal to zero.
Abaqus/Standard does not automatically apply any boundary conditions to nodes located along the
symmetry axis. You must apply radial or symmetry boundary conditions on these nodes if desired.
Point loads and moments should be given as the value integrated around the circumference; that is, the
total value on the ring.
Element types
Regular axisymmetric surface elements

SFMAX1 2-node linear, without twist
SFMAX2 3-node quadratic, without twist
1, 2
None.
Generalized axisymmetric surface elements
SFMGAX1 2-node linear, with twist
SFMGAX2 3-node quadratic, with twist
32.7.4–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

1, 2, 5

None.
R, Z
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define surface elements:
*SURFACE SECTION
*REBAR LAYER
and Surface as the section Type, Rebar Layers (optional)
You cannot define the mass per unit area for a surface section in Abaqus/CAE.
Distributed loads
Distributed loads are specified as described in “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3. Gravity and
centrifugal loads apply only if the surface elements have rebar defined or if the elements have a defined
density.

BR Body force FL−2 Body force in the radial (1 or r)

direction.
BZ Body force FL−2 Body force in the axial (2 or z)
direction.
BRNU Body force FL−2 Nonuniform body force in the radial
32.7.4–2
Abaqus ID:
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BZNU Body force FL−2 Nonuniform body force in the axial

CENT Not supported FL−3 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input
per unit area, is the angular
must be the z-axis.
CENTRIF Rotational body T−2 Centrifugal load (magnitude is input
must be the z-axis.
acceleration).
HP Not supported FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure applied to the
normal.
element normal.
element normal.
reference surface.
32.7.4–3
Abaqus ID:
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reference surface.
Foundations
F Elastic FL−2 Elastic foundation. For SFMGAX1

foundation and SFMGAX2 elements the elastic
foundations are applied to degrees of
freedom and only.
Distributed loads
HP Pressure FL−2 Hydrostatic pressure applied to the

in global Z. The pressure is positive
in the direction opposite to the surface
normal.
the surface normal.
PNU Pressure FL−2 Nonuniform pressure applied to
32.7.4–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

the surface normal.
reference surface.
reference surface.

Element output
2
2
3
1
1
32.7.4–5
Abaqus ID:
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2 2
3
2
1 1
1
1
32.7.4–6
Abaqus ID:
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TUBE SUPPORT ELEMENTS
32.8 Tube support elements
• “Tube support elements,” Section 32.8.1

• “Tube support element library,” Section 32.8.2
32.8–1
Abaqus ID:
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TUBE SUPPORT
32.8.1 TUBE SUPPORT ELEMENTS
References
• “Tube support element library,” Section 32.8.2

• *ITS
• *DASHPOT
• *FRICTION
• *SPRING
Overview
Tube support elements:

• are provided to model the interaction of a tube with a closely adjacent tube support, for cases where
intermittent contact between the tube and the support may occur; and
• are made up of a spring/friction link (to simulate direct contact between the tube and the support)
and a parallel dashpot (to simulate the effect of the fluid in the annulus between the tube and the
support), as shown in Figure 32.8.1–1.
Details of the element formulations can be found in “Tube support elements,” Section 3.9.4 of the Abaqus
Theory Manual.
An ITSCYL element can be used to model a drilled hole support (see Figure 32.8.1–2).
Several ITSUNI elements can be attached to the same node of the beam elements representing the
tube to model the case of a tube support made up of a series of straight segments, as in an “egg-crate”
design (see Figure 32.8.1–3).
Two types of tube support elements are provided.
ITSUNI elements
ITSUNI is a “unidirectional” element, which always acts in a fixed direction in space. One node of the
element must be located on the axis of the tube, which is modeled using beam elements; and the other
node must be located equidistant between the two parallel support plates. The support plates are built
into the ITSUNI element definition.
32.8.1–1
Abaqus ID:
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TUBE SUPPORT
P3
Q
2
Spring
( linear or nonlinear )
Dashpot
( linear or nonlinear )
Friction
1
Q
P3
Figure 32.8.1–1 Tube support element behavior.
ITSCYL elements
ITSCYL is a “cylindrical” element, which can be used to simulate the interaction between a circular tube
and a circular hole. One node of the element must be located on the axis of the tube, which is modeled
using beam elements, and the other node must be located at the center of the hole in the circular tube
support plate. The circular hole is built into the ITSCYL element definition.
Defining the behavior of ITS elements
You define the diameter of the tube and other geometric quantities that define the ITS element. You must
associate these quantities with a set of ITS elements. In addition, you must define the behavior of the
spring, friction link, and dashpot that make up a tube support element.
32.8.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TUBE SUPPORT
Tube center
Tube
CL of tube Tube
1 support
plate
Center of hole
ITSCYL
element
Figure 32.8.1–2 Use of an ITSCYL element for a drilled hole support.
The spring behavior of an ITS element is shown in Figure 32.8.1–4. Relative displacements in the
element are measured from the position where the tube and the hole in the support plate are aligned
exactly—when the nodes of the element are at the same location. As indicated in Figure 32.8.1–4, the
spring behavior of an ITS element is modified from that of the assigned spring definition to account for
any clearance between the tube and support when the nodes of the element are at the same location.
When there is no contact between the tube and the support, no force is transmitted by the spring; when
the tube is in contact with the support, the force increases as the tube wall is deformed. This force can
be modeled as a linear or a nonlinear function of the relative displacement between the axis of the tube
and the center of the hole in the support.
32.8.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TUBE SUPPORT
Tube
Parallel support
plates for element 2
CL of tube
ITSUNI elements
1
2 1 n1
n2
2
Center of opening
in support plates
Parallel support
plates for element 1
Figure 32.8.1–3 Use of ITSUNI elements for an “egg-crate” support.
Friction between the tube and support will generate a moment at the tube node if the tube diameter
is greater than zero and a moment at the hole node if the hole size is greater than zero. At least one of
the following should be true for any node of an ITS element that will have a moment acting on it:
• the node should be associated with a beam or other element that can carry a moment;
• the nodal rotation should be set to zero with a boundary condition.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to define the behavior of ITS elements:
*ITS, ELSET=name
*DASHPOT
*SPRING
*FRICTION
32.8.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TUBE SUPPORT
Stiffness associated
P3 with tube wall
ITSUNI flattening
-c0
c0 u3
c0 = clearance between tube and support

side in fully aligned position
P3
Stiffness associated with

ITSCYL tube wall flattening
c0 u3
c0 = difference between support plate hole radius

and tube outside radius
Figure 32.8.1–4 Nonlinear spring behavior in ITS elements

to model clearance and tube flattening.
32.8.1–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TUBE SUPPORT LIBRARY
32.8.2 TUBE SUPPORT ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Tube support elements,” Section 32.8.1

• *ITS
Overview
This section provides a reference to the tube support elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
ITSUNI Unidirectional tube support element

ITSCYL Cylindrical geometry tube support element

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

None.
X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: *ITS
None.
Element output
S11 Total direct force in the element.

S12 Tangential (shear) force component, caused by friction, in the plane of the cross-
section of the tube.
S13 Tangential (shear) force component, caused by friction, parallel to the axis of the
tube.
32.8.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
TUBE SUPPORT LIBRARY
The force in the spring link and the force in the dashpot are defined as generalized substresses and,
therefore, are available as substress selections in the output options, as follows:
SS1 Force in the spring link.
SS2 Force in the dashpot.
The relative axial and tangential displacements corresponding to the forces above are chosen by
requesting the corresponding “strains,” except that “strain” component E13 is not defined in element
type ITSCYL.
The relative tangential (shear) displacement components during slip are available as “plastic strain”
components PE12 and PE13. The “equivalent plastic strain” is defined in these elements as
where and are the two relative tangential displacement components.
ITSUNI: Two nodes—one on the axis of the tube and one equidistant between the two parallel support
plates.
ITSCYL: Two nodes—one on the axis of the tube and one at the center of the hole in the support plate.
32.8.2–2
Abaqus ID:
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LINE SPRING ELEMENTS
32.9 Line spring elements
• “Line spring elements for modeling part-through cracks in shells,” Section 32.9.1
• “Line spring element library,” Section 32.9.2
32.9–1
Abaqus ID:
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32.9.1 LINE SPRING ELEMENTS FOR MODELING PART-THROUGH CRACKS IN SHELLS
References
• “Line spring element library,” Section 32.9.2

• *SHELL SECTION
• *SURFACE FLAW
Overview
Line spring elements:

• are used to evaluate part-through cracks (flaws) in shells inexpensively;
• are used together with shell elements;
• can be used with elastic or elastic-plastic (isotropic hardening, Mises yield) material behavior;
• do not include thermal strain effects;
• are written for small-displacement analysis only (large-rotation effects are not included);
• are not available in linear perturbation steps;
• use quite significant approximations (especially in the elastic-plastic case) and should, therefore, be
used with care;
• do not provide useful results for crack depths less than 2% or greater than 95% of the shell thickness;
and
• will not yield accurate results at the ends of the flaws or locations where the flaw depth varies rapidly
with position, due to the three-dimensional nature of the solution in such areas.
Line spring elements provide inexpensive evaluation of part-through cracks in shells. The basic concept
is that these elements introduce the local solution, dominated by the singularity at the crack tip, into a
shell model of the uncracked geometry. This is accomplished by allowing an additional freedom in the
model along the line of the crack, this freedom being provided by the line spring elements, as indicated
in Figure 32.9.1–1.
The compliance of the line spring with respect to these additional freedoms embeds the local
solution in the global response. From the relative displacements and rotations conjugate to that
compliance, Abaqus/Standard computes and prints out the J-integral and, in the linear case, stress
intensity factors at integration points in the line spring elements. Because the elements are simple, the
analysis is not significantly more expensive than a shell analysis of the uncracked geometry. The results
provide acceptable accuracy for many common applications.
32.9.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
shell elements
A
A
typical line spring element
Section A-A
n
'positive' crack
4 (open on +n surface)
1
5
2
n
6
nodes representing 3
opposite side
of crack 'negative' crack
(open on -n surface)
Figure 32.9.1–1 Line spring models.
See “Line spring elements,” Section 3.9.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for details of the theory
behind these elements.
Two versions of the element are provided—both are intended for use with the second-order shell elements
(S8R, S8R5, S9R5). Line spring element LS6 is for general cases, while line spring element LS3S is for
use when the flaw lies on a symmetry plane and only one side of the symmetry plane is modeled.
32.9.1–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
You must associate the shell section properties with a set of line spring elements.
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION, ELSET=name
Defining a constant section thickness

You can define a constant section thickness for the line spring element as part of the shell section
definition.
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION
shell thickness
Defining a variable section thickness

Alternatively, you can define a line spring element with continuously varying thickness and specify
the thickness of the line spring element at the nodes. In this case any constant section thickness you
specify will be ignored, and the line spring thickness will be interpolated from the nodes (see “Nodal
thicknesses,” Section 2.1.3). The thickness must be defined at all nodes connected to the element.
*SHELL SECTION, NODAL THICKNESS
*NODAL THICKNESS
Assigning a material definition to a set of line spring elements

You must associate a material definition with each shell section definition.
Line spring elements can be used with isotropic elastic or elastic-plastic (isotropic hardening, Mises
yield) material behavior (“Linear elastic behavior,” Section 22.2.1, and “Classical metal plasticity,”
Section 23.2.1); these are the only material behavior definitions that are relevant to these elements. The
elastic behavior must be isotropic. Plasticity is included for Mode I (crack opening) response only; an
elastic-plastic analysis will be accurate only when Mode I behavior dominates.
The same material must be used through the section: a layered section cannot be defined with a line
spring. Thermal strain effects are not included in the line spring elements; however, most of the thermal
strain occurs in the shell, so this is not important in many cases (it is within the approximation made by
line springs).
Input File Usage: *SHELL SECTION, ELSET=name, MATERIAL=name
Defining the flaw
The flaw is defined by specifying its depth at each node along the crack front. You must identify whether
the crack originates from the positive or negative surface of the shell (the positive surface is located a
positive distance along the surface normal from the shell’s middle surface, as shown in Figure 32.9.1–1).
At a point where the surface flaw depth is very small or zero, the compliance of the line spring
element is also very small. To avoid numerical problems when a small compliance is inverted to form a
stiffness, the minimum surface flaw depth used by Abaqus/Standard is 2% of the thickness specified for
32.9.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
the line spring element, even if you specify a smaller surface flaw depth. If you want to constrain the
two nodes where the surface flaw depth is zero to have the same displacements, you should tie the nodes
together with a linear constraint equation or a multi-point constraint (“Kinematic constraints: overview,”
Section 34.1.1). This is normally not required.
Input File Usage: *SURFACE FLAW, SIDE=POSITIVE or NEGATIVE
node number or node set label, crack depth
...
Defining the shell model that contains the flaw
You must specify the uncracked thickness of the shell in the section definition. The geometry of the shell
at the flaw (coordinates and surface normals) is given in the usual way.
Including the effects of pressure loading on the crack faces
Cracks often occur on surfaces that are subjected to pressure; to include the effect of such loading on
the crack faces, suitable distributed loading types are provided. These loading types are not intended for
elastic-plastic line springs because the nodal equivalent forces calculated for the pressures are based on
superposition methods that are valid only in the linear elastic case.
J -integral output
If the material is linear elastic only, the J-integral value and the stress intensity factors are output; for the
elastic-plastic case local values of and are provided as well as their sum into a single J value. In
this case the J values will have acceptable accuracy only if is much larger than . See “Line spring
elements,” Section 3.9.5 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, for further details.
32.9.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
LINE SPRING LIBRARY
32.9.2 LINE SPRING ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Line spring elements for modeling part-through cracks in shells,” Section 32.9.1
• *SHELL SECTION
• *SURFACE FLAW
Overview
This section provides a reference to the line spring elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
LS6 6-node general second-order line spring

LS3S 3-node second-order line spring for use on a symmetry plane
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
None.
X, Y, Z required at each node and, optionally, , , (direction cosines of the normal to the shell)
at each node.
A user-defined normal definition (see “Normal definitions at nodes,” Section 2.1.4) can also be used to
specify , , . If these are not specified, they are constructed as for all other shell elements—by
averaging over the shell elements attached to each node.
The only element property used is the thickness; the number of integration points is ignored, since the
elements work on the basis of section properties.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define line spring element properties:
*SHELL SECTION
Use the following option to define the depth of the crack as a function of
position:
*SURFACE FLAW
32.9.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
LINE SPRING LIBRARY
Distributed loads
Three Gauss points are used for crack face pressure loading.

(*DLOAD)
HP FL−2 Hydrostatic surface pressure on the crack

faces, with magnitude varying linearly with
the global Z-direction.
P FL−2 Surface pressure on the crack faces.
Element output
Nodes 1, 2, and 3 on the element define side B and nodes 4, 5, and 6 define side A (see Figure 32.9.2–1).
The sign of the crack is defined by the surface of the shell from which the crack originates, which
you identify when you define the depth of the crack (see “Line spring elements for modeling part-
through cracks in shells,” Section 32.9.1). If the crack originates from the positive surface of the shell,
sign(crack)=1.0; if the crack originates from the negative surface of the shell, sign(crack)=−1.0.
The vector is defined by the right-hand rule from the cross product of the tangent, , which is positive
going from node 1 to node 3 of the element, and the normal, , defined when the coordinates are given
(or by a user-defined normal definition). For element type LS3S the vector must point into the model
(away from the symmetry plane). For element type LS6 the vector must point from side A to side B.
“Strains”
E11 Mode I opening displacement, q

E22 Mode I opening rotation,
The following strains exist only for LS6:

E33 Mode II through thickness shear,
E12 Mode II rotation, (this strain plays no role)
E13 Mode III anti-plane shear,
E23 Mode III opening rotation,
The conjugate forces and moments are available by requesting “stress” output.
32.9.2–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
LINE SPRING LIBRARY
The J-integral is provided at each integration point. If elastic-plastic material behavior is defined, the
elastic and plastic parts of J are provided. The stress intensity factors, K, are also provided corresponding
to the elastic parts of J.
n
q
t B
t a
Figure 32.9.2–1 Notation for line spring strains.
side A
t 5 q
4 2 side B 6
LS6
1 3
t q
2
LS3S side B
1 3
32.9.2–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
LINE SPRING LIBRARY
Three points (these points are at the nodes) are used for integration and element output.
2 5
X 3
4 2
1 6
X X
LS6
1 3
2
X
2
1 3
LS3S X X
1 3
32.9.2–4
Abaqus ID:
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ELASTIC-PLASTIC JOINTS
32.10 Elastic-plastic joints
• “Elastic-plastic joints,” Section 32.10.1

• “Elastic-plastic joint element library,” Section 32.10.2
32.10–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
32.10.1 ELASTIC-PLASTIC JOINTS
Product: Abaqus/Aqua
References
• *EPJOINT
• “Elastic-plastic joint element library,” Section 32.10.2
Overview
JOINT2D and JOINT3D elements:
• are available for use only in Abaqus/Aqua used in conjunction with Abaqus/Standard
(“Abaqus/Aqua analysis,” Section 6.11.1);
• can be used to model flexible joints between structural members or the interaction between spud
cans and the ocean floor;
• are valid for small displacements and rotations; and
• can be purely elastic or elastic-plastic.
Elastic-plastic joint elements
Abaqus/Standard provides JOINT2D and JOINT3D elements for modeling a joint between structural
members or between a structural member and a fixed support. They can be used in an Abaqus/Aqua
analysis to model the interaction between a “spud can” and the sea floor for jack-up foundation analysis
in offshore applications.
The joint has two nodes. One of these nodes should be constrained fully (by using a boundary
condition) if the joint is between a structural member and a fixed support.
Kinematics and local coordinate system

The deformation of the joint is characterized by joint “strains,” which are relative displacements and
rotations between the nodes of the joint. The joint must be associated with a user-defined local orientation
system (see “Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) that is defined by three orthonormal directions: , , and .
The joint, when strained by relative extension or rotation of the two nodes, responds by applying
equal and opposite forces and/or moments to the nodes. These forces and moments, or joint “stresses,”
can be a linear (elastic) or nonlinear (elastic-plastic) function of the “strains,” depending on the type of
constitutive model used in the joint.
The stresses and strains are named as shown in Figure 32.10.1–1. Positive stress indicates tension;
positive strain indicates extension.
32.10.1–1
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1
D0
joint between 2
D
structural 2 3 θ 2 νc
members νm
1
1 σ23
joint as a spud can
σ13 σ11
σ22 σ12
2
1 σ33 joint "stresses":

forces and moments
shown on node 2
Figure 32.10.1–1 Local axis definition for joint elements.
Even when geometrically nonlinear analysis is requested (“Geometric nonlinearity” in “General and
linear perturbation procedures,” Section 6.1.3), the element kinematics are defined with the assumption
of small relative displacements and small rotations; therefore, these elements should not be used when
these assumptions are violated. If large rotations are required and there is no plasticity, JOINTC elements
can be used (see “Flexible joint element,” Section 32.3.1).
The “extensional” strains are defined through
and the “bending” strains through
where
are the relative displacements and rotations of the two nodes of the joint, respectively.
For two-dimensional elements only the axial strains , , and the bending strain exist. For
three-dimensional elements all six components exist.
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Input File Usage: Use the following option to associate a local orientation system with an elastic-
plastic joint element:
*EPJOINT, ORIENTATION=name
Joint constitutive models

