Wilson J. Temporal, MST Alan Anthony Baccay, Mars Hayden Gonzales Severo L. Washington, Mars Nestor M. Cabrido JR., Maed

UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS
Tuguegarao City
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS and SCIENCES

First Semester
A.Y. 2021-2022
CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

ETHC 1013-ETHICS
Prepared by:
WILSON J. TEMPORAL, MST

ALAN ANTHONY BACCAY, MARS
HAYDEN GONZALES
SEVERO L. WASHINGTON, MARS
NESTOR M. CABRIDO JR., MAED
Reviewed by:
WILSON J. TEMPORAL, LPT, MST

Department Head
Recommended by:
VENUS I. GUYOS, Ph.D.

Academic Dean
Approved by:
EMMANUEL JAMES PATTAGUAN, Ph.D.

Vice President for Academics
ETHC 1013- ETHICS | 1

THE VISION, MISSION, EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY,
AND CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY
VISION
USL is a global learning community recognized for science and technology across all disciplines,
strong research, and responsive community engagement grounded on the CICM mission and
identity for a distinctive student experience.
MISSION
USL sustains a Catholic academic community that nurtures persons for community, church and
society anchored on CICM’s Missio et Excellentia.
EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND CORE VALUES

The University of Saint Louis upholds the philosophy that education is for building of self and
persons for the Church and the Society. Wisdom builds. To these ends, the following are University
of Saint Louis’s core values integral in the formation of every member of the Louisian community.
a. Christian Living. We are witnesses to the Gospel values as taught and lived by Christ thus
making God’s love known and experienced by all.
b. Excellence. We seek and maintain uncompromising standard of quality in teaching,

learning, service, and stewardship of school resources.
c. Professional Responsibility. We are committed to efficiently and responsibly apply the

learned principles, values and skills in the chosen field of discipline, taking initiative and
command responsibility in one’s professional advancement.
d. Social Awareness and Involvement. We engage ourselves with society by listening to

the prevailing issues and concerns in the society, thereby initiating and participating in
constructive and relevant social activities for the promotion of justice, peace and integrity of
creation and for people’s wellness and development consistent with the CICM charism.

e. Innovation, Creativity and Agility. We keep ourselves relevant and responsive to the
changing needs of our stakeholders by being flexible, solution oriented, and having cutting-
edge decisions and practices
School of Education, Arts and Sciences

General Education
Curriculum 2021-2022
PRELIMINARIES:
WELCOME TO THE NEW SCHOOL YEAR 2021-2022 - 1 st SEMESTER! You are enrolled in the
Correspondence Learning Modality. I am Mr. Hayden Gonzales/Mr. Nestor M. Cabrido Jr./Mr.
Wilson Temporal/Mr. Severo Washington/Mr. Alan Anthony Baccay, your instructors in ETHC
1013 - Ethics. This is a philosophy class where you will gain understanding about yourself in terms
of your right and proper decisions in life. I hope that you will gain wisdom in this subject as you
apply it in your life’s journey. Let us join together, as a homo viator (traveler), to gain wisdom and
make proper and right choices in developing oneself. You may call me Sir Hayden/Sir Nestor/Sir
Wilson/Sir Severo/Sir Alan and I wish to have a fruitful encounter with you this semester. Once
again, welcome to Ethics class!
Stay Connected
For queries, please feel free to contact me through the following:

 Facebook account/ name: Nestor Miguel Cabrido, Haydeen Gonzales (ishan), Alan Anthony
Baccay, Ongked Severo Lisalis Washington, and Wilson Temporal (Jimenez)
 E-mail: hgonzales@usl.edu.ph, nestorcabrido@usl.edu.ph, wilsontemporal@usl.edu.ph,
severowashington22@gmail.com, and alan.anthony.baccay@gmail.com
 Phone: O9750058680 (Sir Nestor), 09068956929 (Sir Hayden) 09652180859 (Sir Wilson),
09067792300 (Sir Severo), and 09262168804 (Sir Alan)
 Online hours: (not yet specified)
Get Involved. USL expects you to do the following:

 Let your parents pick up your module on the first day of the week.
 Send back your accomplished lessons/learning tasks as your parent will pick up the next.
 Contact me through messenger for any query that you want to make about your lessons or
procedures in school.
 Comply with all requirements (written outputs, projects/performance tasks examinations
and the like.)
Be Alert
 Lessons will be uploaded every Monday, and submission will be every Friday of the week.
 For submission purposes, please upload ALL outputs in the LMS or send them to my e-mail.
 Turn in learning tasks on time to avoid backlogs.
 Remember to log in your LMS regularly as that will be the basis of your attendance.
 Be guided by the grading system

Remember:
Expect to do a lot of reading and writing. Varied assessments or activities will be given. At the
outset, I am strictly warning you against plagiarism especially for essay type activities. PlagScan is
used to verify authenticity of your work. Any plagiarized material will be automatically given zero
(This includes copy paste from internet and from your classmates).
Academic Intellectual Property Rights: Materials posted over NEO-LMS are the properties of USL and
the Facilitators. Students are not allowed to share it to any third-party individuals not part of the
class without any permission from the owners.
I hope you find this flexible approach helpful. Continue to learn amidst this pandemic. Stay safe
while learning.

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE
ETHC 1013 (ETHICS)
AY 2021-2022
Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics
Topic: The definition and branches of Philosophy
Learning At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Outcomes:
1. State the basic definition of philosophy;

2. Explain the main branches of philosophy;
3. Expound the meaning of Ethics
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
This introductory lesson focuses on the basic definition of philosophy as starting point
of the whole course. It moves further into enumerating and explicating the main branches of
philosophy which includes Ethics, the main topic of this course. It ends by discussing the
standards of behavior.
Lesson Proper:
A. Basic Definition of Philosophy
The Greek scholar, Pythagoras (c. 580-497 B.C.), coined the term
philosophy and came up with the term into two Greek words
“philein meaning love or friendship and sophia meaning wisdom”
(Babor, E., 2001). The literal definition of philosophy is therefore,
“love of wisdom” (Zulueta, 2010). According to Babor, love is an
urge, or a drive of the will towards a particular object. As a drive,
love always seeks unity with its object, and it desires to possess its
object. And wisdom means the good exercise or application of
knowledge (Babor, E., 2001). Hence, loving and seeking wisdom
require the individual to be intimately passionate, responsible of
his/her reflections or actions, and must enjoy what he/she does.
Philosophy is also understood in the context of the Cagayanos’ term siribayat. This Itawit
indigenous vernacular term signifies love of wisdom. The term siribâyat is a fusion of two words
“sirib,” which means wisdom, and “ayat,” love. Etymologically, sirib means an active peering
through reality. And “ayat” adds a personal note to the passion to go beyond what one has already
previously seen or understood (Siribâyat, 2013). Hence, to be wise or siriban means to be keen
towards reality, that is, allowing the “panono” (the Itawit term for “reflection) to extend its capacity
to unveil and rediscover the true meaning of a reality. In the struggle to rediscover the true meaning
of an experience, the lover of wisdom should be responsible to understand reality practically in a
significant way, not just theoretically.
Philosophy is a search for meaning and truth.
The kind of search related to philosophy is more intense than that of the ordinary kind of search.
This seeking, looking, and finding wisdom and truth is a passionate search where we surrender
ourselves into it. That’s why searching for meaning is a personal act. But what distinguishes a
philosophical search from an ordinary search is through the emphasis of the three elements:
a. The object of the search is of real value to the subject. In philosophy, broadly speaking, “object”
refers to a thing, “subject” refers to the person philosophizing (Cruz, C.,2004). Meaning, the object
of our experience or investigation must be within our interest and concern like a student taking a
course that he is passionate about.
b. It “consumes” the whole person- his attention, concentration, interest, effort (Cruz, C.,2004).
Meaning, a person becomes part of the object of investigation, thus, leading oneself into submission
towards the goal. To quote Cruz, he said that “A philosopher can hardly afford distractions as he
goes on his ‘search’.” He observes, reads, reflects, writes on what to him is the most important
aspect in his life (Cruz, C.,2004).
c. It is continued without let-up until (a) the answer is found or (b) the answer is not yet found, but
the conviction is reached that for the moment at least this is the best possible although still
imperfect answer (Cruz, C., 2004). Meaning, a person must not give up into something he seeks for
and must not surrender until the problem is solved. It is like the common notion of saying: Try
and try until you succeed. A human person is considered to be a homo viator (traveler). As a
traveler, along the way, despair, frustrations and problems are always expected. But philosophy
tells us that one must be challenged of it and must never surrender himself in searching for
meaning.
The attainment of truth cannot be the goal of philosophy and “the search for truth, not the
possession of it, is the true aim of philosophy” (John-Terry, C., 1994). What really matters for
philosophical search is not to focus oneself towards the result or end, but rather on the process of
searching. The journey, not the destination, is what matters.
Philosophy is also defined as the science that by natural light of reason studies the first
causes or highest principles of all things (Ramos, C.C., 2010).
Philosophy, as science, is an organized body of knowledge that involves a systematic

