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CSSNotes For Professionals

The document provides an overview of different methods for styling elements with CSS, including external and internal stylesheets, inline styles, and modifying CSS with JavaScript. It also covers the @import rule and how to style lists with CSS properties like list-style-type, list-style-image, and list-style-position.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

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CSSNotes For Professionals

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kusuma mahesh

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Chapter 1: Getting started with CSS
Version Release Date
1 1996-12-17
2 1998-05-12
3 2015-10-13

Section 1.1: External Stylesheet

An external CSS stylesheet can be applied to any number of HTML documents by placing a <link> element in
each HTML document.

The attribute rel of the <link> tag has to be set to "stylesheet", and the href attribute to the relative or absolute
path to the stylesheet. While using relative URL paths is generally considered good practice, absolute paths can
be used, too. In HTML5 the type attribute can be omitted.

It is recommended that the <link> tag be placed in the HTML ﬁle's <head> tag so that the styles are loaded
before the elements they style. Otherwise, users will see a ﬂash of unstyled content.

Example

hello-world.html

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8" />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<h1>Hello world!</h1>
<p>I ♥ CSS</p>
</body>
</html>

style.css

h1 {
color: green;
text-decoration: underline;
}
p{
font-size: 25px;
font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;
}

Make sure you include the correct path to your CSS file in the href. If the CSS file is in the same folder as your
HTML file then no path is required (like the example above) but if it's saved in a folder, then specify it like this
href="foldername/style.css".

<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="foldername/style.css">

External stylesheets are considered the best way to handle your CSS. There's a very simple reason for this: when
you're managing a site of, say, 100 pages, all controlled by a single stylesheet, and you want to change your link
colors from blue to green, it's a lot easier to make the change in your CSS ﬁle and let the changes "cascade"
throughout all 100 pages than it is to go into 100 separate pages and make the same change 100 times.
Again, if you want to completely change the look of your website, you only need to update this one ﬁle.

You can load as many CSS ﬁles in your HTML page as needed.

<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="main.css">

CSS rules are applied with some basic rules, and order does matter. For example, if you have a main.css ﬁle with
some code in it:

p.green { color: #00FF00; }

All your paragraphs with the 'green' class will be written in light green, but you can override this with another
.css ﬁle just by including it after main.css. You can have override.css with the following code follow main.css, for
example:

p.green { color: #006600; }

Now all your paragraphs with the 'green' class will be written in darker green rather than light
green. Other principles apply, such as the '!important' rule, specificity, and inheritance.
When someone first visits your website, their browser downloads the HTML of the current page plus the linked
CSS file. Then when they navigate to another page, their browser only needs to download the HTML of that
page; the CSS file is cached, so it does not need to be downloaded again. Since browsers cache the external
stylesheet, your pages load faster.

Section 1.2: Internal Styles

CSS enclosed in <style></style> tags within an HTML document functions like an external stylesheet, except
that it lives in the HTML document it styles instead of in a separate ﬁle, and therefore can only be applied to
the document in which it lives. Note that this element must be inside the <head> element for HTML validation
(though it will work in all current browsers if placed in body).

<head>
<style>
h1 {
color: green;
text-decoration: underline;
}
p{
font-size: 25px;
font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Hello world!</h1>
<p>I ♥ CSS</p>
</body>
Section 1.3: CSS @import rule (one of CSS at-rule)
The @import CSS at-rule is used to import style rules from other style sheets. These rules must precede all
other types of rules, except @charset rules; as it is not a nested statement, @import cannot be used inside
conditional group at-rules. @import.

How to use @import

You can use @import rule in following ways:

A. With internal style tag

B. With external stylesheet

The following line imports a CSS ﬁle named additional-styles.css in the root directory into the CSS ﬁle in which it appears:

@import '/additional-styles.css';

Importing external CSS is also possible. A common use case are font ﬁles.

@import 'https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Lato';

An optional second argument to @import rule is a list of media queries:

@import '/print-styles.css' print;

@import url('landscape.css') screen and (orientation:landscape);

Section 1.4: Inline Styles

Use inline styles to apply styling to a speciﬁc element. Note that this is not optimal. Placing style rules in a <style>
tag or external CSS ﬁle is encouraged in order to maintain a distinction between content and presentation.

Inline styles override any CSS in a <style> tag or external style sheet. While this can be useful in some
circumstances, this fact more often than not reduces a project's maintainability.

The styles in the following example apply directly to the elements to which they are attached.

<h1 style="color: green; text-decoration: underline;">Hello world!</h1>

Inline styles are generally the safest way to ensure rendering compatibility across various email clients,
programs and devices, but can be time-consuming to write and a bit challenging to manage.

Section 1.5: Changing CSS with JavaScript

Pure JavaScript

It's possible to add, remove or change CSS property values with JavaScript through an element's style property.
var el = document.getElementById("element"); el.style.opacity = 0.5;
el.style.fontFamily = 'sans-serif';

Note that style properties are named in lower camel case style. In the example you see that the css property font-
family becomes fontFamily in javascript.

As an alternative to working directly on elements, you can create a <style> or <link> element in JavaScript and
append it to the <body> or <head> of the HTML document.

jQuery

Modifying CSS properties with jQuery is even simpler.

$('#element').css('margin', '5px');

If you need to change more than one style rule:

$('#element').css({ margin: "5px", padding: "10px", color: "black"

});

jQuery includes two ways to change css rules that have hyphens in them (i.e. font-size). You can put them in quotes
or camel-case the style rule name.

$('.example-class').css({ "background-color": "blue", fontSize: "10px"

});

JavaScript documentation – Reading and Changing CSS

Style. jQuery documentation – CSS Manipulation

Section 1.6: Styling Lists with CSS

There are three diﬀerent properties for styling list-items: list-style-type, list-style-image, and list-style- position, which should
be declared in that order. The default values are disc, outside, and none, respectively. Each property can be declared
separately, or using the list-style shorthand property.

list-style-type deﬁnes the shape or type of bullet point used for each list-item.

Some of the acceptable values for list-style-type:

disc
circle
square
decimal
lower-roman
upper-roman
none

(For an exhaustive list, see the W3C speciﬁcation wiki)

To use square bullet points for each list-item, for example, you would use the following property-value pair:

li {
list-style-type: square;
}

The list-style-image property determines whether the list-item icon is set with an image, and accepts a value of
none or a URL that points to an image.

li {
list-style-image: url(images/bullet.png);
}

The list-style-position property deﬁnes where to position the list-item marker, and it accepts one of two values:
"inside" or "outside".

li {
list-style-position: inside;
}
Chapter 2: Structure and Formatting of
a CSS Rule
Section 2.1: Property Lists
Some properties can take multiple values, collectively known as a property list.

/* Two values in this property list */

span {
text-shadow: yellow 0 0 3px, green 4px 4px 10px;
}

/* Alternate Formatting */
span {
text-shadow:
yellow 0 0 3px, green 4px 4px 10px;
}

Section 2.2: Multiple Selectors

When you group CSS selectors, you apply the same styles to several diﬀerent elements without repeating the
styles in your style sheet. Use a comma to separate multiple grouped selectors.

div, p { color: blue }

So the blue color applies to all <div> elements and all <p> elements. Without the comma only <p> elements that
are a child of a <div> would be red.

This also applies to all types of selectors.

p, .blue, #first, div span{ color : blue }

This rule applies to:

<p>
elements of the blue class
element with the ID first every
<span> inside of a <div>

Section 2.3: Rules, Selectors, and Declaration Blocks

A CSS rule consists of a selector (e.g. h1) and declaration block ({}).

h1 {}
Chapter 3: Comments
Section 3.1: Single Line
/* This is a CSS comment */
div {
color: red; /* This is a CSS comment */
}

Section 3.2: Multiple Line

/*
This is
a CSS
comment
*/
div {
color: red;
}
Chapter 4: Selectors
CSS selectors identify speciﬁc HTML elements as targets for CSS styles. This topic covers how CSS selectors
target HTML elements. Selectors use a wide range of over 50 selection methods oﬀered by the CSS language,
including elements, classes, IDs, pseudo-elements and pseudo-classes, and patterns.

Section 4.1: Basic selectors

Selector Description
* Universal selector (all elements)
div Tag selector (all <div> elements)
.blue Class selector (all elements with class blue)
.blue.red All elements with class blue and red (a type of Compound selector)
ID selector (the element with "id" attribute set to headline)
#headline
:pseudo-class All elements with pseudo-class
::pseudo-element Element that matches pseudo-element
:lang(en) Element that matches :lang declaration, for example <span lang="en">
div > p child selector

Note: The value of an ID must be unique in a web page. It is a violation of the HTML standard to use the
value of an ID more than once in the same document tree.

A complete list of selectors can be found in the CSS Selectors Level 3 speciﬁcation.

Section 4.2: Attribute Selectors

Overview

Attribute selectors can be used with various types of operators that change the selection criteria accordingly.
They select an element using the presence of a given attribute or attribute value.