The elastic moduli for joint elasticity can be entered in one of two ways. You can specify a general,
anisotropic relation between the forces/moments and elastic extensions. Alternatively, you can enter
moduli specific for a spud can; the elastic stiffness matrix is diagonal and depends on the diameter of
the spud can at the soil surface, D, which can vary if spud can plasticity is defined and the spud can is
conical. See “Joint elasticity models” below for details.
Three joint plasticity models are provided. Two are specific to spud cans. The third is a parabolic
model for structural joints or members. See “Joint plasticity” below for details.
If plasticity is included, the plastic straining is assumed to occur in the local 1–2 plane so that the
only nonzero plastic strains are , , and . It is assumed that plasticity in the 3-direction can be
neglected. In a three-dimensional model strains out of the 1–2 plane produce purely elastic response.
If the parabolic plasticity model for structural joints or members is used, the 1-direction is the axial
direction along the members, while the 2-direction is the transverse direction (see Figure 32.10.1–1). In
the spud can plasticity models the 1-direction is the vertical direction, and the 2-direction is the horizontal
direction in which plastic extension can take place. In three-dimensional models the 3-direction is the
horizontal direction in which only elastic extension can take place.
Any combination of elastic and plastic models can be used. For example, usually spud can elastic
moduli will be used with spud can plasticity, but the use of general moduli with spud can plasticity is
allowed.
If plasticity is used in a three-dimensional model, coupling is not allowed through the elastic
modulus between the strains or stresses in the 1–2 plane ( , ) and the remaining, out-of-plane,
strains ( , ). Thus, in this case many of the general elastic moduli must be set to zero.
Input File Usage: Use one or both of the following options immediately after the related
*EPJOINT option to define the joint constitutive model:
*JOINT ELASTICITY
*JOINT PLASTICITY
Orientation
Care must be taken in defining the local directions and node numbering so that the motion of node 2
relative to node 1 in the positive 1-direction of the local axis corresponds to extension. Incorrect
specification of the local directions or element node numbering can produce incorrect results in plastic
analysis because compression will be interpreted as extension.
If one of the nodes must be fixed to represent the ground, it is most convenient to let this node be
the first node of the element; extension is then represented by the motion of node 2 of the element in
the positive local 1-direction. If a spud can is being modeled in this way, the local 1-direction should be
the outward normal to the ocean floor. For a two-dimensional analysis that uses Abaqus/Aqua structural
loads, this direction must be the global y-direction.
32.10.1–3
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For a three-dimensional analysis that uses Abaqus/Aqua structural loads, the local 1-direction
should point in the global z-direction. If plasticity is being used, the local 2-direction should be set so
that the 1–2 plane is the plane of greatest deformation.
Input File Usage: Use the following orientation definition to model a spud can with the first node
fixed:
*ORIENTATION, NAME=name, TYPE=RECTANGULAR
0, 1, 0, −1, 0, 0
Use the following orientation definition for a three-dimensional Abaqus/Aqua
analysis with plasticity:
*ORIENTATION, NAME=name, TYPE=RECTANGULAR
0, 0, 1, x, y, 0
where (x, y, 0) defines the local 2-direction.
Spud can geometry
If either spud can elasticity or spud can plasticity is used, you must specify the constants to define the spud
can geometry. The entire spud can section definition has no effect if there is neither spud can elasticity
nor spud can plasticity.
The spud can, illustrated in Figure 32.10.1–1, can be either conical-based or flat-based. The spud
can geometry is defined by , the diameter of the cylindrical portion, and , the planar angle of the
conical portion, where . You can specify a flat-based spud can by omitting the specification
of or by giving a value of 0 or 180 for .
Input File Usage: *EPJOINT, SECTION=SPUD CAN
,
Spud can initial embedment
If spud can plasticity is defined or if there is spud can elasticity and the spud can is conical, you must
specify the initial embedment of the spud can, .
The embedment can be prescribed directly or by specifying a “preload” that produces the
embedment, as discussed below. Specification of both embedment and preload is not allowed. If either
embedment or preload is given, both embedment and equivalent preload (in the case of plasticity) can
be examined in the data file at the start of the analysis.
At any time in the analysis the spud can has a total (plastic) embedment of , where
is the plastic embedment between the start of the analysis and time t. (The negative sign in this
equation reflects the fact that the sign convention for strain in Abaqus is positive for tensile strain. Most
often for spud can plasticity, will be compressive, or negative.) The joint can be purely elastic, in
which case , so always.
The height of the conical portion of the spud can is given by . The effective
diameter of the spud can at the soil surface, D, is defined by
32.10.1–4
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1. For a flat-based spud can:
2. For a conical-based spud can:

a. Cone portion partially penetrating ( ):
b. Penetration beyond cone-cylinder transition ( ):
The current spud can area at the soil surface, A, is defined through . The effective
diameter can vary throughout the analysis only for a conical spud can with plasticity.
The embedment has no effect and is not required if the spud can is cylindrical and spud can plasticity
is not defined.
Specifying the embedment directly

The embedment value can be prescribed directly using initial conditions (see “Initial conditions in
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit,” Section 33.2.1).
Input File Usage: *INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=SPUD EMBEDMENT
Specifying the spud can preload

If spud can plasticity is defined, you can specify the initial compressive capacity (“preload”), ,
instead of the embedment. In this case Abaqus/Aqua will use the hardening law to calculate the plastic
embedment that follows when the preload is applied vertically.
The preload initial condition is used only to calculate the initial plastic embedment; the spud can
starts the analysis in a zero strain and stress state at this initial plastic embedment, and the preload is
assumed to be removed. You must apply any operational vertical load through loading within the history
definition.
Input File Usage: *INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=SPUD PRELOAD
Embedment in an elastic spud can analysis

If the spud can model is purely elastic, the spud can geometry is needed only for calculating the embedded
diameter of the spud can for spud can elastic moduli. The embedment is required for this calculation only
if the spud can is conical.
Output
Force and moment output in the element local system is available through the “stress” output variable S.
Extension and relative rotation are available through the “strain” output variable E. Elastic and plastic
32.10.1–5
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strains are available through the output variables EE and PE. For spud cans the plastic embedment since
the start of the analysis is available through the vertical component of plastic strain, PE11, and will
usually be negative, indicating compression; the total vertical embedment, , is available through
output variable PEEQ. Element nodal force (the force the element places on its nodes, in the global
system) is available through element variable NFORC.
Joint elasticity models
The elastic load-displacement behavior of the JOINT2D and JOINT3D elements is characterized by
elastic spring stiffnesses, which are assembled to form the elastic element stiffness matrix. A special
diagonal modulus for spud cans can be specified or, alternatively, a fully populated (general) elastic
modulus can be specified.
Spud can moduli

Spud can moduli can be prescribed for either two-dimensional or three-dimensional elements.
Two-dimensional spud can moduli

The elastic stiffness for a two-dimensional spud can is
where
is the vertical elastic spring stiffness, ;
is the horizontal elastic spring stiffness, ;
is the elastic spring stiffness in bending, ;
in which , , and are equivalent elastic shear moduli for vertical, horizontal, and rotational
displacements, respectively; is the Poisson’s ratio of the soil (suggested value: 0.2 for sand and 0.5 for
clay).
Input File Usage: *JOINT ELASTICITY, MODULI=SPUD CAN, NDIM=2
Three-dimensional spud can moduli

For a three-dimensional spud can the moduli are
32.10.1–6
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where
is the vertical elastic spring stiffness, ;
is a horizontal elastic spring stiffness, ;
is a horizontal elastic spring stiffness, ;
is an elastic spring stiffness in bending, ;
is an elastic spring stiffness in bending, ;
is the torsional elastic spring stiffness, ;
in which , , , and are as before and is a user-specified torsional stiffness value.
Straining out of the 1–2 plane through the strains , and produces purely elastic response
in the three-dimensional model regardless of plasticity. The moduli related to these strains are assumed
not to be affected by the plasticity so that , and are based on the initial embedded
diameter, while the other moduli depend on the current embedded diameter.
Input File Usage: *JOINT ELASTICITY, MODULI=SPUD CAN, NDIM=3
General moduli
General moduli can be specified for either two-dimensional or three-dimensional elements.
Two-dimensional general moduli

For the two-dimensional case six independent elastic moduli are needed. The stress-strain relations are
as follows:
Input File Usage: *JOINT ELASTICITY, MODULI=GENERAL, NDIM=2
Three-dimensional general moduli

For the three-dimensional case 21 independent elastic moduli are needed. The stress-strain relations are
as follows:
Input File Usage: *JOINT ELASTICITY, MODULI=GENERAL, NDIM=3
32.10.1–7
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Joint plasticity
In what follows , and represent the vertical compressive load, the

horizontal load in the 1–2 plane, and the bending moment in the local 1–2 plane, respectively.
If plasticity is defined, the joint can yield axially, horizontally, or rotationally. The stress depends
linearly on the elastic strain. The elastic moduli can depend on the plasticity in the case of a conical spud
can, through the diameter at the surface, D.
The models are rate independent, with a yield equation of the form
where f is the yield function and is a set of hardening parameters, which in these models depend on
total vertical plastic embedment, ; the form of f and the definition of defines the type of plasticity
model.
The flow rule requires that the plastic flow direction is normal to the contours of the flow potential,
g. Associated flow is assumed in all of these models (except at vertices in the yield surface, as discussed
below).
Yield surface
The three available plasticity models all use parabolic yield surfaces. Each has a compressive and a
tensile limit for the stress in the 1-direction, which are termed and , respectively; is zero for the
clay model. The sign convention for and is such that they are always positive; thus,
always obeys
The yield surface is most conveniently drawn in -space, where is normalized compressive
vertical load and is defined as
where is the middle value of the limiting elastic range for V, and is
the length of the limiting range for V. The normalized load is, therefore, always within the range
with representing the tensile limit and representing the compressive limit
. is the normalized equivalent horizontal load and is defined through
32.10.1–8
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where and are the moment and horizontal yield stresses. The normalized moment and
normalized horizontal force are defined through and .
The normalized yield function in -space for each model is defined through
and is a parabola as plotted in Figure 32.10.1–2. The yield surface in the space of the three normalized
stresses is the surface of revolution of this parabola.
R
f, g = 0
"tensile" yield
(softening)
compressive yield
(hardening)
-1 1 V
g=0 f=0
.95 1
Figure 32.10.1–2 Yield surface and flow potential contour.
Flow potential
The flow potential is the same as the yield function (associated flow) except that some smoothing is done
to the flow potential where the yield function has corners.
The yield surface has corners and, therefore, nonunique normals at points where it is intersected by
the -axis.
32.10.1–9
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To avoid problems with the indeterminate flow directions at these corners, Abaqus/Standard uses
a flow potential whose contours are rounded in the region of the vertex, as indicated in the detail of a
vertex shown in Figure 32.10.1–2. This rounding is achieved by fitting an elliptical segment to the flow
potential contour for .
Integration of the plasticity equations

Abaqus/Aqua uses fully implicit integration for the plasticity equations. The corresponding tangent
stiffness is unsymmetric for these plasticity models. By default, the symmetrized tangent is used in the
global Newton loop. If the convergence rate seems to be poor, you may get some benefit out of using the
unsymmetric matrix storage and solution scheme for the step (see “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2).
Joint plasticity models

The three models differ only in the definitions of , , , and and in the hardening definitions.
We present the yield function for each model as it is presented in the literature rather than in normalized
form. The equivalent normalized form can be obtained by identifying and , which are explicit
in the given yield functions for clay and member plasticity; for the sand model they are provided for
reference.
Sand model
A. Yield function:
where and are constant coefficients that determine the geometric shape of the yield function.
The special case of and gives the yield function as proposed by
Osborne, et al.
B. Work hardening equations:
i. Flat-base spud can:
where is soil unit weight; is an experimentally determined constant; and and are
classical bearing capacity factors, which can be calculated as:
where is the soil friction angle.

ii. Conical-base spud can:
a. Cone portion partially penetrating:
32.10.1–10
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b. Penetration beyond cone-cylinder transition:
where is a “cone equivalency coefficient.”

The constants and are based on the following empirical relation, which has been derived from
centrifuge data:
in which the soil friction angle is in degrees.

The sand model yield function can be put in normalized form by using and
where . For the model of Osborne et al. .
This model requires a nonzero initial embedment or equivalent preload.
Input File Usage: *JOINT PLASTICITY, TYPE=SAND
Clay model
A. Yield function:
where
is the undrained shear strength of clay; and is the elevation area of the embedded portion of
the spud can, defined through:

a. Cone portion penetrating:
32.10.1–11
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b. Penetration beyond cone-cylinder transition:
B. Work hardening equations:

where , and c are user-defined empirical constants.

This model has zero yield strength in tension and requires a nonzero initial embedment or
equivalent preload.
Input File Usage: *JOINT PLASTICITY, TYPE=CLAY
Parabolic model for structural joints/members

A. Yield function:
where are horizontal and moment capacities, respectively.

B. Work hardening: no work hardening is assumed (the model is perfectly plastic).
Input File Usage: *JOINT PLASTICITY, TYPE=MEMBER
Plasticity analysis issues

Because associated flow is assumed in the spud can plasticity models, tensile vertical plastic strain can
occur whenever the yield surface is encountered with . It is not required that the vertical force
itself be tensile for tensile plastic yield to occur; tensile plastic yield can occur on any part of the yield
surface where . The spud can models soften during this tensile plastic yield; if there is insufficient
support from the rest of the model, an instability can occur and the analysis may fail to converge. When
this happens, the spud can is likely to be lifting out of the sea floor.
To make it easier to diagnose analysis problems that may arise due to these issues, a message is
printed to the message file in the following cases: if tensile plastic yield occurs for a spud can, if yield
occurs near the top of the parabolic yield surface ( ) where there is very little hardening, or if
32.10.1–12
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the embedment of a spud can becomes less than 10% of the initial embedment. These messages are not
printed more than once in a given step.
The plasticity algorithm can fail in an iteration if the strain increment is excessively large. Some
details that may be of help in diagnosing failure in joint elements can be obtained by requesting detailed
printout to the message file of problems with the plasticity algorithms (see “The Abaqus/Standard
message file” in “Output,” Section 4.1.1).
32.10.1–13
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ELASTIC-PLASTIC JOINT LIBRARY
32.10.2 ELASTIC-PLASTIC JOINT ELEMENT LIBRARY
Product: Abaqus/Aqua
References
• “Elastic-plastic joints,” Section 32.10.1

• *EPJOINT
Overview
This section provides a reference to the elastic-plastic joint elements available in Abaqus/Aqua.
Element types
JOINT2D Two-dimensional elastic-plastic joint element

JOINT3D Three-dimensional elastic-plastic joint element

1, 2, 6 for JOINT2D
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 for JOINT3D

None.
None.
Input File Usage: *EPJOINT
None.
Element output
The relative displacements and rotations corresponding to the forces and moments below are chosen
by requesting the corresponding “strains.” Elastic and plastic strains are available. For a spud can the
vertical (plastic) embedment since the start of the analysis is given by PE11; the total vertical embedment
is available as PEEQ.
32.10.2–1
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ELASTIC-PLASTIC JOINT LIBRARY
JOINT2D

JOINT3D

S33 Total direct force in the third local direction.
S13 Total moment about the second local direction.
S23 Total moment about the first local direction.
Two nodes.
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DRAG CHAIN ELEMENTS
32.11 Drag chain elements
• “Drag chains,” Section 32.11.1

• “Drag chain element library,” Section 32.11.2
32.11–1
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DRAG CHAINS
32.11.1 DRAG CHAINS
References
• “Drag chain element library,” Section 32.11.2

• *DRAG CHAIN
• *RIGID SURFACE
Overview
Drag chain elements:

• are used for simulating the effects of drag chains on the seabed for near bottom bending simulation
modeling; and
• can be used in two-dimensional or three-dimensional problems.
The drag chain is modeled as a concentrated weight on the seabed, with a chain between it and an
attachment point on the pipe (see Figure 32.11.1–1).
ooooo
°
°°°
ooo
°°
°°
h
°°°
oo
° °°°°
oo
o o
ooooooooooooooooooooo o o o ooo
l0 l1 l
Figure 32.11.1–1 Drag chain model.
Given a uniform drag chain of total length , weight per unit length w, and friction coefficient
between it and the seabed, attached to the pipeline at height h above the seabed, the length of chain on
the seabed at slip, , is given by
and the horizontal projection of the suspended length, , is
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DRAG CHAINS
Thus, the equivalent model should have a friction limit of The horizontal length at slip, , can be
taken as any value from to . Comparison with experiment has shown that taking this length as
is a reasonable choice.
When the pipeline attachment point is directly above the weight, there will be no horizontal force
or horizontal stiffness offered by a drag chain element; this position is assumed as the initial condition.
As the pipe moves relative to the seabed, the horizontal force on the pipeline caused by the drag chain
opposes the relative motion and gradually increases (an approximation to the catenary equation is used
to relate the force to the offset ) until the drag chain slips when the force reaches the friction limit. The
height, h, is assumed to be small compared to .
Two- and three-dimensional drag chain elements are available.