investigation of a reality through the natural capacity of man to think (light of reason). The endeavor
of understanding the prima causa of everything is not purely experimental nor it has a divine
intervention, but rather it is purely an experience of the self to the life-world.

B. Main Branches of Philosophy
1. What is Metaphysics?
According to Timbreza, metaphysics “is the Anything that we can think about that has an
study of being in its general aspect.” (Timbreza, active participation in the ESSENCE of beings is
F., 2005). The term “being” refers to the realities the concern of metaphysics. It has sub-topics
that we see and don’t see. To make simple to like teleology, ontology, theodicy, psychology and
understand, it is the study of realities in life. cosmology
It deals with human reality and system of

human thought that seeks to explain the
fundamental concepts of man (Cruz, C.,2004)
2. What is Epistemology?
Epistemology (from the Greek word episteme This branch of philosophy deals with all the
“knowledge”) is a philosophical theory that deals aspects concerning the nature of knowledge.
with the truth-value of human knowledge. It Epistemology has sub-divisions like agnosticism,
asks the question: “is it possible to know? Can skepticism, a posteriori and a priori.
man ever know anything? Is it possible to attain
certain knowledge? Where does knowledge come
from? (Timbreza, F., 2005).
The branch of philosophy that investigates the

nature, sources, limitations, and validity of
knowledge (Ramos, C.C., 2010).
It concerns the nature and scope of knowledge.

It asks the question “what does it mean to know
(the truth), and what is the nature of truth?
What sort of things can be known? Is there
knowledge beyond the reach of science and what
are the limits of self-knowledge? (Articulo, A.,
2008)
3. What is Logic?
This branch of philosophy focuses on developing
Logic is the study of the methods and principles the mind to be critical and logical. Logic is
used to distinguish correct reasoning from divided into sub-topics namely: Induction,
incorrect reasoning (Copi and Cohen, I. & C., Deduction, Syllogism, and Dialectic.
1998).

Logic is the study of the methods and principles
used to distinguish correct from incorrect
reasoning. Logic does not only help us
adequately to interpret facts and other people’s
perceptions or views, it also develops in us the
habit of clear and critical thinking (Timbreza, F.,
2005).
4. What is Ethics?
Ethics is also called moral philosophy which
Ethics is a practical and normative science, tries to understand the goodness and badness of
based on reason, which studies human acts and a human act. Ethics is divided into three
provides norms for their goodness or badness general subject areas namely: metaethics,
(Timbreza, F., 2005). normative ethics and applied ethics.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores Metaethics investigates where our ethical
the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human principles come from, and what they mean. It
actions (Ramos, C.C., 2010). focuses on the issues of universal truths, the will
of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments,
It studies the morality (goodness or badness) of and the meaning of ethical terms themselves.
human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004). Normative ethics is concerned with the criteria of
what is morally right and wrong. It includes the
Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral formulation of moral rules that have direct
concepts- such as right action, obligation and implications for what human actions,
justice- and formulates principles to guide moral institutions, and ways of life should be like.
decisions, whether in private or public life
(Articulo, A., 2008). Applied ethics refers to the practical application
of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect
to real-world actions and their moral
considerations in the areas of private and public
life, the professions, health, technology, law, and
leadership.
C. Definition of Ethics
Etymological meaning
The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethikos which itself is

derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning custom or character. In
philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is “good.” The field of
ethics or moral philosophy involves developing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. These concepts
do not change as one’s desires and motivations change. They are not
relative to the situation. They are immutable. (Mintz, S., 2010)

Functional Definition
Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts and
provides norms for their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005). Ethics is the branch of
philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions (Ramos, C.C.,
2010). It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004).
Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts- such as right action, obligation and justice-
and formulates principles to guide moral decisions, whether in private or public life (Articulo, A.,
2008).
Ethics as the ‘general inquiry into what is good’ poses some questions concerning what sort of
actions can bind humans. What constitutes ‘good’ or what is an unacceptable action in a given
situation is tantamount in saying that the subject matter of Ethics is essential. Teaching Ethics in
College Education as a New General Education Core Course under the New Curriculum explores
some of the important theories on the constitution of what is an ethical action, acceptable and
binding in all societies which call for impartiality in decision making (CMO 20 S 2013).
In a general sense, ethics (or moral philosophy) addresses fundamental questions such as: How
should I live my life? That question leads to others such as: What sort of person should I strive to
be? What values are important? What standards or principles should I live by? There are various
ways to define “ethics.” The simplest may be is to say that ethics deals with “right” and “wrong.”
However, it is difficult to judge what may be right or wrong in a particular situation without some
frame of reference (Mintz, S., 2010).
The Material Object of Ethics (What does Ethics study?)

- The Human Act/Action
What are other things that we can moralize or can we judge if they are good or bad?
- Custom, cultures, traditions, and other practices of a certain community or society.
The Formal Object of Ethics (What does Ethics want to see in Human Acts?)
- The goodness or badness of the human act.
The material object or the subject matter of Ethics poses some questions in relation to
answering moral judgment, like ‘What is our criteria or standard of morality'?, 'What can account
actions as ‘good’ and ‘right’ or ‘good’ as ‘pleasurable’ or ‘pleasurable’ as ‘good actions’?, 'Who has the
right to determine what is moral or ethical'?, 'With regard the applicability of an action, when can
we consider it as good or moral?, and the like.
So, if Ethics is a branch of Philosophy, how did it find out the norms which it uses to judge if
the action of a certain person is good or bad? It is based purely on thinking, reflecting, and
reasoning on the different moral standards to be used.
Society’s morality calls for a standard which serves as a ‘guiding principle’ of all actions
which answers the question of what is ‘good’ and ‘right’ or ‘bad’ and ‘unacceptable’. Actions are good
or acceptable when they satisfy the standards or ethical codes of a society while they are
unacceptable when they fail to follow its principles. We call these principles, codes or standards as
moral standards.
Standards of Behavior
Ethics must be based on accepted standards of behavior. For example, in virtually all societies and
cultures it is wrong to kill someone or steal property from someone else. These standards have
developed over time and come from a variety of sources including:
(A) The influence of religious writing and interpretations.
(B) The influence of philosophical thought.
(C) The influence of community (societal) values. (Mintz, S., 2010)
Norms, Values, and the Law
Ethics deals with well-based standards of how people ought to act. Ethics does not describe the
way people do act. It deals with the way people should act. Ethical people always strive to make the
right decision in all circumstances. They do not rationalize their actions based on their own
perceived self-interests. Ethical decision-making entails following certain well-established norms of
behavior. The best way to understand ethics may be to differentiate it from other concepts. (Mintz,
S., 2010)
Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or actions. Values are
concerned with how a person will behave in certain situations whereas ethics is concerned with how
a moral person should behave. A person who values prestige, power, and wealth are likely to act
out of self-interest whereas a person who values honesty, integrity and trust will typically act in the
best interests of others. It does not follow that acting in the best interests of others precludes
acting in one’s own self-interest. Indeed, the Golden Rule prescribes that we should treat others the
way we want to be treated. (Mintz, S., 2010)
*** END of LESSON 1***
Week 2: Module 2
Introduction:
This lesson focuses on the comparison of ethics and morality, compares
ethics from other disciplines, and explicates the importance of ethics.
Lesson Proper:

1. Ethics vs. Morality


Ethics
Etymological meaning
The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethikos which
itself is derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning custom
or character. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is
“good.” The field of ethics or moral philosophy involves
developing, defending, and recommending concepts of right
and wrong behavior. (Mintz, S., 2010)
Functional Definition
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates
human actions (Ramos, C.C., 2010).

It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (conduct)
(Cruz, C.,2004).

Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts
and provides norms for their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005).

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates
human actions (Ramos, C.C., 2010). It studies the morality (goodness or badness) of
human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004). Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral
concepts- such as right action, obligation, and justice- and formulates principles to guide
moral decisions, whether in private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).

Morality
Morality is an encompassing concept that serves as the underlying force for every action of an
individual, even of society. Morality takes the crucial role of formulating, establishing, and setting
ethical norms of conduct that govern behaviors and actions of an individual or group of individuals
in order to achieve harmony, unity, and order within a society (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
Defining morality, as to its intent and purpose, clarifies the essential features that everyone, who is
subject to moral judgment, determines what kind of actions are normally acceptable. Morality
establishes the fundamental framework on the true intent and motive behind every action and
decision. Human intelligence can be a powerful guide in working out moral problems. However,
Christians have more than a reason to guide them and this is the person and life of Jesus Christ
our Lord, the perfect norm of morality. (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
To compare therefore Ethics and Morality, they both study human acts and their goodness or
badness; they both lay moral norms or principles as guidelines as to how one ought to act and
ought to be; they both use reason in analyzing, interpreting, and deciding proper conduct in
situations concerning moral dilemma; they both aim to form a moral person with mature character
and create a just and humane society. But what differentiates them is the fact that aside from using
reason as the source of evaluating the validity of choice amidst a moral decision making, only
morality also uses Divine Revelation or the use of the Bible and other Church doctrines to support
the validity of its moral claims. It draws its inspiration for such moral stand from the person and

life of Jesus Christ our Lord. Thus, aside from a temporal goal of creating a better society in the
present life, morality also aims for the more lasting goal which is to build the Kingdom of God and
to attain Eternal life.

1. Ethics and the other disciplines

1. Ethics and Psychology
"Ethics has something to do with what my
feelings tell me is right or wrong."
Many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a
matter of following one's feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil
(withdraw) from doing what is right. In fact, feelings frequently deviate (departs) from what is
ethical. But it does not mean that the feeling of empathy, joy, anger, disgust and other
feelings are totally not related to making moral decisions. According to Aristotle, the very
goal of human life is happiness. To reach this is moderation or the avoidance of extremes
which includes the use of his reason and his passion (extreme emotions). For example:
Using inordinate passion (concupiscence) in acting may result in bad actions. But without
the feeling of empathy, I may not also be moved to do a good act like helping people who are
in need. Without the feeling of anger, I may not also be pushed to fight in defense of what is
right.
2. Ethics and Law
“Being ethical has something to do with

following the law.”

The law often incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws,
like feelings, can deviate from what is ethical. Simply abiding or following with what the
Constitution says does not necessarily constitute an ethical act. For example, there are
laws that might have been adopted but are not necessarily ethical, but that they promote
the interest of some people like the lawmakers themselves (Example: Rice Tarrification Law
in the Philippines and Divorce Law in America).
Being ethical is not the same as following the law. While ethical people always try to be law-
abiding, there may be instances where your sense of ethics tells you it is best not to follow the law.
These situations are rare and should be based on sound ethical reasons. Here’s one example:
Assume you are coming home from the store one day and see a fast-moving
fire approach your neighbor’s house. You notice that the neighbor’s car is
in the garage. The garage door entrance to the house is locked as is the
main entrance. You bang on the door and no one answers. You call the
neighbor on your cell phone and no one answers. You don’t think there is
enough time to call the fire department ten miles away before serious
damage is done to the house. If you break into the house to save your
neighbor, you break the law. But if you opt not to break into the house,
you will not break the law but you will not be able to save your neighbor.
What would you do next and why?
If you choose to break into the house to save your neighbor, then you break the law.
However, you have acted out of concern for the safety of your neighbor in a life-threatening
situation thereby acting ethically (Mintz, S.,2010). However, if you choose not to break into
the house, then you will not break the law but you failed to be ethical towards your neighbor.

3. Ethics and Sociology
"Ethics has something to do with the

standards of behavior our society
accepts."
Ethical standards are sometimes based on social norms but social norms are not the sole
basis of ethical standards. Being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever society
accepts." In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But
standards of behavior in society can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can
become ethically corrupt. Moreover, if being ethical were doing "whatever society accepts,"
then to find out what is ethical, one would have to find out what society accepts. To decide
what I should think about abortion, for example, I would have to take a survey of Filipino
society and then conform my beliefs to whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries to
decide on an ethical issue by doing a survey. Further, the lack of social consensus on many
issues makes it impossible to equate ethics with whatever society accepts. Some people
accept abortion but many others do not. Yet even if everybody does, the issue of abortion
may still remain to be unethical.

4. Ethics and Religion

"Ethics has something to do with my
religious beliefs.“


No one should identify ethics with religion. Most religions, of course, advocate high ethical
standards. Religion can set high ethical standards and can provide intense motivations for
ethical behavior. Yet if ethics were confined to religion, then ethics would apply only to
religious people and that particular ethical standard only apply to the members of a
particular religion. But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of
the devout religious person. Thus, ethics cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as
religion.
"I like your Christ, but not your Christianity." In the words of Mahatma
Gandhi, Dr. J.H. ... Holmes said, "I believe in the teachings of Christ, but
you on the other side of the world do not, I read the Bible faithfully and
see little in Christendom that those who profess faith pretend to see.
"The Christians above all others are seeking after wealth. Their aim is to
be rich at the expense of their neighbors. They come among aliens to
exploit them for their own good and cheat them to do so. Their prosperity
is far more essential to them than the life, liberty, and happiness of
others.
"The Christians are the most warlike people. CHRISTIAN NATIONS SEEK WEALTH
AND FIGHT MOST WARS.”

This article shows that membership to and beliefs in a particular religion does not
necessarily imply that one is ethical. I may believe in Christ and maybe baptized into
Christianity but I may remain to be living in an unethical way of life. On the other hand, I
may not have known Christ and his teachings or may not have been baptized as a
Christian (Or I may even be a total Atheist) but I can still be ethical by the kind of life I live
in relation to myself, others and my environment.