Selector(1) Matched element Selects elements... CSS Version

[attr] <div attr> With attribute attr 2
[attr='val'] <div attr="val"> Where attribute attr has value val 2
Where val appears in the
[attr~='val'] <div attr="val val2 val3"> 2
whitespace-separated list attr
[attr^='val'] <div attr="val1 val2"> of
Where attr's value begins with val 3
[attr$='val'] <div attr="sth aval"> Where the attr's value ends with val 3
[attr*='val'] <div attr="somevalhere"> Where attr contains val anywhere 3
Where attr's value is exactly val,
[attr|='val'] <div attr="val-sth etc"> or starts with val and immediately 2
followed by - (U+002D)
Where attr has value val,
[attr='val' i] <div attr="val"> 4(2)
ignoring val's letter casing.

Notes:

1. The attribute value can be surrounded by either single-quotes or double-quotes. No quotes at all may
also work, but it's not valid according to the CSS standard, and is discouraged.
2. There is no single, integrated CSS4 speciﬁcation, because it is split into separate modules. However, there
are "level 4" modules. See browser support.

Details
[attribute]

Selects elements with the given attribute.

div[data-color] {
color: red;
}

<div data-color="red">This will be red</div>

Live Demo on JSBin

[attribute="value"]

Selects elements with the given attribute and value.

div[data-color="red"] {
color: red;
}

<div data-color="red">This will be red</div>

Live Demo on JSBin

[attribute*="value"]

Selects elements with the given attribute and value where the given attribute contains the given value anywhere
(as a substring).

[class*="foo"] {
color: red;
}

<div class="foo-123">This will be red</div>

Live Demo on JSBin

[attribute~="value"]

Selects elements with the given attribute and value where the given value appears in a whitespace-separated list.

[class~="color-red"] {
color: red;
}

<div class="color-red foo-bar the-div">This will be red</div>

<div class="color-blue foo-bar the-div">This will NOT be red</div>
Live Demo on JSBin

[attribute^="value"]

Selects elements with the given attribute and value where the given attribute begins with the value.

[class^="foo-"] {
color: red;
}

<div class="foo-123">This will be red</div>

Live Demo on JSBin

[attribute$="value"]

Selects elements with the given attribute and value where the given attribute ends with the given value.

[class$="file"] {
color: red;
}

<div class="foobar-file">This will be red</div>

Live Demo on JSBin

[attribute|="value"]

Selects elements with a given attribute and value where the attribute's value is exactly the given value or is
exactly the given value followed by - (U+002D)

[lang|="EN"] {
color: red;
}

<div lang="EN-us">This will be red</div>

Live Demo on JSBin

[attribute="value" i]

Selects elements with a given attribute and value where the attribute's value can be represented as Value, VALUE,
vAlUe or any other case-insensitive possibility.

[lang="EN" i] {
color: red;
}

<div lang="EN">This will be red</div>

Live Demo on JSBin

Speciﬁcity of attribute selectors
0-1-0

Same as class selector and pseudoclass.

*[type=checkbox] // 0-1-0

Note that this means an attribute selector can be used to select an element by its ID at a lower level of
speciﬁcity than if it was selected with an ID selector: [id="my-ID"] targets the same element as #my-ID but with
lower speciﬁcity.

See the Syntax Section for more details.

Section 4.3: Combinators

Overview
Selector Description
div span Descendant selector (all <span>s that are descendants of a <div>)
div > span Child selector (all <span>s that are a direct child of a <div>)
a ~ span General Sibling selector (all <span>s that are siblings after an <a>)
a + span Adjacent Sibling selector (all <span>s that are immediately after an <a>)

Note: Sibling selectors target elements that come after them in the source document. CSS, by its
nature (it cascades), cannot target previous or parent elements. However, using the ﬂex order property,
a previous sibling selector can be simulated on visual media.

Descendant Combinator: selector selector

A descendant combinator, represented by at least one space character (), selects elements that are a descendant
of the deﬁned element. This combinator selects all descendants of the element (from child elements on down).

div p {
color:red;
}

<p>My text is not red</p>

Live Demo on JSBin

In the above example, the ﬁrst two <p> elements are selected since they are both descendants of the <div>.

Child Combinator: selector > selector

The child (>) combinator is used to select elements that are children, or direct descendants, of the speciﬁed
element.
div > p {
color:red;
}

Live Demo on JSBin

The above CSS selects only the ﬁrst <p> element, as it is the only paragraph directly descended from a
<div>. The second <p> element is not selected because it is not a direct child of the <div>.

Adjacent Sibling Combinator: selector + selector

The adjacent sibling (+) combinator selects a sibling element that immediate follows a speciﬁed element.

p+p{
color:red;
}

<p>My text is not red</p>

Live Demo on JSBin

The above example selects only those <p> elements which are directly preceded by another <p> element.

General Sibling Combinator: selector ~ selector

The general sibling (~) combinator selects all siblings that follow the speciﬁed element.

p~p{
color:red;
}

<p>My text is not red</p>

<p>My text is red</p>
<hr>
<h1>And now a title</h1>
<p>My text is red</p>

Live Demo on JSBin

The above example selects all <p> elements that are preceded by another <p> element, whether or not they are
immediately adjacent.

Section 4.4: Pseudo-classes

Pseudo-classes are keywords which allow selection based on information that lies outside of the document tree or
that cannot be expressed by other selectors or combinators. This information can be associated to a certain
state (state and dynamic pseudo-classes), to locations (structural and target pseudo-classes), to negations of the
former (negation pseudo-class) or to languages (lang pseudo-class). Examples include whether or not a link has
been followed (:visited), the mouse is over an element (:hover), a checkbox is checked (:checked), etc.

Syntax
selector:pseudo-class { property: VALUE;
}

List of pseudo-classes:
Name Description
:active Applies to any element being activated (i.e. clicked) by the user.
Allows you to build sets of related selectors by creating groups that the
:any included items will match. This is an alternative to repeating an entire
selector.
Selects the current active #news element (clicked on a
:target URL containing that anchor name)
Applies to radio, checkbox, or option elements that are
:checked checked or toggled into an "on" state.
Represents any user interface element that is the default among a group
:default of similar elements.
:disabled Applies to any UI element which is in a disabled state.
:empty Applies to any element which has no children.
:enabled Applies to any UI element which is in an enabled state.
Used in conjunction with the @page rule, this selects the first page
:first in a printed document.
:first-child Represents any element that is the first child element of its parent.
Applies when an element is the first of the selected element
:first-of-type type inside its parent. This may or may not be the first-child.
Applies to any element which has the user's focus. This can be given by
:focus the user's keyboard, mouse events, or other forms of input.
Can be used to highlight a whole section when one element inside it is focused. It
:focus-within matches any element that the :focus pseudo-class matches or that has a descendant
focused.
Applies to any element displayed in full-screen mode. It selects the whole
:full-screen stack of elements and not just the top level element.
Applies to any element being hovered by the user's pointing device,
:hover but not activated.
Applies radio or checkbox UI elements which are neither checked nor
:indeterminate unchecked, but are in an indeterminate state. This can be due to an
element's attribute or DOM manipulation.
The :in-range CSS pseudo-class matches when an element has
its value attribute inside the specified range limitations for this
:in-range
element. It allows the page to give a feedback that the value
currently defined using the element is inside the range limits.
Applies to <input> elements whose values are invalid according
:invalid to the type specified in the type= attribute.
Applies to any element who's wrapping <body> element has a properly
:lang designated lang= attribute. For the pseudo-class to be valid, it
must contain a valid two or three letter language code.
:last-child Represents any element that is the last child element of its parent.
Applies when an element is the last of the selected element type
:last-of-type inside its parent. This may or may not be the last-child.
Used in conjunction with the @page rule, this selects all the
:left left pages in a printed document.
:link Applies to any links which haven't been visited by the user.
Applies to all elements which do not match the value passed to
:not() (:not(p) or :not(.class-name) for example. It must have a value to be valid and it
can only contain one selector. However, you can chain multiple together. :not selectors
Applies when an element is the n-th element of its parent, where n
can be an integer, a mathematical expression (e.g n+3) or the
keywords odd or even.
:nth-child
Applies when an element is the n-th element of its parent of
the same element type, where n can be an integer, a
mathematical expression (e.g n+3) or the keywords odd or even.
The :only-child CSS pseudo-class represents any element
:nth-of-type which is the only child of its parent. This is the same as
:first-child:last-child or :nth-child(1):nth-last-child(1), but with a lower
specificity.
The :optional CSS pseudo-class represents any element
:only-child that does not have the required attribute set on it. This allows
forms to easily indicate optional fields and to style them accordingly.
The :out-of-range CSS pseudo-class matches when an element has its value
attribute outside the specified range limitations for this element.
:optional It allows the page to give a feedback that the value currently defined using
the element is outside the range limits. A value can be outside of a range if
it is either smaller or larger than maximum and minimum set values.

:out-of-range
:placeholder-shown Experimental. Applies to any form element currently displaying placeholder text.
:read-only Applies to any element which is not editable by the user.
:read-write Applies to any element that is editable by a user, such as <input> elements.
Used in conjunction with the @page rule, this selects all the right pages
:right in a printed document.
:root matches the root element of a tree representing the document.
CSS pseudo-class matches the elements that are a
:scope reference point for selectors to match against.
Selects the current active #news element (clicked on a
:target URL containing that anchor name)
:visited Applies to any links which have has been visited by the user.

The :visited pseudoclass can't be used for most styling in a lot of modern browsers anymore because
it's a security hole. See this link for reference.

