COMPUTER NETWORK

FINALS

Governor Mariano E. Villafuerte Community College- Siruma

Poblacion, Siruma Camarines Sur
gmvcc.siruma@gmail.com

Instructor: Mary Joy DM Borja

INSTITUTIONAL VISION

Develop graduates as self-reliant and competitive professional.

INSTITUTIONAL MISSION

Provide free quality education geographically inaccessible disadvantaged areas and nearby communities.

Assure adequate and appropriate resources to the learners.

CORE VALUES

Respect, Service, Competence, Excellence

GRADING SYSTEM

Quizzes 15%

Projects 30%

Participation 15%

Major Exams 40%

Total 100%

Final Grade – Midterm Grade 40% + Final Grade 60%

CLASSROOM/ MODULAR POLICIES

• Student has 1-week extension to submit the course requirements after the due date of
submission.
• All questions related to the course will be entertained during working hours.
• Students must follow the exam schedule.
• Class attendance and Participation – regular attendance is expected from the students.
• Be polite and respectful towards others.
• Students are expected to be online 15 minutes before the time.
• Do not post irrelevant comments, links, thoughts, or pictures.
• If having trouble with internet connection, Advise the instructor.

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Computer Network Security

Computer network security consists of measures taken by business or some organizations to monitor
and prevent unauthorized access from the outside attackers.

Different approaches to computer network security management have different requirements depending
on the size of the computer network. For example, a home office requires basic network security while
large businesses require high maintenance to prevent the network from malicious attacks.

Network Administrator controls access to the data and software on the network. A network
administrator assigns the user ID and password to the authorized person.

Aspects of Network Security:

Following are the desirable properties to achieve secure communication:

o Privacy: Privacy means both the sender and the receiver expects confidentiality. The
transmitted message should be sent only to the intended receiver while the message should be
opaque for other users. Only the sender and receiver should be able to understand the
transmitted message as eavesdroppers can intercept the message. Therefore, there is a
requirement to encrypt the message so that the message cannot be intercepted. This aspect of
confidentiality is commonly used to achieve secure communication.
o Message Integrity: Data integrity means that the data must arrive at the receiver exactly as it
was sent. There must be no changes in the data content during transmission, either maliciously
or accident, in a transit. As there are more and more monetary exchanges over the internet,
data integrity is more crucial. The data integrity must be preserved for secure communication.
o End-point authentication: Authentication means that the receiver is sure of the sender?s
identity, i.e., no imposter has sent the message.
o Non-Repudiation: Non-Repudiation means that the receiver must be able to prove that the
received message has come from a specific sender. The sender must not deny sending a

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 message that he or she send. The burden of proving the identity comes on the receiver. For
example, if a customer sends a request to transfer the money from one account to another
account, then the bank must have a proof that the customer has requested for the transaction.

Privacy

The concept of how to achieve privacy has not been changed for thousands of years: the message
cannot be encrypted. The message must be rendered as opaque to all the unauthorized parties. A good
encryption/decryption technique is used to achieve privacy to some extent. This technique ensures that
the eavesdropper cannot understand the contents of the message.

Encryption/Decryption

Encryption: Encryption means that the sender converts the original information into another form and
sends the unintelligible message over the network.

Decryption: Decryption reverses the Encryption process in order to transform the message back to the
original form.

The data which is to be encrypted at the sender site is known as plaintext, and the encrypted data is
known as ciphertext. The data is decrypted at the receiver site.

There are two types of Encryption/Decryption techniques:

o Privacy with secret key Encryption/Decryption

o Privacy with public key Encryption/Decryption

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Secret Key Encryption/Decryption technique

o In Secret Key Encryption/Decryption technique, the same key is used by both the parties, i.e.,
the sender and receiver.
o The sender uses the secret key and encryption algorithm to encrypt the data; the receiver uses
this key and decryption algorithm to decrypt the data.
o In Secret Key Encryption/Decryption technique, the algorithm used for encryption is the inverse
of the algorithm used for decryption. It means that if the encryption algorithm uses a
combination of addition and multiplication, then the decryption algorithm uses a combination of
subtraction and division.
o The secret key encryption algorithm is also known as symmetric encryption algorithm because
the same secret key is used in bidirectional communication.
o In secret key encryption/decryption algorithm, the secret code is used by the computer to
encrypt the information before it is sent over the network to another computer.
o The secret key requires that we should know which computers are talking to each other so that
we can install the key on each computer.

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

o The Data Encryption Standard (DES) was designed by IBM and adopted by the U.S. government
as the standard encryption method for nonmilitary and nonclassified use.
o The Data Encryption Standard is a standard used for encryption, and it is a form of Secret Key
Cryptography.

Advantage

Efficient: The secret key algorithms are more efficient as it takes less time to encrypt the message
than to encrypt the message by using a public key encryption algorithm. The reason for this is that the
size of the key is small. Due to this reason, Secret Key Algorithms are mainly used for encryption and
decryption.

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2

Disadvantages of Secret Key Encryption

The Secret Key Encryption/Decryption has the following disadvantages:

o Each pair of users must have a secret key. If the number of people wants to use this method in
the world is N, then there are N(N-1)/2 secret keys. For example, for one million people, then
there are half billion secret keys.
o The distribution of keys among different parties can be very difficult. This problem can be
resolved by combining the Secret Key Encryption/Decryption with the Public Key
Encryption/Decryption algorithm.

Public Key Encryption/Decryption technique

o There are two keys in public key encryption: a private key and a public key.
o The private key is given to the receiver while the public key is provided to the public.

In the above figure, we see that A is sending the message to user B. 'A' uses the public key to encrypt
the data while 'B' uses the private key to decrypt the data.

o In public key Encryption/Decryption, the public key used by the sender is different from the
private key used by the receiver.
o The public key is available to the public while the private key is kept by each individual.
o The most commonly used public key algorithm is known as RSA.

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Advantages of Public Key Encryption
o The main restriction of private key encryption is the sharing of a secret key. A third party cannot
use this key. In public key encryption, each entity creates a pair of keys, and they keep the
private one and distribute the public key.
o The number of keys in public key encryption is reduced tremendously. For example, for one
million users to communicate, only two million keys are required, not a half-billion keys as in the
case of secret key encryption.

Disadvantages of Public Key Encryption

o Speed: One of the major disadvantage of the public-key encryption is that it is slower than
secret-key encryption. In secret key encryption, a single shared key is used to encrypt and
decrypt the message which speeds up the process while in public key encryption, different two
keys are used, both related to each other by a complex mathematical process. Therefore, we
can say that encryption and decryption take more time in public key encryption.
o Authentication: A public key encryption does not have a built-in authentication. Without
authentication, the message can be interpreted or intercepted without the user's knowledge.
o Inefficient: The main disadvantage of the public key is its complexity. If we want the method
to be effective, large numbers are needed. But in public key encryption, converting the plaintext
into ciphertext using long keys takes a lot of time. Therefore, the public key encryption
algorithms are efficient for short messages not for long messages.

Differences b/w Secret Key Encryption & Public Key Encryption

Basis for Secret Key Encryption Public Key Encryption

Comparison

Define Secret Key Encryption is defined as the Public Key Encryption is defined as the
technique that uses a single shared key to technique that uses two different keys for
encrypt and decrypt the message. encryption and decryption.

Efficieny It is efficient as this technique is It is inefficient as this technique is used only

recommended for large amounts of text. for short messages.

Other name It is also known as Symmetric Key It is also known as Asymmetric Key
encryption. Encryption.

Speed Its speed is high as it uses a single key for Its speed is slow as it uses two different keys,

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 encryption and decryption. both keys are related to each other through
the complicated mathematical process.

Algorithms The Secret key algorithms are DES, 3DES, The Public key algorithms are Diffie-Hellman,
AES & RCA. RSA.

Purpose The main purpose of the secret key The main purpose of the public key algorithm
algorithm is to transmit the bulk data. is to share the keys securely.

What is a Router?

The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to receive, analyze, and
forward data packets between computer networks. A router examines a destination IP address of a
given data packet, and it uses the headers and forwarding tables to decide the best way to transfer the
packets. There are some popular companies that develop routers; such
are Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-Link, Nortel, etc. Some important points of routers are given
below:

o A router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network) environments. For
example, it is used in offices for connectivity, and you can also establish the connection
between distant networks such as from Bhopal to
o It shares information with other routers in networking.
o It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.
o Furthermore, it is more expensive than other networking devices like switches and hubs.

A router works on the third layer of the OSI model, and it is based on the IP address of a computer. It
uses protocols such as ICMP to communicate between two or more networks. It is also known as
an intelligent device as it can calculate the best route to pass the network packets from source to the
destination automatically.

A virtual router is a software function or software-based framework that performs the same functions as
a physical router. It may be used to increase the reliability of the network by virtual router redundancy

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protocol, which is done by configuring a virtual router as a default gateway. A virtual router runs on
commodity servers, and it is packaged with alone or other network functions, like load balancing,
firewall packet filtering, and wide area network optimization capabilities.

Why Routers?

A router is more capable as compared to other network devices, such as a hub, switch, etc., as these
devices are only able to execute the basic functions of the network. For example, a hub is a basic
networking device that is mainly used to forward the data between connected devices, but it cannot
analyze or change anything with the transferring data. On the other hand, the router has the capability
to analyze and modify the data while transferring it over a network, and it can send it to another
network. For example, generally, routers allow sharing a single network connection between multiple
devices.

How does Router work?

A router analyzes a destination IP address of a given packet header and compares it with the routing
table to decide the packet's next path. The list of routing tables provides directions to transfer the data
to a particular network destination. They have a set of rules that compute the best path to forward the
data to the given IP address.

Routers use a modem such as a cable, fiber, or DSL modem to allow communication between other
devices and the internet. Most of the routers have several ports to connect different devices to the
internet at the same time. It uses the routing tables to determine where to send data and from where
the traffic is coming.

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A routing table mainly defines the default path used by the router. So, it may fail to find the best way to
forward the data for a given packet. For example, the office router along a single default path instructs
all networks to its internet services provider.

There are two types of tables in the router that are static and dynamic. The static routing tables are
configured manually, and the dynamic routing tables are updated automatically by dynamic routers
based on network activity.

Features of Router

o A router works on the 3rd layer (Network Layer) of the OSI model, and it is able to communicate
with its adjacent devices with the help of IP addresses and subnet.
o A router provides high-speed internet connectivity with the different types of ports like gigabit,
fast-Ethernet, and STM link port.
o It allows the users to configure the port as per their requirements in the network.
o Routers' main components are central processing unit (CPU), flash memory, RAM, Non-Volatile
RAM, console, network, and interface card.
o Routers are capable of routing the traffic in a large networking system by considering the sub-
network as an intact network.
o Routers filter out the unwanted interference, as well as carry out the data encapsulation and
decapsulation process.
o Routers provide the redundancy as it always works in master and slave mode.
o It allows the users to connect several LAN and WAN.
o Furthermore, a router creates various paths to forward the data.

Applications of Routers

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There are various areas where a router is used:

o Routers are used to connect hardware equipment with remote location networks like BSC,
MGW, IN, SGSN, and other servers.
o It provides support for a fast rate of data transmission because it uses high STM links for
connectivity; that's why it is used in both wired or wireless communication.
o Internet service providers widely use routers to send the data from source to destination in the
form of e-mail, a web page, image, voice, or a video file. Furthermore, it can send data all over
the world with the help of an IP address of the destination.
o Routers offer access restrictions. It can be configured in a way that allows for few users to
access the overall data and allows others to access the few data only, which is defined for them.
o Routers are also used by software testers for WAN communications. For example, the software
manager of an organization is located in Agra, and its executive is located at a different place
like Pune or Bangalore. Then the router provides the executive the method to share his software
tools and other applications with the manager with the help of routers by connecting their PCs to
the router using WAN architecture.
o In wireless networks, by configuring VPN in routers, it can be used in the client-server model,
which allows sharing the internet, video, data, voice, and hardware resources. As shown in the
below picture:

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 o In modern times, routers have the facility of inbuilt USB ports within the hardware. They have
enough internal storage capacity. External storage devices can be used with routers to store and
share data.
o Routers are used to set up the operation and maintenance center of an organization, which is
known as the NOC center. All equipment at a distant location are connected by routers on optical
cable at a central location, which also offer redundancy through the main link and protection link
topology.

Types of Routers

There are various types of routers in networking; such are given below:

1. Wireless Router: Wireless routers are used to offer Wi-Fi connectivity to laptops, smartphones, and
other devices with Wi-Fi network capabilities, and it can also provide standard ethernet routing for a
small number of wired network systems.

Wireless routers are capable of generating a wireless signal in your home or office, and it allows the
computers to connect with routers within a range, and use the internet. If the connection is indoors, the
range of the wireless router is about 150 feet, and when the connection is outdoors, then its range is up
to 300 feet.

Furthermore, you can make more secure wireless routers with a password or get your IP address.
Thereafter, you can log in to your router by using a user ID and password that will come with your
router.

2. Brouter: A brouter is a combination of the bridge and a router. It allows transferring the data
between networks like a bridge. And like a router, it can also route the data within a network to the
individual systems. Thus, it combines these two functions of bridge and router by routing some
incoming data to the correct systems while transferring the other data to another network.

3. Core router: A core router is a type of router that can route the data within a network, but it is not
able to route the data between the networks. It is a computer communication system device and the
backbone of networks, as it helps to link all network devices. It is used by internet service providers
(ISPs), and it also provides various types of fast and powerful data communication interfaces.

4. Edge router: An edge router is a lower-capacity device that is placed at the boundary of a network.
It allows an internal network to connect with the external networks. It is also called as an access router.
It uses an External BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to provides connectivity with remote networks over
the internet.

There are two types of edge routers in networking:

o Subscriber edge router

o Label edge router

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The subscriber edge router belongs to an end-user organization, and it works in a situation where it
acts on a border device.

The label edge router is used in the boundary of Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) networks. It
acts as a gateway between the LAN, WAN, or the internet.

5. Broadband routers: Broadband routers are mainly used to provide high-speed internet access to
computers. It is needed when you connect to the internet through phone and use voice over IP
technology (VOIP).

All broadband routers have the option of three or four Ethernet ports for connecting the laptop and
desktop systems. A broadband router is configured and provided by the internet service provider (ISP).
It is also known as a broadband modem, asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), or digital
subscriber line (DSL) modem.

