Classification of Instruments

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
The measuring instruments may be classified as follows:
Absolute and Secondary Instruments
1. Absolute Instruments
The instruments of this type give the value of the measurand in terms of instrument constant and
its deflection. Such instruments do not require comparison with any other standard. The example
of this type of instrument is tangent galvanometer, which gives the value of the current to be
measured in terms of tangent of the angle of deflection produced, the horizontal component of
the earth’s magnetic field, the radius and the number of turns of the wire used. Rayleigh current
balance and absolute electrometer are other examples of absolute instruments. Absolute
instruments are mostly used in standard laboratories and in similar institutions as standardising.
The classification of measuring instruments is shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7 Classification of measuring instruments

2. Secondary Instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the deflection of such instruments gives the magnitude
of the electrical quantity to be measured directly. These instruments are required to be calibrated
by comparison with either an absolute instrument or with another secondary instrument, which
has already been calibrated before the use. These instruments are generally used in practice.
Secondary instruments are further classified as

• Indicating instruments
• Integrating instruments
• Recording instruments
(i) Indicating Instruments
Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the
time when it is being measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a calibrated
(pregraduated) scale. Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, frequency meters, power factor
meters, etc., fall into this category.
(ii) Integrating Instruments
Integrating instruments are those which measure the total amount of either quantity of electricity
(ampere-hours) or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. The summation, given by such
an instrument, is the product of time and an electrical quantity under measurement. The ampere
hour meters and energy meters fall in this class.
(iii) Recording Instruments
Recording instruments are those which keep a continuous record of the variation of the
magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a definite period of time. In such
instruments, the moving system carries an inked pen which touches lightly a sheet of paper
wrapped over a drum moving with uniform slow motion in a direction perpendicular to that of
the direction of the pointer. Thus, a curve is traced which shows the variations in the magnitude
of the electrical quantity under observation over a definite period of time. Such instruments are
generally used in
powerhouses where the current, voltage, power, etc., are to be maintained within certain
acceptable limit.
Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics Instruments
1. Mechanical Instruments
Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. They are unable to
respond rapidly to the measurement of dynamic and transient conditions due to the fact that they
have moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass
presents inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes
which are involved in dynamic instruments. Also, most of the mechanical instruments causes
noise pollution.
Advantages of Mechanical Instruments

• Relatively cheaper in cost
• More durable due to rugged construction
• Simple in design and easy to use
• No external power supply required for operation
• Reliable and accurate for measurement of stable and time invariant quantity
Disadvantages of Mechanical Instruments

• Poor frequency response to transient and dynamic measurements
• Large force required to overcome mechanical friction
• Incompatible when remote indication and control needed
• Cause noise pollution
2. Electrical Instruments
When the instrument pointer deflection is caused by the action of some electrical methods then it
is called an electrical instrument. The time of operation of an electrical instrument is more rapid
than that of a mechanical instrument. Unfortunately, an electrical system normally depends upon
a mechanical measurement as an indicating device. This mechanical movement has some inertia
due to which the frequency response of these instruments is poor.
3. Electronic Instruments
Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices. Most of the scientific and industrial
instrumentations require very fast responses. Such requirements cannot be met with by
mechanical and electrical instruments. In electronic devices, since the only movement involved
is that of electrons, the response time is extremely small owing to very small inertia of the
electrons. With
the use of electronic devices, a very weak signal can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and
amplifiers.
Advantages of Electrical/Electronic Instruments

• Non-contact measurements are possible
• These instruments consume less power
• Compact in size and more reliable in operation
• Greater flexibility
• Good frequency and transient response
• Remote indication and recording possible
• Amplification produced greater than that produced in mechanical
instruments 1.6.4 Manual and Automatic Instruments
In case of manual instruments, the service of an operator is required. For example, measurement
of temperature by a resistance thermometer incorporating a Wheatstone bridge in its circuit, an
operator is required to indicate the temperature being measured.
In an automatic type of instrument, no operator is required all the time. For

example, measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometer.
1.6.5 Self-operated and Power-operated Instruments
Self-operated instruments are those in which no outside power is required for operation The
output energy is supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input measurand. Dial indicating
type instruments belong to this category.
The power-operated instruments are those in which some external power such as electricity,
compressed air, hydraulic supply is required for operation. In such cases, the input signal
supplies only an insignificant portion of the output power. Electromechanical instruments shown
in Figure 1.8 fall in this category.
Figure 1.8 Electromechanical measurement system
1.6.6 Deflection and Null Output Instruments

In a deflection-type instrument, the deflection of the instrument indicates the measurement of the
unknown quantity. The measurand quantity produces some physical effect which deflects or
produces a mechanical displacement in the moving system of the instrument.
An opposite effect is built in the instrument which opposes the deflection or the mechanical
displacement of the moving system. The balance is achieved when opposing effect equals the
actuating cause producing the deflection or the mechanical displacement.
The deflection or the mechanical displacement at this point gives the value of the unknown input
quantity. These type of instruments are suited for measurement under dynamic condition.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI), etc., type instruments are
examples of this category.
In null-type instruments, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the magnitude of the
measurand quantity. The null condition depends upon some other known conditions. These are
more accurate and highly sensitive as compared to deflection-type instruments. A dc
potentiometer is a null- type instrument.

Classification of Instruments

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CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

The measuring instruments may be classified as follows:

Absolute and Secondary Instruments

Figure 1.7 Classification of measuring instruments

Secondary instruments are further classified as

(i) Indicating Instruments

(iii) Recording Instruments

Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics Instruments

Advantages of Mechanical Instruments

Disadvantages of Mechanical Instruments

Advantages of Electrical/Electronic Instruments

instruments 1.6.4 Manual and Automatic Instruments

In an automatic type of instrument, no operator is required all the time. For

1.6.5 Self-operated and Power-operated Instruments

Figure 1.8 Electromechanical measurement system

1.6.6 Deflection and Null Output Instruments

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