Section 4.5: Child Pseudo Class

"The :nth-child(an+b) CSS pseudo-class matches an element that has an+b-1 siblings before it in the
document tree, for a given positive or zero value for n" - MDN :nth-child

pseudo-selector 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
:first-child ✔
:nth-child(3) ✔
:nth-child(n+3) ✔✔✔✔✔✔✔
✔
:nth-child(3n) ✔ ✔ ✔
:nth-child(3n+1) ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
:nth-child(-n+3) ✔✔✔
:nth-child(odd) ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
:nth-child(even) ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
:last-child ✔
:nth-last-child(3) ✔

Section 4.6: Class Name Selectors

The class name selector select all elements with the targeted class name. For example, the class name .warning
would select the following <div> element:

<div class="warning">
<p>This would be some warning copy.</p>
</div>

You can also combine class names to target elements more speciﬁcally. Let's build on the example above to
showcase a more complicated class selection.

CSS

.important {
color: orange;
}
.warning {
color: blue;
}
.warning.important {
color: red;
}

HTML

<div class="warning">
<p>This would be some warning copy.</p>
</div>

<div class="important warning">

<p class="important">This is some really important warning copy.</p>
</div>

In this example, all elements with the .warning class will have a blue text color, elements with the .important class
with have an orange text color, and all elements that have both the .important and .warning class name will have a red
text color.

Notice that within the CSS, the .warning.important declaration did not have any spaces between the two class names.
This means it will only ﬁnd elements which contain both class names warning and important in their class attribute.
Those class names could be in any order on the element.

If a space was included between the two classes in the CSS declaration, it would only select elements that have
parent elements with a .warning class names and child elements with .important class names.
Section 4.7: Select element using its ID without the
high speciﬁcity of the ID selector
This trick helps you select an element using the ID as a value for an attribute selector to avoid the high
speciﬁcity of the ID selector.

HTML:

CSS

#element { ... } /* High specificity will override many selectors */

[id="element"] { ... } /* Low specificity, can be overridden easily */

Section 4.8: The :last-of-type selector

The :last-of-type selects the element that is the last child, of a particular type, of its parent. In the example below,
the css selects the last paragraph and the last heading h1.

p:last-of-type {
background: #C5CAE9;
}
h1:last-of-type {
background: #CDDC39;
}

<div class="container">
<p>First paragraph</p>
<p>Second paragraph</p>
<p>Last paragraph</p>
<h1>Heading 1</h1>
<h2>First heading 2</h2>
<h2>Last heading 2</h2>
</div>

jsFiddle

Section 4.9: CSS3 :in-range selector example

<input type="number" min="10" max="20" value="15">

<p>The border for this value will be blue</p>

The :in-range CSS pseudo-class matches when an element has its value attribute inside the speciﬁed range
limitations for this element. It allows the page to give a feedback that the value currently deﬁned using the
element is inside the range limits.[1]

Section 4.10: A. The :not pseudo-class example & B.

:focus- within CSS pseudo-class
A. The syntax is presented above.

The following selector matches all <input> elements in an HTML document that are not disabled and don't have
the class .example:

HTML:
<form>
Phone: <input type="tel" class="example">
E-mail: <input type="email" disabled="disabled"> Password: <input type="password">
</form>

CSS:

input:not([disabled]):not(.example){
background-color: #ccc;
}

input:not([disabled], .example){
background-color: #ccc;
}

The :not() pseudo-class will also support comma-separated selectors in Selectors Level 4:
CSS:

Live Demo on JSBin

See background syntax here.

B. The :focus-within CSS pseudo-class

HTML:

<h3>Background is blue if the input is focused .</p>

CSS:

div {
height: 80px;
}
input{
margin:30px;
}
div:focus-within {
background-color: #1565C0;
}

Section 4.11: Global boolean with checkbox:checked and

~ (general sibling combinator)
With the ~ selector, you can easily implement a global accessible boolean without using JavaScript.

Add boolean as a checkbox

To the very beginning of your document, add as much booleans as you want with a unique id and the hidden
attribute set:

<input type="checkbox" id="sidebarShown" hidden />

</div>

<div id="footer">

</div>
Change the boolean's value

You can toggle the boolean by adding a label with the for attribute set:

<label for="sidebarShown">Show/Hide the sidebar!</label>

Accessing boolean value with CSS

The normal selector (like .color-red) speciﬁes the default properties. They can be overridden by following true /
false selectors:

/* true: */
<checkbox>:checked ~ [sibling of checkbox & parent of target] <target>

/* false: */
<checkbox>:not(:checked) ~ [sibling of checkbox & parent of target] <target>

Note that <checkbox>, [sibling ...] and <target> should be replaced by the proper selectors. [sibling ...]
can be a speciﬁc selector, (often if you're lazy) simply * or nothing if the target is already a sibling of the checkbox.

Examples for the above HTML structure would be:

#sidebarShown:checked ~ #container #sidebar {

margin-left: 300px;
}

#darkThemeUsed:checked ~ #container, #darkThemeUsed:checked ~ #footer {

background: #333;
}

In action

See this ﬁddle for a implementation of these global booleans.

Section 4.12: ID selectors

ID selectors select DOM elements with the targeted ID. To select an element by a speciﬁc ID in CSS, the # preﬁx is
used.

For example, the following HTML div element…

<div id="exampleID">
<p>Example</p>
</div>

…can be selected by #exampleID in CSS as shown below:

#exampleID {
width: 20px;
}

Note: The HTML specs do not allow multiple elements with the same ID
Section 4.13: How to style a Range input
HTML

CSS

Eﬀect Pseudo Selector

input[type=range]::-webkit-slider-thumb, input[type=range]::-moz-range-thumb, input[type=range]::-ms-thumb
Thumb
input[type=range]::-webkit-slider-runnable-track, input[type=range]::-moz-range-track, input[type=range]::-ms-track
Track
OnFocus input[type=range]:focus
Lower part input[type=range]::-moz-range-progress, input[type=range]::-ms-fill-lower (not possible in WebKit browsers
of the track currently - JS needed)

Section 4.14: The :only-child pseudo-class selector example

The :only-child CSS pseudo-class represents any element which is the only child of its parent. HTML:

CSS:

p:only-child {
<div>
color: blue;
<p>This paragraph is the only child of the div, it will have the color blue</p>
}
</div>

<div>
<p>This paragraph is one of the two children of the div</p>
<p>This paragraph is one of the two children of its parent</p>
</div>

The above example selects the <p> element that is the unique child from its parent, in this case a <div>.
Live Demo on JSBin
Chapter 5: Backgrounds
With CSS you can set colors, gradients, and images as the background of an element.

It is possible to specify various combinations of images, colors, and gradients, and adjust the size, positioning, and
repetition (among others) of these.

Section 5.1: Background Color

The background-color property sets the background color of an element using a color value or through keywords,
such as transparent, inherit or initial.

transparent, speciﬁes that the background color should be transparent. This is default.
inherit, inherits this property from its parent element.
initial, sets this property to its default value.

This can be applied to all elements, and ::first-letter/::first-line pseudo-elements. Colors in CSS
can be speciﬁed by diﬀerent methods.

Color names

CSS

div {
background-color: red;/* red */
}

HTML

<div>This will have a red background</div>

The example used above is one of several ways that CSS has to represent a single color.

Hex color codes

Hex code is used to denote RGB components of a color in base-16 hexadecimal notation. #ﬀ0000, for example,
is bright red, where the red component of the color is 256 bits (ﬀ) and the corresponding green and blue
portions of the color is 0 (00).

If both values in each of the three RGB pairings (R, G, and B) are the same, then the color code can be
shortened into three characters (the ﬁrst digit of each pairing). #ff0000 can be shortened to #f00, and #ffffff can
be shortened to #fff.

Hex notation is case-insensitive.

body {
background-color: #de1205; /* red */
}

.main {
background-color: #00f; /* blue */
}

RGB / RGBa

Another way to declare a color is to use RGB or RGBa.

RGB stands for Red, Green and Blue, and requires of three separate values between 0 and 255, put between
brackets, that correspond with the decimal color values for respectively red, green and blue.

RGBa allows you to add an additional alpha parameter between 0.0 and 1.0 to deﬁne opacity.

header {
background-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); /* black */
}

footer {
background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5); /* black with 50% opacity */
}

HSL / HSLa

Another way to declare a color is to use HSL or HSLa and is similar to RGB and RGBa.
HSL stands for hue, saturation, and lightness, and is also often called HLS:
Hue is a degree on the color wheel (from 0 to 360).
Saturation is a percentage between 0% and 100%.
Lightness is also a percentage between 0% and 100%.

HSLa allows you to add an additional alpha parameter between 0.0 and 1.0 to deﬁne opacity.

li a {
background-color: hsl(120, 100%, 50%); /* green */
}

#p1 {
background-color: hsla(120, 100%, 50%, .3); /* green with 30% opacity */
}

Interaction with background-image

The following statements are all equivalent:

body {
background: red;
background-image: url(partiallytransparentimage.png);
}

body {
background-color: red;
background-image: url(partiallytransparentimage.png);
}

body {
background-image: url(partiallytransparentimage.png);
background-color: red;
}

body {
background: red url(partiallytransparentimage.png);
}

They will all lead to the red color being shown underneath the image, where the parts of the image are
transparent, or the image is not showing (perhaps as a result of background-repeat).