Benefits of Router

There are so many benefits of a router, which are given below:

o Security: Router provides the security, as LANs work in broadcast mode. The information is
transmitted over the network and traverses the entire cable system. Although the data is
available to each station, but the station which is specifically addressed reads the data.
o Performance enhancement: It enhances the performance within the individual network. For
example, if a network has 14 workstations, and all generate approximately the same volume of
traffic. The traffic of 14 workstations runs through the same cable in a single network. But if the
network is divided into two sub-networks each with 7 workstations, then a load of traffic is
reduced to half. As each of the networks has its own servers and hard disk, so fewer PCs will
need the network cabling system.
o Reliability: Routers provide reliability. If one network gets down when the server has stopped,
or there is a defect in the cable, then the router services, and other networks will not be
affected. The routers separate the affected network, whereas the unaffected networks remain
connected, without interrupting the work and any data loss.
o Networking Range: In networking, a cable is used to connect the devices, but its length
cannot exceed 1000 meters. A router can overcome this limitation by performing the function of
a repeater (Regenerating the signals). The physical range can be as per the requirement of a
particular installation, as long as a router is installed before the maximum cable range exceeds.

Routing Protocols

Routing protocols specify a way for the router to identify other routers on the network and make
dynamic decisions to send all network messages. There are several protocols, which are given below:

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Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): It is used to calculate the best route for the given packets to
reach the destination, as they move via a set of connected networks. It is identified by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) as Interior Gateway Protocol.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): It helps manage how packets are routed on the internet via
exchange of information between edge routers. It provides network stability for routers if one internet
connection goes down while forwarding the packets, it can adapt another network connection quickly to
send the packets.

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP): It specifies how routing information will be exchanged
between gateways within an independent network. Then, the other network protocols can use the
routing information to determine how transmissions should be routed.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): In this protocol, if a router is unable to
find a path to a destination from the tables, it asks route to its neighbors, and they pass the query to
their neighbors until a router has found the path. When the entry of routing table changes in one of the
routers, it informs its neighbors only about the changes, but do not send the entire table.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): It decides how routing information can be exchanged between
two neighbor gateway hosts, each of which has its own router. Additionally, it is commonly used to
exchange routing table information between hosts on the internet.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP): It determines how routers can share information while
transferring traffic among connected group of local area networks. The maximum number of hops that
can be allowed for RIP is 15, which restricts the size of networks that RIP can support.

Difference between Bridge and Router

Bridge Router

A bridge is a networking device that is used to connect two A router is also a networking device that sends
local area networks (LANs) by using media access control the data from one network to another network
addresses and transmit the data between them. with the help of their IP addresses.

A bridge is able to connect only two different LAN A router is capable of connecting the LAN and
segments. WAN.

A bridge transfers the data in the form of frames. A router transfers the data in the form of
packets.

It sends data based on the MAC address of a device. It sends data based on the IP address of a
device.

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The bridge has only one port to connect the device. The router has several ports to connect the
devices.

The bridge does not use any table to forward the data. The router uses a routing table to send the data.

Difference between Hub, Switch, and Router

There are three primarily networking devices that connect the computers from one to another. These
devices are hub, switch, and router. These all have the ability to connect one computer to another, but
there is some difference between them. The difference between a hub, switch, and router are given
below:

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that is used to connect computers or other networking devices
together. A hub does not use any routing table to send the data to the destination. Although it can
identify basic errors of networks like collisions, it can be a security risk to broadcast all information to
the multiple ports. As the hub is a dumb device, it does not need an IP address. Furthermore, Hubs are
cheaper than a switch or router.

Switch: A switch is a hardware device that also connects computers to each other. A switch is different
as compared to a hub in that way; it handles packets of data. Whenever a switch receives a packet, it
decides the device to which the packet can be sent, and sends it to that device only. A hub broadcasts
the packet to all computers, but the switch does not circulate the packet to all devices, which means
bandwidth is not shared with the network, and thus it increases the efficiency of the network. That's
why switches are more preferred as compared to a hub.

Router: A router is more different from a switch or hub. It is mainly used to route the data packets to
another network instead of transmitting the data to the local networks only. A router is commonly found
in homes and offices as it allows your network to communicate with other networks through the
internet. Basically, a router provides more features to your networks like firewall, VPN, QoS, traffic
monitoring, etc.

What is Routing Table in Router?

A routing table determines the path for a given packet with the help of an IP address of a device and
necessary information from the table and sends the packet to the destination network. The routers have
the internal memory that is known as Random Access Memory (RAM). All the information of the routing
table is stored in RAM of routers.

For example:

Destination (Network ID) Subnet mask Interface

200.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 Eth0

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200.1.2.64 255.255.255.128 Eth1

200.1.2.128 255.255.255.255 Eth2

Default Eth3

A routing table contains the following entities:

o It contains an IP address of all routers which are required to decide the way to reach the
destination network.
o It includes extrovert interface information.
o Furthermore, it is also contained IP addresses and subnet mask of the destination host.

Network Element in Router

There are two types of a network element in the router which are as follows:

Control plane: A router supports a routing table that determines which path and physical interface
connection should be used to send the packet. It is done by using internal pre-configured directives,
which are called static routes, or by learning routes with the help of routing protocol. A routing table
stores the static and dynamic routes. Then the control-plane logic eliminates the unnecessary directives
from the table and constructs a forwarding information base that is used by the forwarding plane.

Forwarding plane: A router sends data packets between incoming and outgoing interface
connections. It uses information stored in the packet header and matches it to entries in the FIB, which
is supplied by the control plane; accordingly, it forwards the data packet to the correct network type. It
is also called the user plane or data plane.

How to buy a Router?

There are many points to keep in mind while buying a router:

1. Type of Connection: Which kind of router should you buy depends on the type of connection
you have. For example, if you want to use the internet connection from your telephone services
providers like BSNL or MTNL, you will need an ADSL router. In this router, you have to use the
hardware that is provided to you with your connection. Although this router may have limited
functionalities on some fronts.
Alternatively, you can purchase an advanced router that allows you sharing storage, including
printer over a wireless connection. If you use the connection provided by the local cable
operator, you will need a non-ADSL router.

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 2. Standard: The routers support standards like 802.11ac, 802.11n, etc. The routers that support
802.11ac standard, enhances the speed to transfer the data more than three times the speed of
802.11n standard routers. It uses the 5GHz frequency band, which is less crowded as compared
to the regular 2.4GHz band. Furthermore, it also provides better network performance for file
transfers and streaming media content.
The routers that support 802.11ac standard are beneficial as they are compatible with 'n'
standard, by which your older devices can also work without any problem.Alternatively; you can
save some money and full fill your requirements by purchasing 'n' standard routers.
3. Dual-band: Most of 'n' standard routers operate in the 2.4GHz frequency, but a dual-band
router is better as it supports the 5GHz band. Furthermore, it can also connect with smartphones
and laptops on 5GHz, while other routers can operate over 2.4GHz only.
4. USB port: Routers with USB ports allow you to plug flash drives, including printers, to share
these resources over the network. These functions are suitable for a small area as they can be
used within the wireless network without using the internet.
Some routers provide backup internet by 3G data dongles when your main connection goes
down. But these routers work with specific brands only. So, before purchasing a router, check if
it supports the dongle you are using.
5. Multiple antennas: External antennas are strong enough to increase the overall range of your
router as well as are suitable for environments where you need signals across multiple walls or
doors.

OSI vs TCP/IP

What is OSI model?

The OSI stands for Open System Interconnection, which was developed in 1980s. It is a conceptual
model used for network communication. It is not implemented entirely, but it is still referenced today.
This OSI model consists of seven layers, and each layer is connected to each other. The data moves
down the OSI model, and each layer adds additional information. The data moves down until it reaches
the last layer of the OSI model. When the data is received at the last layer of the OSI model, then the
data is transmitted over the network. Once the data is reached on the other side, then the process will
get reversed.

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What is TCP/IP model?

The TCP model stands for Transmission Control Protocol, whereas IP stands for Internet
Protocol. A number of protocols that make the internet possibly comes under the TCP/IP model.
Nowadays, we do not hear the name of the TCP/IP model much, we generally hear the name of the
IPv4 or IPv6, but it is still valid. This model consists of 4 layers. Now, we will look at the diagrammatic
representation of the TCP/IP model.

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As shown in the above diagram, the TCP/IP model has 4 layers, while the OSI model consists of 7
layers. Diagrammatically, it looks that the 4 layers of the TCP/IP model exactly fit the 7 layers of the
OSI model, but this is not reality. The application layer of the TCP/IP model maps to the first three
layers, i.e., application, session, and presentation layer of the OSI model. The transport layer of the TCP
maps directly to the transport layer of the OSI model. The internet layer of the TCP/IP model maps
directly to the network layer of the OSI model. The last two layers of the OSI model map to the network
layer of the TCP/IP model. TCP/IP is the most widely used model as compared to the OSI model for
providing communication between computers over the internet.

Similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP model

The following are the similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP model:

o Share common architecture

Both the models are the logical models and having similar architectures as both the models are
constructed with the layers.

o Define standards

Both the layers have defined standards, and they also provide the framework used for implementing the
standards and devices.

o Simplified troubleshooting process

Both models have simplified the troubleshooting process by breaking the complex function into simpler
components.

o Pre-defined standards

The standards and protocols which are already pre-defined; these models do not redefine them; they
just reference or use them. For example, the Ethernet standards were already defined by the IEEE
before the development of these models; instead of recreating them, models have used these pre-
defined standards.

o Both have similar functionality of 'transport' and 'network' layers

The function which is performed between the 'presentation' and the 'network' layer is similar to the
function performed at the transport layer.

Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model

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Let's see the differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model in a tabular form:

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO (International It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Standard Organization). Research Project Agency Network).

It is an independent standard and generic protocol used It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
as a communication gateway between the network and development of an internet. It is a communication
the end user. protocol that provides the connection among the
hosts.

In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a The transport layer does not provide the surety for
guarantee for the delivery of the packets. the delivery of packets. But still, we can say that it
is a reliable model.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

In this model, the session and presentation layers are In this model, the session and presentation layer
separated, i.e., both the layers are different. are not different layers. Both layers are included in
the application layer.

It is also known as a reference model through which It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
various networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP
model is built from the OSI model. It is also referred to
as a guidance tool.

In this model, the network layer provides both The network layer provides only connectionless

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connection-oriented and connectionless service. service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be easily In this model, the protocol cannot be easily
replaced when the technology changes. replaced.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, and interfaces In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and
as well as provides a proper distinction between them. It interfaces are not properly separated. It is protocol
is protocol independent. dependent.

The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

It provides standardization to the devices like router, It does not provide the standardization to the
motherboard, switches, and other hardware devices. devices. It provides a connection between various
computers.

TCP vs UDP

What is the TCP?

The TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. If we want the communication between two
computers and communication should be good and reliable. For example, we want to view a web page,
then we expect that nothing should be missing on the page, or we want to download a file, then we
require a complete file, i.e., nothing should be missing either it could be a text or an image. This can
only be possible due to the TCP. It is one of the most widely used protocols over the TCP/IP network.

Features of TCP

The following are the features of the TCP:

o Data delivery
TCP protocol ensures that the data is received correctly, no data is missing and in order. If TCP
protocol is not used, then the incorrect data can be received or out of order. For example, if we
try to view the web page or download a file without using TCP, then some data or images could
be missing.
o Protocol
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. Through the word connection-oriented, we understand
that the computers first establish a connection and then do the communication. This is done by

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 using a three-way handshake. In a three-way handshake, the first sender sends the SYN
message to the receiver then the receiver sends back the SYN ACK message to confirm that the
message has been received. After receiving the SYN ACK message, the sender sends the
acknowledgment message to the receiver. In this way, the connection is established between
the computers. Once the connection is established, the data will be delivered. This protocol
guarantees the data delivery means that if the data is not received then the TCP will resend the
data.

What is UDP?

The UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. Its working is similar to the TCP as it is also used for
sending and receiving the message. The main difference is that UDP is a connectionless protocol. Here,
connectionless means that no connection establishes prior to communication. It also does not guarantee
the delivery of data packets. It does not even care whether the data has been received on the receiver's
end or not, so it is also known as the "fire-and-forget" protocol. It is also known as the "fire-and-
forget" protocol as it sends the data and does not care whether the data is received or not. UDP is
faster than TCP as it does not provide the assurance for the delivery of the packets.

Differences between the TCP and UDP

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 o Type of protocol
Both the protocols, i.e., TCP and UDP, are the transport layer protocol. TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol, whereas UDP is a connectionless protocol. It means that TCP requires
connection prior to the communication, but the UDP does not require any connection.
o Reliability
TCP is a reliable protocol as it provides assurance for the delivery of the data. It follows the
acknowledgment mechanism. In this mechanism, the sender receives the acknowledgment from
the receiver and checks whether the acknowledgment is positive or negative. If the ACK is
positive means, the data has been received successfully. If ACK is negative, then TCP will resend
the data. It also follows the flow and error control mechanism.
UDP is an unreliable protocol as it does not ensure the delivery of the data.
o Flow Control
TCP follows the flow control mechanism that ensures a large number of packets are not sent to
the receiver at the same time, while UDP does not follow the flow control mechanism.
o Ordering
TCP uses ordering and sequencing techniques to ensure that the data packets are received in
the same order in which they are sent. On the other hand, UDP does not follow any ordering and
sequencing technique; i.e., data can be sent in any sequence.
o Speed
Since TCP establishes a connection between a sender and receiver, performs error checking, and
also guarantees the delivery of data packets while UDP neither creates a connection nor it
guarantees the delivery of data packets, so UDP is faster than TCP.
o Flow of data
In TCP, data can flow in both directions means that it provides the full-duplex service. On the
other hand, UDP is mainly suitable for the unidirectional flow of data.

Let's look at the differences between the TCP and UDP in a tabular form.

TCP UDP

Full form It stands for Transmission Control It stands for User Datagram Protocol.
Protocol.

Type of It is a connection-oriented protocol, which It is a connectionless protocol, which

connection means that the connection needs to be means that it sends the data without
established before the data is transmitted checking whether the system is ready to

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 over the network. receive or not.

Reliable TCP is a reliable protocol as it provides UDP is an unreliable protocol as it does

assurance for the delivery of data packets. not take the guarantee for the delivery
of packets.

Speed TCP is slower than UDP as it performs error UDP is faster than TCP as it does not
checking, flow control, and provides guarantee the delivery of data packets.
assurance for the delivery of

Header size The size of TCP is 20 bytes. The size of the UDP is 8 bytes.

Acknowledgment TCP uses the three-way-handshake concept. UDP does not wait for any
In this concept, if the sender receives the acknowledgment; it just sends the data.
ACK, then the sender will send the data.
TCP also has the ability to resend the lost
data.

Flow control It follows the flow control mechanism in This protocol follows no such
mechanism which too many packets cannot be sent to mechanism.
the receiver at the same time.

Error checking TCP performs error checking by using a It does not perform any error checking,
checksum. When the data is corrected, then and also does not resend the lost data
the data is retransmitted to the receiver. packets.

Applications This protocol is mainly used where a secure This protocol is used where fast
and reliable communication process is communication is required and does not
required, like military services, web care about the reliability like VoIP, game
browsing, and e-mail. streaming, video and music streaming,
etc.