Element DRAG2D assumes that the seabed is flat and parallel to the plane in which the pipe is
moving; therefore, the seabed does not have to be modeled explicitly.
Element DRAG3D requires that the seabed be defined as an analytical rigid surface, which must be
flat and parallel to the global (X, Y) plane and is considered to be fixed throughout the analysis.
Defining the seabed for three-dimensional drag chains

The seabed is defined as an analytical rigid surface. This surface definition is used to determine if the
chain touches the seabed, depending on the separation between the pipe node and the position of the
seabed surface. See “Analytical rigid surface definition,” Section 2.3.4, for more information.
Since the seabed is considered to be fixed, boundary conditions must be applied to the rigid body
reference node of the seabed surface, which is also the second node of the DRAG3D element.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the seabed surface for DRAG3D elements:
*RIGID SURFACE
In a model defined in terms of an assembly of part instances, the rigid surface
definition that defines the seabed must appear inside the same part definition as
the drag chain elements.
Defining the drag chain behavior
For DRAG2D elements you specify the maximum horizontal length, , between the attachment point
and the concentrated weight. At this length the weight will start to slip on the seabed. In addition, you
specify the horizontal force between the weight and the seabed at slip (that is, the frictional limit).
For DRAG3D elements you specify the total length of the chain, the friction coefficient, and the
weight per unit length of chain.
You must associate the drag chain behavior with a set of drag chain elements.
Input File Usage: *DRAG CHAIN, ELSET=name
drag chain data
32.11.1–2
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DRAG CHAIN LIBRARY
32.11.2 DRAG CHAIN ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Drag chains,” Section 32.11.1

• *DRAG CHAIN
• *RIGID SURFACE
Overview
This section provides a reference to the drag chain elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
DRAG2D Two-dimensional drag chain, for use in cases where only horizontal motion is being
studied
DRAG3D Three-dimensional drag chain

DRAG2D: 1, 2
DRAG3D: At the first node: 1, 2, 3. At the second node: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

None.
DRAG2D: (X, Y) coordinates of the pipeline attachment node in the horizontal plane.
DRAG3D: (X, Y, Z) coordinates of both nodes.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the horizontal length at slip and the friction
limit:
*DRAG CHAIN
Use the following option to define the seabed for DRAG3D elements:
*RIGID SURFACE
The rigid surface must be flat and parallel to the global (X, Y) plane.
32.11.2–1
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DRAG CHAIN LIBRARY
None.
Element output
S11 The horizontal component of force supported by the drag chain in the plane parallel
to the seabed.
S12 The vertical component of force in the drag chain for DRAG3D elements.
E11 The horizontal length of the drag chain for DRAG2D elements. The length of chain
on the seabed floor (not suspended) for DRAG3D elements.
E12 The orientation of the drag chain (angle from the global X-axis).
DRAG2D: One node at the position where the chain attaches to the pipe.
DRAG3D: Two nodes. The first node is the node where the chain attaches to the pipe; the second node
is the “reference node” of the rigid body containing the rigid surface that defines the seabed.
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PIPE-SOIL ELEMENTS
32.12 Pipe-soil elements
• “Pipe-soil interaction elements,” Section 32.12.1

• “Pipe-soil interaction element library,” Section 32.12.2
32.12–1
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PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION
32.12.1 PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION ELEMENTS
References
• “Pipe-soil interaction element library,” Section 32.12.2

• *PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION
• *PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS
Overview
The pipe-soil interaction elements in Abaqus/Standard:

• can be used to model the interaction between a buried pipeline and the surrounding soil;
• must be used with beam elements, pipe, or elbow elements (see “Beam modeling: overview,”
Section 29.3.1, and “Pipes and pipebends with deforming cross-sections: elbow elements,”
Section 29.5.1); and
• can have linear or nonlinear constitutive behavior.
Pipe foundation elements
Abaqus/Standard provides two-dimensional (PSI24 and PSI26) and three-dimensional (PSI34 and
PSI36) pipe-soil interaction elements for modeling the interaction between a buried pipeline and the
surrounding soil.
The pipeline itself is modeled with any of the beam, pipe, or elbow elements in the Abaqus/Standard
element library (see “Beam modeling: overview,” Section 29.3.1, and “Pipes and pipebends with
deforming cross-sections: elbow elements,” Section 29.5.1). The ground behavior and soil-pipe
interaction are modeled with the pipe-soil interaction (PSI) elements. These elements have only
displacement degrees of freedom at their nodes. One side or edge of the element shares nodes with the
underlying beam, pipe, or elbow element that models the pipeline (see Figure 32.12.1–1). The nodes on
the other edge represent a far-field surface, such as the ground surface, and are used to prescribe the
far-field ground motion via boundary conditions together with amplitude references as needed.
The far-field side and the side that shares nodes with the pipeline are defined by the element
connectivity. Care must be taken in attaching the underlying elements to the correct edge of the PSI
element, since the connectivity of the pipe-soil element determines the local coordinate system as
defined below, and the depth, H, of the pipeline below the ground surface. The depth below the surface
is measured along the edge of the PSI element as shown in Figure 32.12.1–1 and is updated during
geometrically nonlinear analysis.
It is important to note that PSI elements do not discretize the actual domain of the surrounding soil.
The extent of the soil domain is reflected through the stiffness of the elements, which is defined by the
constitutive model as described later.
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far-field edge 3
ground surface
4
e2 H
PSI
e1 element
e3 2
pipeline discretized
1 with beam-type elements
pipeline edge
pipe centerline
Figure 32.12.1–1 Pipe-soil interaction model.
The pipe-soil interaction model does not include the density of the surrounding soil medium.
Mass can be associated with the model by applying concentrated MASS elements (see “Point masses,”
Section 30.1.1) at the nodes of the pipe-soil interaction elements if needed.
Assigning the pipe-soil interaction behavior to a PSI element
You must assign the pipe-soil interaction behavior to a set of pipe-soil interaction elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to assign the pipe-soil interaction behavior to a
particular element set:
*PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION, ELSET=name
Use the following option immediately after the*PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION
option to define the stiffness behavior for the element set:
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS
Kinematics and local coordinate system
The deformation of the pipe-soil interaction element is characterized by the relative displacements
between the two edges of the element. When the element is “strained” by the relative displacements,
forces are applied to the pipeline nodes. These forces can be a linear (elastic) or nonlinear (elastic-plastic)
function of the “strains,” depending on the type of constitutive model used for the element. Positive
“strains” are defined by
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where
are the relative displacements between the two edges ( are the far-field displacements, and are
the pipeline displacements), are local directions, and the index i (=1, 2, 3) refers to the three local
directions. For two-dimensional elements only the in-plane components of strain , exist. For
three-dimensional elements all three strain components , , and exist.
The local orientation system is defined by three orthonormal directions: , , and . The default
local directions are defined so that is the direction along the pipeline (axial direction), is the
direction normal to the plane of the element (transverse horizontal direction), and is
the direction in the plane of the element that defines the transverse vertical behavior. Positive default
directions are defined so that points toward the second pipeline node and points from the pipeline
edge toward the far-field edge, as shown in Figure 32.12.1–1. You can also define these local directions
by specifying a local orientation (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) for the pipe-soil interaction.
In a large-displacement analysis the local coordinate system rotates with the rigid body motion of the
underlying pipeline. In a small-displacement analysis the local system is defined by the initial geometry
of the PSI element and remains fixed in space during the analysis.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to associate a local orientation with a pipe-soil
interaction behavior:
*PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION, ORIENTATION=name
Constitutive models
The constitutive behavior for a pipe-soil interaction is defined by the force per unit length, or “stress,”
at each point along the pipeline, , caused by relative displacement or “strain,” , between that point
and the point on the far-field surface:
where are state variables (such as plastic strains), and are temperatures and/or field variables.
You can define these relationships quite generally by programming them in user subroutine UMAT.
Alternatively, you can define the relationships by specifying the data directly. In this case the assumption
is that the foundation behavior is separable:
in which case each of the independent relationships must be defined separately. Abaqus/Standard
assumes, by default, that these relationships are symmetric about the origin (as is generally appropriate
for the axial and transverse horizontal motions). However, you may give a nonsymmetric behavior for
32.12.1–3
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any of the three relative motions (this is usually the case in the vertical direction when the pipeline is
not buried too deeply). These models assume that positive “strains” give rise to forces on the pipe that
act along the positive directions of the local coordinate system.
Specifying the constitutive behavior with a user subroutine
To define the relationships quite generally, you can program them in user subroutine UMAT.
Input File Usage: *PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, TYPE=USER
Specifying the constitutive behavior directly
Two methods are provided for specifying constitutive behavior data directly. One method is to define the
relationships directly in tabular (piecewise linear) form. The other method is to use ASCE formulae.
Forms of these relationships suitable for use with sands and clays are defined in the ASCE Guidelines
for the Seismic Design of Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems.
Specifying the constitutive behavior directly using tabular input

You can define a linear or nonlinear constitutive model with different behavior in tension and compression
using tabular input.
Linear model
To define a linear constitutive model, you specify the stiffness as a function of temperature and field
variables (see Figure 32.12.1–2). You can enter different values for positive and negative “strain.”
Abaqus/Standard assumes, by default, that the relationship is symmetric about the origin.
Input File Usage: *PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, TYPE=LINEAR
Nonlinear model
To define a nonlinear constitutive model, you specify the relationship as a function of positive and
negative relative displacement (“strain”), temperature, and field variables (see Figure 32.12.1–3). The
behavior is assumed symmetric about the origin if only positive or negative data are provided.
You must provide the data in ascending order of relative displacement; you should provide it over
a sufficiently wide range of relative displacement values so that the behavior is defined correctly. The
force remains constant outside the range of data points. You must separate positive and negative data by
specifying the data point at the origin of the force-relative displacement diagram. The two data points
immediately before and after the data point at the origin define the elastic stiffness, and , and the
initial elastic limits, and , as indicated in Figure 32.12.1–3.
The model provides linear elastic behavior if
where and are the equivalent plastic strains associated with negative and positive deformations,
respectively. Inelastic deformation occurs when the relative force exceeds these elastic limits.
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Kp
Kn
Figure 32.12.1–2 Linear constitutive model.
qi, εi
qp
Kp
0, 0 ε
q1, ε1
Kn
q2, ε2
qn
Figure 32.12.1–3 Nonlinear constitutive relationship.
Hardening of the model is controlled by independent evolution of and . The model

assumes that remains constant when the increment in relative displacement is negative, and
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remains constant when the increment in relative displacement is positive. The response predicted by
this model during a full loading cycle is shown in Figure 32.12.1–4 for a simple constitutive law that
uses different bilinear behavior associated with positive and negative force. Figure 32.12.1–4 shows that
the yield stress associated with positive force is updated to , while the initial yield stress associated
with negative force, , remains constant during initial loading. Similarly, during subsequent reversed
loading the yield stress associated with negative force is updated to , while the yield stress associated
with positive force remains constant. Consequently, yielding occurs at during the next load reversal.
Such behavior is appropriate for the directions transverse to the pipeline where it is expected that relative
positive motion between the pipe and soil is independent from relative negative motion between the pipe
and soil.
q q
qp qp
Kp Kp Kp
ε ε
Kn
Kn
qn0 qn qn0
Figure 32.12.1–4 Cyclic loading for a bilinear model.
An isotropic hardening model is used if the behavior is symmetric about the origin (when only
positive or negative data are provided). In this case only one equivalent plastic strain variable, , is
used, which is updated when either negative or positive inelastic deformation occurs. Such an evolution
model is more appropriate along the axial direction where it is expected that positive inelastic deformation
influences subsequent negative inelastic deformation.
Input File Usage: *PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, TYPE=NONLINEAR
Specifying the constitutive behavior directly using ASCE formulae

Abaqus/Standard also provides analytical models to describe the pipe-soil interaction. These models
define the constant ultimate force that can be exerted on the pipeline. In other words, these models
describe elastic, perfectly plastic behavior. Forms of these formulae suitable for use with sands and
clays are described in detail in the ASCE Guidelines for the Seismic Design of Oil and Gas Pipeline
Systems.
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The ASCE formulae can be applied in any arbitrary local system by associating an orientation
definition with the element. However, these formulae are intended to be used in the default local
coordinate system so that the formula for axial behavior is applied along the pipeline axis (the
1-direction), the formula for vertical behavior is applied along the 2-direction, and the formula for
horizontal behavior along the 3-direction. You must specify the direction in which the behavior is
specified when it is described by ASCE fomulae.
You specify all the parameters in the expressions below, except the depth, H, below the surface,
which is measured along the edge of the PSI element as shown in Figure 32.12.1–1 and is updated during
geometrically nonlinear analysis. Values for the remaining parameters can be found in standard soil
mechanics textbooks. Typical values are also provided in the ASCE Guidelines for the Seismic Design
of Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems.
Axial behavior
The ultimate axial load for sand, , is given by
where is the coefficient of soil pressure at rest, H is the depth from the ground surface to the center
of the pipeline, D is the external diameter of the pipeline, is the effective unit weight of soil, and is
the interface angle of friction.
The ultimate axial load for clay is given by
where S is the undrained soil shear strength and is an empirical adhesion factor that relates the undrained
soil shear strength to the cohesion, .
The maximum load is reached at an ultimate relative displacement, , of approximately 2.5 to
5.0 mm (0.1 to 0.2 inches) for sand and approximately 2.5 to 10.0 mm (0.2 to 0.4 inches) for clay. A
linear elastic response is assumed for .
The axial behavior is assumed to be symmetric about the origin. Consequently, only one equivalent
plastic strain variable, , describes the evolution of the model. The equivalent plastic strain is updated
when either negative or positive inelastic deformation occurs.
Input File Usage: Use one of the following options to define the axial behavior:
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, DIRECTION=AXIAL, TYPE=SAND
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, DIRECTION=AXIAL, TYPE=CLAY
Transverse vertical behavior

The vertical behavior is described by different relationships for “upward” motion (when the pipeline rises
with respect to the ground surface) and “downward” motion. Downward motions give rise to positive
relative displacements so that positive forces are applied to the pipeline. Similarly, upward motions give
rise to negative relative displacements and pipeline forces.
The ultimate force for downward motion of the pipe in sand is given by
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where and are bearing capacity factors for vertical strip footings, vertically loaded in the
downward direction, and is the total soil unit weight. Other parameters are defined in the previous
section. The ultimate force for downward motion of the pipe in clay is given by
where is a bearing capacity factor. The ultimate force is reached at a relative displacement of
approximately to for both sand and clay.
The ultimate force for upward motion of the pipe in sand is given by
and for clay by
where and are vertical uplift factors.

The ultimate force is reached at a relative displacement of approximately to
for sand and to for clay.
The transverse vertical behavior is non-symmetric about the origin. Consequently, two equivalent
plastic strain variables—one associated with negative relative displacement, , and the other with
positive relative displacement, —are used to describe the evolution of the model. The model assumes
that remains constant when the increment in relative displacement is negative, and remains
constant when the increment in relative displacement is positive.
Input File Usage: Use one of the following options to define the vertical behavior:
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, DIRECTION=VERTICAL, TYPE=SAND
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, DIRECTION=VERTICAL, TYPE=CLAY
Transverse horizontal behavior

The horizontal force-relative displacement relationship for sand is given by
and for clay by
where and are horizontal bearing capacity factors. Other variables are defined in the previous
sections. The ultimate force is reached at a relative displacement of approximately ,
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where is between 0.07 to 0.1 for loose sand, between 0.03 to 0.05 for medium sand and clay, and
between 0.02 to 0.03 for dense sand.
The transverse horizontal behavior is assumed to be symmetric about the origin. Consequently, only
one equivalent plastic strain variable, , describes the evolution of the model. The equivalent plastic
strain is updated when either negative or positive inelastic deformation occurs.
Input File Usage: Use one of the following options to define the horizontal behavior:
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, DIRECTION=HORIZONTAL, TYPE=SAND
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, DIRECTION=HORIZONTAL, TYPE=CLAY
Specifying the directions for which the constitutive behavior is defined

If you are defining the constitutive behavior by specifying the data directly, by default an isotropic model
is assumed. If the model is not isotropic, you can specify different constitutive relationships in each
direction. For two-dimensional nonisotropic models you must specify the behavior in two directions;
for three-dimensional nonisotropic models you must specify the behavior in three directions. You must
indicate the direction in which the behavior is specified. You can specify the 1-direction, 2-direction,
3-direction, axial direction, vertical direction, or horizontal direction. Abaqus/Standard assumes that the
axial direction is equivalent to the 1-direction, the vertical direction is equivalent to the 2-direction, and
the horizontal direction is equivalent to the 3-direction.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define an isotropic constitutive model:
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS
Use the following option to define the constitutive model in a particular
direction:
*PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS, DIRECTION=direction
where direction can be 1, 2, 3, AXIAL, VERTICAL, or HORIZONTAL. Repeat
the *PIPE-SOIL STIFFNESS option with the DIRECTION parameter as many
times as necessary to define the behavior in each direction.
Output
The force per unit length in the element local system is available through the “stress” output variable S.
Relative deformation is available through the “strain” output variable E. Elastic and plastic “strains” are
available through the output variables EE and PE.
Element nodal force (the force the element places on the pipeline nodes, in the global system) is
available through element variable NFORC.
• Audibert, J. M. E., D. J. Nyman, and T. D. O’Rourke, “Differential Ground Movement Effects

on Buried Pipelines,” Guidelines for the Seismic Design of Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems, ASCE
publication, pp. 151–180, 1984.
32.12.1–9
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PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION ELEMENTS
32.12.2 PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Pipe-soil interaction elements,” Section 32.12.1

• *PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the pipe-soil interaction elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
2-D elements
PSI24 Two-dimensional 4-node pipe-soil interaction element
PSI26 Two-dimensional 6-node pipe-soil interaction element
1, 2
None.
3-D elements
PSI34 Three-dimensional 4-node pipe-soil interaction element
PSI36 Three-dimensional 6-node pipe-soil interaction element
1, 2, 3
None.
2–D: X, Y
3–D: X, Y, Z
Input File Usage: *PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION
32.12.2–1
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PIPE-SOIL INTERACTION ELEMENTS
None.
Element output
The relative displacements corresponding to the forces below are chosen by requesting the corresponding
“strains.” Elastic and plastic strains are available.
Two-dimensional elements
S11 Force per unit length in the first local direction.

S22 Force per unit length in the second local direction.
Three-dimensional elements
S11 Force per unit length in the first local direction.