Ethics is very significant in the following aspects namely:
Individual, Company, and Profession. Ethics deals with the
The importance of
principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the
Ethics
society (community and environment), individual (personal
relationship with others), and profession (company).
- Personal sense of right and wrong in order to make good

decisions
Individual
- Helps employees gain the trust of the people with whom they
work
Ethics affect this aspect personally because an individual has his/her own point of
reference, view, and opinion in dealing with personal situations and occurrences. It helps
the individual develop a sense of obligation in decision-making. Ethics is very crucial in the
person’s inner development since it involves the improvement of oneself, developing a sense
of proper disposition as he/she situates himself/herself from society. It develops the person
to become better by being prudent, just, courageous, and moderate. It aims to make the
person have good and proper decisions. Also, it develops a sense of trust among people in
the working setting. As a result, there will be a good human relationship. But this is only
possible when actions become habitual and are developed as a good habit (virtue).
-Businesses develop ethics to help them determine how to behave
- These ethics reflect a company’s belief about what actions are
Company appropriate and fair among people
- Helps businesses gain the trust of customers, suppliers, and
others
With respect to the company environment, ethics play a crucial role in the working setting.
It “controls business malpractices among workers (employee and employer), creates a better
relationship between employees and employers, improves customer satisfaction, service and
issues by having fair and reasonable business activities, increases profitability, improves
business goodwill, better decision making, and protects business’ reputation.
- Outlines professional responsibilities, values, standards, and
Profession
rules of behavior
This aspect focuses on the ethical conduct of a profession. Ethics reminds the
person of his responsibility and obligation in relation to his profession. As the
professional disposes of his/her duties, he/she establishes a strong corporate ethical
culture. It helps the person conform to the standards and conduct of his
profession. So, the person’s disposition of his professional duties with others, in
work and society shows what kind of profession he/she manifests.

-End of Lesson 2-
Week 3: Module 3
Lesson Proper:

In studying ethics, it is necessary to consider its material object and its formal object (the
goodness or badness of an act). But what is it that we seek to study in ethics? For the
material object of ethics, we seek to study the nature of a human act. While for its formal
object, we seek to study the goodness or badness of a human act. But first let us examine
the nature of a human act through its definition.

HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN
Human Acts Acts of Man
Acts that we do without free will and intellect;

Acts that we do with the use of free will and intellect.
some are done by instinct.
They are done freely, deliberately, and voluntarily.
These are actions that are proper to humans, thus The actions are performed without conscio
the crucial element of willful consent and knowledgedeliberation or knowledge and with the absen
of the action must be present (Living a Christian of a free will. Acts of man constit
Moral Life, 2013). unconscious and involuntary actions.

Example: studying, working, eating healthy foods Example: breathing, digestion, circulation of
in the body

These are natural processes within the body
that continue to function without the use of fr
will and reason. They just happen naturally a
automatic responses to situations (Living a
Christian Moral Life, 2013).

Constituents of Human Acts
1. Human acts must be known and deliberate.

An individual, as the moral agent, has full knowledge of doing a certain action. Th
knowledge and a deliberate evaluation of whether to fulfill an action or not (Living a Christian
2013). It asks the questions: Do you know exactly what you are doing? or Do you do the act in
He/she must have full knowledge and consent of his/her action.
2. Human acts must be free.
An individual as the moral agent is free from any external factors as well as internal pressu
act. He/she is neither forced nor intimidated to do or not to do something (Living a Christia
2013).
There is an obvious absence of constraint from within and outside of the individual. He/she
the act without the influence of an outside factor and personal pressure from within. He/s
act so independently and not because of shame, request, or control from someone el
emotional disturbance.
3. Human acts are voluntary.

The action proceeds from the willingness of an individual to perform an action with a perceive
of the end. (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013). It asks the question: Are you willing to do t
do you know what you are doing and where your action is leading into? He/she wills to perf
with the understanding that he/she knows consciously where his/her actions are leading into.
Determinants Human Act Act of Man
Knowledge/Use of Intellect Yes No
Presence of Free Will Yes No
Conscious Process/ Voluntariness Yes No
This clearly shows the differences between human acts and acts of man. As an object of
morality, the human action is done with full knowledge of the action, performed with the
use of free will, and acted upon voluntarily. The absence of these three crucial
determinants renders the action as a mere act of man (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).

Human actions are qualified as good or right (moral), bad or wrong (immoral), or indifferent
(nonmoral). The quality and standard of a human act depend on the relationship of the act
with the norms of morality (Law: Eternal law; Natural law; and Positive law (divine or
human)). Both Divine and human positive laws are specific applications of the Eternal Law
or the Natural Law. If a Positive Law does not adhere to or respect the Natural Law, then it
ruins or damages the development of the human person.

An act is good when it agrees with the dictates of the right reason. (Living a Christian
Moral Life, 2013).
An act is bad when it disagrees with the dictates of the right reason. (Living a Christian
Moral Life, 2013).

An act is indifferent when it stands no relation to the dictates of the right reason (Living a

Christian Moral Life, 2013) (acts or actions that are neither good nor bad).
NOTA BENE: We do not moralize the acts of man, but the human acts.


FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY

Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980)

Man is condemned to be free, because there is no God, according to
Sartre. “Isinumpa ang tao na maging Malaya.” Whether he likes it or
not, man is doomed to freedom, as he himself is freedom. “Ang tao
mismo ay kalayaan.” This follows from Sartre’s perception that man
is the only being whose existence precedes his essence. There is no
such thing as God-given essence or nature of man, insofar as man
alone has to create himself and develop his own essence through his
freedom (Timbreza, F., 2005).
Sartre is telling us that man is condemned to be free, because once thrown into the
world, he is responsible for everything he does. It is up to you to give (life) a meaning.
Sartre believes that existence precedes essence (Ramos, C.C. 2010). Meaning, Sartre
believes that “existence precedes essence.” Man is nothing else but what he makes of
himself (Nabor-Nery, M.I., 2007).
There is no such thing as God-given essence or nature of man, insofar as man alone
has to create himself and develop his own essence through his freedom (Timbreza, F.,
2005). Sartre, as an atheist, tells us that the human person becomes responsible for
the projection of one’s life. Since you are a free being, it is up to you to how you use
your freedom to make your life meaningful. Remember that, for Sartre, the essence of
man is freedom. So, freedom should make or create your life.


Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
Heidegger contends that this emphasis on freedom enables us
to understand philosophy as a “going-after-the-whole” that is at
the same time a “going-to-our-roots.” In other words, we must
search for the essence of human freedom in the constant
presence of being-in-the-world that precedes and grounds
philosophical thinking (Heidegger, M., 2005).

This is manifested in Martin Heidegger’s idea on “Dasein” (Da-means there, Sein-

means being). Heidegger challenges us to understand the meaning of Dasein (of
what it means to be there.). He claimed that man is Dasein (being-there) but
Dasein does not necessarily mean man. This means that being-there has to be
made. “Ginagawa ang pagiging tao.” We have to create our being as persons.
Our mere existence does not presuppose that we are living as a person already.
Like Sartre, we are responsible for projecting our lives. So, we must see to it that
we are the gardener of our own lives. This is what makes Heidegger
“very interested in the problem of being rather than merely in the problem of
human existence” (Ramos, C.C. 2010).


Other Factors which Affects the Morality of Human Acts


My dear children, if you have noticed, observed, or experienced, while norms or laws
are general, most often, in their implementation, there are many factors to consider
especially in judging the acts committed in relation to the law. Example: If two people
committed the same crime, how come that their punishments are not the same? Even in
the school setting, sometimes a student would complain that how come that my classmate
was allowed to enter or do such things while I am not?
Aside from the purpose and circumstance that affect the judgment of a certain act,
there are other factors to consider. Other authors would call these Impediments to
Human Acts. (Impediment means hindrance).
Impediments to Human Acts
Human actions, though naturally a product of will and reason, are sometimes influenced by
certain factors, which are called impediments to human actions. These factors intervene and
bar one’s actions from being human or contribute to the reduction of the quality of a certain
action. The impediments affect the quality of human acts.