TCP

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol that facilitates the
transmission of packets from source to destination. It is a connection-oriented protocol that means it
establishes the connection prior to the communication that occurs between the computing devices in a
network. This protocol is used with an IP protocol, so together, they are referred to as a TCP/IP.

The main functionality of the TCP is to take the data from the application layer. Then it divides the data
into a several packets, provides numbering to these packets, and finally transmits these packets to the

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destination. The TCP, on the other side, will reassemble the packets and transmits them to the
application layer. As we know that TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, so the connection will remain
established until the communication is not completed between the sender and the receiver.

Features of TCP protocol

The following are the features of a TCP protocol:

o Transport Layer Protocol

TCP is a transport layer protocol as it is used in transmitting the data from the sender to the receiver.

o Reliable

TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control mechanism. It also supports the
acknowledgment mechanism, which checks the state and sound arrival of the data. In the
acknowledgment mechanism, the receiver sends either positive or negative acknowledgment to the
sender so that the sender can get to know whether the data packet has been received or needs to
resend.

o Order of the data is maintained

This protocol ensures that the data reaches the intended receiver in the same order in which it is sent.
It orders and numbers each segment so that the TCP layer on the destination side can reassemble them
based on their ordering.

o Connection-oriented

It is a connection-oriented service that means the data exchange occurs only after the connection
establishment. When the data transfer is completed, then the connection will get terminated.

o Full duplex

It is a full-duplex means that the data can transfer in both directions at the same time.

o Stream-oriented

TCP is a stream-oriented protocol as it allows the sender to send the data in the form of a stream of
bytes and also allows the receiver to accept the data in the form of a stream of bytes. TCP creates an
environment in which both the sender and receiver are connected by an imaginary tube known as a
virtual circuit. This virtual circuit carries the stream of bytes across the internet.

Need of Transport Control Protocol

In the layered architecture of a network model, the whole task is divided into smaller tasks. Each task is
assigned to a particular layer that processes the task. In the TCP/IP model, five layers are application
layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer. The transport layer has a critical

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role in providing end-to-end communication to the directly application processes. It creates 65,000 ports
so that the multiple applications can be accessed at the same time. It takes the data from the upper
layer, and it divides the data into smaller packets and then transmits them to the network layer.

Working of TCP

In TCP, the connection is established by using three-way handshaking. The client sends the segment
with its sequence number. The server, in return, sends its segment with its own sequence number as
well as the acknowledgement sequence, which is one more than the client sequence number. When the
client receives the acknowledgment of its segment, then it sends the acknowledgment to the server. In
this way, the connection is established between the client and the server.

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Advantages of TCP
o It provides a connection-oriented reliable service, which means that it guarantees the delivery of
data packets. If the data packet is lost across the network, then the TCP will resend the lost
packets.
o It provides a flow control mechanism using a sliding window protocol.
o It provides error detection by using checksum and error control by using Go Back or ARP
protocol.
o It eliminates the congestion by using a network congestion avoidance algorithm that includes
various schemes such as additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD), slow start, and
congestion window.

Disadvantage of TCP

It increases a large amount of overhead as each segment gets its own TCP header, so fragmentation by
the router increases the overhead.

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TCP Header format

o Source port: It defines the port of the application, which is sending the data. So, this field
contains the source port address, which is 16 bits.
o Destination port: It defines the port of the application on the receiving side. So, this field
contains the destination port address, which is 16 bits.
o Sequence number: This field contains the sequence number of data bytes in a particular
session.
o Acknowledgment number: When the ACK flag is set, then this contains the next sequence
number of the data byte and works as an acknowledgment for the previous data received. For
example, if the receiver receives the segment number 'x', then it responds 'x+1' as an
acknowledgment number.
o HLEN: It specifies the length of the header indicated by the 4-byte words in the header. The
size of the header lies between 20 and 60 bytes. Therefore, the value of this field would lie
between 5 and 15.
o Reserved: It is a 4-bit field reserved for future use, and by default, all are set to zero.
o Flags
There are six control bits or flags:
1. URG: It represents an urgent pointer. If it is set, then the data is processed urgently.

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 2. ACK: If the ACK is set to 0, then it means that the data packet does not contain an
acknowledgment.
3. PSH: If this field is set, then it requests the receiving device to push the data to the
receiving application without buffering it.
4. RST: If it is set, then it requests to restart a connection.
5. SYN: It is used to establish a connection between the hosts.
6. FIN: It is used to release a connection, and no further data exchange will happen.

o Window size
It is a 16-bit field. It contains the size of data that the receiver can accept. This field is used for
the flow control between the sender and receiver and also determines the amount of buffer
allocated by the receiver for a segment. The value of this field is determined by the receiver.
o Checksum
It is a 16-bit field. This field is optional in UDP, but in the case of TCP/IP, this field is mandatory.
o Urgent pointer
It is a pointer that points to the urgent data byte if the URG flag is set to 1. It defines a value
that will be added to the sequence number to get the sequence number of the last urgent byte.
o Options
It provides additional options. The optional field is represented in 32-bits. If this field contains
the data less than 32-bit, then padding is required to obtain the remaining bits.

What is a TCP port?

The TCP port is a unique number assigned to different applications. For example, we have opened the
email and games applications on our computer; through email application, we want to send the mail to
the host, and through games application, we want to play the online games. In order to do all these
tasks, different unique numbers are assigned to these applications. Each protocol and address have a
port known as a port number. The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) protocols mainly use the port numbers.

A port number is a unique identifier used with an IP address. A port is a 16-bit unsigned integer, and
the total number of ports available in the TCP/IP model is 65,535 ports. Therefore, the range of port
numbers is 0 to 65535. In the case of TCP, the zero-port number is reserved and cannot be used,
whereas, in UDP, the zero port is not available. IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) is a
standard body that assigns the port numbers.

Example of port number:

192.168.1.100: 7

In the above case, 192.168.1.100 is an IP address, and 7 is a port number.

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To access a particular service, the port number is used with an IP address. The range from 0 to 1023
port numbers are reserved for the standard protocols, and the other port numbers are user-defined.

Exception Handling in Java - Javatpoint

Why do we require port numbers?

A single client can have multiple connections with the same server or multiple servers. The client may
be running multiple applications at the same time. When the client tries to access some service, then
the IP address is not sufficient to access the service. To access the service from a server, the port
number is required. So, the transport layer plays a major role in providing multiple communication
between these applications by assigning a port number to the applications.

Classification of port numbers

The port numbers are divided into three categories:

o Well-known ports
o Registered ports
o Dynamic ports

Well-known ports

The range of well-known port is 0 to 1023. The well-known ports are used with those protocols that
serve common applications and services such as HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol), IMAP (Internet
Message Access Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), etc. For example, we want to visit
some websites on an internet; then, we use http protocol; the http is available with a port number 80,
which means that when we use http protocol with an application then it gets port number 80. It is
defined that whenever http protocol is used, then port number 80 will be used. Similarly, with other
protocols such as SMTP, IMAP; well-known ports are defined. The remaining port numbers are used for
random applications.

Registered ports

The range of registered port is 1024 to 49151. The registered ports are used for the user processes.
These processes are individual applications rather than the common applications that have a well-known
port.

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Dynamic ports

The range of dynamic port is 49152 to 65535. Another name of the dynamic port is ephemeral ports.
These port numbers are assigned to the client application dynamically when a client creates a
connection. The dynamic port is identified when the client initiates the connection, whereas the client
knows the well-known port prior to the connection. This port is not known to the client when the client
connects to the service.

TCP and UDP header

As we know that both TCP and UDP contain source and destination port numbers, and these port
numbers are used to identify the application or a server both at the source and the destination side.
Both TCP and UDP use port numbers to pass the information to the upper layers.

Let's understand this scenario.

Suppose a client is accessing a web page. The TCP header contains both the source and destination
port.

Client-side

In the above diagram,

Source Port: The source port defines an application to which the TCP segment belongs to, and this
port number is dynamically assigned by the client. This is basically a process to which the port number
is assigned.

Destination port: The destination port identifies the location of the service on the server so that the
server can serve the request of the client.

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Server-side

In the above diagram,

Source port: It defines the application from where the TCP segment came from.

Destination port: It defines the application to which the TCP segment is going to.

In the above case, two processes are used:

Encapsulation: Port numbers are used by the sender to tell the receiver which application it should
use for the data.

Decapsulation: Port numbers are used by the receiver to identify which application should it sends the
data to.

Let's understand the above example by using all three ports, i.e., well-known port, registered port, and
dynamic port.

First, we look at a well-known port.

The well-known ports are the ports that serve the common services and applications like http, ftp, smtp,
etc. Here, the client uses a well-known port as a destination port while the server uses a well-known
port as a source port. For example, the client sends an http request, then, in this case, the destination
port would be 80, whereas the http server is serving the request so its source port number would be 80.

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Now, we look at the registered port.

The registered port is assigned to the non-common applications. Lots of vendor applications use this
port. Like the well-known port, client uses this port as a destination port whereas the server uses this
port as a source port.

At the end, we see how dynamic port works in this scenario.

The dynamic port is the port that is dynamically assigned to the client application when initiating a
connection. In this case, the client uses a dynamic port as a source port, whereas the server uses a
dynamic port as a destination port. For example, the client sends an http request; then in this case,
destination port would be 80 as it is a http request, and the source port will only be assigned by the
client. When the server serves the request, then the source port would be 80 as it is an http server, and

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the destination port would be the same as the source port of the client. The registered port can also be
used in place of a dynamic port.

Let's look at the below example.

Suppose client is communicating with a server, and sending the http request. So, the client sends the
TCP segment to the well-known port, i.e., 80 of the HTTP protocols. In this case, the destination port
would be 80 and suppose the source port assigned dynamically by the client is 1028. When the server
responds, the destination port is 1028 as the source port defined by the client is 1028, and the source
port at the server end would be 80 as the HTTP server is responding to the request of the client.

IPv4 vs IPv6

What is IP?

An IP stands for internet protocol. An IP address is assigned to each device connected to a network.
Each device uses an IP address for communication. It also behaves as an identifier as this address is
used to identify the device on a network. It defines the technical format of the packets. Mainly, both the
networks, i.e., IP and TCP, are combined together, so together, they are referred to as a TCP/IP. It
creates a virtual connection between the source and the destination.

We can also define an IP address as a numeric address assigned to each device on a network. An IP
address is assigned to each device so that the device on a network can be identified uniquely. To
facilitate the routing of packets, TCP/IP protocol uses a 32-bit logical address known as IPv4(Internet
Protocol version 4).

An IP address consists of two parts, i.e., the first one is a network address, and the other one is a host
address.

There are two types of IP addresses:

o IPv4
o IPv6

What is IPv4?

IPv4 is a version 4 of IP. It is a current version and the most commonly used IP address. It is a 32-bit
address written in four numbers separated by 'dot', i.e., periods. This address is unique for each device.

For example, 66.94.29.13

The above example represents the IP address in which each group of numbers separated by periods is
called an Octet. Each number in an octet is in the range from 0-255. This address can produce
4,294,967,296 possible unique addresses.

In today's computer network world, computers do not understand the IP addresses in the standard
numeric format as the computers understand the numbers in binary form only. The binary number can

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be either 1 or 0. The IPv4 consists of four sets, and these sets represent the octet. The bits in each
octet represent a number.

Each bit in an octet can be either 1 or 0. If the bit the 1, then the number it represents will count, and if
the bit is 0, then the number it represents does not count.

Representation of 8 Bit Octet

The above representation shows the structure of 8- bit octet.

Now, we will see how to obtain the binary representation of the above IP address, i.e., 66.94.29.13

Step 1: First, we find the binary number of 66.

To obtain 66, we put 1 under 64 and 2 as the sum of 64 and 2 is equal to 66 (64+2=66), and the
remaining bits will be zero, as shown above. Therefore, the binary bit version of 66 is 01000010.

Step 2: Now, we calculate the binary number of 94.

To obtain 94, we put 1 under 64, 16, 8, 4, and 2 as the sum of these numbers is equal to 94, and the
remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 94 is 01011110.

Step 3: The next number is 29.

To obtain 29, we put 1 under 16, 8, 4, and 1 as the sum of these numbers is equal to 29, and the
remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 29 is 00011101.

Step 4: The last number is 13.

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To obtain 13, we put 1 under 8, 4, and 1 as the sum of these numbers is equal to 13, and the
remaining bits will be zero. Therefore, the binary bit version of 13 is 00001101.

Drawback of IPv4

Currently, the population of the world is 7.6 billion. Every user is having more than one device
connected with the internet, and private companies also rely on the internet. As we know that IPv4
produces 4 billion addresses, which are not enough for each device connected to the internet on a
planet. Although the various techniques were invented, such as variable- length mask, network address
translation, port address translation, classes, inter-domain translation, to conserve the bandwidth of IP
address and slow down the depletion of an IP address. In these techniques, public IP is converted into a
private IP due to which the user having public IP can also use the internet. But still, this was not so
efficient, so it gave rise to the development of the next generation of IP addresses, i.e., IPv6.

What is IPv6?

IPv4 produces 4 billion addresses, and the developers think that these addresses are enough, but they
were wrong. IPv6 is the next generation of IP addresses. The main difference between IPv4 and IPv6 is
the address size of IP addresses. The IPv4 is a 32-bit address, whereas IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal
address. IPv6 provides a large address space, and it contains a simple header as compared to IPv4.

It provides transition strategies that convert IPv4 into IPv6, and these strategies are as follows:

o Dual stacking: It allows us to have both the versions, i.e., IPv4 and IPv6, on the same device.
o Tunneling: In this approach, all the users have IPv6 communicates with an IPv4 network to
reach IPv6.
o Network Address Translation: The translation allows the communication between the hosts
having a different version of IP.

This hexadecimal address contains both numbers and alphabets. Due to the usage of both the numbers
and alphabets, IPv6 is capable of producing over 340 undecillion (3.4*1038) addresses.

IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal address made up of 8 sets of 16 bits each, and these 8 sets are separated
by a colon. In IPv6, each hexadecimal character represents 4 bits. So, we need to convert 4 bits to a
hexadecimal number at a time

35 | P a g e
Address format

The address format of IPv4:

The address format of IPv6:

The above diagram shows the address format of IPv4 and IPv6. An IPv4 is a 32-bit decimal address. It
contains 4 octets or fields separated by 'dot', and each field is 8-bit in size. The number that each field
contains should be in the range of 0-255. Whereas an IPv6 is a 128-bit hexadecimal address. It contains
8 fields separated by a colon, and each field is 16-bit in size.

Differences between IPv4 and IPv6

Ipv4 Ipv6

Address length IPv4 is a 32-bit address. IPv6 is a 128-bit address.

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Fields IPv4 is a numeric address that consists of 4 IPv6 is an alphanumeric address that
fields which are separated by dot (.). consists of 8 fields, which are
separated by colon.