Note that the following is not equivalent:

body {
background-image: url(partiallytransparentimage.png);
background: red;
}

Here, the value of background overrides your background-image.

For more info on the background property, see Background Shorthand

Section 5.2: Background Gradients

Gradients are new image types, added in CSS3. As an image, gradients are set with the background-image property,
or the background shorthand.

There are two types of gradient functions, linear and radial. Each type has a non-repeating variant and a repeating
variant:

linear-gradient()
repeating-linear-gradient() radial-
gradient()
repeating-radial-gradient()

linear-gradient()

A linear-gradient has the following syntax

background: linear-gradient( <direction>?, <color-stop-1>, <color-stop-2>, ...);

Value Meaning
Could be an argument like to top, to bottom, to right or to left; or an angle as 0deg,
<direction> 90deg.........The angle starts from to top and rotates clockwise. Can be speciﬁed in deg, grad, rad,
or turn. If omitted, the gradient ﬂows from top to bottom
List of colors, optionally followed each one by a percentage or length to display it at. For
<color-stop-list> example, yellow 10%, rgba(0,0,0,.5) 40px, #fff 100%...

For example, this creates a linear gradient that starts from the right and transitions from red to blue

.linear-gradient {
background: linear-gradient(to left, red, blue); /* you can also use 270deg */
}

You can create a diagonal gradient by declaring both a horizontal and vertical starting position.

.diagonal-linear-gradient {
background: linear-gradient(to left top, red, yellow 10%);
}

It is possible to specify any number of color stops in a gradient by separating them with commas. The following
examples will create a gradient with 8 color stops

.linear-gradient-rainbow {
background: linear-gradient(to left, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)
}

radial-gradient()
.radial-gradient-simple {
background: radial-gradient(red, blue);
}

.radial-gradient {
background: radial-gradient(circle farthest-corner at top left, red, blue);
}

Value Meaning
circle Shape of gradient. Values are circle or ellipse, default is ellipse.
Keywords describing how big the ending shape must be. Values are closest-side, farthest- side, closest-
farthest-corner corner, farthest-corner
top left Sets the position of the gradient center, in the same way as background-position.

Repeating gradients

Repeating gradient functions take the same arguments as the above examples, but tile the gradient across the
background of the element.

.bullseye {
background: repeating-radial-gradient(red, red 10%, white 10%, white 20%);
}
.warning {
background: repeating-linear-gradient(-45deg, yellow, yellow 10%, black 10%, black 20% );
}

Value Meaning
Angle unit. The angle starts from to top and rotates clockwise. Can be speciﬁed in deg, grad,
-45deg rad, or turn.
Direction of gradient, default is to bottom. Syntax: to [y-axis(top OR bottom)] [x-axis(left OR right)] ie to top
to left right
yellow 10% Color, optionally followed by a percentage or length to display it at. Repeated two or more times.

Note that HEX, RGB, RGBa, HSL, and HSLa color codes may be used instead of color names. Color names were used
for the sake of illustration. Also note that the radial-gradient syntax is much more complex than linear-gradient,
and a simpliﬁed version is shown here. For a full explanation and specs, see the MDN Docs

Section 5.3: Background Image

The background-image property is used to specify a background image to be applied to all matched elements. By
default, this image is tiled to cover the entire element, excluding margin.

.myClass {
background-image: url('/path/to/image.jpg');
}
To use multiple images as background-image, deﬁne comma separated url()

.myClass {
background-image: url('/path/to/image.jpg'),
url('/path/to/image2.jpg');
}

The images will stack according to their order with the ﬁrst declared image on top of the others and so on.

Value Result
Specify background image's path(s) or an image resource speciﬁed with data URI schema
url('/path/to/image.jpg') (apostrophes can be omitted), separate multiples by comma
none No background image
initial Default value
inherit Inherit parent's value

More CSS for Background Image

This following attributes are very useful and almost essential too.

background-size:xpx ypx | x% y%;

Section 5.4: Background Shorthand

The background property can be used to set one or more background related properties:

Value Description CSS Ver.

background-image Background image to use 1+
background-color Background color to apply 1+
background-position Background image's position 1+
background-size Background image's size 3+
background-repeat How to repeat background image 1+
How the background is positioned (ignored when background-attachment is
background-origin 3+
fixed)

background-clip How the background is painted relative to the content-box, border-box, or the 3+
padding-box
How the background image behaves, whether it scrolls along with its containing block or
background-attachment has a ﬁxed position within the viewport 1+
initial Sets the property to value to default 3+
inherit Inherits property value from parent 2+

The order of the values does not matter and every value is optional

Syntax

The syntax of the background shorthand declaration is:

d-image>] [<background-color>][<background-position>]/[<background-size>] [<background-repeat>] [<background-origin>] [<background-clip>] [<background-att

Examples
background: red;

Simply setting a background-color with the redvalue.

background: border-box red;

Setting a background-clip to border-box and a background-color to red.

background: no-repeat center url("somepng.jpg");

Sets a background-repeat to no-repeat, background-origin to center and a background-image to an image.

background: url('pattern.png') green;

In this example, the background-color of the element would be set to green with pattern.png, if it is available, overlayed
on the colour, repeating as often as necessary to ﬁll the element. If pattern.png includes any transparency then the
green colour will be visible behind it.

background: #000000 url("picture.png") top left / 600px auto no-repeat;

In this example we have a black background with an image 'picture.png' on top, the image does not repeat in
either axis and is positioned in the top left corner. The / after the position is to be able to include the size of the
background image which in this case is set as 600px width and auto for the height. This example could work well
with a feature image that can fade into a solid colour.

NOTE: Use of the shorthand background property resets all previously set background property
values, even if a value is not given. If you wish only to modify a background property value previously
set, use a longhand property instead.

Section 5.5: Background Size

General overview

The background-size property enables one to control the scaling of the background-image. It takes up to two values,
which determine the scale/size of the resulting image in vertical and and horizontal direction. If the property is
missing, its deemed auto in both width and height.

auto will keep the image's aspect ratio, if it can be determined. The height is optional and can be considered auto.
Therefore, on a 256 px × 256 px image, all the following background-size settings would yield an image with height
and width of 50 px:

background-size: 50px;
background-size: 50px auto; /* same as above */
background-size: auto 50px;
background-size: 50px 50px;

So if we started with the following picture (which has the mentioned size of 256 px × 256 px),
we'll end up with a 50 px × 50 px on the user's screen, contained in the background of our element:

One can also use percentage values to scale the image with respect of the element. The following example would
yield a 200 px × 133 px drawn image:

#withbackground {
background-image: url(to/some/background.png);

background-size: 100% 66%;

width: 200px;
height: 200px;

padding: 0;
margin: 0;
}

The behaviour depends on the background-origin.

Keeping the aspect ratio

The last example in the previos section lost its original aspect ratio. The circle got into an ellipse, the square into a
rectangle, the triangle into another triangle.

The length or percentage approach isn't ﬂexible enough to keep the aspect ratio at all times. auto doesn't help,
since you might not know which dimension of your element will be larger. However, to cover certain areas with
an
image (and correct aspect ratio) completely or to contain an image with correct aspect ratio completely in a
background area, the values, contain and cover provide the additional functionality.

Eggsplanation for contain and cover

Sorry for the bad pun, but we're going to use a picture of the day by Biswarup Ganguly for demonstration. Lets
say that this is your screen, and the gray area is outside of your visible screen. For demonstration, We're going
to assume a 16 × 9 ratio.

We want to use the aforementioned picture of the day as a background. However, we cropped the image to 4x3
for some reason. We could set the background-size property to some ﬁxed length, but we will focus on contain and
cover. Note that I also assume that we didn't mangle the width and/or height of body.

contain

Scale the image, while preserving its intrinsic aspect ratio (if any), to the largest size such that both
its width and its height can ﬁt inside the background positioning area.

This makes sure that the background image is always completely contained in the background positioning area,
however, there could be some empty space ﬁlled with your background-color in this case:
cover

cover

Scale the image, while preserving its intrinsic aspect ratio (if any), to the smallest size such that both
its width and its height can completely cover the background positioning area.

This makes sure that the background image is covering everything. There will be no visible background-color,
however depending on the screen's ratio a great part of your image could be cut oﬀ:

Demonstration with actual code

div > div {
background-image: url(
background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: center center; background-color: #ccc;
border: 1px solid; width: 20em; height: 10em;
}
div.contain {
background-size: contain;
}
div.cover {
background-size: cover;
}
/******************************************** Additional styles for the explanation boxes
*********************************************/

div > div {

margin: 0 1ex 1ex 0;
float: left;
}
div + div {
clear: both;
border-top: 1px dashed silver;
padding-top:1ex;
}
div > div::after { background-color: #000; color: #fefefe;
margin: 1ex; padding: 1ex; opacity: 0.8; display: block; width: 10ex;
font-size: 0.7em;
content: attr(class);
}

<div>
<div class="contain"></div>
<p>Note the grey background. The image does not cover the whole region, but it's fully
<em>contained</em>.