1. Ignorance pertains to the lack of pertinent information, as to the nature,
circumstances, and effect of a certain action. Ignorance takes place
when an individual consciously proceeds to act on a certain matter
without due consideration of the relevant or necessary information
related to it.
Ignorance is classified into:
There is invincible ignorance when one is
totally ignorant of the things surrounding
his/her action and there is no way to
a. Invincible remove/dispel it. In situations like this, the
Ignorance culpability of the individual is negated. A
good example of this kind is a person who is
illiterate -- one who does not know how to
read and write, who is caught jaywalking.

There is a lack of required knowledge to
b. Vincible Ignorance determine the goodness or badness of a
certain action, but this can be dispelled or
learned through ordinary efforts,
conscientiousness, and proper diligence.
Mistakes or wrong actions out of
vincible ignorance lessens one’s culpability.
An example would be committing a mistake
without totally knowing that what you are
doing is really wrong.
There are two forms of vincible ignorance:

One is pretending to be ignorant since
he/she just wants to gain the approval of the
other for his/her wrong action. (In your
ordinary language children, you call this
“agpalusot”.) Naturally, any action,
performed under affected or pretended
i. Affected vincible
ignorance, does not excuse a person from
ignorance
his/her action. In fact, it actually increases
his/her culpability. An example would be a
student who pretends not to know the
school’s policy on a proper haircuts to
excuse him/her when confronted by the
guards.
It happens when a person exerts little effort
to know something. Giving the wrong
ii. Supine or crass medicine to a sick person may result in the

ignorance sickness of the person getting worse.
2. Concupiscence
A situation where one’s inordinate passion hinders one to exercise

correct reasoning, thus also affects his/her action.

Passions mean our emotional elements like anger, pride,

envy, love, joy, etc. Not all passions are bad. Some are innately bad,

but some become bad only when they are excessive or called

inordinately. An example is a pride and anger, these two becomes

bad only when they become excessive that they already control

one’s mind and even push him/her to do a certain action. Still, on

pride, you must be proud of your parents; you need pride, or else

you will be contented with your grades even if they are all line of

seven or even all 75%.

The morality of actions done out of concupiscence depends on

how the passions affected the action of the doer. The culpability

may increase or decrease or can be negated.

Antecedent A spontaneous/sudden inordinate passion
concupiscence influences an action before it has been
controlled by the will. Example: Juan was
already running late for his class. When he
entered the school campus, the guard
confiscated his ID for no apparent reason.
Out of his anger, he unconsciously cursed
the guard. (In ibanag, you call this “gavva
lang”, like gavva kang nanampal dahil sa
gulat, etc.)

The culpability of bad actions done out

of Antecedent Concupiscence can be

lessened or even negated depending on how

it happened.

This happens when one is aware of the

inordinate passion and the will chooses to
arouse the said passion to perform the bad
action. The passion has already passed
through the intellect and controlled by the
will, but still, the individual performs the
human act. In other words, you know that
you are very angry at that person, but you
still push through with the bad actors like
punching or kicking or slapping him/her.
You did not do anything to calm down or to
cool your anger.
Since the passion is deliberately and
Consequent voluntarily acted upon, the culpability of the

concupiscence action increases. Gluttony is a very good
example. Pedro is obese. During a town
fiesta, he had visited the houses of his four
friends, eating to his satisfaction. On his way
back home, he decided to drop by a fast food
restaurant for more food, and later on, he
vomited. Clearly, it is within his control to
limit his food intake; however, despite being
full from the feast, he deliberately decided to
eat more on his way home. His moral
responsibility increases since it is within his
will, reason, and disposal to decide to stop,
but failed to do so.

3. Fear affects the performance of a human act since the individual is
threatened by the impending dangers (ginawa or nagawa mo yung
isang bagay kasi tinakot ka) The presence of danger and intimidation
affects his/her thought-processes in determining the goodness or
badness of his/her actions.
A human act done with fear is considered voluntary, therefore it
will be culpable if it is a bad act. The act is still culpable because one
can still choose not to act despite the fear or danger. Example: They
forced a woman to remove her clothes with a gun pointing at her, the
woman can still choose not to do the act.
However, the culpability of a bad act done out of fear can be
lessened, increase, or even negated depending on the gravity of the
threat and the circumstance surrounding the action especially in a
situation where one just follows his/her instinct to survive.
While walking in a dark alley, Pedro was accosted by a robber
pointing at his head a gun. Trapped and in danger of being killed,
Pedro has no alternative but to fight back. As a result, the robber was
terribly hurt. In this case, Pedro does not have moral responsibility for
hurting the robber because he had performed self-defense to protect
himself from a very clear and present danger. Acts done from fear or
through fear, in certain cases are involuntary because the agent is
obligated to choose to avoid the greater evil. This kind of situation
lessens voluntariness and thus, decreases moral responsibility.

3.1 Light Fear: The threat/imminent danger confronting a person is not
so serious or grave to influence or force one to do a certain act.

- So, a seriously bad act done under light fear is culpable.

3.2. Grave Fear: The threat is so serious or grave that it can really

influence or force one to do a certain act.

- Examples of this are the cases of hold-ups wherein people are forced

to give their money or belonging to another just out of fear; and other

similar circumstances.

- The culpability of a bad act done under grave fear can be lessened or

negated.

4. Violence - I will not discuss this in detail since it is very much related to the
cases of fear.
- The direct message of this is, you must exert all the efforts needed to
defend yourself in extreme cases where your life or your dignity is at
stake. Again, this is in the cases of rape or hold-ups wherein the hold
uppers even want to kill their victims.
- The morality here is that one is culpable if he/she will not exert all
the necessary efforts to defend herself/ himself from the aggressor if
needed if his life or dignity is at stake. Although, the culpability can be
lessened depending on the circumstance.

On another angle, if a woman is defending herself from a
rapist and accidentally, the head of the rapist hits a wall or stone or
hard object and died. In this case, the woman’s action is not culpable
since she was just defending herself and there was no intention to kill
the aggressor.

Self-defense is a classic example in the face of aggression wherein one

has to protect himself/herself from the attacker.

Conditions for Self-defense:

1. The aggression must be unjust.

2. The aggression must be actual.

3. Use minimum violence/it must be proportional

Problems come when people just kill someone without being attack

physically. There was no actual aggression done. For example, one is

just looking at you intently then suddenly you spank or even kill him

with a gun or any other hard objects. Remember in self-defense, there

is no intention to kill but only to defend oneself or run away from the

trouble. For example, you have a gun and one is running after you with
a knife. Which part of the aggressor’s body should you hit with your
gun? The head? Stomach? Neck? Chest? None of the above my dear
children. It should be the F…… oot or feet.
is a firm and stable behavior pattern of acting. An individual naturally

and consciously performs an action, as a result of
its repetitive performance through time. One acts based on
his/her repeated responses to situations.
Good moral habits are called virtues while bad habits are vices.

People are expected to exert utmost effort to free themselves from
vicious habits.
5. Habit
Some examples of your bad habits children are: speaking bad words
when you are mad, always coming late, not attending mass, copying
during quizzes and exams, etc.

How do we moralize vices or bad habits?
Vices or bad habits are culpable. The culpability is lessened only when
one is exerting effort to correct or stop his/her vices.