Classes IPv4 has 5 different classes of IP address IPv6 does not contain classes of IP
that includes Class A, Class B, Class C, Class addresses.
D, and Class E.

Number of IP IPv4 has a limited number of IP addresses. IPv6 has a large number of IP
address addresses.

VLSM It supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet It does not support VLSM.
Mask). Here, VLSM means that Ipv4 converts
IP addresses into a subnet of different sizes.

Address It supports manual and DHCP configuration. It supports manual, DHCP, auto-
configuration configuration, and renumbering.

Address space It generates 4 billion unique addresses It generates 340 undecillion unique
addresses.

End-to-end In IPv4, end-to-end connection integrity is In the case of IPv6, end-to-end

connection unachievable. connection integrity is achievable.
integrity

Security features In IPv4, security depends on the application. In IPv6, IPSEC is developed for
This IP address is not developed in keeping security purposes.
the security feature in mind.

Address In IPv4, the IP address is represented in In IPv6, the representation of the IP

representation decimal. address in hexadecimal.

Fragmentation Fragmentation is done by the senders and Fragmentation is done by the senders
the forwarding routers. only.

Packet flow It does not provide any mechanism for It uses flow label field in the header
identification packet flow identification. for the packet flow identification.

Checksum field The checksum field is available in IPv4. The checksum field is not available in
IPv6.

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Transmission IPv4 is broadcasting. On the other hand, IPv6 is
scheme multicasting, which provides efficient
network operations.

Encryption and It does not provide encryption and It provides encryption and
Authentication authentication. authentication.

Number of octets It consists of 4 octets. It consists of 8 fields, and each field

contains 2 octets. Therefore, the total
number of octets in IPv6 is 16.

‘What is IP?

Here, IP stands for internet protocol. It is a protocol defined in the TCP/IP model used for sending
the packets from source to destination. The main task of IP is to deliver the packets from source to the
destination based on the IP addresses available in the packet headers. IP defines the packet structure
that hides the data which is to be delivered as well as the addressing method that labels the datagram
with a source and destination information.

An IP protocol provides the connectionless service, which is accompanied by two transport protocols,
i.e., TCP/IP and UDP/IP, so internet protocol is also known as TCP/IP or UDP/IP.

The first version of IP (Internet Protocol) was IPv4. After IPv4, IPv6 came into the market, which has
been increasingly used on the public internet since 2006.

History of Internet Protocol

The development of the protocol gets started in 1974 by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf. It is used in
conjunction with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), so they together named the TCP/IP.

The first major version of the internet protocol was IPv4, which was version 4. This protocol was
officially declared in RFC 791 by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in 1981.

After IPv4, the second major version of the internet protocol was IPv6, which was version 6. It was
officially declared by the IETF in 1998. The main reason behind the development of IPv6 was to replace
IPv4. There is a big difference between IPv4 and IPv6 is that IPv4 uses 32 bits for addressing, while
IPv6 uses 128 bits for addressing.

Difference between JDK, JRE, and JVM

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Function

The main function of the internet protocol is to provide addressing to the hosts, encapsulating the data
into a packet structure, and routing the data from source to the destination across one or
more IP networks. In order to achieve these functionalities, internet protocol provides two major things
which are given below.

An internet protocol defines two things:

o Format of IP packet
o IP Addressing system

What is an IP packet?

Before an IP packet is sent over the network, two major components are added in an IP packet,
i.e., header and a payload.

An IP header contains lots of information about the IP packet which includes:

o Source IP address: The source is the one who is sending the data.
o Destination IP address: The destination is a host that receives the data from the sender.
o Header length
o Packet length
o TTL (Time to Live): The number of hops occurs before the packet gets discarded.

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 o Transport protocol: The transport protocol used by the internet protocol, either it can be TCP or
UDP.

There is a total of 14 fields exist in the IP header, and one of them is optional.

Payload: Payload is the data that is to be transported.

How does the IP routing perform?

IP routing is a process of determining the path for data so that it can travel from the source to the
destination. As we know that the data is divided into multiple packets, and each packet will pass
through a web of the router until it reaches the final destination. The path that the data packet follows
is determined by the routing algorithm. The routing algorithm considers various factors like the size of
the packet and its header to determine the efficient route for the data from the source to the
destination. When the data packet reaches some router, then the source address and destination
address are used with a routing table to determine the next hop's address. This process goes on until it
reaches the destination. The data is divided into multiple packets so all the packets will travel
individually to reach the destination.

For example, when an email is sent from the email server, then the TCP layer in this email server
divides the data into multiple packets, provides numbering to these packets and transmits them to the
IP layer. This IP layer further transmits the packet to the destination email server. On the side of the
destination server, the IP layer transmits these data packets to the TCP layer, and the TCP layer
recombines these data packets into the message. The message is sent to the email application.

What is IP Addressing?

An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to the computer which is connected to the internet. Each
IP address consists of a series of characters like 192.168.1.2. Users cannot access the domain name of
each website with the help of these characters, so DNS resolvers are used that convert the human-
readable domain names into a series of characters. Each IP packet contains two addresses, i.e., the IP
address of the device, which is sending the packet, and the IP address of the device which is receiving
the packet.

Types of IP addresses

IPv4 addresses are divided into two categories:

o Public address
o Private address

Public address

The public address is also known as an external address as they are grouped under the WAN addresses.
We can also define the public address as a way to communicate outside the network. This address is
used to access the internet. The public address available on our computer provides the remote access to
our computer. With the help of a public address, we can set up the home server to access the internet.
This address is generally assigned by the ISP (Internet Service Provider).

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Key points related to public address are:

o The scope of the public address is global, which means that we can communicate outside the
network.
o This address is assigned by the ISP (Internet Service Provider).
o It is not available at free of cost.
o We can get the Public IP by typing on Google "What is my IP".

Private address

A private address is also known as an internal address, as it is grouped under the LAN addresses. It is
used to communicate within the network. These addresses are not routed on the internet so that no
traffic can come from the internet to this private address. The address space for the private address is
allocated using InterNIC to create our own network. The private addresses are assigned to mainly
those computers, printers, smartphones, which are kept inside the home or the computers that are kept
within the organization. For example, a private address is assigned to the printer, which is kept inside
our home, so that our family member can take out the print from the printer.

If the computer is assigned with a private address, then the devices available within the local network
can view the computer through the private ip address. However, the devices available outside the local
network cannot view the computer through the private IP address, but they can access the computer if
they know the router's public address. To access the computer directly, NAT (Network Address
Translator) is to be used.

Key points related to private address are:

o Its scope is local, as we can communicate within the network only.

o It is generally used for creating a local area network.
o It is available at free of cost.
o We can get to know the private IP address by simply typing the "ipconfig" on the command
prompt.

HTTP vs HTTPS

What is HTTP?

An HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The HTTP protocol provides communication between
different communication systems. When the user makes an HTTP request on the browser, then the
webserver sends the requested data to the user in the form of web pages. In short, we can say that the
HTTP protocol allows us to transfer the data from the server to the client.

An HTTP is an application layer protocol that comes above the TCP layer. It has provided some standard
rules to the web browsers and servers, which they can use to communicate with each other.

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An HTTP is a stateless protocol as each transaction is executed separately without having any
knowledge of the previous transactions, which means that once the transaction is completed between
the web browser and the server, the connection gets lost.

What is HTTPS?

The full form of HTTPS is Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. The HTTP protocol does not provide the
security of the data, while HTTP ensures the security of the data. Therefore, we can say that HTTPS is a
secure version of the HTTP protocol. This protocol allows transferring the data in an encrypted form.
The use of HTTPS protocol is mainly required where we need to enter the bank account details. The
HTTPS protocol is mainly used where we require to enter the login credentials. In modern browsers
such as chrome, both the protocols, i.e., HTTP and HTTPS, are marked differently. To provide
encryption, HTTPS uses an encryption protocol known as Transport Layer Security, and officially, it is
referred to as a Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). This protocol uses a mechanism known as asymmetric
public key infrastructure, and it uses two different keys which are given below:

o Private key: This key is available on the web server, which is managed by the owner of a
website.

It decrypts the information which is encrypted by the public key.

o Public key: This key is available to everyone. It converts the data into an encrypted form.

Main difference between the HTTP and HTTPS

The major difference between the HTTP and HTTPS is the SSL certificate. The HTTPS protocol is an
extended version of the HTTP protocol with an additional feature of security.

This additional feature of security is very important for those websites which transmit sensitive data
such as credit card information.

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The HTTPS protocol is secured due to the SSL protocol. The SSL protocol encrypts the data which the
client transmits to the server. If someone tries to steal the information which is being communicated
between the client and the server, then he/she would not be able to understand due to the encryption.
This is the main difference between the HTTP and HTTPS that the HTTP does not contain SSL, whereas
the HTTPS contains SSL that provides secure communication between the client and the server.

Which is better, HTTP or HTTPS?

Till now, we read that the HTTPS is better than HTTP because it provides security. Sometimes our
website does not contain an e-commerce page that requires sensitive data; in that case, we can switch
to the HTTP protocol. Despite the security, HTTPS also provides SEO. So, we do need to put more effort
into boosting our SEO.

HTTP vs HTTPS performance

The speed of HTTP is faster than the HTTPS as the HTTPS contains SSL protocol, while HTTPS does not
contain an SSL protocol. This additional feature of SSL in HTTPS makes the page loading slower.

Differences between HTTP and HTTPS

The following are the differences between the HTTP and HTTPS:

o Protocol

The HTTP protocol stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, whereas the HTTPS stands for Hypertext
Transfer Protocol Secure.

o Security

The HTTP protocol is not secure protocol as it does not contain SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), which
means that the data can be stolen when the data is transmitted from the client to the server. Whereas,
the HTTPS protocol contains the SSL certificate that converts the data into an encrypted form, so no
data can be stolen in this case as outsiders do not understand the encrypted text.

o Port numbers

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The HTTP transmits the data over port number 80, whereas the HTTPS transmits the data over 443 port
number. Under the documentation issued by Tim Berners-Lee, he stated that "if the port number is not
specified, then it will be considered as HTTP".

When RFC 1340 was announced, then the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) provided port number
80 to the HTTP. When the new RFC was released in the year 1994, the HTTPS is assigned with a port
number 443.

o Layers

The HTTP protocol works on the application layer while the HTTPS protocol works on the transport
layer. As we know that the responsibility of the transport layer is to move the data from the client to the
server, and data security is a major concern. HTTPS operates in the transport layer, so it is wrapped
with a security layer.

o SSL Certificates

When we want our websites to have an HTTPS protocol, then we need to install the signed SSL
certificate. The SSL certificates can be available for both free and paid service. The service can be
chosen based on business needs.

The HTTP does not contain any SSL certificates, so it does not decrypt the data, and the data is sent in
the form of plain text.

o SEO Advantages

The SEO advantages are provided to those websites that use HTTPS as GOOGLE gives the preferences
to those websites that use HTTPS rather than the websites that use HTTP.

o Online Transactions

If we are running an online business, then it becomes necessary to have HTTPS. If we do not use the
HTTPS in an online business, then the customers would not purchase as they are scared that their data
can be stolen by the outsiders.

Let's understand the differences in a tabular form.

HTTP HTTPS

The full form of HTTP is the Hypertext The full form of HTTPS is Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure.
Transfer Protocol.

It is written in the address bar as http://. It is written in the address bar as https://.

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The HTTP transmits the data over port The HTTPS transmits the data over port number 443.
number 80.

It is unsecured as the plain text is sent, It is secure as it sends the encrypted data which hackers cannot
which can be accessible by the hackers. understand.

It is mainly used for those websites that It is a secure protocol, so it is used for those websites that
provide information like blog writing. require to transmit the bank account details or credit card
numbers.

It is an application layer protocol. It is a transport layer protocol.

It does not use SSL. It uses SSL that provides the encryption of the data.

Google does not give the preference to the Google gives preferences to the HTTPS as HTTPS websites are
HTTP websites. secure websites.

The page loading speed is fast. The page loading speed is slow as compared to HTTP because of
the additional feature that it supports, i.e., security.

RJ Cable

RJ abbreviated for the Registered Jack. It used as a medium in telecommunications or network

interface. It enables network devices to connect voice and data equipment. It is mainly used to connect
different types of data equipment and telecommunication media to take services offered by the local
services provider to exchange data for longer distances and shorter exchange carriers. These RJ cables
are categorised on the basis of structure and functions, such as size, PIN number, and their reliability on
different devices.

Types of RJ

There are following types of RJ cable used in telephone line and to connect and share data among the
connected systems.

o RJ11
o RJ11-W
o RJ14
o RJ21RJ25
o RJ45
o RJ48
o RJ61

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RJ11

It stands for the Registered Jack11, containing a four-wire or six-wire telephone-type connector to
connect telephones to wall plates. However, it supports up to six-wire; most of the old wired telephone
lines use twisted-pair cables with four wires to connect to ISPs (Internet Service providers).

RJ11-W

It is the RJ11-W, where the W denotes the wall mount. It is an extended version of the RJ11. It is used
to create bridge connections to the telephone lines with various wall mount functionalities.

RJ14

It is a standard connector that uses 6P4C, i.e., six positions, four contacts modular connector. It is
similar to RJ11 except that it uses two telephone cable lines and can be used as a modem connector in
a computer.

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RJ21

It is a registered jack 21 designed with 50 conductors in such a way that it can handle 25 telephone
lines simultaneously. It is mostly used in wide networks to operate in an organization with multiple
switches and devices.

RJ25

It is a standard connector RJ25 that uses a 6P6C, six positions, six contacts modular connector. These
modular plugs are used to connect three lines of telephone cable connectors.

RJ45

It is a widely used type of registered jack connector in Ethernet cables or network devices. It is similar
to the telephone jack or connector for sharing the data over the local area network. The shape of RJ45
cable or Ethernet cable is wider than the telephone jack or RJ11, 14, 21 and 25. It is used to create a
connection with both shielded twisted pair (STP) and unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling in the star
topology of the Ethernet network. RJ45 connectors are usually with 8P8C that means eight positions,
eight contacts modular connectors with separate twisted pair for connecting computer and telephone
lines, wall plates, patch panels and other networking devices.

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RJ48

It is a type of registered jack connector that uses a twisted wire pair of cables and an eight-pin modular
jack for data communication interfaces. The RJ48 uses the same type of plug and socket as we used in
the RJ45 connector, but the RJ48 uses a different type of pin-out, where one pair of pins is used to
transmit the signal, another pair of pins is used for receiving the signal, another pair of pins is used for
draining the signal, and one more pair of pins is left unused. The RJ48 cable is divided into three parts
such as the RJ48-C, used for a surface mount like T1 lines and requires 1, 2, 4, and 5 pins. The RJ48-S
uses 56 kbps for digital lines of wall mount that use pins 1, 2, 7, and 8. The RJ48-X is used for complex
troubleshooting jack requiring 1, 2, 4 and 5 pins.