S22 Force per unit length in the second local direction.
S33 Force per unit length in the third local direction.
4 3 4 6 3
far-field edge far-field edge
1 2 1 3 2
pipeline edge pipeline edge

1 2 1 5 2
PSI24 and PSI34 PSI26 and PSI36
32.12.2–2
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ACOUSTIC INTERFACE ELEMENTS
32.13 Acoustic interface elements
• “Acoustic interface elements,” Section 32.13.1

• “Acoustic interface element library,” Section 32.13.2
32.13–1
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32.13.1 ACOUSTIC INTERFACE ELEMENTS
References
• “Acoustic interface element library,” Section 32.13.2

• “Acoustic, shock, and coupled acoustic-structural analysis,” Section 6.10.1
• *INTERFACE
• “Creating acoustic interface sections,” Section 12.13.18 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the
Overview
Acoustic interface elements:

• can be used to couple a model of an acoustic fluid to a structural model containing continuum or
structural elements;
• couple the accelerations of the surface of the structural model to the pressure in the acoustic medium;
• can be used in dynamic and steady-state dynamic procedures;
• must be defined with the nodes shared by the acoustic elements and the structural (or solid) elements;
• can be used only in small-displacement simulations and are not intended for use in nonlinear or
hydrostatic fluid-structure interactions;
• are ignored in eigenfrequency extraction analyses if the subspace iteration eigensolver is used; and
• if necessary, can be degenerated into triangular elements.
For most problems the surface-based, structural-acoustic capabilities described in “Mesh tie constraints,”
Section 34.3.1, and in “Defining tied contact in Abaqus/Standard,” Section 35.3.7, provide more general
and easy to use methods for modeling the interaction between an acoustic fluid and a structure. User-
specified acoustic interface elements give you increased control over the coupling specification, at the
expense of the convenience of the surface-based procedures.
The acoustic interface elements are used in simulations where the motion of a solid structure influences
the pressure in the acoustic fluid, such as when the vibrations of a car frame produce noise in the passenger
compartment; or where the pressure in the fluid affects a neighboring structure, such as when the small-
amplitude sloshing of a fluid inside a container affects its response.
User-specified acoustic interface elements are also useful in problems involving only an acoustic
medium because they allow you to specify displacement, velocity, or acceleration boundary conditions
directly on the nodes of the acoustic interface elements. In this application, however, you must be
aware that the tangential displacements are not coupled to the fluid. Therefore, zero-energy modes may
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arise involving the displacement degrees of freedom if these nodes are not constrained in the tangential
direction. When acoustic interface elements are used to couple fluid and solid elements, this problem
does not arise because of the stiffness and inertia of the solid.
The order of the underlying acoustic and structural elements usually dictates which acoustic interface
element should be used. The general acoustic interface element, ASI1, can be used in any coupled
acoustic-structural simulation; however, normally it is used only with the acoustic link elements (AC1D2
and AC1D3).
Defining the normal direction of the acoustic-structural interface
The connectivity of the acoustic interface elements and the right-hand rule define the normal direction
of the acoustic-structural interface, as shown in “Acoustic interface element library,” Section 32.13.2.
It is very important that this normal point into the acoustic fluid, as shown in Figure 32.13.1–1 and
Figure 32.13.1–2. The one exception is the ASI1 acoustic interface element, where you must define the
normal direction.
fluid
fluid
1 1
2
solid
solid 2
3
ASI2D2 ASI2D3
ASIAX2 ASIAX3
Figure 32.13.1–1 Normal directions for two-dimensional and

axisymmetric acoustic-structural interface elements.
Defining the acoustic interface element’s section properties
You must associate the acoustic interface section definition with a set of acoustic interface elements. This
section definition must be used with three-dimensional and axisymmetric acoustic interface elements,
even though there are no user-defined geometric properties for these elements.
Input File Usage: *INTERFACE, ELSET=element_set_name
Create Section: select Other as the section Category and
Acoustic interface as the section Type
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3
4 fluid
fluid
1
solid
2 solid 2
ASI3D3 ASI3D4
3 fluid
fluid 4 7
6
3
8
5
6
1
solid
4 1 5
2 solid 2
ASI3D6 ASI3D8
Figure 32.13.1–2 Normal directions for three-dimensional acoustic-structural interface elements.
Defining the geometric properties associated with ASI1 elements

The ASI1 elements consist of a single node. Abaqus/Standard cannot calculate the surface area
associated with these elements, so you must supply this information. If accurate surface areas are
not given, Abaqus/Standard may calculate incorrect accelerations or acoustic fluid pressure at the
acoustic-structural interface.
In addition, Abaqus/Standard cannot calculate the direction of the interface normal associated with
these elements. You must provide the direction cosines, in the global Cartesian coordinate system, of the
interface normal for these elements.
Input File Usage: *INTERFACE
surface area, X-direction cosine, Y-direction cosine, Z-direction cosine
Abaqus/CAE Usage: General-use acoustic interface sections are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
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Defining the thickness for planar acoustic interface elements

You can specify the thickness of planar acoustic interface elements. The default value is unit thickness.
thickness
Category and Acoustic interface as the section Type: Plane
stress/strain thickness: thickness
Using acoustic interface elements when elements with different interpolation orders form the
acoustic-structural interface
It is normally assumed that the same order of interpolation will be used for both the acoustic fluid mesh
and the structural mesh (at least at the interface surfaces). If this is not the case, suitable MPCs must be
applied to the nodes along the acoustic-structural interface to maintain the compatibility in the pressure
(MPC type P LINEAR) or displacement fields (MPC type LINEAR).
32.13.1–4
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ACOUSTIC INTERFACE ELEMENT LIBRARY
32.13.2 ACOUSTIC INTERFACE ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “Acoustic interface elements,” Section 32.13.1

• *INTERFACE
Overview
This section provides a reference to the acoustic interface elements available in Abaqus/Standard.
Element types
Element for general use

ASI1 1-node
1, 2, 3, 8
None.
Elements for use in planar models
ASI2D2 2-node linear
ASI2D3 3-node quadratic
1, 2, 8
None.
Elements for use in 3-D models
1, 2, 3, 8
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None.
Elements for use in axisymmetric models

ASIAX2 2-node linear
ASIAX3 3-node quadratic

1, 2, 8

None.
General use element: None.

Planar: X, Y
3-D: X, Y, Z
Axisymmetric: r, z
For general-use elements, you must define the element’s surface area and the direction cosines of the
normal to the acoustic fluid-structural interface, pointing into the fluid.
For elements for use in planar models, you must specify the thickness (out-of-plane) of the element. The
default is unit thickness if no thickness is specified.
For elements for use in three-dimensional and axisymmetric models, no additional data are required.
and Acoustic interface as the section Type
General-use acoustic interface sections are not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Distributed impedances cannot be applied.
Element output
None.
32.13.2–2
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Planar
1
1
2
2
3
ASI2D2 ASI2D3
3-D
3
4
1
2
2
ASI3D3 ASI3D4
4 7
6
3
8
5
6
1
4 1 5
2 2
ASI3D6 ASI3D8
32.13.2–3
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Axisymmetric
1
1
2
2
3
ASIAX2 ASIAX3
32.13.2–4
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EULERIAN ELEMENTS
32.14 Eulerian elements
• “Eulerian elements,” Section 32.14.1

• “Eulerian element library,” Section 32.14.2
32.14–1
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EULERIAN ELEMENTS
32.14.1 EULERIAN ELEMENTS
Products: Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/CAE
References
• “Eulerian analysis,” Section 14.1.1

• “Eulerian element library,” Section 32.14.2
• *EULERIAN SECTION
• “Creating Eulerian sections,” Section 12.13.3 of the Abaqus/CAE User’s Manual, in the online
Overview
Eulerian elements:
• can be used only in explicit dynamic analyses;
• must have eight unique nodes;
• are filled with void material by default;
• can be initialized with nonvoid material;
• can contain multiple materials simultaneously; and
• can be partially filled with material.
Eulerian elements are useful for simulations involving material that undergoes extreme deformation, up
to and including fluid flow. The Eulerian formulation allows material to flow from one element to another,
even as the Eulerian mesh remains fixed. Applications that utilize Eulerian elements are discussed in
“Eulerian analysis of a collapsing water column,” Section 1.7.1 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual, and
“Rivet forming,” Section 2.3.1 of the Abaqus Example Problems Manual.
For more information on Eulerian analyses, see “Eulerian analysis,” Section 14.1.1.
The available Eulerian elements are the three-dimensional, 8-node element EC3D8R and the
three-dimensional, 8-node thermally coupled element EC3D8RT. Two-dimensional simulations can
be approximated using a one-element thick mesh or a wedge-shaped mesh with appropriate boundary
conditions. The Eulerian mesh is typically a simple rectangular grid of elements that does not conform
to the shape of the Eulerian materials. Complex material shapes can be represented inside this mesh
using a combination of fully and partially filled elements surrounded by void regions.
32.14.1–1
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EULERIAN ELEMENTS
Defining the Eulerian element’s section properties
You must associate the Eulerian section definition with a set of Eulerian elements. This set of elements
must not share nodes with other types of elements. The section definition provides a list of materials that
may occupy the Eulerian elements.
Input File Usage: *EULERIAN SECTION, ELSET=element_set_name
data lines giving list of materials
Category and Eulerian as the section Type
Assign→Section: select part
32.14.1–2
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EULERIAN ELEMENT LIBRARY
32.14.2 EULERIAN ELEMENT LIBRARY
Products: Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/CAE
References
• “Eulerian analysis,” Section 14.1.1

• *EULERIAN SECTION
Overview
This section provides a reference to the Eulerian elements available in Abaqus/Explicit.

Element types
Eulerian stress/displacement element

EC3D8R 8-node linear brick, multimaterial, reduced integration with hourglass control
1, 2, 3
None.
Eulerian thermally coupled element
EC3D8RT 8-node thermally coupled linear brick, multimaterial, reduced integration with
hourglass control
1, 2, 3,11
None.
X, Y, Z
You must specify a list of materials that may be present in the Eulerian element. You can also assign
a material instance name to each material (see “Eulerian section definition” in “Eulerian analysis,”
Section 14.1.1).
Input File Usage: *EULERIAN SECTION
32.14.2–1
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Category and Eulerian as the section Type
Distributed loads
Distributed loads are available only for Eulerian elements. They are specified as described in “Distributed


−3
−3
Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Explicit.
Abaqus/Explicit.
acceleration).
PnNU Not supported FL−2 Nonuniform pressure on face n
in Abaqus/Explicit.
32.14.2–2
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SBF Not supported FL−5 T2 Stagnation body force in global X-,
SPn Not supported FL−4 T2 Stagnation pressure on face n.
−4
VBF Not supported FL T Viscous body force in global X-, Y-,
and Z-directions.
VPn Not supported FL−3 T Viscous pressure on face n, applying
motion.
Distributed heat fluxes are available only for EC3D8RT elements. They are specified as described in
“Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.

face n.
Film conditions
Film conditions are available only for EC3D8RT elements. They are specified as described in “Thermal


Radiation types
Radiation conditions are available only for EC3D8RT elements. They are specified as described in
32.14.2–3
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Distributed loads
Surface-based distributed loads are available for Eulerian elements. They are specified as described in
“Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3.

Abaqus/Explicit.
SP Pressure FL−4 T2 Stagnation pressure on the element
surface.
surface.
VP Pressure FL−3 T Viscous pressure applied on the
motion.

Surface-based heat fluxes are available only for EC3D8RT elements. They are specified as described in
element surface.
32.14.2–4
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Film conditions
Surface-based film conditions are available only for EC3D8RT elements. They are specified as described
in “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4.


surface.
Radiation types
Surface-based radiation conditions are available only for EC3D8RT elements. They are specified as


surface.
Element output
A set of output variables is written for each Eulerian material instance listed in the Eulerian section
definition. The output variable names are automatically appended with the material instance names. For
example, if you define material instances named “steel” and “tin” and request stress output, the first stress
components will be written to separate output variables named “S11_steel” and “S11_tin.”
All output is given in global coordinates.
Stress and other tensor components

Stress and other tensors (excluding total strain tensors) are available. All tensors have the same
components. For example, the stress components are as follows:
S12 , shear stress.
S13 , shear stress.
S23 , shear stress.
32.14.2–5
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Element-averaged quantities
Several output variables are also available as element-averaged quantities. These variables are computed
as a volume fraction weighted average of all materials present in the element. Use of these variables can
substantially decrease the size of the output database for models with many Eulerian materials. For
example:
SVAVG Volume fraction averaged stress.
All elements must have eight nodes. Degenerate elements are not supported.
face 2
face 5
8 7
face 6 4
3
6 face 4
5
1 2
face 1 face 3
Z 8 - node element
Y
X
Element faces
Face 1 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 face
Face 2 5 – 8 – 7 – 6 face
Face 3 1 – 5 – 6 – 2 face
Face 4 2 – 6 – 7 – 3 face
Face 5 3 – 7 – 8 – 4 face
Face 6 4 – 8 – 5 – 1 face
32.14.2–6
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The single integration point is located at the centroid of the element. All materials within the element
are evaluated at this integration point.
32.14.2–7
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USER-DEFINED ELEMENTS
32.15 User-defined elements
• “User-defined elements,” Section 32.15.1

• “User-defined element library,” Section 32.15.2
32.15–1
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32.15.1 USER-DEFINED ELEMENTS
References
• “User-defined element library,” Section 32.15.2

• “UEL,” Section 1.1.27 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• “UELMAT,” Section 1.1.28 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• “VUEL,” Section 1.2.10 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• “Accessing Abaqus thermal materials,” Section 2.1.18 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference
Manual
• “Accessing Abaqus materials,” Section 2.1.17 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• *MATRIX
• *UEL PROPERTY
• *USER ELEMENT
Overview
User-defined elements:
• can be finite elements in the usual sense of representing a geometric part of the model;
• can be feedback links, supplying forces at some points as functions of values of displacement,
velocity, etc. at other points in the model;
• can be used to solve equations in terms of nonstandard degrees of freedom;
• can be linear or nonlinear; and
• can access selected materials from the Abaqus material library.
Assigning an element type key to a user-defined element
You must assign an element type key to a user-defined element. The element type key must be of the
form Un in Abaqus/Standard and VUn in Abaqus/Explicit, where n is a positive integer that identifies
the element type uniquely. For example, you can define element types U1, U2, U3, VU1, VU7, etc. In
Abaqus/Standard n must be less than 10000; while in Abaqus/Explicit n must be less than 9000.
The element type key is used to identify the element in the element definition. For general user
elements the integer part of the identifier is provided in user subroutines UEL, UELMAT and VUEL so
that you can distinguish between different element types.
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, TYPE=element_type
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Invoking user-defined elements
User-defined elements are invoked in the same way as native Abaqus elements: you specify the element
type, Un or VUn, and define element numbers and nodes associated with each element (see “Defining a
model in Abaqus,” Section 1.3.1). User elements can be assigned to element sets in the usual way, for
cross-reference to element property definitions, output requests, distributed load specifications, etc.
Material definitions (“Material data definition,” Section 21.1.2) are relevant only to user-defined
elements in Abaqus/Standard. If a material is assigned to a user-defined element (“Assigning an Abaqus
material to the user element”), user subroutine UELMAT will be used to define the element response. User
subroutine UELMAT allows access to selected Abaqus materials. If no material definition is specified,
all material behavior must be defined in user subroutines UEL and VUEL, based on user-defined material
constants and on solution-dependent state variables associated with the element and calculated in the
same subroutines. For linear user elements all material behavior must be defined through a user-defined
stiffness matrix.
Input File Usage: Use the following options to invoke a user-defined element:
*USER ELEMENT, TYPE=element_type
*ELEMENT, TYPE=element_type
Defining the active degrees of freedom at the nodes
Any number of user element types can be defined and used in a model. Each user element can have any
number of nodes, at each of which a specified set of degrees of freedom is used by the element. The
activated degrees of freedom should follow the Abaqus convention (“Conventions,” Section 1.2.2). In
Abaqus/Standard this is important because the convergence criteria are based on the degrees of freedom
numbers. In Abaqus/Explicit the activated degrees of freedom must follow the Abaqus convention
because these are the only degrees of freedom that can be updated.
Abaqus always works in the global system when passing information to or from a user element.
Therefore, the user element’s stiffness, mass, etc. should always be defined with respect to global
directions at its nodes, even if local transformations (“Transformed coordinate systems,” Section 2.1.5)
are applied to some of these nodes.
You define the ordering of the variables on a user element. The standard and recommended ordering
is such that the degrees of freedom at the first node appear first, followed by the degrees of freedom at
the second node, etc. For example, suppose that the user-defined element type is a planar beam with
three nodes. The element uses degrees of freedom 1, 2, and 6 ( , , and ) at its first and last node
and degrees of freedom 1 and 2 at its second (middle) node. In this case the ordering of variables on the
element is:
Element variable Node Degree of
number freedom
1 1 1
2 1 2
3 1 6
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number freedom
4 2 1
5 2 2
6 3 1
7 3 2
8 3 6
This ordering will be used in most cases. However, if you define an element matrix that does not have
its degrees of freedom ordered in this way, you can change the ordering of the degrees of freedom as
outlined below.
You specify the active degrees of freedom at each node of the element. If the degrees of freedom are
the same at all of the element’s nodes, you specify the list of degrees of freedom only once. Otherwise,
you specify a new list of degrees of freedom each time the degrees of freedom at a node are different from
those at previous nodes. Thus, different nodes of the element can use different degrees of freedom; this
is especially useful when the element is being used in a coupled field problem so that, for example, some
of its nodes have displacement degrees of freedom only, while others have displacement and temperature
degrees of freedom. This method will produce an ordering of the element variables such that all of the
degrees of freedom at the first node appear first, followed by the degrees of freedom at the second node,
etc.
In Abaqus/Standard there are two ways to define element variable numbers that order the degrees
of freedom on the element differently.
Since the user element can accept repeated node numbers when defining the nodal connectivity for
the element, the element can be declared to have one node per degree of freedom on the element. For
example, if the element is a planar, 3-node triangle for stress analysis, it has three nodes, each of which
has degrees of freedom 1 and 2. If all degrees of freedom 1 are to appear first in the element variables,
the element can be defined with six nodes, the first three of which have degree of freedom 1, while nodes
4–6 have degree of freedom 2. The element variables would be ordered as follows:

number freedom
1 1 1
2 2 1
3 3 1
4 4 2
5 5 2
6 6 2
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Alternatively, the user element variables can be defined so as to order the degrees of freedom on
the element in any arbitrary fashion. You specify a list of degrees of freedom for the first node on the
element. All nodes with a nodal connectivity number that is less than the next connectivity number for
which a list of degrees of freedom is specified will have the first list of degrees of freedom. The second
list of degrees of freedom will be used for all nodes until a new list is defined, etc. If a new list of degrees
of freedom is encountered with a nodal connectivity number that is less than or equal to that given with
the previous list, the previous list’s degrees of freedom will be assigned through the last node of the
element. This generation of degrees of freedom can be stopped before the last node on the element by
specifying a nodal connectivity number with an empty (blank) list of degrees of freedom.
Example
The above procedure continues using this new list to define additional degrees of freedom in accordance
with the new node and degrees of freedom. For example, consider a 3-node beam that has degrees of
freedom 1, 2, and 6 at nodes 1 and 3 and degrees of freedom 1 and 2 at node 2 (middle node). To order
degrees of freedom 1 first, followed by 2, followed by 6, the following input could be used:
*USER ELEMENT
1
1, 2
1, 6
2,
3, 6
In this case the ordering of the variables on the element is:

number freedom
1 1 1
2 2 1
3 3 1
4 1 2
5 2 2
6 3 2
7 1 6
8 3 6
Requirements for activated degrees of freedom in Abaqus/Explicit