<p>Note the ducks/geese at the bottom of the image. Most of the water is cut, as well as a part of the sky. You don't see the complete image anymore, but n

Section 5.6: Background Position

The background-position property is used to specify the starting position for a background image or gradient

.myClass {
background-image: url('path/to/image.jpg');
background-position: 50% 50%;
}

The position is set using an X and Y co-ordinate and be set using any of the units used within CSS.

Unit Description
A percentage for the horizontal offset is relative to (width of background positioning area - width of
background image).
value% value% A percentage for the vertical offset is relative to (height of background positioning area - height of
background image)
The size of the image is the size given by background-size.
Offsets background image by a length given in pixels relative to the top left of the background
valuepx valuepx positioning area
Units in CSS can be specified by different methods (see here).

Longhand Background Position Properties

In addition to the shorthand property above, one can also use the longhand background properties background-
position-x and background-position-y. These allow you to control the x or y positions separately.

NOTE: This is supported in all browsers except Firefox (versions 31-48) 2. Firefox 49, to be released
September 2016, will support these properties. Until then, there is a Firefox hack within this Stack
Overﬂow answer.

Section 5.7: The background-origin property

The background-origin property speciﬁes where the background image is positioned.
Note: If the background-attachment property is set to fixed, this property has no eﬀect.
Default value: padding-box

Possible values:

padding-box - The position is relative to the padding box

border-box - The position is relative to the border box
content-box - The position is relative to the content box
initial
inherit

CSS

.example {
width: 300px;
border: 20px solid black;
padding: 50px;
background: url(https://static.pexels.com/photos/6440/magazines-desk-work-workspace-medium.jpg);
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}

.example1 {}

.example2 { background-origin: border-box; }

.example3 { background-origin: content-box; }

HTML

<p>No background-origin (padding-box is default):</p>

<div class="example example1">
<h2>Lorem Ipsum Dolor</h2>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna
aliquam erat volutpat.</p>
<p>Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.</p>
</div>

<p>background-origin: border-box:</p>
<div class="example example2">
<h2>Lorem Ipsum Dolor</h2>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna
aliquam erat volutpat.</p>
<p>Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.</p>
</div>

<p>background-origin: content-box:</p>
<div class="example example3">
<h2>Lorem Ipsum Dolor</h2>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna
aliquam erat volutpat.</p>
<p>Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.</p>
</div>

Result:
More:

https://www.w3.org/TR/css3-background/#the-background-origin
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/background-origin

Section 5.8: Multiple Background Image

In CSS3, we can stack multiple background in the same element.

#mydiv {
background-image: url(img_1.png), /* top image */
url(img_2.png), /* middle image */
url(img_3.png); /* bottom image */
background-position: right bottom,
left top, right top;
background-repeat: no-repeat,
repeat,
no-repeat;
}

Images will be stacked atop one another with the ﬁrst background on top and the last background in the back.
img_1 will be on top, the img_2 and img_3 is on bottom.
We can also use background shorthand property for this:

#mydiv {
background: url(img_1.png) right bottom no-repeat, url(img_2.png) left top repeat, url(img_3.png) right top no-repeat;
}

We can also stack images and gradients:

#mydiv {
background: url(image.png) right bottom no-repeat,
linear-gradient(to bottom, #fff 0%,#000 100%);
}

Demo

Section 5.9: Background Attachment

The background-attachment property sets whether a background image is ﬁxed or scrolls with the rest of the page.

body {
background-image: url('img.jpg');
background-attachment: fixed;
}

Value Description
scroll The background scrolls along with the element. This is
default. ﬁxed The background is ﬁxed with regard to the
viewport.
local The background scrolls along with the element's
contents. initial Sets this property to its default value.
inherit Inherits this property from its parent element.
Examples
background-attachment: scroll

The default behaviour, when the body is scrolled the background scrolls with it:

body {
background-image: url('image.jpg');
background-attachment: scroll;
}

background-attachment: ﬁxed

The background image will be ﬁxed and will not move when the body is scrolled:

body {
background-image: url('image.jpg');
background-attachment: fixed;
}

background-attachment: local

The background image of the div will scroll when the contents of the div is scrolled.

div {
background-image: url('image.jpg');
background-attachment: local;
}

Section 5.10: Background Clip

Deﬁnition and Usage: The background-clip property speciﬁes the painting area of the background.
Default value: border-box

Values

border-box is the default value. This allows the background to extend all the way to the outside edge of the
element's border.
padding-box clips the background at the outside edge of the element's padding and does not let it extend
into the border;
content-box clips the background at the edge of the content box.
inherit applies the setting of the parent to the selected element.

CSS

.example {
width: 300px;
border: 20px solid black;
padding: 50px;
background: url(https://static.pexels.com/photos/6440/magazines-desk-work-workspace-medium.jpg);
background-repeat: no-repeat;
}

.example1 {}

.example2 { background-origin: border-box; }

.example3 { background-origin: content-box; }

HTML

<p>No background-origin (padding-box is default):</p>

<div class="example example1">

<h2>Lorem Ipsum Dolor</h2>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat.</p>
<p>Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.</p>
</div>

<p>background-origin: border-box:</p>
<div class="example example2">
<h2>Lorem Ipsum Dolor</h2>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat.</p>
<p>Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.</p>
</div>

<p>background-origin: content-box:</p>
<div class="example example3">
<h2>Lorem Ipsum Dolor</h2>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat.</
<p>Ut wisi enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.</p>
</div>

Section 5.11: Background Repeat

The background-repeat property sets if/how a background image will be
repeated. By default, a background-image is repeated both vertically and
horizontally.
div {
background-image: url("img.jpg");
background-repeat: repeat-y;
}

Here's how a background-repeat: repeat-y looks like:

Section 5.12: background-blend-mode Property

.my-div {
width: 300px;
height: 200px;
background-size: 100%;
background-repeat: no-repeat;
background-image: linear-gradient(to right, black 0%,white 100%), url('https://static.pexels.com/photos/54624/strawberry-fruit-red-sweet-54624-medium.jpeg');
background-blend-mode:saturation;
}

<div class="my-div">Lorem ipsum</div>

See result here: https://jsﬁddle.net/MadalinaTn/y69d28Lb/

Section 5.13: Background Color with Opacity

If you set opacity on an element it will aﬀect all its child elements. To set an opacity just on the background of an
element you will have to use RGBA colors. Following example will have a black background with 0.6 opacity.

/* Fallback for web browsers that don't support RGBa */

background-color: rgb(0, 0, 0);

/* RGBa with 0.6 opacity */

background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.6);

/* For IE 5.5 - 7*/

filter: progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.gradient(startColorstr=#99000000, endColorstr=#99000000);

/* For IE 8*/
-ms-filter: "progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.gradient(startColorstr=#99000000, endColorstr=#99000000)";
Chapter 6: Centering
Section 6.1: Using Flexbox
HTML:

CSS:

html, body, .container {

height: 100%;
}
.container {
display: flex;
justify-content: center; /* horizontal center */
}
img {
align-self: center; /* vertical center */
}

View Result

HTML:

CSS:

html, body {
height: 100%;
}
body {
display: flex;
justify-content: center; /* horizontal center */
align-items: center;/* vertical center */
}

View Result

See Dynamic Vertical and Horizontal Centering under the Flexbox documentation for more details on ﬂexbox and
what the styles mean.

Browser Support

Flexbox is supported by all major browsers, except IE versions before 10.

Some recent browser versions, such as Safari 8 and IE10, require vendor prefixes.
For a quick way to generate prefixes there is Autoprefixer, a third-party tool.

For older browsers (like IE 8 & 9) a Polyﬁll is available.

For a more detailed look at ﬂexbox browser support, see this answer.
Section 6.2: Using CSS transform
CSS transforms are based on the size of the elements so if you don't know how tall or wide your element is, you
can position it absolutely 50% from the top and left of a relative container and translate it by 50% left and
upwards to center it vertically and horizontally.

Keep in mind that with this technique, the element could end being rendered at a non-integer pixel boundary,
making it look blurry. See this answer in SO for a workaround.

HTML

CSS

.container {
position: relative;
}

.element {
position: absolute;
top: 50%;
left: 50%;
transform: translate(-50%, -50%);
}

View example in JSFiddle

CROSS BROWSER COMPATIBILITY

The transform property needs preﬁxes to be supported by older browsers. Preﬁxes are needed for Chrome<=35,
Safari<=8, Opera<=22, Android Browser<=4.4.4, and IE9. CSS transforms are not supported by IE8 and older
versions.

Here is a common transform declaration for the previous example:

-webkit-transform: translate(-50%, -50%); /* Chrome, Safari, Opera, Android */

-ms-transform: translate(-50%, -50%); /* IE 9 */
transform: translate(-50%, -50%);

For more information see canIuse.

MORE INFORMATION

The element is being positioned according to the ﬁrst non-static parent ( position: relative, absolute, or
fixed). Explore more in this ﬁddle and this documentation topic.