RJ61

It is the same as RJ11, but it uses 8P8C connector that means it has eight positions and eight
conductors modular to connect with twisted-pair cables in the network devices.

Difference between RJ45 and RJ11

Key Differences RJ45 RJ11

Size The size of the RJ45 cable is wider. The size of the RJ11 is smaller.

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Connected wires It has eight separate wires. It has four connected wires.

Usage It is used with Ethernet cable as well as It is used in the telephone cable lines
telephone lines. such as single, double or triple.

Supported The transferring speed of data up to 10 The transferring speed of the data in RJ11
Bandwidth Gbps over the Ethernet cable. is up to 24 Mbps.

Connector It uses an 8P8C connector, where eight It uses a 6P4C connector, where six
positions eight contacts modular. positions four contacts modular.

Characteristics of the RJ Cable:

1. It can work with configuring mounting surfaces for connecting voice and data equipment.
2. It is used with different telephone lines to share data over the registered jack connector.
3. There are many institutional academies, large organization, offices use RJ11, RJ12, RJ25, etc.,
because it can connect multiple telephone lines simultaneously.
4. It is also used to connect multiple computers using the Ethernet cable to share data over the
local area network.
5. It can connect to cross-connections for more than two systems.

Advantages of the RJ Cable:

1. It is easy to install and configured with different devices.
2. It is a reliable cable, and the connection speed with the telecommunication interface is high.

Disadvantage of the RJ Cable:

1. It is only used for the shortest distance to connect with telecommunication devices.
2. Today most devices are wireless, so the use of registered jacks is becoming obsolete.
3. It has the limited mobility of the wire.

Modem vs. Router | Difference between Modem and Router

A modem is a box-type device that connects your home/office network directly to the internet. The
router is also a box-type device that enables multiple computer systems (either wired or wireless) to
simultaneously use the internet. Nowadays, both the devices are integrated and usually provided by
the ISP(Internet Service Provider) when we take the new internet plan. But to get the internet
connection for our home/office network, we need both modem and router either integrated or
individual. Although most of the time people get confused to identify both the devices, both devices
have two different roles on a network that we will know on this topic. In this topic, we will understand
the difference between the modem and router, but before understanding the main differences, we will

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first understand what Modem and Router are, their features, how they work, and what feature makes
them different.

What is a Modem?

o A modem is a device that modulates or demodulates the signal. It maintains a dedicated

connection with the ISP to get the internet connection for home or business.

o It acts as a bridge between the internet/telephone line and the computer.

o The reason to use the modem for an internet connection is that both the internet and the
computer take two different signals. It means that the internet sends the analog signal, but the
computer system can only understand the digital signal. So, we need a device that can convert
an analog signal to a digital signal and vice versa. To do this, we need a modem.
o It modulates the incoming analog signal from the internet to digital signal and directs it to the
computer, and vice versa.
o Usually, we get the modem from the ISP only when we take a new internet plan.

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 o It also performs data compression, error correction and controls the flow of information. It
speed-up the process of transmission of data by grouping the data and send it in one go.

How does modem work?

As you must have understood till now that modem is responsible for modulating and demodulating the
signal. The working principle of the modem is based on the same process.

The modem is placed between the telephone line and the computer system or router. It connects the
devices with the ethernet port given in it. It connects the ISP(internet service provider) to the home
network directly for the single PC. Or it is connected with the router to connect with multiple devices.

The below diagram is converting the incoming analog signal coming from telephone-lines/optical fiber to
a digital signal and sending it to the PC. Without a modem, we cannot connect to the internet.

Types of Modem

The modem can be of various types based on data transmission and how it is installed. These types are
given below:

1. External Modem:
o The external modem is connected outside the computer system using a serial cable.
o The installation is very easy, and it also provides a high data transmission rate.
o It is expensive but still used due to its high-speed data transmission in offices, mostly to avoid
interruption in network connectivity.

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2. Internal Modem:
o As its name suggests, the internal modem is installed over a PC's motherboard, termed as the
internal modem.
o It looks similar to an electronic circuit and mounted into an expansion slot of the motherboard.
o The installation is complex, and its data transmission speed is also slow; hence it is used for the
dedicated computer in homes/ or small spaces.

3. Wireless Modem
o Wireless modems are connected to the computer systems without any cable, and most people
use these modems for their personal use.
o These modems use radio frequencies to transmit the data through the air and also provides
good transmission speed.

4. Dial-up Modem
o Dial-up modem establishes the internet connection by connecting the ISP to the computer using
the conventional telephone line.
o It uses a PSTN facility (Public Switched telephone network) and provides a transmission speed
of 56kb/sec.

5. Cable Modem
o The cable modem is known as the broadband device as it allows the computer to communicate
with ISP over a landline connection.
o It is connected with the landline connection using the coaxial cable and with the computer using
the ethernet.

6. DSL Modem
o DSL stands for Digital Subscriber line that allows the transmission of data over the normal
telephone line.
o It provides a high data transmission speed, hence widely used in offices/homes.
o It can be used to connect to a computer or router to provide the internet connection through the
ethernet port or USB port.
o The DSL modems are of two types:
o ADSL Modem
o SDSL Modem

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7. Satellite Modem
o Satellite modems are expensive modems and do not require any telephone connection for the
internet.
o It uses satellite technology to send or receive the data.
o The speed of the modem is comparatively slower than DSL or cable Modem.

8. Half-duplex Modem
o As the name suggests, it allows transmitting the data in one direction only at a time.
o It means if it is receiving the signal from one end, at that time, it will stop receiving the signal at
another end. Once the transmission of one end is completed, then only the other end can
transmit the data.

9. Full Duplex Modem

o The full-duplex modems can transmit the data from both ends at the same time.
o

o It means it can receive the data from one end and the other end simultaneously without any
interruption.

10. Four-wire Modem

o It splits the pair of wires for incoming and outgoing data carriers.
o With this split, it can transmit the same frequency on both ends.

11. Two-wire Modem

o It uses a pair of wires hence called two-wire modems. Only these two wires are used for
incoming and outgoing carriers.

Functions of Modem

There are mainly two functions that a modem performs, which are given below:

o Modulate and demodulate the electrical signal from analog to digital and digital to analog.
o Provide a secure connection to protect against line overload and other connection problems.

Advantages of Modems

o The modem enables us to use the internet connection to connect with the entire world.
o Speed is dependent on the cost of the modem.

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What is a Router?

As its name suggests, the router is a networking device responsible for routing the data packets from
source to destination over a network. It distributes or routes the internet connection from the
modem to all the networking devices, either wired or wireless, such as PC, Laptop, Mobile
phone, tablet, etc. It also enables multiple devices to communicate with each other over the same
network.

In the early days, there were only single computer systems in homes. Nowadays, multiple devices need
the internet to work on, so to provide internet connectivity to all the available devices within the
home/office, we need routers.

The routers are mainly two types; Wired and Wireless.

In a wired router, we need an ethernet cable to connect with it for the internet connection. Whereas, in
a wireless router, we don't need any cable, and with the help of Wi-fi technology, we can connect our
networking devices with it.

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It also provides us the security features and makes our devices secure over the given network form any
threat.

How does a router work?

o A router first connects the modem to other devices to allow communication between these
devices and the internet.
o Router routes/transmit the data packets with the defined IP address from one network to
another or within a network. It does it by providing a local IP address to each device over the
internet; it ensures the right destination so that data reach the right place rather than lost within
the network.
o It finds out the best and fastest path and then sends data packets from that path to the
network's devices.
o It works similar to the delivery package that has a defined address so that it can reach the right
recipient only.

The function of a Router

o The main function of a router is to keep the network up & to run smoothly.
o To do this, they connect computers and other networking devices such as Mobile, tablets,
printers, etc., to communicate with each other.

Types of Router

There are different types of the router; some popular types are given below:

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1. Wireless Router
o Wireless routers are the most commonly used routers in offices and homes as they don't need
any wire or cable to connect with networking devices.
o It provides a secure connection, and only authenticated users can access the network using the
id & password.
o It can be accessed by the n number of users within the specified range.

2. Wired Router/Broadband Router

o As its name suggests, it requires a wire or cable to connect to the network devices.
o Such routers are used mostly in schools or small offices to connect the PCs with the Ethernet
cable.
o It also has a Wi-fi access point, and a mobile phone can be connected to it using the VOIP
(Voice-over-Internet Protocol) technology.
o It is connected to the ADSL modems to take the transmission data from the modem and
distribute it to a further network.

3. Edge Router
o Edge router can be either Wired/Wireless types that transmit the data packet between two or
more networks, not within a network.
o These routers are placed at the edge of networks, hence called Edge router, and connect with
ISP or another network in an organization.
o The main task of the edge router is to maintain smooth communication between the networks.

4. Core Router
o The core routers are also wired/wireless routers, which distribute the data packets within a
network, not between two networks.
o These are designed to become the backbone of a network and allow the heavy transfer of data.

5. Virtual Router
o This software allows the computers and servers to operate like routers and share data packets
similar to the physical ones.
o These are more flexible than the physical, as they can be scaled up as per the business
requirement.

Advantages of Router

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 o The wireless routers are mostly used that enable most of the networking devices to connect
easily at any time, without the worry of a bunch of wires.
o It can connect with the different architecture of networks such as Ethernet cable, Wi-fi, or
WLAN.
o It provides highly secures network access with password protection.
o It reduces the network traffic with the help of the collision feature.
o It provides data packets to the correct destination with the best route using the routing table
and intelligence.

Difference chart between Modem and Router

Parameters Modem Router

Definition A modem is a device that modulates and The router is a networking device that
demodulates the electrical signal and maintains enables multiple devices to connect to
a dedicated connection between the internet wired or wireless networks.
and home/office network.

Operating It works on the data link layer of the OSI It works on the physical, data-link,
Layer of OSI model. and network layers of the OSI model.
model.

How does it It acts like a signal modulate and demodulator, It routes the data packets from one
work? which means it modulates the electrical signal source to a defined destination by
to a digital signal and sends it to a PC or following the routing table. It enables
computer, demodulates the signal from digital multiple network devices to connect
to analog, and sends it to the internet. over the given network.

Security The modem transmits the data without any The router provides complete security
authentication; hence it is not secure. with passwords and checks each data
packet before transmitting it over a
given network.

Cable Used RJ45 to connect with router, and RJ11 to RJ45 cable is used.
connect with a telephone line.

Placed A modem is placed between the telephone line A router is placed between the modem
and computer or router. and other networking devices.

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Internet It is essential to have a modem to access the We can access the internet without
Access internet as it connects the ISP to our PC. using a router.

Main Purpose It takes the requested information from the It distributes the information from the
internet to the computer. modem to the given network.

Number of It can directly be connected to only one device Routers can connect to multiple network
connected that can be either a PC or a router. devices using ethernet cable or Wi-Fi.
devices

Ports Two ports are used to connect the telephone The number of Ports varies, and at
line/ISP and one for the router. minimum, it can have 2 to 4 ports.

Conclusion

After discussing a lot about the modems and routers, we can conclude that to have an internet
connection in the office/home, we need a modem, but it will be just for a single networking device. So,
to distribute this data to other networking devices, we need routers. Nowadays, both devices come
together in integrated form, it means modem and router in a single device, so we don't need two
different devices.

Switch Vs. Router | Difference between Switch and Router

The switch and router are the two essential components of a network. Although both are the connecting
devices in a network, and sometimes people assume them as the same, both have different
functionality. In this topic, we will see how the switch and router are differentiated from each other.

What is a Switch?

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 o A switch is a networking device, which provides the facility to share the information & resources
by connecting different network devices, such as computers, printers, and servers, within a
small business network.
o With the help of a switch, the connected devices can share the data & information and
communicate with each other.

o Without a switch, we cannot build a small business network and cannot connect devices within a
building or campus.

Types of Switch

There are mainly two types of switches in the network, which are given below:

o Unmanaged Switches
The unmanaged switches are mainly used for basic connectivity. These are mostly used in small
networks or wherever only few more ports are required, such as at home, in a lab, or in a
conference room. In unmanaged switches, there is no requirement for any configuration, which
means by just plugging in, they will work.
o Managed Switches
Managed switches are more secure than unmanaged switch, and provide other features and
flexibility because we can easily configure them to custom-fit our network. Hence, we can have

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 the greater control, and can also better protect our network and improve service quality for
those who access the network.

How does a switch work?

As we know, each networking device contains a unique MAC (Media Access Control) address.
When a device or computer sends an IP packet to another device, then switch put the IP packet with
source MAC address and destination MAC address, and encapsulate it with a Frame, and then send it to
another device.

When Frame reaches the destination device, it is stripped, and the device gets the IP packets and
reaches only that device, which matches the entered destination MAC address.

Advantages of Switch
o It enhances the available bandwidth of the network.
o It can be directly connected to the workstations or devices.
o Enhances the performance of the network.
o Networks with switches have less frame collision, and it is because switches develop the collision
domain for each network.
o It helps in reducing the workload on the individual host such as PCs.

What is a Router?

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 o A router is a networking device used to connect multiple switches and their corresponding
networks to build a large network. These switches and their corresponding networks may be in a
single location or different locations.

o A router is an intelligent device and responsible for routing the data packets from source to
destination over a network. It also distributes or routes the internet connection from
modem to all the networking devices either wired or wireless, such as PC, Laptop,
Mobile phone, tablet, etc
o It mainly performs two functions;
o Creating and maintaining the local area network,
o Managing the entering & leaving data.
o The router connects multiple networks and allows the networked devices & users to access the
internet.
o It works on the network layer & route the data packets through the shortest path across the
network.

Working of a Router
o Within a home or office, we have various networked devices such as PC, tablets, printers, etc.,
and with the router, these devices can be connected to the internet and form a network. A
router first connects the modem to other devices to allow communication between these devices

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 and the internet.

o Router routes/transmit the data packets with the defined IP address from one network to
another or within a network. It does it by providing a local IP address to each device over the
internet; it ensures the right destination so that data reach the right place rather than lost within
the network.
o It finds out the best and fastest path and then sends data packets from that path to the devices
connected within the network.
o It works similar to the delivery package with a defined address to reach the right recipient only.

Types of Router

There are mainly two types of the router, which are given below:

1. Wireless Router

o Wireless routers are the most commonly used routers in offices and homes as they don't need
any wire or cable to connect with networking devices.
o It provides a secure connection, and only authenticated users can access the network using the
id & password.
o Using wireless router, internet can be accessed by the n number of users within the specified
range.

2. Wired Router/Broadband Router

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 o As its name suggests, it requires a wire or cable to connect to the network devices.
o Such routers are mostly used in schools or small offices to connect the PCs with the Ethernet
cable.
o It also has a Wi-fi access point, and a mobile phone can be connected to it using the VOIP
(Voice-over-Internet Protocol) technology.
o It is connected to the ADSL modems to take the transmission data from the modem and
distribute it to a further network.