There are the following additional requirements with respect to activated degrees of freedom on a user
element of type VUn:
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• Only degrees of freedom 1 through 6, 8, and 11 can be activated because these are the only degrees of
freedom numbers that can be updated in Abaqus/Explicit. (In Abaqus/Standard degrees of freedom
1 through 30 can be used.)
• If one translational degree of freedom is activated at a node, all translational degrees of freedom
up to the specified maximum number of coordinates must be activated at that node; moreover, the
translational degrees of freedom at the node must be in consecutive order.
• In three-dimensional analyses, if one rotational degree of freedom is activated at a node, all three
rotational degrees of freedom must be activated in consecutive order.
For example, if you define a 4-node three-dimensional user element that has translations and rotations
active at the first and fourth nodes, temperature only at the second node, and translations and temperature
at the third node, the following input could be used:
*USER ELEMENT
1,2,3,4,5,6
2,11
3,1,2,3,11
4,1,2,3,4,5,6
Rotation update in geometrically nonlinear analyses
If all three rotational degrees of freedom (4, 5, and 6) are used at a node in a geometrically nonlinear
analysis, Abaqus assumes that these rotations are finite rotations. In this case the incremental values of
these degrees of freedom are not simply added to the total values: the quaternion update formulae are used
instead. Similarly, the corrections are not simply added to the incremental values. The update procedure
is described in “Rotation variables,” Section 1.3.1 of the Abaqus Theory Manual, and is mentioned in
“Conventions,” Section 1.2.2.
To avoid the rotation update in a geometrically nonlinear analysis in Abaqus/Standard, you may
define repeated node numbers in the nodal connectivity of the element such that at least one of the degrees
of freedom 4, 5, or 6 is missing from the degree of freedom list at each node.
Visualizing user-defined elements in Abaqus/CAE
Plotting of user elements is not supported in Abaqus/CAE. However, if the user elements contain
displacement degrees of freedom, they can be overlaid with standard elements; and model plots of these
standard elements can be displayed, allowing you to see the shape of the user elements. If deformed
mesh plots of the user elements are required, the material properties of the overlaying standard elements
must be chosen so that the solution is not changed by including them. If this technique is used, nodes
of the user element will be tied to nodes of the standard elements. Therefore, degrees of freedom 1, 2,
and 3 in the user element must correspond to the displacement degrees of freedom at the nodes of the
standard elements.
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Defining a linear user element in Abaqus/Standard
Linear user elements can be defined only in Abaqus/Standard. In the simplest case a linear user element
can be defined as a stiffness matrix and, if required, a mass matrix. In these matrices can be read from a
results file or defined directly.
Reading the element matrices from an Abaqus/Standard results file

To read the element matrices from an Abaqus/Standard results file, you must have written the stiffness
and/or mass matrices in a previous analysis to the results file as element matrix output (“Element matrix
output in Abaqus/Standard” in “Output,” Section 4.1.1) or substructure matrix output (“Writing the
recovery matrix, reduced stiffness matrix, mass matrix, load case vectors, and gravity vectors to a file”
in “Defining substructures,” Section 10.1.2).
You must specify the element number, n, or substructure identifier, Zn, to which the matrices
correspond. For models defined in terms of an assembly of part instances (“Defining an assembly,”
Section 2.10.1), the element numbers written to the results file are internal numbers generated by
Abaqus/Standard (see “Output,” Section 4.1.1). A map between these internal numbers and the original
element numbers and part instance names is provided in the data file of the analysis from which the
element matrix output was written.
In addition, for element matrix output you must specify the step number and increment number at
which the element matrix was written. These items are not required if a substructure whose matrix was
output during its generation is used.
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, FILE=name, OLD ELEMENT=n or
Zn, STEP=n, INCREMENT=n
Defining the linear user element by specifying the matrices directly

If you define the stiffness and/or mass matrix directly, you must specify the number of nodes associated
with the element.
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, LINEAR, NODES=n
Defining whether or not the element matrices are symmetric

If the element matrices are not symmetric, you can request that Abaqus/Standard use its nonsymmetric
equation solution capability (see “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2).
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, LINEAR, NODES=n, UNSYMM
Defining the mass or stiffness matrix

You define the element mass matrix and the element stiffness matrix separately. If the element is a heat
transfer element, the “stiffness matrix” is the conductivity matrix and the “mass matrix” is the specific
heat matrix.
You can define either one matrix for the element (mass or stiffness) or both types of matrices.
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You can read the mass and/or stiffness matrices from a file or define them directly. In either case
Abaqus/Standard reads four values per line, using F20 format. This format ensures that the data are read
with adequate precision. Data written in E20.14 format can be read under this format.
Start with the first column of the matrix. Start a new line for each column. If you do not specify
that the element matrix is unsymmetric, give the matrix entries from the top of each column to the
diagonal term only: do not give the terms below the diagonal. If you specify that the element matrix is
unsymmetric, give all terms in each column, starting from the top of the column.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define the element mass matrix:
*MATRIX, TYPE=MASS
Use the following option to define the element stiffness matrix:
*MATRIX, TYPE=STIFFNESS
Use the following option to read the element mass or stiffness matrix from a
file:
*MATRIX, TYPE=MASS or STIFFNESS, INPUT=file_name
For example, if the matrix is symmetric, the following data lines should be used:
Etc.
If the matrix is unsymmetric, the following data lines should be used:
…
…,
Etc.
where m is the size of the matrix and is the entry in the matrix for row i
column j.
Geometrically nonlinear analysis

When a linear user element is used in a geometrically nonlinear analysis, the stiffness matrix provided
will not be updated to account for any nonlinear effects such as finite rotations.
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Defining the element properties

You must associate a property definition with every user element, even though no property values (except
Rayleigh damping factors) are associated with linear user elements.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to associate a property definition with a user element
set:
*UEL PROPERTY, ELSET=name
Defining Rayleigh damping for direct-integration dynamic analysis

You can define the Rayleigh damping factors for direct-integration dynamic analysis (“Implicit dynamic
analysis using direct integration,” Section 6.3.2) for linear user elements. The Rayleigh damping factors
are defined as
where is the damping matrix, is the mass matrix, is the stiffness matrix, and and are
the user-specified damping factors. See “Material damping,” Section 26.1.1, for more information on
Rayleigh damping.
Input File Usage: *UEL PROPERTY, ELSET=name, ALPHA= , BETA=
Defining loads
You can apply point loads, moments, fluxes, etc. to the nodes of linear user-defined elements in the
usual way using concentrated loads and concentrated fluxes (“Concentrated loads,” Section 33.4.2, and
“Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4).
Distributed loads and fluxes cannot be defined for linear user-defined elements.
Defining a general user element
General user elements are defined in user subroutines UEL and UELMAT in Abaqus/Standard and in
user subroutine VUEL in Abaqus/Explicit. The implementation of user elements in user subroutines is
recommended only for advanced users.
Defining the number of nodes associated with the element

You must specify the number of nodes associated with a general user element. You can define “internal”
nodes that are not connected to other elements.
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, NODES=n
Defining whether or not the element matrices are symmetric in Abaqus/Standard

If the contribution of the element to the Jacobian operator matrix of the overall Newton method is not
symmetric (i.e., the element matrices are not symmetric), you can request that Abaqus/Standard use its
nonsymmetric equation solution capability (see “Defining an analysis,” Section 6.1.2).
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, NODES=n, UNSYMM
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Defining the maximum number of coordinates needed at any nodal point

You can define the maximum number of coordinates needed in user subroutines UEL, UELMAT, or VUEL
at any node point of the element. Abaqus assigns space to store this many coordinate values at all of the
nodes associated with elements of this type. The default maximum number of coordinates at each node
is 1.
Abaqus will change the maximum number of coordinates to be the maximum of the user-specified
value or the value of the largest active degree of freedom of the user element that is less than or equal to 3.
For example, if you specify a maximum number of coordinates of 1 and the active degrees of freedom
of the user element are 2, 3, and 6, the maximum number of coordinates will be changed to 3. If you
specify a maximum number of coordinates of 2 and the active degrees of freedom of the user element
are 11 and 12, the maximum number of coordinates will remain as 2.
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, COORDINATES=n
Defining the element properties

You can define the number of properties associated with a particular user element and then specify their
numerical values.
Specifying the number of property values required

Any number of properties can be defined to be used in forming a general user element. You can specify
the number of integer property values required, n, and the number of real (floating point) property values
required, m; the total number of values required is the sum of these two numbers. The default number
of integer property values required is 0 and the default number of real property values required is 0.
Integer property values can be used inside user subroutines UEL, UELMAT, and VUEL as flags,
indices, counters, etc. Examples of real (floating point) property values are the cross-sectional area of a
beam or rod, thickness of a shell, and material properties to define the material behavior for the element.
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, I PROPERTIES=n, PROPERTIES=m
Specifying the numerical values of element properties

You must associate a user element property definition with each user-defined element, even if no
property values are required. The property values specified in the property definition are passed into
user subroutines UEL, UELMAT, and VUEL each time the subroutine is called for the user elements that
are in the specified element set.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to associate a property definition with a user element
set:
*UEL PROPERTY, ELSET=name
To define the property values, enter all floating point values on the data lines
first, followed immediately by the integer values. Eight values should be
entered on all data lines except the last one, which may have fewer than eight
values.
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Assigning an Abaqus material to the user element

If the Abaqus material library is accessed from a user element, a material must be defined and assigned
to the user element.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to associate a material with the user element:
*UEL PROPERTY, MATERIAL=name
If this option is used, user subroutine UELMAT must be used to define the
contribution of the element to the model. Otherwise, user subroutine UEL must
be used.
Assigning an orientation definition
If the Abaqus material library is accessed from a user element, you can associate a material orientation
definition (“Orientations,” Section 2.2.5) with the user element. The orientation definition specifies a
local coordinate system for material calculations in the element. The local coordinate system is assumed
to be uniform in a given element and is based on the coordinates at the element centroid.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to associate an orientation definition with a user
element:
*UEL PROPERTY, ORIENTATION=name
Specifying the element type
If the Abaqus material library is accessed from a user element, the element type must be specified.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to define a three-dimensional element in a stress/
displacement or a heat transfer analysis:
*USER ELEMENT, TENSOR=THREED
Use the following option to define a two-dimensional element in a heat transfer
analysis:
*USER ELEMENT, TENSOR=TWOD
Use the following option to define a plane strain element in a stress/
displacement analysis:
*USER ELEMENT, TENSOR=PSTRAIN
Use the following option to define a plane stress element in a stress/
displacement analysis:
*USER ELEMENT, TENSOR=PSTRESS
Specifying the number of integration points
If the Abaqus material library is accessed from a user element, the number of integration points must be
specified.
Input File Usage: Use the following option to specify the number of integration points:
*USER ELEMENT, INTEGRATION=n
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Defining the number of solution-dependent variables that must be stored within the element
You can define the number of solution-dependent state variables that must be stored within a general user
element. The default number of variables is 1.
Examples of such variables are strains, stresses, section forces, and other state variables (for
example, hardening measures in plasticity models) used in the calculations within the element.
These variables allow quite general nonlinear kinematic and material behavior to be modeled. These
solution-dependent state variables must be calculated and updated in user subroutines UEL, UELMAT,
and VUEL.
As an example, suppose the element has four numerical integration points, at each of which you
wish to store strain, stress, inelastic strain, and a scalar hardening variable to define the material state.
Assume that the element is a three-dimensional solid, so that there are six components of stress and strain
at each integration point. Then, the number of solution-dependent variables associated with each such
element is 4 × (6 × 3 + 1) = 76.
Input File Usage: *USER ELEMENT, VARIABLES=n
Defining the contribution of the element to the model in user subroutine UEL
For a general user element in Abaqus/Standard, user subroutine UEL may be coded to define the
contribution of the element to the model. Abaqus/Standard calls this routine each time any information
about a user-defined element is needed. At each such call Abaqus/Standard provides the values
of the nodal coordinates and of all solution-dependent nodal variables (displacements, incremental
displacements, velocities, accelerations, etc.) at all degrees of freedom associated with the element,
as well as values, at the beginning of the current increment, of the solution-dependent state variables
associated with the element. Abaqus/Standard also provides the values of all user-defined properties
associated with this element and a control flag array indicating what functions the user subroutine must
perform. Depending on this set of control flags, the subroutine must define the contribution of the
element to the residual vector, define the contribution of the element to the Jacobian (stiffness) matrix,
update the solution-dependent state variables associated with the element, form the mass matrix, and so
on. Often, several of these functions must be performed in a single call to the routine.
Formulation of an element with user subroutine UEL

The element’s principal contribution to the model during general analysis steps is that it provides nodal
forces that depend on the values of the nodal variables and on the solution-dependent state
variables within the element:
geometry, attributes, predefined field variables, distributed loads
Here we use the term “force” to mean that quantity in the variational statement that is conjugate to the
basic nodal variable: physical force when the associated degree of freedom is physical displacement,
moment when the associated degree of freedom is a rotation, heat flux when it is a temperature value,
and so on. The signs of the forces in are such that external forces provide positive nodal force values
and “internal” forces caused by stresses, internal heat fluxes, etc. in the element provide negative nodal
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force values. For example, in the case of mechanical equilibrium of a finite element subject to surface
tractions and body forces with stress , and with interpolation ,
In general procedures Abaqus/Standard solves the overall system of equations by Newton’s method:
Solve ,
Set ,
Iterate
where is the residual at degree of freedom N and
is the Jacobian matrix.

During such iterations you must define , which is the element’s contribution to the residual, ,
and
which is the element’s contribution to the Jacobian . By writing the total derivative ,
we imply that the element’s contribution to should include all direct and indirect dependencies
of the on the . For example, the will generally depend on ; therefore, will
include terms such as
Use in transient analysis procedures

In procedures such as transient heat transfer and dynamic analysis, the problem also involves time
integration of rates of change of the nodal degrees of freedom. The time integration schemes used by
Abaqus/Standard for the various procedures are described in more detail in the Theory Manual. For
example, in transient heat transfer analysis, the backward difference method is used:
Therefore, if depends on and (as would be the case if the user element includes thermal
energy storage), the Jacobian contribution should include the term
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where is defined from the time integration procedure as .

In all cases where Abaqus/Standard integrates first-order problems in time, the are never stored
because they are readily available as , where . However, for direct,
implicit integration of dynamic systems (see “Implicit dynamic analysis,” Section 2.4.1 of the Abaqus
Theory Manual) Abaqus/Standard requires storage of and . These values are, therefore, passed
into subroutine UEL. If the user element contains effects that depend on these time derivatives (damping
and inertial effects), its Jacobian contribution will include
For the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor scheme
where and are the (Newmark) parameters of the integration scheme. For backwark Euler time
integration, the same expressions apply with and equal to unity. The term is the
element’s damping matrix, and is its mass matrix.
The Hilber-Hughes-Taylor scheme writes the overall dynamic equilibrium equations as
where is the total force at degree of freedom N, excluding d’Alembert (inertia) forces. is often
referred to as the “static residual.” Therefore, if a user element is to be used with Hilber-Hughes-Taylor
time integration, the element’s contribution to the overall residual must be formulated in the same
way. Since Abaqus/Standard provides information only at the time point at which UEL is called, this
implies that each time UEL is called the array must be used to recover (and if half-increment
residual calculations are required, where indicates from the beginning of the previous increment)
and used to store (and if half-increment residual calculations are required) for use in the next
increment. This complication can be avoided if the numerical damping control parameter, , for the
dynamic step is set to zero; i.e., if the trapezoidal rule is used for integration of the dynamic equations
(see “Implicit dynamic analysis using direct integration,” Section 6.3.2, for details). This complication is
also avoided with the backward Euler time integration operator because dynamic equilibrium is enforced
at the end of the step.
If solution-dependent state variables ( ) are used in the element, a suitable time integration
method must be coded into subroutine UEL for these variables. Any of the associated with the
element that are not shared with standard Abaqus/Standard elements may be integrated in time by any
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suitable technique. If, in such cases, it is necessary to store values of , , etc. at particular points
in time, the solution-dependent state variable array, , can be used for this purpose. Abaqus/Standard
will still compute and store values of and using the formulae associated with whatever time
integrator it is using, but these values need not be used. To ensure accurate, stable time integration, you
can control the size of the time increment used by Abaqus/Standard.
Constraints defined with Lagrange multipliers

Introduction of constraints with Lagrange multipliers should be avoided since Abaqus/Standard cannot
detect such variables and avoid eigensolver problems by proper ordering of the equations.
Defining the contribution of the element to the model in user subroutine UELMAT
Alternatively, for a general user element in Abaqus/Standard, user subroutine UELMAT may be coded to
define the contribution of the element to the model. User subroutine UELMAT is an enhanced version of
user subroutine UEL; consequently, all the information provided for user subroutine UEL is also valid
for user subroutine UELMAT. The enhancement allows you to access some of the material models from
the Abaqus material library from UELMAT. UELMAT works only with a subset of procedures for which
UEL is available:
• static;
• direct-integration dynamic;
• frequency extraction;
• steady-state uncouple heat transfer; and
• transient uncouple heat transfer.
User subroutine UELMAT will be called if an Abaqus material model is assigned to a user element (see
“Assigning an Abaqus material to the user element,” above); otherwise, user subroutine UEL will be
called.
Accessing Abaqus materials from user subroutine UELMAT

Abaqus allows you to access some of the material models from the Abaqus material library
from user subroutine UELMAT. The material models are accessed through the utility routines
MATERIAL_LIB_MECH and MATERIAL_LIB_HT (“Accessing Abaqus thermal materials,”
Section 2.1.18 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual, and “Accessing Abaqus materials,”
Section 2.1.17 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual). Each time user subroutine UELMAT
is called with the flags set to values that require computation of the right-hand-side vector and the
element Jacobian, the material library must be called for each integration point, where the number of
integration points is specified in the element definition (“Specifying the number of integration points”
in “User-defined elements,” Section 32.15.1). The material models that are accessible from user
subroutine UELMAT are:
• linear elastic model;
• hyperelastic model;
• Ramberg-Osgood model;
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• classical metal plasticity models (Mises and Hill);

• extended Drucker-Prager model;
• modified Drucker-Prager/Cap plasticity model;
• porous metal plasticity model;
• elastomeric foam material model; and
• crushable foam plasticity model.
Defining the contribution of the element to the model in user subroutine VUEL
For a general user element in Abaqus/Explicit, user subroutine VUEL must be coded to define the
contribution of the element to the model. Abaqus/Explicit calls this routine each time any information
about a user-defined element is needed. At each such call Abaqus/Explicit provides the values of the
nodal coordinates and of all solution-dependent nodal variables (displacements, velocities, accelerations,
etc.) at all degrees of freedom associated with the element, as well as values of the solution-dependent
state variables associated with the element at the beginning of the current increment. The incremental
displacements are those obtained in a previous increment. Abaqus/Explicit also provides the values of
all user-defined properties associated with this element and a control flag array indicating what functions
the user subroutine must perform. Depending on this set of control flags, the subroutine must define the
contribution of the element to the internal or external force/flux vector, form the mass/capacity matrix,
update the solution-dependent state variables associated with the element, and so on.
The element’s principal contribution to the model is that it provides nodal forces that depend
on the values of the nodal variables , the rate of nodal variables , and on the solution-dependent
state variables within the element:
geometry, attributes, predefined field variables, distributed loads
In addition, the element mass matrix can be defined. Optionally, you can also define the
external load contribution from the element due to specified distributed loading. In each increment
Abaqus/Explicit solves for the accelerations at the end of the increment using
where is the applied load vector. The solution (velocity, displacement) is then integrated in time
using the central difference method
For coupled temperature/displacement elements the temperatures are computed at the beginning of
the increment using
32.15.1–15
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
where is the lumped capcitance matrix, is the applied nodal source, and is the internal flux
vector. The temperature is integrated in time using the explicit forward-difference integration rule,
More details can be found in “Explicit dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.3 and “Fully coupled thermal-
stress analysis,” Section 6.5.3. The signs of the forces defined in are such that external forces provide
positive nodal force values and “internal” forces caused by stresses, damping effects, internal heat fluxes,
etc. in the element provide negative nodal force values. Internal forces due to bulk viscosity are dependent
on the scaled mass of the element. The necessary information (bulk viscosity constants and mass scaling
factors) is passed into the user subroutine for this purpose.
Requirements for defining the mass matrix