Week 4: Human Acts and Law
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
This lesson focuses on the elements in determining the morality of a human
act. It enumerates and explicates the types of ethics, defines and discusses natural law,
positive law, and conscience.
Lesson Proper:

Elements in determining the morality of Human Acts
Elements in determining the morality of Human Acts

Elements Description
This is the action

itself. This answers
the question
WHAT. It refers to
the Human Act
itself. For an act
be ethically and
1. The Object/Act morally good, the
object must be good
in itself, otherwise,

it is bad. (Living a
Christian
Moral Life, 2013).

2. The Circumstance
This refers to the
persons involved,
the time, place, and
occasion that
surround an
object/act. In
other words, it
answers the
questions: WHO,
WHEN, WHERE and
HOW.
This can change or
completely alter the
moral quality of a
human act.
The circumstance is
a condition

modifying human
actions, either by
increasing or

diminishing the
moral
responsibility. (Livin
g a Christian Moral
Life, 2013).


3. The Intention or
Every human act,
End or Purpose
no matter how
trivial or significant,
is done with an
intention or purpose
– the reason behind
the act. This
answers the
question WHY. For
a human
act to be ethically
and morally good,
the agent or
doer must have a
good intention.
Many such activities
are
said to be morally
indifferent in
themselves but
when performed,

their moral quality
lies in the intention
and circumstance
behind these
activities. The end
or intention
can modify human
action in four ways:

a. An indifferent act

may become morally
good or bad.
b. An objectively
good act may
become morally
bad.
c. An objectively
good act can receive

added goodness.

An objectively bad

act can never
become good in
spite of the good
motive (Living a
Christian Moral
Life, 2013).
1. Act /Action – There Example:

are actions that we can
-Killing is obviously bad
easily see if they are good
or bad. -Helping is generally good

2. Purpose/Intention - Example:
There are actions that
-Helping someone. Is it good or bad?
morality can only be seen
upon examining the -It depends on the purpose of the doer.
purpose of the doer.

3. Circumstance – (who,
what, when, where, how Example:
or person/doer, -Is punching someone bad? What if it’s a baby punch
action/thing, time, place, or just a friendly punch?
and -What if you slap someone unintentionally out of
panic?
-Bawal bang maghubad? How about in the bathroom?
manner)

Other Principles/application of the Act, Purpose and Circumstance criteria:
1. The Act is good if the three (Act, Purpose, and Circumstance) are good.
2. If one of the three (Act, Purpose, and Circumstance) is bad, then the act is bad.
3. An indifferent act may become morally good or bad. (depending on the

intention/purpose of the doer)
4. An objectively good act may become morally bad. (Purpose?)

Example: when a person gives alms to a poor girl with the intention of seducing her.
5. An objectively bad act can never become good in spite of the good motive. Example: to steal
money with the good intention of giving it to charitable institutions or to the poor, as the
legendary Robin Hood did. As the principle says, “The end does not justify the means.”

Types of Ethics
Deontology (or Deontological Ethics) is an approach to Ethics that

focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as
opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those
actions (Consequentialism) or to the character and habits of the actor
(Virtue Ethics).
Deontology may sometimes be consistent with Moral Absolutism (the

belief that some actions are wrong no matter what
consequences follow from them), but not necessarily.
The deontological class of ethical theories states that people should

adhere to their obliga-tions and duties when engaged in decision
making when ethics are in play.
1. Deontology
Deontology is the ethics of doing and action.
The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty (deon) and
science (or study) of (logos). In contemporary moral philosophy,
deontology is one of those kinds of normative theories regarding which
choices are morally required, forbidden, or permitted. In other words,
deontology falls within the domain of moral theories that guide and
assess our choices of what we ought to do (deontic theories), in
contrast to those that guide and assess what kind of person we are
and should be (aretaic [virtue] theories). And within the domain of
moral theories that assess our choices, deontologists—those who
subscribe to deontological theories of morality—stand in opposition
to consequentialists (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016)
Character-based ethics
2. Virtue ethics
A right act is the action a virtuous person would do in the same
circumstances.
Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or
moral character of the person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical
duties and rules, or the consequences of particular actions.
Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or wrongness of individual
actions, it provides guidance as to the sort of characteristics and behaviours
a good person will seek to achieve.
In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the whole of a person's life,
rather than particular episodes or actions.
A good person is someone who lives virtuously - who possesses and

lives the virtues.
It is the ethics of being. It asks the question: “what does it mean to be

human?”; “what is done repetitively?” or “is it part of your character
or very being?”

It is the class of normative ethical theories holding that the
3. consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any
Consequentialism judgment about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct.
-What is the effect of the action? Is the effect good?

Natural Law
Natural law is the pattern, order, “rule” or “law” of nature. These are discovered through
observation, experience, common sense, thinking/reasoning, or reflecting.
Note: we are part of nature since we are living on earth/nature. We have a body that
connects us with mother nature.
So even our bodies have patterns or “rules” that it follows like we need to sleep at least 8
hours a day, we use our feet to walk and not our hands, we need to eat at least three times
a day, and the other functions of the body. So there is order in our body that needs to be
followed or maintain or else you will get sick until you die, etc.

This is the same with our Mother Nature or mother earth. There are patterns or orders in it
that we need to maintain like how many trees can we cut, avoid so much air pollution, not
polluting our rivers so much, etc.

Important note: Once we do not follow Natural Law or these orders in mother nature or in
our bodies, it will lead to sickness, natural calamities until eventually to total destruction.
Think my dear children that most of the calamities we are suffering now are the result of
not following the Natural Law. People’s abuse of nature will come back to us in the forms of
calamities like sudden erosion, untimely typhoon, flashflood, global warming, etc. Even the

Covid 19 that we are facing now is a result of people trying to manipulate everything. They
taught that they can easily control everything.

So Natural Law asserts that moral standards that govern human behaviors are objectively
derived from the nature of human beings and the nature of the world.

Natural Law affirms that since humans are by nature rational beings, it is morally
appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature.

In relation to human actions, Natural Law is defined as the light of human reason so we
know what to do and what to avoid.

Natural Law is a natural disposition of the human reason ordaining the person to do good
and to avoid evil.
Natural Law could be summed up as the law of human conduct which arises from human
nature as ordered to its ultimate natural end and which is recognized by the natural light
of reason.

Characteristics of Natural Law
1. Universal. This law is applicable to all creatures.
2. Recognizable. It can be noticed through observations, interactions with
others, and deeper reflection.
3. Obligatory. Since this is the very law that will lead to our well-being there is no
other choice or better choice than to obey it. Not obeying it would lead to the things
that the human person would like to avoid in life which are destruction and
damnation.
4. Immutable. it will never be changed or is not subject to change.

Moreover, the contents of the Natural Law are classified into:
1. Fundamental moral principles in their general applications such as “Good is to
be done and evil is to be avoided”, “Never do unto another what you would not
want him to do unto you,” “the end does not justify the means,” etc.;
2. General moral principles sustain and preserve the basic relations of the human
person to God, to himself/herself, and to neighbors. Examples: “honor your
parents;” “preserve your own life;” “do not murder;” and others;
3. Applications of the general principles of morality to specific situations in life and
society which come in the form of specific laws to govern specific situations and
circumstances; and
4. Remote conclusions are derived by a process of reasoning which requires good
education and deeper reflection. Examples of this content are moral problems such
as mercy killing, the indissolubility of marriage, contraceptive practices, and
others.

So I hope Natural Law is now clear to you my dear children.