For horizontal-only centering, use left: 50% and transform: translateX(-50%). The same goes for vertical- only
centering: center with top: 50% and transform: translateY(-50%).
Using a non-static width/height elements with this method of centering can cause the centered
element to appear squished. This mostly happens with elements containing text, and can be fixed by
adding: margin- right: -50%; and margin-bottom: -50%;. View this fiddle for more information.
Section 6.3: Using margin: 0 auto;
Objects can be centered by using if they are block elements and have a defined width.
margin: 0 auto;
HTML
<div class="containerDiv">
<div id="centeredDiv"></div>
</div>

<div class="containerDiv">
<p id="centeredParagraph">This is a centered paragraph.</p>
</div>

CSS

.containerDiv { width: 100%; height: 100px;

padding-bottom: 40px;
}

#centeredDiv { margin: 0 auto; width: 200px; height: 100px;

border: 1px solid #000;
}

#centeredParagraph { width: 200px; margin: 0 auto;

}

#centeredImage { display: block; width: 200px; margin: 0 auto;

}

Result:
JSFiddle example: Centering objects with margin: 0 auto;

Section 6.4: Using text-align

The most common and easiest type of centering is that of lines of text in an element. CSS has the rule text-align:
center for this purpose:

HTML

<p>Lorem ipsum</p>

CSS

p{
text-align: center;
}

This does not work for centering entire block elements. text-align controls only alignment of inline content like text in
its parent block element.

See more about text-align in Typography section.

Section 6.5: Using position: absolute

Working in old browsers (IE >= 8)

Automatic margins, paired with values of zero for the left and right or top and bottom oﬀsets, will center an
absolutely positioned elements within its parent.

View Result

HTML
<div class="parent">
<img class="center" src=/>
</div>

CSS

.parent {
position: relative;
height: 500px;
}

.center {
position: absolute;
margin: auto;
top: 0;
right: 0;
bottom: 0;
left: 0;
}

Elements that don't have their own implicit width and height like images do, will need those values deﬁned.
Other resources: Absolute Centering in CSS

Section 6.6: Using calc()

The calc() function is the part of a new syntax in CSS3 in which you can calculate (mathematically) what
size/position your element occupies by using a variety of values like pixels, percentages, etc. Note: Whenever you
use this function, always take care of the space between two values calc(100% - 80px).

CSS

.center {
position: absolute; height: 50px; width: 50px; background: red;
top: calc(50% - 50px / 2); /* height divided by 2*/
left: calc(50% - 50px / 2); /* width divided by 2*/
}

HTML

Section 6.7: Using line-height

You can also use line-height to center vertically a single line of text inside a container :

CSS

div {
height: 200px;
line-height: 200px;
}
That's quite ugly, but can be useful inside an <input /> element. The line-height property works only when the
text to be centered spans a single line. If the text wraps into multiple lines, the resulting output won't be
centered.

Section 6.8: Vertical align anything with 3 lines of code

Supported by IE11+
View Result
Use these 3 lines to vertical align practically everything. Just make sure the div/image you apply the code to has
a parent with a height.

CSS

div.vertical { position: relative; top: 50%;

transform: translateY(-50%);
}

HTML

<div class="vertical">Vertical aligned text!</div>

Section 6.9: Centering in relation to another item

We will see how to center content based on the height of a near element.
Compatibility: IE8+, all other modern browsers.

HTML

<div class="content">
<div class="position-container">
<div class="thumb">
<img src=>
</div>
<div class="details">
<p class="banner-title">text 1</p>
<p class="banner-text">content content content content content content content content content content content content content content</p>
<button class="btn">button</button>
</div>
</div>
</div>

CSS

.content * {
box-sizing: border-box;
}
.content .position-container {
display: table;
}
.content .details { display: table-cell; vertical-align: middle;
width: 33.333333%;
padding: 30px;
font-size: 17px;
text-align: center;
}
.content .thumb {
width: 100%;
}
.content .thumb img {
width: 100%;
}

Link to JSFiddle

The main points are the 3 .thumb, .details and .position-container containers: The .position-
container must have display: table.

The .details must have the real width set width:....................and display: table-cell, vertical-align:
middle.

The .thumb must have width: 100% if you want that it will take all the remaining space and it will be
inﬂuenced by the .details width.
The image (if you have an image) inside .thumb should have width: 100%, but it is not necessary if you have
correct proportions.

Section 6.10: Ghost element technique (Michał Czernow's hack)

This technique works even when the container's dimensions are unknown.

Set up a "ghost" element inside the container to be centered that is 100% height, then use vertical-align:
middle on both that and the element to be centered.

CSS

ower than the element inside */

y space character rendered. Could be eliminated by nudging .centered (nudge distance depends on font family), or by zeroing font-size i
/* The element to be centered, can also be of any width and height */
.centered {
display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 300px;
white-space: normal; /* Resetting inherited nowrap behavior */
}

HTML

Section 6.11: Centering vertically and horizontally

without worrying about height or width
The following technique allows you to add your content to an HTML element and center it both horizontally and
vertically without worrying about its height or width.

The outer container

should have display: table;

The inner container

should have display: table-cell; should have

vertical-align: middle; should have text-
align: center;

The content box

should have display: inline-block;

should re-adjust the horizontal text-alignment to eg. text-align: left; or text-align: right;, unless you want
text to be centered

Demo

HTML

<div class="outer-container">
<div class="inner-container">
<div class="centered-content"> You can put anything here!
</div>
</div>
</div>

CSS

body {
margin : 0;
}

.outer-container { position : absolute; display: table;

width: 100%; /* This could be ANY width */
height: 100%; /* This could be ANY height */
background: #ccc;
}

.inner-container { display: table-cell; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

}

.centered-content { display: inline-block; text-align: left; background: #fff; padding: 20px;

border: 1px solid #000;
}

Section 6.12: Vertically align an image inside div

HTML

CSS

.wrap {
height: 50px;/* max image height */
width: 100px;
border: 1px solid blue;
text-align: center;
}
.wrap:before {
content:"";
display: inline-block;
height: 100%;
vertical-align: middle;
width: 1px;
}

img {
vertical-align: middle;
}

Section 6.13: Centering with ﬁxed size

If the size of your content is ﬁxed, you can use absolute positioning to 50% with margin that reduces half of your
content's width and height:

HTML

<div class="center">
Center vertically and horizontally
</div>
CSS

.center {
position: absolute;
background: #ccc;

left: 50%;
width: 150px;
margin-left: -75px;/* width * -0.5 */

top: 50%;
height: 200px;
margin-top: -100px;/* height * -0.5 */
}

Horizontal centering with only ﬁxed width

You can center the element horizontally even if you don't know the height of the content:

HTML

<div class="center">
Center only horizontally
</div>

CSS

.center {
position: absolute;
background: #ccc;

left: 50%;
width: 150px;
margin-left: -75px;/* width * -0.5 */
}

Vertical centering with ﬁxed height

You can center the element vertically if you know the element's height:

HTML

<div class="center"> Center only vertically

</div>

CSS

.center {
position: absolute;
background: #ccc;

top: 50%;
height: 200px;
margin-top: -100px;/* width * -0.5 */
}
Section 6.14: Vertically align dynamic height elements
Applying css intuitively doesn't produce the desired results because

vertical-align:middle isn't applicable to block-level elements

margin-top:auto and margin-bottom:auto used values would compute as zero
margin-top:-50% percentage-based margin values are calculated relative to the width of containing block

For widest browser support, a workaround with helper elements:

HTML

CSS

.vcenter--container { display: table; height: 100%; position: absolute; overflow: hidden; width: 100%;
}
.vcenter--helper { display: table-cell; vertical-align: middle;
}
.vcenter--content { margin: 0 auto; width: 200px;
}

jsﬁddle from original question. This approach

works with dynamic height elements

respects content ﬂow
is supported by legacy browsers

Section 6.15: Horizontal and Vertical centering using table

layout
One could easily center a child element using table display property.

HTML

<div class="wrapper">
<div class="parent">
<div class="child"></div>
</div>
</div>
CSS

.wrapper {
display: table; vertical-align: center; width: 200px;
height: 200px;
background-color: #9e9e9e;
}
.parent {
display: table-cell; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;
}
.child {
display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center; width: 100px;
height: 100px;
background-color: teal;
}
Chapter 7: The Box Model
Parameter Detail
content-box Width and height of the element only includes content area.
padding-box Width and height of the element includes content and padding.
border-box Width and height of the element includes content, padding and border.
initial Sets the box model to its default state.
inherit Inherits the box model of the parent element.

Section 7.1: What is the Box Model?

The Edges

The browser creates a rectangle for each element in the HTML document. The Box Model describes how the
padding, border, and margin are added to the content to create this rectangle.

Diagram from CSS2.2 Working Draft

The perimeter of each of the four areas is called an edge. Each edge deﬁnes a box.

The innermost rectangle is the content box. The width and height of this depends on the element's
rendered content (text, images and any child elements it may have).
Next is the padding box, as defined by the padding property. If there is no padding width defined, the padding
edge is equal to the content edge.
Then we have the border box, as defined by the border property. If there is no border width defined, the
border edge is equal to the padding edge.
The outermost rectangle is the margin box, as defined by the margin property. If there is no margin width
defined, the margin edge is equal to the border edge.

Example
div {
border: 5px solid red; margin: 50px; padding: 20px;
}

This CSS styles all div elements to have a top, right, bottom and left border of 5px in width; a top, right, bottom
and left margin of 50px; and a top, right, bottom, and left padding of 20px. Ignoring content, our generated box
will look like this:

Screenshot of Google Chrome's Element Styles panel

As there is no content, the content region (the blue box in the middle) has no height or width (0px by 0px).
The padding box by default is the same size as the content box, plus the 20px width on all four edges
we're defining above with the padding property (40px by 40px).
The border box is the same size as the padding box, plus the 5px width we're defining above with the border
property (50px by 50px).
Finally the margin box is the same size as the border box, plus the 50px width we're defining above with the
margin property (giving our element a total size of 150px by 150px).