As explained in “Explicit dynamic analysis,” Section 6.3.3, what makes the explicit time integration
method efficient is that the mass inversion process is extremely effective. This is due to the fact that most
of the nonzero entries in the mass matrix are located on the diagonal positions. The only exception is for
rotational degrees of freedom in three-dimensional analyses in which case at each node an anisotropic
rotary inertia (symmetric 3 × 3 tensor) can be defined. In these cases some of the nonzero entries in
the mass matrix may be off-diagonal; but the inversion process is local and, hence, very effective. The
mass matrix defined in user subroutine VUEL must adhere to these requirements as illustrated in detail in
“VUEL,” Section 1.2.10 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual. If you specify a zero mass
matrix or skip the definition of the mass matrix altogether, Abaqus/Explicit issues an error message.
The definition of a realistic mass matrix is not mandatory, but it is strongly recommended. If
you choose to not define a realistic mass matrix using the user subroutine, you must provide realistic
mass, rotary inertia, heat capacity, etc. at all nodes and at all degrees of freedom associated with the
user element. This can be accomplished by various means, such as by defining mass and rotary inertia
elements at the nodes or by connecting the user element to other elements for which density, heat capacity,
etc. was specified.
Mass is computed only once at the beginning of the analysis. Consequently, the mass of the
user element cannot be changed arbitrarily during the analysis. If necessary, mass scaling is applied
accordingly to ensure the requested time incrementation.
Definition of the stable time increment

Since the central difference operator is conditionally stable, the time increments in Abaqus/Explicit must
be somewhat smaller than the stable time increment. You must provide an accurate estimate for the stable
time increment associated with the user element. This scalar value is highly dependent on the element
formulation, and sophisticated coding may be required inside the user subroutine to obtain a reliable
estimate. A conservative estimate will reduce the time increment size for the entire analysis and, hence,
lead to longer analysis times.
32.15.1–16
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Defining loads
You can apply point loads, moments, fluxes, etc. to the nodes of general user-defined elements in the
usual way, using concentrated loads and concentrated fluxes (“Concentrated loads,” Section 33.4.2, and
“Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4).
You can also define distributed loads and fluxes for general user-defined elements (“Distributed
loads,” Section 33.4.3, and “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4). These loads require a load type key. For
user-defined elements, you can define load type keys of the forms Un and, in Abaqus/Standard, UnNU,
where n is any positive integer.
If the load type key is of the form Un, the load magnitude is defined directly and follows
the standard Abaqus conventions with respect to its amplitude variation as a function of time. In
Abaqus/Standard, if the load key is of the form UnNU, all of the load definition will be accomplished
inside subroutine UEL and UELMAT. Each time Abaqus/Standard calls subroutine UEL or UELMAT, it
tells the subroutine how many distributed loads/fluxes are currently active. For each active load or flux
of type Un Abaqus/Standard gives the current magnitude and current increment in magnitude of the
load. The coding in subroutine UEL or UELMAT must distribute the loads into consistent equivalent
nodal forces and, if necessary, provide their contribution to the Jacobian matrix—the “load stiffness
matrix.”
In Abaqus/Explicit only load keys of the form Un can be used, and they can be used only for
distributed loads (however, thermal fluxes can be defined in the coding in subroutine VUEL). Each time
Abaqus/Explicit calls subroutine VUEL, it tells the subroutine which load number is currently active
and the current magnitude of the load. The coding in subroutine VUEL must distribute the loads into
consistent equivalent nodal forces.
Defining output
All quantities to be output must be saved as solution-dependent state variables. In Abaqus/Standard,
the solution-dependent state variables can be printed or written to the results file using output variable
identifier SDV (“Abaqus/Standard output variable identifiers,” Section 4.2.1).
The components of solution-dependent state variables that belong to a user element are not
available in Abaqus/CAE. You can write output to separate files in a table format that can be accessed
in Abaqus/CAE to produce history output.
Defining wave kinematic data

A utility routine GETWAVE is provided in user subroutine UEL to access the wave kinematic data
defined for an Abaqus/Aqua analysis (“Abaqus/Aqua analysis,” Section 6.11.1). This utility is discussed
in “Obtaining wave kinematic data in an Abaqus/Aqua analysis,” Section 2.1.13 of the Abaqus User
Subroutines Reference Manual, where the arguments to GETWAVE and the syntax for its use are defined.
Use in contact
Only node-based surfaces (“Node-based surface definition,” Section 2.3.3) can be created on user-defined
elements. Hence, these elements can be used to define only slave surfaces in a contact analysis. In
32.15.1–17
Abaqus ID:
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Abaqus/Explicit the user elements will not be included in the general contact algorithm automatically.
Node-based surfaces can be defined using these nodes and then included in the general contact definition.
Import of user elements

User elements cannot be imported from an Abaqus/Standard analysis into an Abaqus/Explicit analysis
or vice versa. Equivalent user elements can be defined in both products to overcome this limitation.
However, the state variables associated with these elements will not be communicated.
32.15.1–18
Abaqus ID:
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USER ELEMENT LIBRARY
32.15.2 USER-DEFINED ELEMENT LIBRARY
References
• “User-defined elements,” Section 32.15.1

• “UEL,” Section 1.1.27 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• “UELMAT,” Section 1.1.28 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• “VUEL,” Section 1.2.10 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference Manual
• *MATRIX
• *UEL PROPERTY
• *USER ELEMENT
Overview
This section provides a reference to the user-defined elements available in Abaqus/Standard and
Abaqus/Explicit.
Element types
Un n must be a positive integer ( ) that will define the element type uniquely
in Abaqus/Standard
VUn n must be a positive integer ( ) that will define the element type uniquely
in Abaqus/Explicit
As defined in the user element definition.
You can define solution variables associated with nodes that are not connected to other elements.
However, in Abaqus/Standard, definition of constraints with Lagrange multipliers in user elements
should be avoided because of potential equation solver problems.
In Abaqus/Explicit definition of constraints with Lagrange multipliers is not possible because the stable
time increment would decrease to infinitesimally small values.
None required for linear user elements.

As needed in user subroutines UEL, UELMAT, or VUEL for general user elements. The maximum
number of coordinates per node is specified in the user element definition (see “Defining the maximum
32.15.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
USER ELEMENT LIBRARY
number of coordinates needed at any nodal point” in “User-defined elements,” Section 32.15.1). The
first coordinate entries at each node should correspond to the standard Abaqus convention (X, Y, Z or
r, z for axisymmetric elements).
For a linear user element the properties are the stiffness and mass, defined via user-defined matrices or
read from an Abaqus/Standard results file. If necessary, you can specify Rayleigh damping values for
linear user elements in the element property definition.
For a general user element defined via user subroutines UEL, UELMAT, or VUEL, you define the number of
element properties in the user element definition and provide the numerical values in the element property
definition. The definition of these properties depends on your coding in subroutine UEL, UELMAT, or
VUEL.
Input File Usage: *UEL PROPERTY
None for linear user elements.

Un: Distributed load or flux whose magnitude is given via distributed load or distributed flux loading
definitions (see “Distributed loads,” Section 33.4.3, or “Thermal loads,” Section 33.4.4) for a general
user element. n must be a positive integer that is passed into user subroutines UEL, UELMAT, or VUEL
to identify the particular load type.
UnNU: Available in Abaqus/Standard only. Distributed load or flux that is completely defined as
equivalent nodal values inside user subroutine UEL or UELMAT for a general user element. n must be
a positive integer: will be passed into subroutine UEL or UELMAT when such a load is active to
identify the load type. The minus sign on n indicates that the load is of type NU.
Element output
For a linear user element there are no stress or strain components since the element only appears as a
stiffness and mass.
For a general user element any stress, strain, or other solution-dependent variables within the element
must be defined as solution-dependent state variables by your coding within subroutine UEL, UELMAT,
or VUEL. In Abaqus/Standard, they can be output using output variable SDV.
Currently element output to the output database is not supported for user-defined elements.
As defined in the user element definition.
32.15.2–2
Abaqus ID:
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Abaqus/Standard ELEMENT INDEX
EI.1 Abaqus/Standard ELEMENT INDEX
This index provides a reference to all of the element types that are available in Abaqus/Standard. Elements
are listed in alphabetical order, where numerical characters precede the letter “A” and two-digit numbers are
put in numerical, rather than “alphabetical,” order. Thus, AC1D2 precedes ACAX4, and AC3D20 follows
AC3D8.
For certain options, such as contact and surface-based distributing coupling, Abaqus may generate
internal elements (such as IDCOUP3D for surface-based distributing coupling). These internal element
names are not included in the index below but may appear in an output database (.odb) or data (.dat) file.
AC1D2 2-node acoustic link 28.1.2

AC1D3 3-node acoustic link 28.1.2
AC2D3 3-node linear 2-D acoustic triangle 28.1.3
AC2D4 4-node linear 2-D acoustic quadrilateral 28.1.3
AC2D6 6-node quadratic 2-D acoustic triangular prism 28.1.3
AC2D8 8-node quadratic 2-D acoustic quadrilateral 28.1.3
AC3D4 4-node linear acoustic tetrahedron 28.1.4
AC3D6 6-node linear acoustic triangular prism 28.1.4
AC3D8 8-node linear acoustic brick 28.1.4
AC3D10 10-node quadratic acoustic tetrahedron 28.1.4
AC3D15 15-node quadratic acoustic triangular prism 28.1.4
AC3D20 20-node quadratic acoustic brick 28.1.4
ACAX3 3-node linear axisymmetric acoustic triangle 28.1.6
ACAX4 4-node linear axisymmetric acoustic quadrilateral 28.1.6
ACAX6 6-node quadratic axisymmetric acoustic triangle 28.1.6
ACAX8 8-node quadratic axisymmetric acoustic quadrilateral 28.1.6
ACIN2D2 2-node linear 2-D acoustic infinite element 28.3.2
ACIN2D3 3-node quadratic 2-D acoustic infinite element 28.3.2
ACINAX2 2-node linear axisymmetric acoustic infinite element 28.3.2
ACINAX3 3-node quadratic axisymmetric acoustic infinite element 28.3.2
ASI1 1-node acoustic interface element 32.13.2
EI.1–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ASI2 2-node linear 2-D acoustic interface element (this element has been renamed to 32.13.2
ASI2D2)
ASI2A 2-node linear axisymmetric acoustic interface element (this element has been 32.13.2
renamed to ASIAX2)
ASI2D2 2-node linear 2-D acoustic interface element 32.13.2
ASI2D3 3-node quadratic 2-D acoustic interface element 32.13.2
ASI3 3-node quadratic 2-D acoustic interface element (this element has been renamed 32.13.2
to ASI2D3)
ASI3A 3-node quadratic axisymmetric acoustic interface element (this element has been 32.13.2
renamed to ASIAX3)
ASI4 4-node linear 3-D acoustic interface element (this element has been renamed to 32.13.2
ASI3D4)
ASI8 8-node quadratic 3-D acoustic interface element (this element has been renamed 32.13.2
to ASI3D8)
ASIAX2 2-node linear axisymmetric acoustic interface element 32.13.2
ASIAX3 3-node quadratic axisymmetric acoustic interface element 32.13.2
B21 2-node linear beam in a plane 29.3.8
B21H 2-node linear beam in a plane, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
B22 3-node quadratic beam in a plane 29.3.8
B22H 3-node quadratic beam in a plane, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
B23 2-node cubic beam in a plane 29.3.8
B23H 2-node cubic beam in a plane, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
B31 2-node linear beam in space 29.3.8
B31H 2-node linear beam in space, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
B31OS 2-node linear open-section beam in space 29.3.8
B31OSH 2-node linear open-section beam in space, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
B32 3-node quadratic beam in space 29.3.8
B32H 3-node quadratic beam in space, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
B32OS 3-node quadratic open-section beam in space 29.3.8
B32OSH 3-node quadratic open-section beam in space, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
B33 2-node cubic beam in space 29.3.8
B33H 2-node cubic beam in space, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
C3D4 4-node linear tetrahedron 28.1.4
EI.1–2
Abaqus ID:
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C3D4E 4-node linear piezoelectric tetrahedron 28.1.4

C3D4H 4-node linear tetrahedron, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.4
C3D4P 4-node linear coupled pore pressure element 28.1.4
C3D4T 4-node thermally coupled tetrahedron, linear displacement and temperature 28.1.4
C3D6 6-node linear triangular prism 28.1.4
C3D6E 6-node linear piezoelectric triangular prism 28.1.4
C3D6H 6-node linear triangular prism, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.4
C3D6P 6-node linear coupled pore pressure element 28.1.4
C3D6T 6-node thermally coupled triangular prism, linear displacement and temperature 28.1.4
C3D8 8-node linear brick 28.1.4
C3D8E 8-node linear piezoelectric brick 28.1.4
C3D8H 8-node linear brick, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.4
C3D8HT 8-node thermally coupled brick, trilinear displacement and temperature, hybrid, 28.1.4
constant pressure
C3D8I 8-node linear brick, incompatible modes 28.1.4
C3D8IH 8-node linear brick, hybrid, linear pressure, incompatible modes 28.1.4
C3D8P 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure 28.1.4
C3D8PH 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure, hybrid, constant 28.1.4
pressure
C3D8PHT 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure, trilinear temperature, 28.1.4
hybrid, constant pressure
C3D8PT 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure, trilinear temperature 28.1.4
C3D8R 8-node linear brick, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.4
C3D8RH 8-node linear brick, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration, hourglass 28.1.4
control
C3D8RHT 8-node thermally coupled brick, trilinear displacement and temperature, reduced 28.1.4
integration, hourglass control, hybrid, constant pressure
C3D8RP 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure, reduced integration 28.1.4
C3D8RPH 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure, reduced integration, 28.1.4
C3D8RPHT 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure, trilinear temperature, 28.1.4
reduced integration, hybrid, constant pressure
C3D8RPT 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear pore pressure, trilinear temperature, 28.1.4
reduced integration
C3D8RT 8-node thermally coupled brick, trilinear displacement and temperature, reduced 28.1.4
integration, hourglass control
C3D8T 8-node thermally coupled brick, trilinear displacement and temperature 28.1.4
C3D10 10-node quadratic tetrahedron 28.1.4
EI.1–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
C3D10E 10-node quadratic piezoelectric tetrahedron 28.1.4

C3D10H 10-node quadratic tetrahedron, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.4
C3D10I 10-node general-purpose quadratic tetrahedron, improved surface stress 28.1.4
visualization
C3D10M 10-node modified tetrahedron, hourglass control 28.1.4
C3D10MH 10-node modified quadratic tetrahedron, hybrid, linear pressure, hourglass 28.1.4
control
C3D10MHT 10-node thermally coupled modified quadratic tetrahedron, hybrid, linear 28.1.4
pressure, hourglass control
C3D10MP 10-node modified displacement and pore pressure tetrahedron, hourglass control 28.1.4
C3D10MPH 10-node modified displacement and pore pressure tetrahedron, hybrid, linear 28.1.4
C3D10MPT 10-node modified displacement, pore pressure, and temperature tetrahedron, 28.1.4
linear pressure, hourglass control
C3D10MT 10-node thermally coupled modified quadratic tetrahedron, hourglass control 28.1.4
C3D15 15-node quadratic triangular prism 28.1.4
C3D15E 15-node quadratic piezoelectric triangular prism 28.1.4
C3D15H 15-node quadratic triangular prism, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.4
C3D15V 15 to 18-node triangular prism 28.1.4
C3D15VH 15 to 18-node triangular prism, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.4
C3D20 20-node quadratic brick 28.1.4
C3D20E 20-node quadratic piezoelectric brick 28.1.4
C3D20H 20-node quadratic brick, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.4
C3D20HT 20-node thermally coupled brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear 28.1.4
temperature, hybrid, linear pressure
C3D20P 20-node brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure 28.1.4
C3D20PH 20-node brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure, hybrid, linear 28.1.4
pressure
C3D20R 20-node quadratic brick, reduced integration 28.1.4
C3D20RE 20-node quadratic piezoelectric brick, reduced integration 28.1.4
C3D20RH 20-node quadratic brick, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration 28.1.4
C3D20RHT 20-node thermally coupled brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear 28.1.4
temperature, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration
C3D20RP 20-node brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure, reduced 28.1.4
integration
C3D20RPH 20-node brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear pore pressure, hybrid, linear 28.1.4
pressure, reduced integration
EI.1–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
C3D20RT 20-node thermally coupled brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear 28.1.4

temperature, reduced integration
C3D20T 20-node thermally coupled brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear temperature 28.1.4
C3D27 21 to 27-node brick 28.1.4
C3D27H 21 to 27-node brick, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.4
C3D27R 21 to 27-node brick, reduced integration 28.1.4
C3D27RH 21 to 27-node brick, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration 28.1.4
CAX3 3-node linear axisymmetric triangle 28.1.6
CAX3E 3-node linear axisymmetric piezoelectric triangle 28.1.6
CAX3H 3-node linear axisymmetric triangle, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.6
CAX3T 3-node axisymmetric thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement and 28.1.6
temperature
CAX4 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral 28.1.6
CAX4E 4-node bilinear axisymmetric piezoelectric quadrilateral 28.1.6
CAX4H 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.6
CAX4HT 4-node axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.6
temperature, hybrid, constant pressure
CAX4I 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, incompatible modes 28.1.6
CAX4IH 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure, incompatible 28.1.6
modes
CAX4P 4-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure 28.1.6
CAX4PH 4-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.6
CAX4PT 4-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.6
bilinear temperature
CAX4R 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass 28.1.6
control
CAX4RH 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced 28.1.6
CAX4RHT 4-node thermally coupled axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.6
temperature, reduced integration, hourglass control
CAX4RP 4-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.6
reduced integration
CAX4RPH 4-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.6
hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration
CAX4RPHT 4-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.6
bilinear temperature, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration
EI.1–5
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CAX4RPT 4-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.6
bilinear temperature, reduced integration
CAX4RT 4-node thermally coupled axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.6
temperature, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration, hourglass control
CAX4T 4-node axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.6
temperature
CAX6 6-node quadratic axisymmetric triangle 28.1.6
CAX6E 6-node quadratic axisymmetric piezoelectric triangle 28.1.6
CAX6H 6-node quadratic axisymmetric triangle, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.6
CAX6M 6-node modified axisymmetric triangle, hourglass control 28.1.6
CAX6MH 6-node modified quadratic axisymmetric triangle, hybrid, linear pressure, 28.1.6
hourglass control
CAX6MHT 6-node modified axisymmetric thermally coupled triangle, hybrid, linear 28.1.6
CAX6MP 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure axisymmetric triangle, 28.1.6
hourglass control
CAX6MPH 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure axisymmetric triangle, hybrid, 28.1.6
CAX6MT 6-node modified axisymmetric thermally coupled triangle, linear pressure, 28.1.6
hourglass control
CAX8 8-node biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral 28.1.6
CAX8E 8-node biquadratic axisymmetric piezoelectric quadrilateral 28.1.6
CAX8H 8-node biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.6
CAX8HT 8-node axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.6
bilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure
CAX8P 8-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore 28.1.6
pressure
CAX8PH 8-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore 28.1.6
pressure, hybrid, linear pressure
CAX8R 8-node biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, reduced integration 28.1.6
CAX8RE 8-node biquadratic axisymmetric piezoelectric quadrilateral, reduced integration 28.1.6
CAX8RH 8-node biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced 28.1.6
integration
CAX8RHT 8-node axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.6
bilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration
CAX8RP 8-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore 28.1.6
EI.1–6
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CAX8RPH 8-node axisymmetric quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore 28.1.6