Advantages of Router
o The wireless routers are mostly used that enable most networking devices to connect easily at
any time, without the worry of a bunch of wires.
o It can connect with the different architecture of the network, such as Ethernet cable, Wi-fi, or
WLAN.
o It provides highly secure network access with password protection.
o It reduces the network traffic with the help of the collision feature.
o It provides data packets to the correct destination with the best route using the routing table
and intelligence.

Key Differences between the Switch & Router

o The main function of a switch is to connect the end devices such as computers, printers, etc.,
whereas the main function of a router is to connect two different networks.
o A switch works on the data link layer of the OSI model; on the other hand, a router works on
the network layer of the OSI model.
o The switch aims to determine the destination address of the received IP packet and forward it to
the destination address. On the other hand, the router's main purpose is to find the smallest and
best routes for the packets to reach the destination, determined using the routing table.
o There are various switching techniques such as circuit switching, packet switching, and message
switching, which are used by a switch. In comparison, a router uses two routing techniques,
which are adaptive routing and non-adaptive routing techniques.
o A switch stores MAC address in the lookup table or CAM table to get the source and destination
addresses. In contrast, routers store the IP addresses in the routing table.

Difference Chart between Switch and Router

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Switch Router

It connects multiple networked devices in the network. It connects multiple switches & their corresponding
networks.

It works on the data link layer of the OSI model. It works on the network layer of the OSI model.

It is used within a LAN. It can be used in LAN or MAN.

A switch cannot perform NAT or Network Address A router can perform Network Address Translation.
Translation.

The switch takes more time while making complicated A router can take a routing decision much faster
routing decisions. than a switch.

It provides only port security. It provides security measures to protect the network
from security threats.

It comes in the category of semi-Intelligent devices. It is known as an Intelligent network device.

It works in either half or full-duplex transmission mode. It works in the full-duplex transmission mode.
However, we can change it manually to work on
half-duplex mode.

It sends information from one device to another in the It sends information from one network to another
form of Frames (for L2 switch) and the form of packets network in the form of data packets.
(for L3 switch).

Switches can only work with the wired network. Routers can work with both wired & wireless
networks.

Switches are available with different ports, such as 8, A router contains two ports by default, such as Fast
16, 24, 48, and 64. Ethernet Port. But we can also add the serial ports
explicitly.

It uses the CAM (Content Addressable Memory) table It uses the routing table to get the best route for
for the source and destination MAC address. the destination IP.

Conclusion

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As per the above discussion, we can conclude that both are important devices for setting up a network
and both have their own significance in the network. However, to set up a home-based network and
connect devices, we need a switch, and to connect two networks, we need a router.

What is USB?

USB or Universal Serial Bus is a connecting interface standard that enables the computer or
other electronic devices to connect and communicate with other peripheral devices such
as Keyboard, MIC, Mouse, flash drive, etc.

The USB connectors can also be used as the power transmitting cables such as to charge the mobile
phone or tablets and these connectors are replacing the other traditional types of charger cables.

The first USB standard was released in the year 1996, and today there are four versions of USB
specifications, which are USB 1.x, USB 2.x, USB 3.x, and USB 4.

USB 2.0

USB 2.0 is USB standard and is also known as the high-speed USB. It was released in April 2000.
Almost all the devices with USB compatibilities support USB 2.0.

The devices that use USB 2.0 can transfer the data at a maximum speed of 480Mbps, which is faster
than the USB 1.1 standard and slower than the USB 3.0 standard.

The USB 2.0 standard provides support for the USB Mini-A, USB Mini-B, and USB Mini AB
connectors.

USB 3.0

USB 3.0 is another USB standard, which was released in the year 2008. It is known as
the Superspeed USB. Most of the new electronic devices and computers support this USB standard to
enable faster communication between the devices.

Devices that support & use USB 3.0 can transmit the data at a maximum speed of 5Gbps. It provides
much faster data transfer compared to the USB 2.0 standard. The USB 3.0 has two updated versions,
which are USB 3.1 and USB 3.2.

There are various types of USB 3.0 connectors, which allow connecting two devices together. In 3.0
standard, USB Type A, Type B, Micro-A, and Micro-B, are the supported connectors.

The USB 3.0 standards can be distinguished by their blue-colored inserts and also has a 3.0 logo
on them.

Main 5 factors to differentiate the USB2.0 and USB3.0

There are five major factors by which we can differentiate the USB 2.0 and USB 3.0, which are given
below:

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1. Physical Appearance
o In both USB 2.0 and USB 3.0, there are some physical differences, due to which anyone can
easily identify both of the standards. The USB2.0 connectors are of white & black colored inside,
whereas USB3.0 is usually of blue colored inside.
o The other physical difference is the number of connection wires. The USB 2.0 contains four
connector wires, which support half-duplex communication. On the other hand, the 3.0
standard contains a total of 9 wires.
o The five extra wires in USB 3.0 allow the two -ways or full-duplex communication and also
increases the bandwidth.

2. Speed
o The data transfer speed between both standards is one of the major differences. The data
transmission speed of USB 3.0 is extremely faster than USB 2.0, which makes it more suitable
for today's devices to enable high-speed data transfer.
o The transfer rate of USB 2.0 is a maximum of 480 Mbps(Megabytes per second). This rate is
very slow for the data transfer, but it is sufficient to connect peripheral devices such as
Keyboard, mouse, headset, etc.
o The data transfer rate of 3.0 standard is much higher(approx. 10 times) than 2.0 and can
transfer the data at the maximum rate of
o However, it's the theoretical number of speed and practically it depends on specific drives. Such
as the USB drive's speed depends on the speed of their flash memory.

3. Price
o The price is also the big factor to differentiate between both the standards. The products of USB
2.0 standards are less expensive than the products of USB 3.0 standards.
o USB 3.0 standard devices are much suitable if there is a requirement for high-speed data
transfer, but for general use, the 2.0 standard products are also good.

Note: We can use USB 3.0 drives with a 2.0 port; it will work fine but will work at the speed
of 2.0 only.
4. Power Management
o The power management of USB 3.0 standard is much efficient compared to the 2.0 standard.
o USB 3.0 provides efficient power management with increased power delivery. It provides power
usage upto 900mA, whereas the USB 2.0 standard provides power usages upto 500 mA, and
hence increases the total power delivery from 2.5 W to 4.5 W.

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 o It means the USB 3.0 devices can be charged faster. It also contains more power as per the
requirement and conserves that power when the device is at an idle state.

5. Compatibility

The USB 3.0 provides backward compatibility, which means, if it is connected to the 2.0 port, then the
drive works fine, but with the speed of 2.0 standard. And if it is connected to the 3.0 port, then the
speed will be higher.

Comparison chart between the USB 2.0 and USB 3.0

USB 2.0 USB 3.0

The transmission rate of USB 2.0 devices is The transmission rate of USB 3.0 devices is 5Gbps.
maximum of 480Mbps.

It allows half-duplex or one-way transmission only. It allows full-duplex or two-way communication.

It contains a total of 4 number of connector wires. It contains a total of 9 connector wires.

The price for a product with a USB 2.0 standard is The product with the USB 3.0 standard is costly
very less compared to 3.0. compared to 3.0.

The white & black blocks occur in USB 2.0. The blue-colored blocks occur in USB 3.0.

The cable length of USB 2.0 can be upto 5 meters. The cable length of USB 3.0 can be upto 3 meters.

It can provide maximum power output upto 500mA. It can provide better power efficiency and can provide
power usage upto 900mA.

Conclusion

In the above sections, we have discussed the differences between the USB 2.0 standards and 3.0. So,
now it is easy to make a selection between both the standards. As compared to 2.0, 3.0 is much
efficient in various aspects such as transfer speed and power management, but it is much costly. So, if
there is a requirement for high-speed data transfer and power management, we can choose USB 3.0
standard devices. But if we have a limited budget and for general use, we can choose the 2.0 standard.

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URI vs URL | Difference between URI and URL

While surfing the internet or checking any website, you may have encountered the words "URI" and
"URL" multiple times. These are the two important concepts of web and are mostly used
interchangeably. But they are not the same as each other; the main difference between URI and URL is
that URI can represent both URL and URN of a resource simultaneously, whereas URL can
only specify the address of the resource on the internet . In this topic, we will see URI and URL
individually and how both can be differentiated from each other.

What is URI?

A URI or Uniform Resource Identifier is a string identifier that refers to a resource on the internet. It
is a string of characters that is used to identify any resource on the internet using location, name, or
both.

A URI has two subsets; URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and URN (Uniform Resource
Number). If it contains only a name, it means it is not a URL. Instead of directly URI, we mostly see
the URL and URN in the real world.

A URI contains scheme, authority, path, query, and a fragment. Some most common URI
schemes are HTTP, HTTPs, ftp, Idap, telnet, etc.

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Syntax of URI

The Syntax of URI is given below:

1. scheme:[//authority]path[?query][#fragment]
o Scheme: The first component of URI is scheme that contain a sequence of characters that can
be any combination of letter, digit, plus sign, or hyphen (_), which is followed by a colon (:). The
popular schemes are http, file, ftp, data, and irc. The schemes should be registered with
IANA.
o Authority: The authority component is optional and preceded by two slashes (//). It contains
three sub-components:
o userinfo: It may contain a username and an optional password separated by a colon.
The sub-component is followed by the @ symbol.
o host: It contains either a registered name or an IP address. The IP address must be
enclosed within [] brackets.
o Port: Optional
o Path: It consists of a sequence of path segments separated by a slash(/). The URI always
specifies it; however, the specified path may be empty or of 0 lengths.
o Query: It is an optional component, which is preceded by a question mark(?). It contains a
query string of non-hierarchical data.
o Fragment: It is also an optional component, preceded by a hash(#) symbol. It consists of a
fragment identifier that provides direction to a secondary resource.

Some examples of URI

1. mailto:hey.Doe@example.com
2. news:comp.infosystems.www.servers.unix
3. urn:oasis:names:specification:docbook:dtd:xml:4.1.2

What is the URL?

A URL or Uniform Resource Locator is used to find the location of the resource on the web. It is a
reference for a resource and a way to access that resource. A URL always shows a unique resource, and
it can be an HTML page, a CSS document, an image, etc.

A URL uses a protocol for accessing the resource, which can be HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, etc.

It is mainly referred to as the address of the website, which a user can find in their address bars. An
example of an URL is given below:

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Note: All URLs can be URIs, but all URIs cannot be URLs. It is because a URI contains both
URL and URN and represent URL or URN, or both.

Syntax of URL

Each HTTP URL follow the syntax of its generic URI. Hence the syntax of the URL is also similar to the
syntax of URI. It is given below:

1. scheme:[//authority]path[?query][#fragment]

The above URL is made up of the following components:

o Scheme: The URL's first component is a scheme, which represents a protocol that a browser
must need to use to request the resource. The commonly used protocols for websites are HTTP
or HTTPS.
o Authority: The authority includes two sub-components, domain name and Port, separated
by a colon. The domain name can be anything, the registered name of the resource
like javatpoint.com, and port is the technical gate to access the resource on a webserver. The
port number 80 is used for HTTP and 443 is used for HTTPS.
o Path: The path indicates the complete path to the resource on the webserver. It can be
like /software/htp/index.html.
o Query String: It is the string that contains the name and value pair. If it is used in a URL, it
follows the path component and gives the information. Such
as "?key1=value1&key2=value2".
o Fragment: It is also an optional component, preceded by a hash(#) symbol. It consists of a
fragment identifier that provides direction to a secondary resource.

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Key differences between URI and URL

o URI contains both URL and URN to identify the name and location or both of a resource; in
contrast, URL is a subset of URI and only identifies the location of the resource.
o The example of URI is urn:isbn:0-476-27557-4, whereas the example of URL,
is https://google.com.
o The URI can be used to find resources in HTML, XML, and other files also, whereas, URL can
only be used to locate a web page.
o Each URL can be a URI, whereas all URIs cannot always be URLs.

Difference chart between URI and URL

URI URL

URI is an acronym for Uniform Resource Identifier. URL is an acronym for Uniform Resource
Locator.

URI contains two subsets, URN, which tell the name, and URL, URL is the subset of URI, which tells the only
which tells the location. location of the resource.

All URIs cannot be URLs, as they can tell either name or All URLs are URIs, as every URL can only
location. contain the location.

A URI aims to identify a resource and differentiate it from A URL aims to find the location or address of
other resources by using the name of the resource or location a resource on the web.
of the resource.

An example of a URI can be ISBN 0-486-35557-4. An example of an URL is

https://www.javatpoint.com.

It is commonly used in XML and tag library files such as JSTL It is mainly used to search the webpages on
and XSTL to identify the resources and binaries. the internet.

The URI scheme can be protocol, designation, specification, or The scheme of URL is usually a protocol such
anything. as HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, etc.

Conclusion

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As per the above discussion, we can now differentiate between URI and URL. A URI is a sequence of
characters that identifies a web resource by location, name, or both available on the internet.
Whereas, URL is a sequence of characters that only identifies the location of a resource available on the
internet.

Difference between UTP and STP

Before going through the difference between UTP and STP cable, we need to learn the term twisted
pair cable. A twisted pair cable is a widely used cable for transmitting data and information over
certain distances. A twisted pair cable consists of two separate insulated copper wires that are twisted
together within a wrapping shield and run parallel with each other. Furthermore, it helps to reduce the
crosstalk or electromagnetic induction between the pair of wires. A twisted pair cable is divided into two
parts as STP and UTP.

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

UTP is an unshielded twisted pair cable used in computer and telecommunications mediums. Its
frequency range is suitable for transmitting both data and voice via a UTP cable. Therefore, it is widely
used in the telephone, computers, etc. It is a pair of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
noise generated by external interference. It is a wire with no additional shielding, like aluminium foil, to
protect its data from the exterior.

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Advantages of the UTP:
1. It is a less costly and less expensive unshielded wire from another network medium.
2. It is designed to reduce crosstalk, RFI, and EMI.
3. Its size is small, and hence the installation of the UTP is easier.
4. It is mostly useful for short-distance network connections like home and small organizations.
5. It is the most commonly used networking cable in the market. It is considered as faster copper-
based data transmission cable.
6. It is suitable for transmitting both data and voice via UTP cable.

Disadvantage of the UTP:

1. It can only be used in length segment up to 100 meters.
2. It has limited bandwidth for transmitting the data.
3. It does not provide a secure connection for data transmitting over the network.

STP (Shielded twisted pair):

A shielded twisted pair is a type of twisted pair cable that contains an extra wrapping foil or copper
braid jacket to protect the cable from defects like cuts, losing bandwidth, noise, and signal to the
interference. It is a cable that is usually used underground, and therefore it is costly than UTP. It
supports the higher data transmission rates across the long distance. We can also say it is a cable with
metal sheath or coating that surround each pair of the insulated conductor to protect the wire from
external users and prevent electromagnetic noise from penetrating.