So these are the rules, guides, norms in nature that you will discover through
common sense, observations, and thinking/reasoning or reflecting. In fact, the Ten
Commandments except for Commandments Number 1 and 2 are basically Natural Laws.
You do not need to read the Bible before you discover that you need to honor your parents,
not kill, not steal, etc. Sorry if I will say one is too slow to think/learn if he/she does not
know these rules by nature or experience or observation since we are rational by nature.

Positive Law. The word “positive” means being promulgated or “published” or announced.
a law enacted should not take effect unless it is promulgated or announced.
Why is there a need for positive laws when in fact there is already the existence of the
Natural Law?
The Natural Law has the tendency to be recognized generally in terms of its
aspects, and not all people easily find the proper application of these laws and their deeper
implications in the life of the human person.

The Positive Laws are the specific formulations derived from the Natural Law. These are
the specific application of the Natural Law in different human or societal contexts. So the
Natural Law is seen, expressed, or applied through the Positive Law. A positive law that
does not respect the Natural Law contributes to the damage to the development of the
human person and of the whole creation. It is territorial or contextual, a law continues
until it is changed by another and it is promulgated by a public authority.
So my dear children, the positive laws are just the laws that people formulate/specify
from the Natural Law and they impose it to community or society since a lot of people
violate a lot of aspect of the Natural Law or they just ignore it if they think it will not affect
them personally without considering the effect or the damage that it can do to others. Note
that all our actions will have an effect on others either directly or indirectly or affect us now
or later. An example is abuse to Mother Nature; before people just ignored it, and they are
only alarmed now that we are suffering from global warming and other calamities.

Examples of Positive Laws
are Constitution, Policies, ordinances, rules, and regulations, etc.

The Positive Law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by one in
charge of the community or by a competent authority. Examples of human positive laws
are the ordinances of a certain place or the constitution of a certain country.
1. Ordinance. It is a decree or a command and not a request; it demands obedience. One has to
follow it.
2. Reasonable. It means a certain positive law is based on reason and not on mere emotion. It
must be useful or good which means it must attain its goal. Positive law is also reasonable if
it has the following characteristics: just or fair, honest, possibility of fulfillment, relatively
permanent, and must be promulgated.

3. Common Good. A law must serve the interest of the majority and not favor only a few
individuals.
4. Competent Authority. One who enacts or authors a law could be characterized as someone

who is knowledgeable, just, wise, and respectable.
Conscience
- the inner sense of what is right or wrong in

one's conduct or motives, impelling one
toward right action.
- is a personal awareness of right and wrong
that you use to guide your actions to do
right.
- conscience is the practical judgment of
reason allowing the person to recognize the
moral quality of an act. (CCC).
- Conscience would tell, one must abhor the
evil/bad and embrace what is good.

The Two General Kinds of Conscience
It is a conscience that judges an act before it is done.
Antecedent A typical example is during a quiz -- when a student has two

conscience options whether to cheat or not to cheat. Before he/she cheats,
the person knows and is able to deliberate whether such action is
pleasing to him/her or not.

It judges an act after it is being done.
Consequent Going back to the example above, consequent conscience works

conscience after the
cheating has been executed by the student and so he/she starts
feeling guilty about the act that he/she committed.

Conscience is further classified into different forms such as correct conscience and false
conscience; scrupulous conscience and lax conscience; and certain conscience and
doubtful conscience. These classifications fall either under antecedent or consequent
conscience depending on whether moral assessment happens before or after a human act
is being done.

a. Correct conscience is a conscience that judges a good act as good and a bad act as
indeed bad.
b. False conscience - the opposite of correct conscience. One judges a good act as bad and
a bad act as good.
c. Scrupulous conscience - one is always afraid of committing errors; thus not following
rules/laws is tantamount to committing errors.
d. Lax conscience - a person keeps on excusing him/herself from every mistake
committed. It is as if, he/she does not commit any mistake at all.
e. Certain conscience is a firm judgment that one is not in error. It means, it is clear and
evident that what a person does is indeed right.
f. Doubtful conscience - judgment is always suspended because of the uncertainty of the
goodness and badness of human action. The word ‘doubt’ denotes the idea that one is not
sure of what he/she is doing.

General Principle: Always follow your conscience.

*** END of LESSON 4***

Week 5: Moral Dilemma and Levels of Moral Reasoning
Introduction:
Recognizing the notions of good and bad, and right and wrong are the
primary concern of ethics. In this module, we will focus on how to determine a moral
problem and how we reason out in is such a moral problem.
Lesson Proper:

Kinds of Valuation
Ethics speaks about matters of good things that we should pursue and bad things that we
should avoid; the right ways in which we should act and the wrong ways of acting. Ethics as a
subject for us to study is about determining the grounds for the values with particular and
special significance to human life.

There are instances when we make value judgments that are not considered to be part of
ethics. Movies and music may be described as something to be good according to the judgment
of the senses. Moreover, we may say that the right sawsawan for my shanghai is ketchup and
not vinegar. These valuations fall under aesthetics. This refers to the judgments of personal
approval or disapproval that are dependent on what we see, hear, smell, and taste. We also
have a sense of approval and disapproval concerning certain actions which are relatively more
trivial in nature. For instance, I think it is ‘right’ to knock on the door before entering it, and it
is wrong to barge into one’s office. In a fine dining setup, you should follow the correct usage of
utensils, when to use the goblet, glass water, spoon, and fork, etc. These examples belong to
the category of etiquette which is concerned with right and wrong actions, but they are not
grave enough to be considered part of ethics.

Recognizing the characteristics of aesthetic and technical valuation allows us to have a
rough guide as to the discussion of ethics. They involve valuations that make the sphere of
human actions, characterized by certain gravity and concern the human well-being or human
life itself. Therefore, matters that concern life and death such as war, capital punishment,
abortion, and matters that concern human well-being such as poverty, inequality, or sexual
identity are included in the discussion of ethics.

We say that moral issues are issues that are included in ethics and non-moral issues are
issues that are not.


Moral Dilemma

When you are in a difficult situation and each option looks equally bad, you are in a
dilemma. Dilemma is a Greek word, which means “double proposition”. It was originally a
technical term of logic, but we use it now for any time you have a problem with no satisfactory
solution.

We may think that dilemma is synonymous with a problem of deciding among options.
College is a paradigm of being anxious because the decisions made during this time are crucial
for it may determine who we are in the near future. Some are hard up in choosing a course to
take. In choosing we may consider passion over wealth, fitted to one’s personality or
following barkada’s choice, personal dream, or parents’ dream. In these consumeristic times,
we may also experience a dilemma when we visit shopee, and was compelled to decide whether
to but it or not, or which among this product is most needed by me. Thus, we say, a dilemma is
a situation wherein an individual is forced to choose between two or among many conflicting
options neither of which is acceptable.

Ectopic pregnancy is an abnormal pregnancy wherein the fetus is formed outside the
uterus. The mother is in a moral dilemma since she needs to choose whether to abort the
child or to let the pregnancy continue but her life may be endangered which may lead to
her death. When dilemmas involve human actions which have moral implications, they are
called ethical or moral dilemmas. Moral agents are forced to choose between two or more
conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner.
In a dilemma, a person is in a situation where there is no one obvious right choice
or in a situation where the choice is especially difficult because no solution is appealing. It
is very important to know that difficult choices need careful decisions. It is just
appropriate to feel guilt no matter what course of action is taken. This means that a
dilemma is a tough choice.
“What is common to the two well-known cases is conflict. In each case, an agent regards
herself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions is not
possible. Ethicists have called situations like these moral dilemmas. The crucial features of
a moral dilemma are these: the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions; the
agent can do each of the actions, but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions. The
agent thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do
something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do).”
Three Conditions of Moral Dilemma

1. If the agent of moral action is obliged to make a decision about which course of
action is best.
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from.
3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always
compromised.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg is considered the first psychologist to do heavy research into
human ethics and how people reacted to dilemmas. The comprehensive stage theory of moral
development was based on Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for children (1932) and this
was developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg’s theory focuses
on the thinking process that occurs when one decides whether a behavior is right or wrong.
Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what
one decides or what one actually does.