pressure, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration
CAX8RT 8-node axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.6
CAX8T 8-node axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.6
CAXA4N Bilinear asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane
CAXA4HN Bilinear asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, constant Fourier pressure, hybrid
CAXA4RN Bilinear asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, reduced integration in r–z planes, hourglass control
CAXA4RHN Bilinear asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 4 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, constant Fourier pressure, hybrid, reduced integration in r–z planes
CAXA8N Biquadratic asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane
CAXA8HN Biquadratic asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, linear Fourier pressure, hybrid
CAXA8PN Biquadratic asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, bilinear Fourier pore pressure
CAXA8RN Biquadratic asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, reduced integration in r–z planes
CAXA8RHN Biquadratic asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, linear Fourier pressure, hybrid, reduced integration in r–z planes
CAXA8RPN Biquadratic asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier quadrilateral with 8 nodes per r–z 28.1.7
plane, bilinear Fourier pore pressure, reduced integration in r–z planes
CCL9 9-node cylindrical prism 28.1.5
CCL9H 9-node cylindrical hybrid prism 28.1.5
CCL12 12-node cylindrical brick 28.1.5
CCL12H 12-node cylindrical hybrid brick 28.1.5
CCL18 18-node cylindrical prism 28.1.5
CCL18H 18-node cylindrical hybrid prism 28.1.5
CCL24 24-node cylindrical brick 28.1.5
CCL24H 24-node cylindrical hybrid brick 28.1.5
CCL24R 24-node cylindrical brick with reduced integration 28.1.5
CCL24RH 24-node cylindrical hybrid brick with reduced integration 28.1.5
CGAX3 3-node generalized linear axisymmetric triangle, twist 28.1.6
CGAX3H 3-node generalized linear axisymmetric triangle, hybrid, constant pressure, twist 28.1.6
EI.1–7
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CGAX3HT 3-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled triangle, hybrid, constant 28.1.6
pressure, linear displacement and temperature, twist
CGAX3T 3-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement 28.1.6
and temperature, twist
CGAX4 4-node generalized bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, twist 28.1.6
CGAX4H 4-node generalized bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, constant 28.1.6
pressure, twist
CGAX4HT 4-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, hybrid, 28.1.6
constant pressure, bilinear displacement and temperature, twist
CGAX4R 4-node generalized bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, reduced integration, 28.1.6
hourglass control, twist
CGAX4RH 4-node generalized bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, constant 28.1.6
pressure, reduced integration, hourglass control, twist
CGAX4RHT 4-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.6
displacement and temperature, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration,
hourglass control, twist
CGAX4RT 4-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.6
displacement and temperature, reduced integration, hourglass control, twist
CGAX4T 4-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.6
displacement and temperature, twist
CGAX6 6-node generalized quadratic axisymmetric triangle, twist 28.1.6
CGAX6H 6-node generalized quadratic axisymmetric triangle, hybrid, linear pressure, twist 28.1.6
CGAX6M 6-node generalized modified axisymmetric triangle, twist, hourglass control 28.1.6
CGAX6MH 6-node generalized modified axisymmetric triangle, twist, hybrid, linear 28.1.6
CGAX6MHT 6-node generalized modified thermally coupled axisymmetric triangle, quadratic 28.1.6
displacement, linear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure, twist, hourglass control
CGAX6MT 6-node generalized modified thermally coupled axisymmetric triangle, quadratic 28.1.6
displacement, linear temperature, twist, hourglass control
CGAX8 8-node generalized biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, twist 28.1.6
CGAX8H 8-node generalized biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, linear 28.1.6
pressure, twist
CGAX8HT 8-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic 28.1.6
displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure, twist
CGAX8R 8-node generalized biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, reduced integration, 28.1.6
twist
CGAX8RH 8-node generalized biquadratic axisymmetric quadrilateral, hybrid, linear 28.1.6
pressure, reduced integration, twist
EI.1–8
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CGAX8RHT 8-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic 28.1.6

displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration,
twist
CGAX8RT 8-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic 28.1.6
displacement, bilinear temperature, reduced integration, twist
CGAX8T 8-node generalized axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic 28.1.6
displacement, bilinear temperature, twist
CIN3D8 8-node linear one-way infinite brick 28.3.2
CIN3D12R 12-node quadratic one-way infinite brick 28.3.2
CIN3D18R 18-node quadratic one-way infinite brick 28.3.2
CINAX4 4-node linear axisymmetric one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
CINAX5R 5-node quadratic axisymmetric one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
CINPE4 4-node linear plane strain one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
CINPE5R 5-node quadratic plane strain one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
CINPS4 4-node linear plane stress one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
CINPS5R 5-node quadratic plane stress one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
COHAX4 4-node axisymmetric cohesive element 32.5.10
COHAX4P 6-node axisymmetric pore pressure cohesive element 32.5.10
COH2D4 4-node two-dimensional cohesive element 32.5.8
COH2D4P 6-node two-dimensional pore pressure cohesive element 32.5.8
COH3D6 6-node three-dimensional cohesive element 32.5.9
COH3D6P 9-node three-dimensional pore pressure cohesive element 32.5.9
COH3D8P 12-node three-dimensional pore pressure cohesive element 32.5.9
CONN2D2 Connector element in a plane between two nodes or ground and a node 31.1.4
CONN3D2 Connector element in space between two nodes or ground and a node 31.1.4
CPE3 3-node linear plane strain triangle 28.1.3
CPE3E 3-node linear plane strain piezoelectric triangle 28.1.3
CPE3H 3-node linear plane strain triangle, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.3
CPE3T 3-node plane strain thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement and 28.1.3
temperature
CPE4 4-node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPE4E 4-node bilinear plane strain piezoelectric quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPE4H 4-node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.3
CPE4HT 4-node plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.3
CPE4I 4-node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral, incompatible modes 28.1.3
EI.1–9
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CPE4IH 4-node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure, incompatible 28.1.3
modes
CPE4P 4-node plane strain quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure 28.1.3
CPE4PH 4-node plane strain quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.3
CPE4R 4-node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.3
CPE4RH 4-node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced 28.1.3
CPE4RHT 4-node bilinear plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, hybrid, constant 28.1.3
pressure, reduced integration, hourglass control
CPE4RP 4-node plane strain quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.3
reduced integration, hourglass control
CPE4RPH 4-node plane strain quadrilateral, bilinear displacement, bilinear pore pressure, 28.1.3
hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration, hourglass control
CPE4RT 4-node bilinear plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.3
displacement and temperature, reduced integration, hourglass control
CPE4T 4-node plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.3
temperature
CPE6 6-node quadratic plane strain triangle 28.1.3
CPE6E 6-node quadratic plane strain piezoelectric triangle 28.1.3
CPE6H 6-node quadratic plane strain triangle, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.3
CPE6M 6-node modified quadratic plane strain triangle, hourglass control 28.1.3
CPE6MH 6-node modified quadratic plane strain triangle, hybrid, linear pressure, hourglass 28.1.3
control
CPE6MHT 6-node modified quadratic plane strain thermally coupled triangle, hybrid, linear 28.1.3
CPE6MP 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure plane strain triangle, hourglass 28.1.3
control
CPE6MPH 6-node modified displacement and pore pressure plane strain triangle, hybrid, 28.1.3
CPE6MT 6-node modified quadratic plane strain thermally coupled triangle, hourglass 28.1.3
control
CPE8 8-node biquadratic plane strain quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPE8E 8-node biquadratic plane strain piezoelectric quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPE8H 8-node biquadratic plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.3
CPE8HT 8-node plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.3
bilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure
EI.1–10
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CPE8P 8-node plane strain quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore 28.1.3
pressure
CPE8PH 8-node plane strain quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore 28.1.3
pressure, hybrid, linear pressure stress
CPE8R 8-node biquadratic plane strain quadrilateral, reduced integration 28.1.3
CPE8RE 8-node biquadratic plane strain piezoelectric quadrilateral, reduced integration 28.1.3
CPE8RH 8-node biquadratic plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced 28.1.3
integration
CPE8RHT 8-node plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.3
bilinear temperature, reduced integration, hybrid, linear pressure
CPE8RP 8-node plane strain quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore 28.1.3
CPE8RPH 8-node biquadratic displacement, bilinear pore pressure, reduced integration, 28.1.3
hybrid, linear pressure
CPE8RT 8-node plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.3
CPE8T 8-node plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.3
CPEG3 3-node linear generalized plane strain triangle 28.1.3
CPEG3H 3-node linear generalized plane strain triangle, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.3
CPEG3HT 3-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement 28.1.3
and temperature, hybrid, constant pressure
CPEG3T 3-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement 28.1.3
and temperature
CPEG4 4-node bilinear generalized plane strain quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPEG4H 4-node bilinear generalized plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, constant pressure 28.1.3
CPEG4HT 4-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.3
displacement and temperature, hybrid, constant pressure
CPEG4I 4-node bilinear generalized plane strain quadrilateral, incompatible modes 28.1.3
CPEG4IH 4-node bilinear generalized plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure, 28.1.3
incompatible modes
CPEG4R 4-node bilinear generalized plane strain quadrilateral, reduced integration, 28.1.3
hourglass control
CPEG4RH 4-node bilinear generalized plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, constant pressure, 28.1.3
CPEG4RHT 4-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.3
displacement and temperature, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration,
hourglass control
EI.1–11
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CPEG4RT 4-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.3
CPEG4T 4-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.3
displacement and temperature
CPEG6 6-node quadratic generalized plane strain triangle 28.1.3
CPEG6H 6-node quadratic generalized plane strain triangle, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.3
CPEG6M 6-node modified generalized plane strain triangle, hourglass control 28.1.3
CPEG6MH 6-node modified generalized plane strain triangle, hybrid, linear pressure, 28.1.3
hourglass control
CPEG6MHT 6-node modified generalized plane strain thermally coupled triangle, quadratic 28.1.3
displacement, linear temperature, hybrid, constant pressure, hourglass control
CPEG6MT 6-node modified generalized plane strain thermally coupled triangle, quadratic 28.1.3
displacement, linear temperature, hourglass control
CPEG8 8-node biquadratic generalized plane strain quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPEG8H 8-node biquadratic generalized plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure 28.1.3
CPEG8HT 8-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic 28.1.3
displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure
CPEG8R 8-node biquadratic generalized plane strain quadrilateral, reduced integration 28.1.3
CPEG8RH 8-node biquadratic generalized plane strain quadrilateral, hybrid, linear pressure, 28.1.3
reduced integration
CPEG8RHT 8-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic 28.1.3
displacement, bilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration
CPEG8T 8-node generalized plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic 28.1.3
displacement, bilinear temperature
CPS3 3-node linear plane stress triangle 28.1.3
CPS3E 3-node linear plane stress piezoelectric triangle 28.1.3
CPS3T 3-node plane stress thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement and 28.1.3
temperature
CPS4 4-node bilinear plane stress quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPS4E 4-node bilinear plane stress piezoelectric quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPS4I 4-node bilinear plane stress quadrilateral, incompatible modes 28.1.3
CPS4R 4-node bilinear plane stress quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.3
CPS4RT 4-node plane stress thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.3
CPS4T 4-node plane stress thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.3
temperature
CPS6 6-node quadratic plane stress triangle 28.1.3
CPS6E 6-node quadratic plane stress piezoelectric triangle 28.1.3
EI.1–12
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
CPS6M 6-node modified second-order plane stress triangle, hourglass control 28.1.3
CPS6MT 6-node modified second-order plane stress thermally coupled triangle, hourglass 28.1.3
control
CPS8 8-node biquadratic plane stress quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPS8E 8-node biquadratic plane stress piezoelectric quadrilateral 28.1.3
CPS8R 8-node biquadratic plane stress quadrilateral, reduced integration 28.1.3
CPS8RE 8-node biquadratic plane stress piezoelectric quadrilateral, reduced integration 28.1.3
CPS8RT 8-node plane stress thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.3
CPS8T 8-node plane stress thermally coupled quadrilateral, biquadratic displacement, 28.1.3
DASHPOT1 Dashpot between a node and ground, acting in a fixed direction 32.2.2
DASHPOT2 Dashpot between two nodes, acting in a fixed direction 32.2.2
DASHPOTA Axial dashpot between two nodes, whose line of action is the line joining the two 32.2.2
nodes
DC1D2 2-node heat transfer link 28.1.2
DC1D2E 2-node coupled thermal-electrical link 28.1.2
DC1D3 3-node heat transfer link 28.1.2
DC1D3E 3-node coupled thermal-electrical link 28.1.2
DC2D3 3-node linear heat transfer triangle 28.1.3
DC2D3E 3-node linear coupled thermal-electrical triangle 28.1.3
DC2D4 4-node linear heat transfer quadrilateral 28.1.3
DC2D4E 4-node linear coupled thermal-electrical quadrilateral 28.1.3
DC2D6 6-node quadratic heat transfer triangle 28.1.3
DC2D6E 6-node quadratic coupled thermal-electrical triangle 28.1.3
DC2D8 8-node quadratic heat transfer quadrilateral 28.1.3
DC2D8E 8-node quadratic coupled thermal-electrical quadrilateral 28.1.3
DC3D4 4-node linear heat transfer tetrahedron 28.1.4
DC3D4E 4-node linear coupled thermal-electrical tetrahedron 28.1.4
DC3D6 6-node linear heat transfer triangular prism 28.1.4
DC3D6E 6-node linear coupled thermal-electrical triangular prism 28.1.4
DC3D8 8-node linear heat transfer brick 28.1.4
DC3D8E 8-node linear coupled thermal-electrical brick 28.1.4
DC3D10 10-node quadratic heat transfer tetrahedron 28.1.4
DC3D10E 10-node quadratic coupled thermal-electrical tetrahedron 28.1.4
DC3D15 15-node quadratic heat transfer triangular prism 28.1.4
DC3D15E 15-node quadratic coupled thermal-electrical triangular prism 28.1.4
EI.1–13
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DC3D20 20-node quadratic heat transfer brick 28.1.4

DC3D20E 20-node quadratic coupled thermal-electrical brick 28.1.4
DCAX3 3-node linear axisymmetric heat transfer triangle 28.1.6
DCAX3E 3-node linear axisymmetric coupled thermal-electrical triangle 28.1.6
DCAX4 4-node linear axisymmetric heat transfer quadrilateral 28.1.6
DCAX4E 4-node linear axisymmetric coupled thermal-electrical quadrilateral 28.1.6
DCAX6 6-node quadratic axisymmetric heat transfer triangle 28.1.6
DCAX6E 6-node quadratic axisymmetric coupled thermal-electrical triangle 28.1.6
DCAX8 8-node quadratic axisymmetric heat transfer quadrilateral 28.1.6
DCAX8E 8-node quadratic axisymmetric coupled thermal-electrical quadrilateral 28.1.6
DCC1D2 2-node convection/diffusion link 28.1.2
DCC1D2D 2-node convection/diffusion link, dispersion control 28.1.2
DCC2D4 4-node convection/diffusion quadrilateral 28.1.3
DCC2D4D 4-node convection/diffusion quadrilateral, dispersion control 28.1.3
DCC3D8 8-node convection/diffusion brick 28.1.4
DCC3D8D 8-node convection/diffusion brick, dispersion control 28.1.4
DCCAX2 2-node axisymmetric convection/diffusion link 28.1.6
DCCAX2D 2-node axisymmetric convection/diffusion link, dispersion control 28.1.6
DCCAX4 4-node axisymmetric convection/diffusion quadrilateral 28.1.6
DCCAX4D 4-node axisymmetric convection/diffusion quadrilateral, dispersion control 28.1.6
DCOUP2D Two-dimensional distributing coupling element 32.4.2
DCOUP3D Three-dimensional distributing coupling element 32.4.2
DGAP Unidirectional thermal interactions between two nodes 39.2.2
DRAG2D 2-D drag chain, for use in cases where only horizontal motion is being studied 32.11.2
DRAG3D 3-D drag chain 32.11.2
DS3 3-node heat transfer triangular shell 29.6.7
DS4 4-node heat transfer quadrilateral shell 29.6.7
DS6 6-node heat transfer triangular shell 29.6.7
DS8 8-node heat transfer quadrilateral shell 29.6.7
DSAX1 2-node axisymmetric heat transfer shell 29.6.9
DSAX2 3-node axisymmetric heat transfer shell 29.6.9
ELBOW31 2-node pipe in space with deforming section, linear interpolation along the pipe 29.5.2
ELBOW31B 2-node pipe in space with ovalization only, axial gradients of ovalization 29.5.2
neglected
EI.1–14
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
ELBOW31C 2-node pipe in space with ovalization only, axial gradients of ovalization 29.5.2
neglected. This is the same as element type ELBOW31B except that the odd
numbered terms in the Fourier interpolation around the pipe, except the first
term, are neglected.
ELBOW32 3-node pipe in space with deforming section, quadratic interpolation along the 29.5.2
pipe
EMC2D3 3-node triangular zero-order electromagnetic element 28.1.3
EMC2D4 4-node quadrilateral zero-order electromagnetic element 28.1.3
EMC3D4 4-node tetrahedral zero-order electromagnetic element 28.1.4
EMC3D8 8-node hexahedral zero-order electromagnetic element 28.1.4
FRAME2D 2-node two-dimensional straight frame element 29.4.3
FRAME3D 2-node three-dimensional straight frame element 29.4.3
GAPCYL Cylindrical gap between two nodes 39.2.2
GAPSPHER Spherical gap between two nodes 39.2.2
GAPUNI Unidirectional gap between two nodes 39.2.2
GAPUNIT Unidirectional gap and thermal interactions between two nodes 39.2.2
GK2D2 2-node two-dimensional gasket element 32.6.7
GK2D2N 2-node two-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only 32.6.7
GK3D2 2-node three-dimensional gasket element 32.6.8
GK3D2N 2-node three-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only 32.6.8
GK3D4L 4-node three-dimensional line gasket element 32.6.8
GK3D4LN 4-node three-dimensional line gasket element with thickness-direction behavior 32.6.8
only
GK3D6L 6-node three-dimensional line gasket element 32.6.8
GK3D6LN 6-node three-dimensional line gasket element with thickness-direction behavior 32.6.8
only
GK3D12M 12-node three-dimensional gasket element 32.6.8
GK3D12MN 12-node three-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior 32.6.8
only
GK3D18N 18-node three-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior 32.6.8
only
GKAX2 2-node axisymmetric gasket element 32.6.9
EI.1–15
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
GKAX2N 2-node axisymmetric gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only 32.6.9
GKPE4 4-node plane strain gasket element 32.6.7
GKPE6 6-node plane strain gasket element 32.6.7
GKPS4 4-node plane stress gasket element 32.6.7
GKPS4N 4-node two-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only 32.6.7
GKPS6 6-node plane stress gasket element 32.6.7
GKPS6N 6-node two-dimensional gasket element with thickness-direction behavior only 32.6.7
HEATCAP Point heat capacitance 30.4.2
IRS21A Axisymmetric rigid surface element (for use with first-order axisymmetric 39.5.2
elements)
IRS22A Axisymmetric rigid surface element (for use with second-order axisymmetric 39.5.2
elements)
ISL21A 2-node axisymmetric slide line element (for use with first-order axisymmetric 39.4.2
elements)
ISL22A 3-node axisymmetric slide line element (for use with second-order axisymmetric 39.4.2
elements)
ITSCYL Cylindrical geometry tube support interaction element 32.8.2
ITSUNI Unidirectional tube support interaction element 32.8.2
ITT21 Tube-tube element for use with first-order, 2-D beam and pipe elements 39.3.2
ITT31 Tube-tube element for use with first-order, 3-D beam and pipe elements 39.3.2
JOINT2D Two-dimensional elastic-plastic joint interaction element. These elements are 32.10.2
available only for use in Abaqus/Aqua.
JOINT3D Three-dimensional elastic-plastic joint interaction element. These elements are 32.10.2
available only for use in Abaqus/Aqua.
JOINTC Three-dimensional joint interaction element 32.3.2
LS3S 3-node second-order line spring for use on a symmetry plane 32.9.2
LS6 6-node general second-order line spring. This element can be used only with 32.9.2
linear elastic material behavior.
M3D3 3-node triangular membrane 29.1.2
M3D4 4-node quadrilateral membrane 29.1.2
M3D4R 4-node quadrilateral membrane, reduced integration, hourglass control 29.1.2
EI.1–16
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
M3D8R 8-node quadrilateral membrane, reduced integration 29.1.2