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Features of Shielded twisted pair cable:
1. Frequency: It has higher frequency data transmission as compared to the UTP.
2. Thickness: It is a thick shielded twisted pair cable as it contains the wrapping of plastic material
to the copper conductor.
3. Grounding practices: The uses of shielded twisted pair cable are underground for a longer
distance.
4. Installation of the shielded wire is more difficult than the UTP (Unshielded twisted pair) cable.

Advantages of the STP cable

1. It has lower noise and attenuation than UTP.
2. It is shielded with a plastic cover that protects the STP cable from a harsh environment and
increases the data transmission rate.
3. It reduces the chances of crosstalk and protects from external interference.
4. A modular connection helps to terminate the connection of the STP cable.

Disadvantages of the STP cable

1. It is the most expensive wire from UTP cables.
2. It requires more maintenance to reduce the loss of data signals.
3. There is no segment improvement in length despite its thick and heavier connection.
4. It is used only as a grounded wire.

Difference between UTP and STP

Following are the differences of the UTP and STP, as follows:

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UTP STP

It is an unshielded twisted pair. It is a shielded twisted pair.

UTP cable is a twisted pair cable with wires that are It is enclosed within a foil or mesh shield.
twisted together.

The price of UTP is lower as compared to the STP. The price of STP is much costlier than UTP.

It does not require a grounding cable. It requires a grounding cable.

In UTP, the electromagnetic interference is more than the It reduces electromagnetic interference while
STP while transferring the signal to the transmission transferring the signal to the transmission media.
media.

UTP has high crosstalk. STP has low crosstalk.

Transferring speed of the data signal is slow as compared Transferring speed of the data signal is high as
to the STP. compared to the UTP.

Installation of UTP cables is easy as they are lighter, Installation of STP cable is quite difficult as
small in size, and flexible. compared to the UTP. Its size is heavy, bigger, and
stiffer.

It does not require much maintenance. It requires more maintenance.

UTP cables are noisier. STP cables are less noisy.

However, the UTP cable is used to establish the Generally, it is used to establish the connection for
connection within a short distance, like a home or small enterprises over a long distance.
industry.

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IP address

An IP address represents a unique address that distinguishes any device on the internet or any network
from another. IP or Internet Protocol defines the set of commands directing the setup of data
transferred through the internet or any other local network.

An IP address is the identifier that enables your device to send or receive data packets across the
internet. It holds information related to your location and therefore making devices available for two-
way communication. The internet requires a process to distinguish between different networks, routers,
and websites. Therefore, IP addresses provide the mechanism of doing so, and it forms an
indispensable part in the working of the internet. You will notice that most of the IP addresses are
essentially numerical. Still, as the world is witnessing a colossal growth of network users, the network
developers had to add letters and some addresses as internet usage grows.

An IP address is represented by a series of numbers segregated by periods(.). They are expressed in

the form of four pairs - an example address might be 255.255.255.255 wherein each set can range from
0 to 255.

IP addresses are not produced randomly. They are generated mathematically and are further assigned
by the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority), a department of the ICANN.

ICANN stands for Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. It is a non-profit corporation
founded in the US back in 1998 with an aim to manage Internet security and enable it to be available by
all.

How do IP addresses work?

Sometimes your device doesn't connect to your network the way you expect it to be, or you wish to
troubleshoot why your network is not operating correctly. To answer the above questions, it is vital to
learn the process with which IP addresses work.

Internet Protocol or IP runs the same manner as other languages, i.e., applying the set guidelines to
communicate the information. All devices obtain, send, and pass information with other associated
devices with the help of this protocol only. By using the same language, the computers placed anywhere
can communicate with one another.

The process of IP address works in the following way:

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 1. Your computer, smartphone, or any other Wi-Fi-enabled device firstly connects to a network that
is further connected to the internet. The network is responsible for giving your device access to
the internet.
2. While working from home, your device would be probably using that network provided by your
Internet Service Provider (ISP). In a professional environment, your device uses your company
network.
3. Your ISP is responsible to generate the IP address for your device.
4. Your internet request penetrates through the ISP, and they place the requested data back to
your device using your IP address. Since they provide you access to the internet, ISP's are
responsible for allocating an IP address to your computer or respective device.
5. Your IP address is never consistent and can change if there occurs any changes in its internal
environment. For instance, if you turn your modem or router on or off, it will change your IP
address. Or the user can also connect the ISP to change their IP address.
6. When you are out of your home or office, mainly if you travel and carry your device with you,
your computer won't be accessing your home IP address anymore. This is because you will be
accessing the different networks (your phone hotspot, Wi-Fi at a cafe, resort, or airport, etc.) to
connect the device with the internet. Therefore, your device will be allocated a different
(temporary) IP address by the ISP of the hotel or cafe.

Types of IP addresses

There are various classifications of IP addresses, and each category further contains some types.

Consumer IP addresses

Every individual or firm with an active internet service system pursues two types of IP addresses, i.e.,
Private IP (Internet Protocol) addresses and public IP (Internet Protocol) addresses. The public and
private correlate to the network area. Therefore, a private IP address is practiced inside a network,
whereas the other (public IP address) is practiced outside a network.

1. Private IP addresses

All the devices that are linked with your internet network are allocated a private IP address. It holds
computers, desktops, laptops, smartphones, tablets, or even Wi-Fi-enabled gadgets such as speakers,
printers, or smart Televisions. With the expansion of IoT (internet of things), the demand for private IP
addresses at individual homes is also seemingly growing. However, the router requires a method to
identify these things distinctly. Therefore, your router produces unique private IP addresses that act as
an identifier for every device using your internet network. Thus, differentiating them from one another
on the network.

2. Public IP addresses

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A public IP address or primary address represents the whole network of devices associated with it.
Every device included within with your primary address contains their own private IP address. ISP is
responsible to provide your public IP address to your router. Typically, ISPs contains the bulk stock of IP
addresses that they dispense to their clients. Your public IP address is practiced by every device to
identify your network that is residing outside your internet network.

Public IP addresses are further classified into two categories- dynamic and static.

o Dynamic IP addresses
As the name suggests, Dynamic IP addresses change automatically and frequently. With this
types of IP address, ISPs already purchase a bulk stock of IP addresses and allocate them in
some order to their customers. Periodically, they re-allocate the IP addresses and place the used
ones back into the IP addresses pool so they can be used later for another client. The foundation
for this method is to make cost savings profits for the ISP.
o Static IP addresses
In comparison to dynamic IP addresses, static addresses are constant in nature. The network
assigns the IP address to the device only once and, it remains consistent. Though most firms or
individuals do not prefer to have a static IP address, it is essential to have a static IP address for
an organization that wants to host its network server. It protects websites and email addresses
linked with it with a constant IP address.

Types of website IP addresses

The following classification is segregated into the two types of website IP addresses i.e., shared and
dedicated.

1. Shared IP addresses

Many startups or individual website makers or various SME websites who don't want to invest initially in
dedicated IP addresses can opt for shared hosting plans. Various web hosting providers are there in the
market providing shared hosting services where two or more websites are hosted on the same server.
Shared hosting is only feasible for websites that receive average traffic, the volumes are manageable,
and the websites themselves are confined in terms of the webpages, etc.

2. Dedicated IP addresses

Web hosting providers also provide the option to acquire a dedicated IP address. Undoubtedly dedicated
IP addresses are more secure, and they permit the users to run their File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server.
Therefore, it is easier to share and transfer data with many people within a business, and it also
provides the option of anonymous FTP sharing. Another advantage of a dedicated IP addresses it the
user can easily access the website using the IP address rather than typing the full domain name.

How to search for IP addresses

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The easiest method to find the public IP address of your router is to type "What is my IP address?" on
Google.com. Google will immediately display the results on the screen.

There are some third-party websites available on the internet that also provides the same information.
Those websites can access your public IP address because your router has requested to access their
information by visiting their website.

Below are the steps to find your private IP address in two commonly used platforms:

In Windows:

1. Open the command prompt by

typing the term 'cmd' (no quote marks)
in the Windows search panel.

2. The following window will

appear. Type "ipcon

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 fig" (without the quotes) to access the private IP address information.

3. It will display the following information.

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On a Mac:

1. Go to System Preferences
2. Click on the network option.

3. It will display the information regarding your private IP address.

IP address security threats

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Cybercriminals or digital crackers various ways to hack your IP address. The two commonly used
techniques include social engineering and online stalking.

Social engineering

Hackers can practice social engineering techniques to trick you into disclosing your device's IP address.
For example, they will connect you through email, Skype, or a similar instantaneous messaging app,
that accepts IP addresses to communicate and pass information. If you chat with these anonymous
people using these messaging applications, it is essential to note that they can get your IP address.
Cybercriminals can use a third-party tool named Skype Resolver, with the help of which they can locate
your IP address using your username.

Online stalking

Attackers can get crack your IP address by simply tracking your online activities. Any online activity can
disclose your IP address, i.e., from using an instant messaging app to playing online games to
discussing a topic on any digital websites and forums. Once they gain access to your IP address,
criminals can visit an IP address tracking website (whatismyipaddress.com), they will enter your IP
address there, and in no seconds, they can track your current location. They won't stop till this; they
can further cross-check it with other available information to verify whether the IP address is connected
with you particularly. Social networking sites such as instagram, LinkedIn, facebook are used to verify
the information of your location gathered by the attacker.

What is network security

includes crucial organization information, clients' personal data, and legal files that, if leaked out, could
lead to a big problem and data breach for the company. The security of data is only made achievable by
executing beneficial network security policies and techniques.

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Definition of network security

Network security is the security designed to protect the integrity of the network from unauthorized
access and threats. The network administrators are responsible for adopting various defensive measures
to guard their networks from possible security risks.

Computer networks are linked in daily transactions and communication within the government, private,
or corporates that needs security. The most common and straightforward strategy of protecting network
support is allocating it with a unique name and a corresponding password. The network security
consists of:

1. Protection: The user should be able to configure their devices and networks accurately.
2. Detection: The user must detect whether the configuration has changed or get a notification if
there is any problem in the network traffic.
3. Reaction: After detecting the problems, the user must respond to them and must return to a
protected position as quickly as possible.

How does network security work?

Network security works with multiple layers of protection at the edge and in between the network. All
the security layers execute some strategies and follow specified policies. Only the authorized users will
obtain access to the network resources, and the illegitimate users will be blocked from conducting
exploits and malicious activities.

There are different layers to analyze while addressing any network security for an association. Though
the attacks can occur at any layer in the network security model, all the network's constituent devices,
unlike hardware, software, and policies, must be composed in sync to approach each division.

The network security model is composed of three different controls: physical, technical, and
administrative. Let's cover the brief analysis of network security and will learn how each control works.

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1. Physical Network Security

Physical security networks are developed to restrict unauthorized users from accessing various physical
network devices, unlike routers, cabling cupboards, and so on. Every organization also requires checking
the controlled access, unlike locks, biometric passwords, and other components.

2. Technical Network Security

Technical security controls, safeguard the information, put on the network or transferred over, into, or
out of the network. Protection is duplex; it requires protecting information and devices from the
unofficial group, and it also needs to guard against unofficial exercises from workers.

3. Administrative Network Security

Administrative network security controls end-user behavior, including their authentication, level of
access, and how the IT staff of any organization implements reforms to its infrastructure. Administration
security includes various security policies and processes to its functioning.

Types of network security

Below given are some of the different methods that are commonly used in our day-to-day life to secure
computer networks:

1. Active Devices

Active security gadgets tackle the surplus traffic. For example, Firewalls, antivirus scanning tools, and
content filtering appliances are the most commonly used active devices.

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2. Passive Devices

Passive devices are used to recognize and block unwanted traffic, such as invasion detection devices.

3. Preventative Devices

Preventative devices are used to scan the networks and detect possible security threats. Penetration
testing appliances and vulnerability assessment devices are the common examples of Preventative
devices.

4. Unified Threat Management (UTM)

UTM devices act as all-in-one security tools. Firewalls, content filtering, web caching are the common
examples of Unified Threat Management.

5. NAC or Network Access Control

NAC is a technique for applying computer security networks at the most fundamental level. For instance,
the user could allow administrators full access to the network but deny access to particular confidential
files or restrict their system from connecting any network. It is a method that attempts to unite
endpoint security technology that supports network security enforcement.

6. Antivirus and Antimalware Software

Antivirus software's are designed to protect the system from a range of malware and malicious
software, including viruses, worms, ransomware, and Trojans. The best software scans the malware,
quarantines it and stops it before it causes any damage to the system.

7. Firewall Protection

A firewall acts as a defense barrier between your trusted internal networks and untrusted external
networks such as viruses, worms, Trojans, brute force attacks. A firewall could be of any form, i.e.,
software or hardware, unlike a router. Though both the method performs the same function, scanning
incoming network traffic to make sure it doesn't contain blacklisted data.

8. Virtual Private Networks

VPN supports the user in creating a secure and reliable private connection between the networks used
by his computer or device to another network across the Internet. It handles the encryption process and
uses other technologies to keep all your Internet activity safe and secure from attackers or
cybercriminals who may be sneaking around when you connect your device with any public Wi-Fi. For
instance, users working from home usually connect to the company's network via a VPN.

9. Content Filtering

Content filtering devices are used to filter offensive and nasty emails or web pages. This technique is
implemented as a part of firewalls as well as in computers in companies. The content filtering devices
generate the denial pop-up message displaying "Access Denied" if any unauthorized user attempts to
access any official web page or email.

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Content placed on the web is usually screened for obscene content or the content that spreads violence-
or may contain hate-oriented information. Some organizations also screen and eliminate shopping and
job-related content.

Content filtering can be classified in the below-given divisions: -

1. Web filtering
2. Scanning of Web sites or web pages
3. E-mail filtering
4. Screening of spam mails
5. Various objectionable content
6. INS or Intrusion Detection Systems

10. Intrusion Detection Systems

Intrusion Detection Systems or Intrusion Detection or Prevention Systems are the devices or the
applications that actively monitor the network for malicious activities, log information about those
activities, alert the company if the system detects an attack, and take steps to prevent them.

Intrusion detection systems keep a list of malware signatures and compares incoming threats to the list.
It instantly blocks any attack and resends the packets whose configuration matches the list, and reset
the connection to protect the IP address from any blockage. The various other actions performed by
Intrusion detection systems are as follows:

o It checks the CRC (Correct Cyclic Redundancy Check) errors.

o It helps to prevent the various TCP sequencing problems.
o It cleans up the unwanted transport and network layer options.

Network security and the cloud

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Cloud is the need of the hour. Every organization wants to extend its data storage capabilities that can
be easily maintained, shared, and accessed between their employees. Physical storage mediums are
hard to manage and conk out after a while. Therefore more and more enterprises are shifting their data
and computing requirements to cloud service providers. Cloud providers build hybrid infrastructures
where their internal network can operate securely with third-party servers. To manage network security,
various cloud providers have implemented centralized security control strategies on their platforms.