The theory asserts that moral reasoning as the basis for ethical behavior, has six
identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas
than its predecessor. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the
ages studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through
constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of
moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued
throughout the individual's lifetime.
For his studies, Kohlberg relied on the Heinz dilemma. The Heinz dilemma was a
hypothetical situation that Kohlberg used to see how individuals would justify their actions
if placed in a moral dilemma. He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed,
rather than its conclusion, and classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages.
The Heinz dilemma, as used in Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, is stated

as follows:
“A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the
doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town
had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging
ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He
paid 200fortheradiumandcharged2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick
woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could
only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his
wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said:
“No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate
and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into
the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?”
From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the participant thinks that Heinz
should do. Kohlberg's theory holds that the justification the participant offers is what is
significant, the form of their response. Below are some of many examples of possible
arguments that belong to the six stages:
 Stage one (punishment/obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine because
he will consequently be put in prison which will mean he is a bad person. Or: Heinz
should steal the medicine because it is only worth $200 and not how much the
druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even offered to pay for it and was not stealing
anything else.
 Stage two (rewards): Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much
happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence. Or: Heinz
should not steal the medicine because prison is an awful place, and he would more
likely languish in a jail cell than over his wife's death.
 Stage three (good intention): Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife
expects it; he wants to be a good husband. Or: Heinz should not steal the drug
because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he has tried to do everything he can
without breaking the law, you cannot blame him.
 Stage four (obedience to authority): Heinz should not steal the medicine because
the law prohibits stealing, making it illegal. Or: actions have consequences.
 Stage five (moral versus legal right): Heinz should steal the medicine because
everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz should not steal
the medicine because the scientist has a right to fair compensation. Even if his wife
is sick, it does not make his actions right.
 Stage six (individual principles of conscience): Heinz should steal the medicine
because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of
another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine, because others may need
the medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally significant.
From the responses to the Heinz dilemma and responses to other similar hypothetical
dilemmas, Kohlberg developed the six stages of moral development. These stages are
summarized in the diagram below.

Level 1: Pre Conventional Morality
At the Pre-conventional level, right and wrong are determined by rewards or punishment.
Reasoners judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences.

Stage One: Punishment/Obedience Orientation
This is the stage that all young children start at. Rules are seen as being fixed and
absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it means avoiding punishment. The
individual will obey in order to avoid punishment. Behaviour is determined by consequences.
Whatever leads to punishment is wrong. Morality is based on punishment.
Heinz should not steal the medicine, because he will consequently be put in prison.
Individuals focus on the direct consequences that their actions will have for themselves.

Stage Two: Rewards/Self Interest
As children grow older, they begin to see that other people have their own goals and
preferences and that often there is room for negotiation. Decisions are made based on the
principle of “what’s in it for me?” For example, an older child might reason: “If I do what mom
or dad wants me to do, they will reward me. Therefore, I will do it.” Morality is based on
rewards. The right way to behave is the way that is rewarded. Behaviour is determined again
by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs.
Right behavior is defined by what is in one’s own best interest.

Heinz should steal the medicine because he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he
will have to serve a prison sentence.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
In this level, views of others matter, there is avoidance of blame, and it seeks approval.
Conformity to social rules remains important to the individual. However, the emphasis shifts
from self-interest to relationships with other people and social systems. The individual strives
to support rules that are set forth by others to win their approval or to maintain social
order. People who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing
these actions to social rules and expectations.

Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance/Good Intentions/ Social Conformity Orientation/
Good boy/ Nice girl orientation
In this stage, it is behaving in ways that conform to “good behavior”. There is a sense
of what “good boys” and “nice girls” do and the emphasis is on living up to social expectations
and norms because of how they impact day-to-day relationships. Behaviour is determined by
social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of others
by being a “good person”.

Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it.
Individuals seek approval from other people.
Evaluation of the consequences of the actions is based on a person’s relationship.

Stage 4: Law and order/Obedience to authority
Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual now takes into consideration
a larger perspective, that of societal laws. All people have the duty to uphold laws. Moral
decision-making becomes more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual
believes that rules and laws maintain the social order that is worth preserving. By the time
individuals reach adulthood, they usually consider society as a whole when making
judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty,

and respecting authority. The focus is on maintaining social order by doing one’s duty, obeying
laws, and following the rules.

Heinz should not steal the medicine because the law prohibits it.
The individual thinks it is important to obey the law and conventions of society.

Level 3: Post Conventional Morality
The individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is defined in
terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. The
individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals. There is an abstract notion of
justice. The rights of others can override obedience to laws/rules.

Most people do not reach this level of moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Human Rights/Social Contract
Individual rights determine behavior. The individual views laws and rules as flexible
tools for improving human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to
rules. When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority, it
does not bring about good for people and alternatives should be considered. This stage is
defined not by what is legally right but by what is morally right. Saving the most amount of
lives is always the best decision.

Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has a right to live, regardless of the law; or
Heinz should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to fair compensation

Stage 6: Universal Human Ethics
According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that
some individuals will never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is determined
by one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are abstract and
universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the perspective of every person
or group that could potentially be affected by the decision.

Heinz should steal the medicine because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than
respecting the property of another person.
Moral reasoning is based on the use of abstract reasoning using universal principles.

Wilson J. Temporal, MST Alan Anthony Baccay, Mars Hayden Gonzales Severo L. Washington, Mars Nestor M. Cabrido JR., Maed

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UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS and SCIENCES

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

WILSON J. TEMPORAL, MST

WILSON J. TEMPORAL, LPT, MST

VENUS I. GUYOS, Ph.D.

EMMANUEL JAMES PATTAGUAN, Ph.D.

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | 1

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND CORE VALUES

b. Excellence. We seek and maintain uncompromising standard of quality in teaching,

c. Professional Responsibility. We are committed to efficiently and responsibly apply the

d. Social Awareness and Involvement. We engage ourselves with society by listening to

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School of Education, Arts and Sciences

For queries, please feel free to contact me through the following:

Get Involved. USL expects you to do the following:

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Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics

Topic: The definition and branches of Philosophy

Learning At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. State the basic definition of philosophy;

A. Basic Definition of Philosophy

Philosophy is a search for meaning and truth.

Philosophy, as science, is an organized body of knowledge that involves a systematic

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It deals with human reality and system of

The branch of philosophy that investigates the

It concerns the nature and scope of knowledge.

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The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethikos which itself is

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The Material Object of Ethics (What does Ethics study?)

Norms, Values, and the Law

*** END of LESSON 1***

1. Ethics vs. Morality

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1. Ethics and the other disciplines

2. Ethics and Law

“Being ethical has something to do with

"Ethics has something to do with the

4. Ethics and Religion

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- Personal sense of right and wrong in order to make good

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HUMAN ACTS VS. ACTS OF MAN

Human Acts Acts of Man

Acts that we do without free will and intellect;

Constituents of Human Acts

1. Human acts must be known and deliberate.

3. Human acts are voluntary.

Determinants Human Act Act of Man

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An act is indifferent when it stands no relation to the dictates of the right reason (Living a

NOTA BENE: We do not moralize the acts of man, but the human acts.

Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980)

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* END of LESSON 1*