MASS Point mass 30.1.2
MAX1 2-node linear axisymmetric membrane 29.1.4
MAX2 3-node quadratic axisymmetric membrane 29.1.4
MCL6 6-node cylindrical membrane 29.1.3
MCL9 9-node cylindrical membrane 29.1.3
MGAX1 2-node linear axisymmetric membrane, twist 29.1.4
MGAX2 3-node quadratic axisymmetric membrane, twist 29.1.4
PIPE21 2-node linear pipe in a plane 29.3.8
PIPE21H 2-node linear pipe in a plane, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
PIPE22 3-node quadratic pipe in a plane 29.3.8
PIPE22H 3-node quadratic pipe in a plane, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
PIPE31 2-node linear pipe in space 29.3.8
PIPE31H 2-node linear pipe in space, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
PIPE32 3-node quadratic pipe in space 29.3.8
PIPE32H 3-node quadratic pipe in space, hybrid formulation 29.3.8
PSI24 4-node 2-D pipe-soil interaction element 32.12.2
Q3D4 4-node tetrahedron, linear displacement, linear electric potential and linear 28.1.4
temperature
Q3D6 6-node linear triangular prism, linear displacement, linear electric potential and 28.1.4
linear temperature
Q3D8 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear electric potential and trilinear 28.1.4
temperature
Q3D8H 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear electric potential, trilinear 28.1.4
Q3D8R 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear electric potential, trilinear 28.1.4
Q3D8RH 8-node brick, trilinear displacement, trilinear electric potential, trilinear 28.1.4
temperature, reduced integration, hourglass control, hybrid, constant pressure
Q3D10M 10-node modified displacement, electric potential, temperature quadratic 28.1.4
tetrahedron, hourglass control
EI.1–17
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Q3D10MH 10-node modified displacement, electric potential, temperature quadratic 28.1.4

tetrahedron, hybrid, linear pressure, hourglass control
Q3D20 20-node quadratic brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential, 28.1.4
trilinear temperature
Q3D20H 20-node quadratic brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential, 28.1.4
trilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure
Q3D20R 20-node quadratic brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential, 28.1.4
trilinear temperature, reduced integration
Q3D20RH 20-node quadratic brick, triquadratic displacement, trilinear electric potential, 28.1.4
trilinear temperature, hybrid, linear pressure, reduced integration
R2D2 2-node 2-D linear rigid link (for use in plane strain or plane stress) 30.3.2
R3D3 3-node 3-D rigid triangular facet 30.3.2
R3D4 4-node 3-D bilinear rigid quadrilateral 30.3.2
RAX2 2-node linear axisymmetric rigid link (for use in axisymmetric planar geometries) 30.3.2
RB2D2 2-node 2-D rigid beam 30.3.2
RB3D2 2-node 3-D rigid beam 30.3.2
ROTARYI Rotary inertia at a point 30.2.2
S3 3-node triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains (identical to 29.6.7
element S3R)
S3T 3-node thermally coupled triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane 29.6.7
strains (identical to element S3RT)
S3R 3-node triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains (identical to 29.6.7
element S3)
S3RT 3-node thermally coupled triangular general-purpose shell, finite membrane 29.6.7
strains (identical to element S3T)
S4 4-node general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains 29.6.7
S4T 4-node thermally coupled general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains 29.6.7
S4R 4-node general-purpose shell, reduced integration, hourglass control, finite 29.6.7
membrane strains
S4RT 4-node thermally coupled general-purpose shell, reduced integration, hourglass 29.6.7
control, finite membrane strains
S4R5 4-node thin shell, reduced integration, hourglass control, using five degrees of 29.6.7
freedom per node
S8R 8-node doubly curved thick shell, reduced integration 29.6.7
S8R5 8-node doubly curved thin shell, reduced integration, using five degrees of 29.6.7
freedom per node
S8RT 8-node thermally coupled quadrilateral general thick shell, biquadratic 29.6.7
displacement, bilinear temperature in the shell surface
EI.1–18
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
S9R5 9-node doubly curved thin shell, reduced integration, using five degrees of 29.6.7
freedom per node
SAX1 2-node linear axisymmetric thin or thick shell 29.6.9
SAX2 3-node quadratic axisymmetric thin or thick shell 29.6.9
SAX2T 3-node axisymmetric thermally coupled thin or thick shell, quadratic 29.6.9
displacement, linear temperature in the shell surface
SAXA1N Linear asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier shell element with 2 nodes in the 29.6.10
generator direction and N Fourier modes
SAXA2N Quadratic asymmetric-axisymmetric, Fourier shell element with 3 nodes in the 29.6.10
generator direction and N Fourier modes
SC6R 6-node triangular in-plane continuum shell wedge, general-purpose continuum 29.6.8
shell, finite membrane strains.
SC8R 8-node quadrilateral in-plane general-purpose continuum shell, reduced 29.6.8
integration with hourglass control, finite membrane strains.
SC6RT 6-node linear displacement and temperature, triangular in-plane continuum shell 29.6.8
wedge, general-purpose continuum shell, finite membrane strains.
SC8RT 8-node linear displacement and temperature, quadrilateral in-plane general- 29.6.8
purpose continuum shell, reduced integration with hourglass control, finite
membrane strains.
SFM3D3 3-node triangular surface element 32.7.2
SFM3D4 4-node quadrilateral surface element 32.7.2
SFM3D4R 4-node quadrilateral surface element, reduced integration 32.7.2
SFM3D8 8-node quadrilateral surface element 32.7.2
SFMAX1 2-node linear axisymmetric surface element 32.7.4
SFMAX2 3-node quadratic axisymmetric surface element 32.7.4
SFMCL6 6-node cylindrical surface element 32.7.3
SFMCL9 9-node cylindrical surface element 32.7.3
SFMGAX1 2-node linear axisymmetric surface element, twist 32.7.4
SFMGAX2 3-node quadratic axisymmetric surface element, twist 32.7.4
SPRING1 Spring between a node and ground, acting in a fixed direction 32.1.2
SPRING2 Spring between two nodes, acting in a fixed direction 32.1.2
SPRINGA Axial spring between two nodes, whose line of action is the line joining the two 32.1.2
nodes. This line of action may rotate in large-displacement analysis.
STRI3 3-node triangular facet thin shell 29.6.7
STRI65 6-node triangular thin shell, using five degrees of freedom per node 29.6.7
T2D2 2-node linear 2-D truss 29.2.2
EI.1–19
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
T2D2E 2-node 2-D piezoelectric truss 29.2.2

T2D2H 2-node linear 2-D truss, hybrid 29.2.2
T2D2T 2-node 2-D thermally coupled truss 29.2.2
T2D3 3-node quadratic 2-D truss 29.2.2
T2D3H 3-node quadratic 2-D truss, hybrid 29.2.2
T3D2H 2-node linear 3-D truss, hybrid 29.2.2
T3D3 3-node quadratic 3-D truss 29.2.2
T3D3H 3-node quadratic 3-D truss, hybrid 29.2.2
WARP2D3 3-node linear 2-D warping element 28.4.2
WARP2D4 4-node bilinear 2-D warping element 28.4.2
EI.1–20
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Abaqus/Explicit ELEMENT INDEX
EI.2 Abaqus/Explicit ELEMENT INDEX
This index provides a reference to all of the element types that are available in Abaqus/Explicit. Elements are
listed in alphabetical order, where numerical characters precede the letter “A” and two-digit numbers are put
in numerical, rather than “alphabetical,” order. For example, C3D8R precedes CAX3.
For certain options, such as contact and surface-based distributing coupling, Abaqus may generate
internal elements (such as IDCOUP3D for surface-based distributing coupling). These internal element
names are not included in the index below but may appear in an output database (.odb) or data (.dat) file.
AC2D3 3-node linear 2-D acoustic triangle 28.1.3

AC2D4R 4-node linear 2-D acoustic quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.3
AC3D4 4-node linear acoustic tetrahedron 28.1.4
AC3D6 6-node linear acoustic triangular prism 28.1.4
AC3D8R 8-node linear acoustic brick, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.4
ACAX3 3-node linear axisymmetric acoustic triangle 28.1.6
ACAX4R 4-node linear axisymmetric acoustic quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass 28.1.6
control
ACINAX2 2-node linear axisymmetric acoustic infinite element 28.3.2
B21 2-node linear beam in a plane 29.3.8
B22 3-node quadratic beam in a plane 29.3.8
B31 2-node linear beam in space 29.3.8
B32 3-node quadratic beam in space 29.3.8
C3D4 4-node linear tetrahedron 28.1.4
C3D4T 4-node thermally coupled tetrahedron, linear displacement and temperature 28.1.4
C3D6 6-node linear triangular prism, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.4
C3D6T 6-node thermally coupled triangular prism, linear displacement and temperature, 28.1.4
C3D8 8-node linear brick 28.1.4
C3D8I 8-node linear brick, incompatible modes 28.1.4
C3D8R 8-node linear brick, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.4
C3D8T 8-node thermally coupled brick, trilinear displacement and temperature 28.1.4
C3D8RT 8-node thermally coupled brick, trilinear displacement and temperature, reduced 28.1.4
EI.2–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
C3D10M 10-node modified second-order tetrahedron 28.1.4

C3D10MT 10-node modified thermally coupled second-order tetrahedron 28.1.4
CAX3 3-node linear axisymmetric triangle 28.1.6
CAX3T 3-node thermally coupled axisymmetric triangle, linear displacement and 28.1.6
temperature
CAX4R 4-node bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass 28.1.6
control
CAX4RT 4-node thermally coupled axisymmetric quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.6
temperature, hybrid, constant pressure, reduced integration, hourglass control
CAX6M 6-node modified second-order axisymmetric triangle 28.1.6
CAX6MT 6-node modified second-order axisymmetric thermally coupled triangle 28.1.6
CIN3D8 8-node linear one-way infinite brick 28.3.2
CINAX4 4-node linear axisymmetric one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
CINPE4 4-node linear plane strain one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
CINPS4 4-node linear plane stress one-way infinite quadrilateral 28.3.2
COHAX4 4-node axisymmetric cohesive element 32.5.10
COH2D4 4-node two-dimensional cohesive element 32.5.8
CONN2D2 Connector element in a plane between two nodes or ground and a node 31.1.4
CONN3D2 Connector element in space between two nodes or ground and a node 31.1.4
CPE3 3-node linear plane strain triangle 28.1.3
CPE3T 3-node plane strain thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement and 28.1.3
temperature
CPE4R 4-node bilinear plane strain quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.3
CPE4RT 4-node bilinear plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear 28.1.3
CPE6M 6-node modified second-order plane strain triangle 28.1.3
CPE6MT 6-node modified second-order plane strain thermally coupled triangle 28.1.3
CPS3 3-node linear plane stress triangle 28.1.3
CPS3T 3-node plane stress thermally coupled triangle, linear displacement and 28.1.3
temperature
CPS4R 4-node bilinear plane stress quadrilateral, reduced integration, hourglass control 28.1.3
CPS4RT 4-node plane stress thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and 28.1.3
CPS6M 6-node modified second-order plane stress triangle 28.1.3
CPS6MT 6-node modified second-order plane stress thermally coupled triangle 28.1.3
EI.2–2
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
DASHPOTA Axial dashpot between two nodes 32.2.2

EC3D8R 8-node linear multi-material Eulerian brick, reduced integration, hourglass 32.14.1
control
EC3D8RT 8-node thermally coupled linear multi-material Eulerian brick, reduced 32.14.1
HEATCAP Point heat capacitance 30.4.2
MASS Point mass 30.1.2
PC3D 1-node continuum particle element 28.5.2
PIPE21 2-node linear pipe in a plane 29.3.8
PIPE31 2-node linear pipe in space 29.3.8
R2D2 2-node 2-D linear rigid link (for use in plane strain or plane stress) 30.3.2
R3D3 3-node 3-D rigid triangular facet 30.3.2
R3D4 4-node 3-D bilinear rigid quadrilateral 30.3.2
RAX2 2-node linear axisymmetric rigid link (for use in axisymmetric geometries) 30.3.2
ROTARYI Rotary inertia at a point 30.2.2
S3R 3-node triangular shell, finite membrane strains 29.6.7
S3RS 3-node triangular shell, small membrane strains 29.6.7
S3RT 3-node thermally-coupled triangular shell, finite membrane strains 29.6.7
S4 4-node general-purpose shell, finite membrane strains 29.6.7
S4R 4-node shell, reduced integration, hourglass control, finite membrane strains 29.6.7
S4RS 4-node shell, reduced integration, hourglass control, small membrane strains 29.6.7
S4RSW 4-node shell, reduced integration, hourglass control, small membrane strains, 29.6.7
S4RT 4-node thermally-coupled shell, reduced integration, hourglass control, finite 29.6.7
membrane strains
SAX1 2-node linear axisymmetric shell 29.6.9
SC6R 6-node triangular in-plane continuum shell wedge, general-purpose continuum 29.6.8
shell, finite membrane strains.
SC8R 8-node quadrilateral in-plane general-purpose continuum shell, reduced 29.6.8
integration with hourglass control, finite membrane strains.
SC6RT 6-node thermally coupled triangular in-plane continuum shell wedge, general- 29.6.8
purpose continuum shell, finite membrane strains.
SC8RT 8-node thermally coupled quadrilateral in-plane general-purpose continuum 29.6.8
shell, reduced integration with hourglass control, finite membrane strains.
EI.2–3
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:

SPRINGA Axial spring between two nodes 32.1.2
EI.2–4
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
Abaqus/CFD ELEMENT INDEX
EI.3 Abaqus/CFD ELEMENT INDEX
This index provides a reference to all of the element types that are available in Abaqus/CFD. Elements are
listed in alphabetical order.
FC3D4 4-node tetrahedron 28.2.2

FC3D6 6-node prism 28.2.2
FC3D8 8-node brick 28.2.2
EI.3–1
Abaqus ID:
Printed on:
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PART I INTRODUCTION, SPATIAL MODELING, AND EXECUTION

Eulerian surface definition 2.3.5

Fetching sample input files 3.2.14

5. File Output Format

OI.1 Abaqus/Standard Output Variable Index

OI.2 Abaqus/Explicit Output Variable Index

OI.3 Abaqus/CFD Output Variable Index

PART III ANALYSIS PROCEDURES, SOLUTION, AND CONTROL

Fully coupled thermal-stress analysis 6.5.3

7. Analysis Solution and Control

PART IV ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

8. Analysis Techniques: Introduction

9. Analysis Continuation Techniques

10. Modeling Abstractions

11. Special-Purpose Techniques

12. Adaptivity Techniques

Output and diagnostics for ALE adaptive meshing in Abaqus/Explicit 12.2.5

13. Optimization Techniques

14. Eulerian Analysis

15. Particle Methods

16. Sequentially Coupled Multiphysics Analyses

Co-simulation between Abaqus solvers

18. Extending Abaqus Analysis Functionality

19. Design Sensitivity Analysis

20. Parametric Studies

21. Materials: Introduction

22. Elastic Mechanical Properties

23. Inelastic Mechanical Properties

Permanent set in rubberlike materials

24. Progressive Damage and Failure

25. Hydrodynamic Properties

26. Other Material Properties

27. Elements: Introduction

28. Continuum Elements

29. Structural Elements

Axisymmetric membrane element library 29.1.4

30. Inertial, Rigid, and Capacitance Elements

31. Connector Elements

32. Special-Purpose Elements

Tube support elements

EI.1 Abaqus/Standard Element Index

EI.2 Abaqus/Explicit Element Index

EI.3 Abaqus/CFD Element Index

PART VII PRESCRIBED CONDITIONS

33. Prescribed Conditions

PART VIII CONSTRAINTS

General multi-point constraints 34.2.2

35. Defining Contact Interactions

Contact modeling if substructures are present 35.3.9

36. Contact Property Models

37. Contact Formulations and Numerical Methods

Contact constraint enforcement methods in Abaqus/Standard 37.1.2

38. Contact Difficulties and Diagnostics

39. Contact Elements in Abaqus/Standard