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WWW is based on which model

WWW or World-Wide Web or W3 is a wide-area hypertext-based information retrieval system intending

to provide extensive access to a vast universe of data.

WWW is a method of browsing all the online data present on the Internet. The users can seamlessly
access the large universe of documents present on different websites from any corner of the world
across the Internet with the help of their electronic devices such as computers, desktops, MacBooks,
smartphones, etc.

This tutorial will briefly cover all the details related to the model on which WWW (World Wide Web) is
based upon. If you want to learn regarding the definition and components of WWW in details refer
to What is World Wide Web?

Basic World-Wide Web Model

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World-Wide Web or WWW is created on the basic model of client-server concept and hypertext data
objects. (You can refer to the pictorial diagram of the above model in the figure given below). With
time, the WWW model has been expanded from a client-server application to a general resource
accessing model.

The above model indicates the initial concept of WWW represented in the HTTP Protocol (with a version
of 0.9) and HTML applications (with a version of 1.0). However, the World Wide Web specs have been
quickly developing during the last few years, even though the latest WWW approach is still based on a
client-server model.

Because the model is based on HTML and HTTP-based approaches, therefore WWW can handle virtually
any information format present on the Internet with the help of a comprehensive collection of access
methods aside from HTTP, unlike Telnet, FTP, Gopher WAIS, etc. In simple terms, the World-Wide Web
works as a generic data interchange device to access data available across the Internet.

Before moving to the latest advanced model of the World-Wide Web, it is necessary to cover all the vital
components present in the WWW model. The brief explanation of all the elements present within the
World-Wide Web concept is given below:

1. The Client

In the above flowchart, the client represents the user's interface that generates request to the server.
The user interface remains consistent and works in the same manner with any form of service
requested. Therefore users do not require to learn the variations between the many different access
systems used every day on the Internet. The concept of the client model works with the same approach

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as other popular software's, unlike Microsoft Windows, Machintosh, etc., where the user is constantly
presented with the corresponding Graphical User Interface (GUI interface).

2. Uniform Resource Identifier or URI

Every data object present over the internet has some associated address or a namespace linked with it
that holds information about hosts and all the sources present on each host. The WWW model describes
URIs as a generic syntax for encoding the namespace and addresses of information types on the web
and it also defines the process to access them. The model of URIs includes.

o Universal Resource Identifier (URI)

URI is defined as a generic collection of all addresses in the address space of all data objects
available on the web. They represent a hierarchical naming plot combined with the HTTP
protocol creating a significant distinction between the WWW and other web access schemes.
o Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
URL is defined as the unique address of a specific resource that is available on the Web.. The
URLs is designed on the concepts of the currently used Internet protocols supported by the
WWW, i.e., HTTP, FTP, WAIS, etc. They are started with www followed by http/https/ftp with a
specific directory path, their respective file name, and possibly a search directive.
o Uniform Resource Name (URN)
However, the ultimate goal for URIs is to be unique persistent identifiers that are allocated
within the specified namespaces and are accessible for an extended period, even after the
resource they classify discontinues to exist or becomes unavailable.
o Uniform Resource Citation (URC)
URC is used to store the Meta information of a URI. They hold the pairs of attribute/value which
can have all the related information such as the content writer, publisher, published date, etc.
Though, the concept of URC is not used in the current scenario.

3. The Server

The primary application of the server is to handle all the requests sent from the user. It can either be a
locally accessible device or ask for the request file or data from another server; in this scenario, the
initial server temporarily acts as a client.

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4. Hypertext Transport Protocol HTTP

HTTP or Hypertext Transport Protocol is a comprehensive stateless layer protocol containing the same
components as other Internet layer protocols. The HTTP protocol is also designed on the client-server
application model, where the server provides quick responses wherever the client generates any
request.

The basic model of HTTP protocol format is designed on the guidelines of MIME Protocol with an
assemblage of HTTP Headers likely supported by a message body holding a data object in any 7-bit or
8-bit received by the user interface. The user decides what format it can handle from the default list of
standard headers in the request. The latest HTTP version (1.0) is designed and developed on the roots
of the TCP Protocol. TCP is a connection oriented protocol that provides a 3 way handshake connection
formation.

The primary WWW model represents that the client is responsible for initiating a request. Further, the
server handles that request and responds to it by sharing the respective data object back to the client.
The client usually needs to post a data object to the server, for example, sending an email, creating a
new file, or posting a newsgroup on the remote server. HTTP protocol offers two methods to transfer
your data object from the client's device to the server. However, there is no surety that the request will
be successfully made or not (not even on a successful return code) as the action can be canceled
anytime by the accountable person of the remote server.

One of the HTTP protocol features is that it is a superset of the other Layer backed by the World Wide
Web model. It indicates that the HTTP protocol can handle data objects produced by other protocols by
binding them with various HTTP/MIME headers around the object. Therefore it is a vital feature for the
notion of Proxy servers.

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5. Hypertext Markup Language

HTML or Hypertext Markup language is defined as a users' interface language used to generate
information on WWW (World-Wide Web). It is a hypertext markup language that supports the easy flow
of communication over the network. Though, it is not mandatory to story the files within HTML. The
servers can also store the document types in any format and then create its HTML type whenever it
receives any file request from the client. Therefore we can conclude that it stores the documents
virtually instead of static documents. HTML is widely used over the internet to represent the following:

o Hypertext data, e-mail, digital document types or media, and collaborative hypermedia
o Menus, tables, and various other options
o Database query events
o Manageable structured data combined with multimedia components like images, music, and
video.
o URI-Links to different sources on the Internet.

HTML is designed on the International Standard ISO 8879 Standard Generalized Markup Language
(SGML) guidelines. SGML is a platform for describing structured data objects and markup languages to
signify occurrences of the data objects or document type. Therefore HTML is also a Document Type
Definition (DTD) applied on top of an SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) parser.

Advanced World-Wide Web Model

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The current WWW model is very interactive but is also designed on a client-server concept. The latest
model is a generic resource exchange-based approach. The latest model allows the client to post data to
the server (if the requested server also enables this service). In contrast, in the earlier model, the client
has limited data flowing options, and it was mainly done from the server to the client. Furthermore, it
has also introduced various data transfer formats in the message body ranging from 7-bit ASCII data to
8-bit binary data. In this model, any protocol can (supported by WWW) transfer source. Still, the prime
protocol used in this model is HTTP, as it can be further applied to encapsulate the other protocols.

MIDTERM AND FINAL EXAMINATION

TEST I. Choose the best answer for the following questions. (1 pt. each)

1) Which of these is a standard interface for serial data transmission?

a. ASCII
b. RS232C
c. 2
d. Centronics

2) Which type of topology is best suited for large businesses which must carefully control and
coordinate the operation of distributed branch outlets?

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a. Ring
b. Local area
c. Hierarchical
d. Star

3) Which of the following transmission directions listed is not a legitimate channel?

a. Simplex
b. Half Duplex
c. Full Duplex
d. Double Duplex

4) "Parity bits" are used for which of the following purposes?

a. Encryption of data
b. To transmit faster
c. To detect errors
d. To identify the user

5) What kind of transmission medium is most appropriate to carry data in a computer network that is
exposed to electrical interferences?

a. Unshielded twisted pair

b. Optical fiber
c. Coaxial cable
d. Microwave

6) A collection of hyperlinked documents on the internet forms the ?

a. World Wide Web (WWW)

b. E-mail system
c. Mailing list
d. Hypertext markup language

Show Answer Workspace

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7) The location of a resource on the internet is given by its?

a. Protocol
b. URL
c. E-mail address
d. ICQ

8) The term HTTP stands for?

a. Hyper terminal tracing program

b. Hypertext tracing protocol
c. Hypertext transfer protocol
d. Hypertext transfer program

9) A proxy server is used as the computer?

a. with external access

b. acting as a backup
c. performing file handling
d. accessing user permissions

10) Which one of the following would breach the integrity of a system?

a. Looking the room to prevent theft

b. Full access rights for all users
c. Fitting the system with an anti-theft device
d. Protecting the device against willful or accidental damage

11) Which software prevents the external access to a system?

a. Firewall
b. Gateway
c. Router
d. Virus checker

12) Which one of the following is a valid email address?

a. javat@point.com

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 b. gmail.com
c. tpoint@.com
d. javatpoint@books

13) Which of the following best describes uploading information?

a. Sorting data on a disk drive

b. Sending information to a host computer
c. Receiving information from a host computer
d. Sorting data on a hard drive

14) Which one of the following is the most common internet protocol?
a. HTML
b. NetBEUI
c. TCP/IP
d. IPX/SPX

15) Software programs that allow you to legally copy files and give them away at no cost are called
which of the following?

a. Probe ware
b. Timeshare
c. Shareware
d. Public domain

16) The term FTP stands for?

a. File transfer program

b. File transmission protocol
c. File transfer protocol
d. File transfer protection

17) At what speed does tele-computed refer?

a. Interface speed
b. Cycles per second
c. Baud rate

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 d. Megabyte load

18) Which one of the following is not a network topology?

a. Star
b. Ring
c. Bus
d. Peer to Peer

19) The maximum length (in bytes) of an IPv4 datagram is?

a. 32
b. 1024
c. 65535
d. 512

20) Which of the following statements could be valid with respect to the ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol)?

a. It reports all errors which occur during transmission.

b. A redirect message is used when a router notices that a packet seems to have been routed
wrongly.
c. It informs routers when an incorrect path has been taken.
d. The "destination unreachable" type message is used when a router cannot locate the
destination.

21) The IP network 192.168.50.0 is to be divided into 10 equal sized subnets. Which of the following
subnet masks can be used for the above requirement?

a. 255.243.240
b. 255.255.0.0
c. 255.255.0
d. 255.255.255

22) When the mail server sends mail to other mail servers it becomes ___ ?

a. SMTP client
b. SMTP server

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 c. Peer
d. Master

23) The length of an IPv6 address is?

a. 32 bits
b. 64 bits
c. 128 bits
d. 256 bits

24) Consider the following:

1. Twisted pair cables

2. Microwaves and Satellite Signals
3. Repeaters
4. Analog Transmissions
5. Fiber optics

Which of the above is consider as (a) signal transmission medium is data communications?

a. (1) and (5)

b. (1) and (2)
c. (1) (2) and (5)
d. (1) (2) (3) and (5)

25) Which of the following address belongs class A?

a. 121.12.12.248
b. 130.12.12.248
c. 128.12.12.248
d. 129.12.12.248

26) Which of the following is correct IPv4 address?

a. 124.201.3.1.52
b. 01.200.128.123
c. 300.142.210.64

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 d. 10110011.32.16.8
e. 128.64.0.0

27) Which of the following IP addresses can be used as (a) loop-back addresses?

a. 0.0.0.0
b. 127.0.0.1
c. 255.255.255.255
d. 0.255.255.255

28) The term WAN stands for?

a. Wide Area Net

b. Wide Access Network
c. Wide Area Network
d. Wide Access Net

29) Which of the following cannot be used as a medium for 802.3 ethernet?

a. A thin coaxial cable

b. A twisted pair cable
c. A microwave link
d. A fiber optical cable

30) What IP address class allocates 8 bits for the host identification part?

a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D

31) The term IANA stands for?

a. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority

b. Internal Assigned Numbers Authority
c. Internet Associative Numbers Authoritative
d. Internal Associative Numbers Authority

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32) How many versions available of IP?

a. 6 version
b. 4 version
c. 2 version
d. 1 version

33) Which layer of the TCP / IP stack corresponds to the OSI model transport layer?

a. Host to host
b. Application
c. Internet
d. Network Access

34) An Aloha network uses an 18.2 kbps channel for sending message packets of 100 bits long size.
Calculate the maximum throughput.

a. 5999
b. 6900
c. 6027
d. 5027

35) On a simplex data link, which of the following is a possible error recovery technique?

a. Backward error correction (BEC)

b. The use of hamming codes
c. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
d. Downward error correction (DEC)

36) Which of the statement is correct with regard to Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and its variants?

a. Statistical TDM makes efficient use of the bandwidth only if the arrival pattern of the data stream
is probabilistic.
b. TDM requires the transmitter and receiver to be synchronized periodically.
c. TDM performs efficiently if the arrival pattern of the data stream is probabilistic.
d. Statistical TDM is efficient if the data stream is deterministic.

37) The term IPv4 stands for?

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a. Internet Protocol Version 4
b. Internet Programming Version 4
c. International Programming Version 4
d. None of these

38) The term LAN stands for?

a. Local Area Net

b. Local Aera Network
c. Local Array Network
d. Local Array Net

39) Which of the through is share the data of two computer?

a. Library
b. Network
c. Grouping
d. Integrated system

40) In specific, if the systems use separate protocols, which one of the following devices is used to link
two systems?

a. Repeater
b. Gateway
c. Bridge
d. Hub

41) How many digits of the Data Network Identification Code (DNIC) identify the country?

a. first three
b. first four
c. first five
d. first six
e. None of the above

42) Which of the following methods is used to broadcast two packets on the medium at a time?

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a. Collision
b. Synchronous
c. Asynchronous
d. None of the above

43) Which of the following is true with regard to the ping command?

a. Ping stands for Packet Internet Generator.

b. The ping command checks the port level connectivity between source destinations end points.
c. Ping summarizes the packet loss and round-trip delay between two IP end points.
d. The ping command activates the RARP protocol of the IP layer.

44) The private key in asymmetric key cryptography is kept by?

a. Sender
b. Receiver
c. Sender and Receiver
d. None of the these

45) Which of the following algorithms is not used in asymmetric-key cryptography?

a. RSA algorithm
b. Diffie-Hellman algorithm
c. Electronic code book algorithm
d. None of the mentioned

46) In the cryptography, the sequence of the letters is rearranged by?

a. Transposition ciphers
b. Substitution ciphers
c. Both a and b
d. None of these

47) What is the maximum efficiency of pure aloha at G = 1/2?

a. 1.89
b. 17.99

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 c. 18.999
d. 18.4

48) What is the maximum efficiency of slotted aloha at G = 1?

a. 36.8
b. 35.8
c. 35.5
d. 37.8

49) Which of the following statement is true about error detection techniques used on communications
link?

a. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) sequence can detect as well as correct errors.
b. Error detection cannot be used on simplex links.
c. Hamming code can detect up to 3-bit errors.
d. All of the these

50) The correct order of corresponding OSI layers for having functionalities of routing and reconciling
machine representation differences with shared access resolution and ASCII test protocol is?

a. Network, Physical, Transport, Data link

b. Network, Physical, Data link, Application
c. Network, Presentation, Data link, Application
d. Network, Presentation, Physical, Transport

Thank you and Keep safe everyone.

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