Now lets give our element a sibling with the same style. The browser looks at the Box Model of both elements to
work out where in relation to the previous element's content the new element should be positioned:

The content of each of element is separated by a 150px gap, but the two elements' boxes touch each other.

If we then modify our ﬁrst element to have no right margin, the right margin edge would be in the same position
as the right border edge, and our two elements would now look like this:

Section 7.2: box-sizing

The default box model (content-box) can be counter-intuitive, since the width / height for an element will not
represent its actual width or height on screen as soon as you start adding padding and border styles to the
element.

The following example demonstrates this potential issue with content-box:

textarea {
width: 100%;
padding: 3px;
box-sizing: content-box; /* default value */
}

Since the padding will be added to the width of the textarea, the resulting element is a textarea that is wider
than 100%.

Fortunately, CSS allows us to change the box model with the box-sizing property for an element. There are three
diﬀerent values for the property available:

content-box: The common box model - width and height only includes the content, not the padding or
border
padding-box: Width and height includes the content and the padding, but not the border
border-box: Width and height includes the content, the padding as well as the border

To solve the textarea problem above, you could just change the box-sizing property to padding-box or border- box. border-
box is most commonly used.

textarea {
width: 100%;
padding: 3px;
box-sizing: border-box;
}

To apply a speciﬁc box model to every element on the page, use the following snippet:

html {
box-sizing: border-box;
}

*, *:before, *:after {
box-sizing: inherit;
}

In this coding box-sizing:border-box; is not directly applied to *, so you can easily overwrite this property on
individual elements.
Chapter 8: Margins
Parameter Details
0 set margin to none
auto used for centering, by evenly setting values on each
side units (e.g. px) see parameter section in Units for a list of valid
units inherit inherit margin value from parent element
initial restore to initial value

Section 8.1: Margin Collapsing

When two margins are touching each other vertically, they are collapsed. When two margins touch
horizontally, they do not collapse.

Example of adjacent vertical margins:

Consider the following styles and markup:

div{
margin: 10px;
}

<div>
some content
</div>
<div>
some more content
</div>

They will be 10px apart since vertical margins collapse over one and other. (The spacing will not be the sum of two
margins.)

Example of adjacent horizontal margins:

Consider the following styles and markup:

span{
margin: 10px;
}

<span>some</span><span>content</span>

They will be 20px apart since horizontal margins don't collapse over one and other. (The spacing will be the sum
of two margins.)

Overlapping with diﬀerent sizes

.top{
margin: 10px;
}
.bottom{
margin: 15px;
}

<div class="top"> some content

</div>
<div class="bottom"> some more content
</div>

These elements will be spaced 15px apart vertically. The margins overlap as much as they can, but the larger
margin will determine the spacing between the elements.

Overlapping margin gotcha

.outer-top{
margin: 10px;
}
.inner-top{
margin: 15px;
}
.outer-bottom{
margin: 20px;
}
.inner-bottom{
margin: 25px;
}

<div class="outer-top">
<div class="inner-top"> some content
</div>
</div>
<div class="outer-bottom">
<div class="inner-bottom"> some more content
</div>
</div>

What will be the spacing between the two texts? (hover to see answer)

The spacing will be 25px. Since all four margins are touching each other, they will collapse, thus using the
largest margin of the four.

Now, what about if we add some borders to the markup above.

div{
border: 1px solid red;
}

What will be the spacing between the two texts? (hover to see answer)

The spacing will be 59px! Now only the margins of .outer-top and .outer-bottom touch each other,
and are the only collapsed margins. The remaining margins are separated by the borders. So we have
1px + 10px + 1px + 15px + 20px + 1px + 25px + 1px. (The 1px's are the borders...)

Collapsing Margins Between Parent and Child Elements:

HTML:
<h1>Title</h1>
<div>
<p>Paragraph</p>
</div>

CSS

h1 {
margin: 0;
background: #cff;
}
div {
margin: 50px 0 0 0;
background: #cfc;
}
p{
margin: 25px 0 0 0;
background: #cf9;
}

In the example above, only the largest margin applies. You may have expected that the paragraph would be
located 60px from the h1 (since the div element has a margin-top of 40px and the p has a 20px margin-top). This
does not happen because the margins collapse together to form one margin.

Section 8.2: Apply Margin on a Given Side

Direction-Speciﬁc Properties

CSS allows you to specify a given side to apply margin to. The four properties provided for this purpose are:

margin-left
margin-right
margin-top
margin-bottom

The following code would apply a margin of 30 pixels to the left side of the selected div. View Result

HTML

CSS

#myDiv {
margin-left: 30px; height: 40px; width: 40px;
background-color: red;
}

Parameter Details
margin-left The direction in which the margin should be
applied. 30px The width of the margin.
Specifying Direction Using Shorthand Property

The standard margin property can be expanded to specify diﬀering widths to each side of the selected elements.
The syntax for doing this is as follows:
margin: <top> <right> <bottom> <left>;

The following example applies a zero-width margin to the top of the div, a 10px margin to the right side, a 50px
margin to the left side, and a 100px margin to the left side. View Result

HTML

CSS

#myDiv {
margin: 0 10px 50px 100px;
height: 40px;
width: 40px;
background-color: red;
}

Section 8.3: Margin property simpliﬁcation

p{
margin:1px; /* 1px margin in all directions */

/*equals to:*/

margin:1px 1px;

/*equals to:*/

margin:1px 1px 1px;

/*equals to:*/

margin:1px 1px 1px 1px;

}

Another exapmle:

p{
margin:10px 15px; /* 10px margin-top & bottom And 15px margin-right & left*/

/*equals to:*/

margin:10px 15px 10px 15px;

/*equals to:*/

margin:10px 15px 10px;

/* margin left will be calculated from the margin right value (=15px) */
}

Section 8.4: Horizontally center elements on a page

using margin
As long as the element is a block, and it has an explicitly set width value, margins can be used to center block
elements on a page horizontally.
We add a width value that is lower than the width of the window and the auto property of margin then
distributes the remaining space to the left and the right:

#myDiv { width:80%; margin:0 auto;

}

In the example above we use the shorthand margin declaration to ﬁrst set 0 to the top and bottom margin values
(although this could be any value) and then we use auto to let the browser allocate the space automatically to
the left and right margin values.

In the example above, the #myDiv element is set to 80% width which leaves use 20% leftover. The browser
distributes this value to the remaining sides so:

(100% - 80%) / 2 = 10%

Section 8.5: Example 1:

It is obvious to assume that the percentage value of margin to margin-left and margin-right would be relative to its
parent element.

.parent {
width : 500px;
height: 300px;
}

.child {
width : 100px;
height: 100px;
margin-left: 10%;/* (parentWidth * 10/100) => 50px */
}

But that is not the case, when comes to margin-top and margin-bottom. Both these properties, in percentages, aren't
relative to the height of the parent container but to the width of the parent container.

So,

.parent {
width : 500px;
height: 300px;
}

.child {
width : 100px;
height: 100px;
margin-left: 10%;/* (parentWidth * 10/100) => 50px*/
margin-top: 20%;/* (parentWidth * 20/100) => 100px */
}

Section 8.6: Negative margins

Margin is one of a few CSS properties that can be set to negative values. This property can be used to overlap
elements without absolute positioning.

div{
display: inline;
}

#over{
margin-left: -20px;
}

<div>Base div</div>
<div id="over">Overlapping div</div>
Chapter 9: Padding
Section 9.1: Padding Shorthand
The padding property sets the padding space on all sides of an element. The padding area is the space between the
content of the element and its border. Negative values are not allowed.

To save adding padding to each side individually (using padding-top, padding-left etc) can you write it as a shorthand,
as below:

Four values:
<style>
.myDiv {
padding: 25px 50px 75px 100px; /* top right bottom left; */
}
</style>
<div class="myDiv"></div>

Three values:
<style>
.myDiv {
padding: 25px 50px 75px; /* top left/right bottom */
}
</style>
<div class="myDiv"></div>

Two values:
<style>
.myDiv {
padding: 25px 50px; /* top/bottom left/right */
}
</style>
<div class="myDiv"></div>

One value:
<style>
.myDiv {
padding: 25px; /* top/right/bottom/left */
}
</style>
<div class="myDiv"></div>

Section 9.2: Padding on a given side

The padding property sets the padding space on all sides of an element. The padding area is the space between the
content of the element and its border. Negative values are not allowed.

You can specify a side individually:

padding-top
padding-right
padding-bottom
padding-left

The following code would add a padding of 5px to the top of the div:
<style>
.myClass {
padding-top: 5px;
}
</style>

<div class="myClass"></div>
Chapter 10: Border
Section 10.1: border-radius
The border-radius property allows you to change the shape of the basic box model.

Every corner of an element can have up to two values, for the vertical and horizontal radius of that corner (for a
maximum of 8 values).

The first set of values defines the horizontal radius. The optional second set of values, preceded by a ‘/’ , defines the
vertical radius. If only one set of values is supplied, it is used for both the vertical and horizontal radius.

border-radius: 10px 5% / 20px 25em 30px 35em;

The 10px is the horizontal radius of the top-left-and-bottom-right. And the 5% is the horizontal radius of
the top- right-and-bottom-left. The other four values after '/' are the vertical radii for top-left, top-right,
bottom-right and bottom-left.

As with many CSS properties, shorthands can be used for any or all possible values. You can therefore specify
anything from one to eight values. The following shorthand allows you to set the horizontal and vertical radius
of every corner to the same value:

HTML:

CSS:

.box {
width: 250px;
height: 250px; background-color: black; border-radius: 10px;
}

Border-radius is most commonly used to convert box elements into circles. By setting the border-radius to half
of the length of a square element, a circular element is created:

.circle {
width: 200px;
height: 200px;
border-radius: 100px;
}
Because border-radius accepts percentages, it is common to use 50% to avoid manually calculating the border-
radius value:

.circle {
width: 150px; height: 150px; border-radius: 50%;
}

-webkit-border-top-right-radius: 4px;
-webkit-border-bottom-right-radius: 4px;
-webkit-border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
-webkit-border-top-left-radius: 0;
-moz-border-radius-topright: 4px;
-moz-border-radius-bottomright: 4px;
-moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 0;
-moz-border-radius-topleft: 0; border-top-right-radius: 4px; border-bottom-right-radius: 4px; border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
border-top-left-radius: 0;

If the width and height properties are not equal, the resulting shape will be an oval rather than a circle.
Browser speciﬁc border-radius example:

Section 10.2: border-style

The border-style property sets the style of an element's border. This property can have from one to four values (for
every side of the element one value.)

Examples:

border-style: dotted;
border-style: dotted solid double dashed;

border-style can also have the values none and hidden. They have the same effect, except hidden works for border
conflict resolution for <table> elements. In a <table> with multiple borders, none has the lowest priority
(meaning in a conflict, the border would show), and hidden has the highest priority (meaning in a conflict, the
border would not show).
Section 10.3: Multiple Borders
Using outline:

.div1{
border: 3px solid black; outline: 6px solid blue; width: 100px;
height: 100px;
margin: 20px;
}

Using box-shadow:

.div2{
border: 5px solid green;
box-shadow: 0px 0px 0px 4px #000;
width: 100px; height: 100px; margin: 20px;
}

Using a pseudo element:

.div3 {
position: relative; border: 5px solid #000; width: 100px;
height: 100px;
margin: 20px;
}
.div3:before { content: " "; position: absolute;
border: 5px solid blue;
z-index: -1; top: 5px; left: 5px; right: 5px; bottom: 5px;
}
http://jsﬁddle.net/MadalinaTn/bvqpcohm/2/

Section 10.4: border (shorthands)

In most cases you want to deﬁne several border properties (border-width, border-style and border-color) for all sides of
an element.

Instead of writing:

border-width: 1px; border-style: solid; border-color: #000;

You can simply write:

border: 1px solid #000;

These shorthands are also available for every side of an element: border-top, border-left, border-right and
border-bottom. So you can do:

border-top: 2px double #aaaaaa;

Section 10.5: border-collapse

The border-collapse property applies only to tables (and elements displayed as display: table or inline- table) and sets
whether the table borders are collapsed into a single border or detached as in standard HTML.

table {
border-collapse: separate; /* default */
border-spacing: 2px; /* Only works if border-collapse is separate */
}

Also see Tables - border-collapse documentation entry

Section 10.6: border-image
With the border-image property you have the possibility to set an image to be used instead of normal border
styles.

A border-image essentially consist of a

border-image-source: The path to the image to be used

border-image-slice: Specifies the offset that is used to divide the image into nine regions (four corners, four
edges and a middle)
border-image-repeat: Specifies how the images for the sides and the middle of the border image are scaled

Consider the following example wheras border.png is a image of 90x90 pixels:

border-image: url("border.png") 30 stretch;

The image will be split into nine regions with 30x30 pixels. The edges will be used as the corners of the border
while the side will be used in between. If the element is higher / wider than 30px this part of the image will be
stretched. The middle part of the image defaults to be transparent.

Section 10.7: Creating a multi-colored border using border-

image
CSS
d{
-image: linear-gradient(to right, red 20%, green 20%, green 40%, blue 40%, blue 60%, maroon 60%, maroon 80%, chocolate 80%); /* gradient with required
-image-slice: 1;

HTML
<div class='bordered'>Border on all sides</div>

The above example would produce a border that comprises of 5 different colors. The colors are defined through a
linear-gradient (you can find more information about gradients in the docs). You can find more information about
border-image-slice property in the border-image example in same page.

(Note: Additional properties were added to the element for presentational purpose.)

You'd have noticed that the left border has only a single color (the start color of the gradient) while the right
border also has only a single color (the gradient's end color). This is because of the way that border image
property works. It is as though the gradient is applied to the entire box and then the colors are masked from the
padding and content areas, thus making it look as though only the border has the gradient.

Which border(s) have a single color is dependant on the gradient deﬁnition. If the gradient is a to right gradient,
the left border would be the start color of the gradient and right border would be the end color. If it was a to
bottom gradient the top border would be the gradient's start color and bottom border would be end color. Below is
the output of a to bottom 5 colored gradient.

If the border is required only on speciﬁc sides of the element then the border-width property can be used just like
with any other normal border. For example, adding the below code would produce a border only on the top of the
element.

border-width: 5px 0px 0px 0px;

Note that, any element that has border-image property won't respect the border-radius (that is the border won't curve). This
is based on the below statement in the spec:

A box's backgrounds, but not its border-image, are clipped to the appropriate curve (as determined by
‘background-clip’).

Section 10.8: border-[left|right|top|bottom]

The border-[left|right|top|bottom] property is used to add a border to a speciﬁc side of an element. For example
if you wanted to add a border to the left side of an element, you could do:

#element {
border-left: 1px solid black;
}
Chapter 11: Outlines
Parameter Details
dotted dotted outline
dashed dashed outline
solid solid outline
double double outline
groove 3D grooved outline, depends on the outline-color
value ridge 3D ridged outline, depends on the outline-color value
inset 3D inset outline, depends on the outline-color value
outset 3D outset outline, depends on the outline-color value
none no outline
hidden hidden outline

Section 11.1: Overview

Outline is a line that goes around the element, outside of the border. In contrast to border, outlines do not take
any space in the box model. So adding an outline to an element does not aﬀect the position of the element or
other elements.

In addition, outlines can be non-rectangular in some browsers. This can happen if outline is applied on a span
element that has text with diﬀerent font-size properties inside it. Unlike borders, outlines cannot have rounded
corners.

The essential parts of outline are outline-color, outline-style and outline-width. The deﬁnition of
an outline is equivalent to the deﬁnition of a border:

An outline is a line around an element. It is displayed around the margin of the element. However, it is
diﬀerent from the border property.

outline: 1px solid black;

Section 11.2: outline-style

The outline-style property is used to set the style of the outline of an element.

p{
border: 1px solid black;
outline-color:blue; line-height:30px;
}
.p1{
outline-style: dotted;
}
.p2{
outline-style: dashed;
}
.p3{
outline-style: solid;
}
.p4{
outline-style: double;
}
.p5{
outline-style: groove;
}
.p6{
outline-style: ridge;
}
.p7{
outline-style: inset;
}
.p8{
outline-style: outset;
}

HTML

<p class="p1">A dotted outline</p>

<p class="p2">A dashed outline</p>
<p class="p3">A solid outline</p>
<p class="p4">A double outline</p>
<p class="p5">A groove outline</p>
<p class="p6">A ridge outline</p>
<p class="p7">An inset outline</p>
<p class="p8">An outset outline</p>
Chapter 12: Overflow
Overflow Value Details
visible Shows all overflowing content outside the
element Hides the overflowing content and adds a
scroll
scroll bar
hidden Hides the overflowing content, both scroll bars disappear and the page becomes
fixed Same as scroll if content overflows, but doesn't add scroll bar if content fits
auto
inherit Inherit's the parent element's value for this property

Section 12.1: overﬂow-wrap

overflow-wrap tells a browser that it can break a line of text inside a targeted element onto multiple lines in an
otherwise unbreakable place. Helpful in preventing an long string of text causing layout problems due to
overﬂowing it's container.

CSS

div {
width:100px;
outline: 1px dashed #bbb;
}

#div1 {
overflow-wrap:normal;
}

#div2 {
overflow-wrap:break-word;
}

HTML

ng>: Small words are displayed normally, but a long word like <span style="red;">supercalifragilisticexpialidocious</span> is too long so it will overflow past

ng>: Small words are displayed normally, but a long word like <span style="red;">supercalifragilisticexpialidocious</span> will be split at the line break and c
overflow-wrap – Value Details
normal Lets a word overﬂow if it is longer than the line
break-word Will split a word into multiple lines, if necessary
inherit Inherits the parent element's value for this
property

Section 12.2: overﬂow-x and overﬂow-y

These two properties work in a similar fashion as the overflow property and accept the same values. The
overflow-x parameter works only on the x or left-to-right axis. The overflow-y works on the y or top-to-bottom
axis.

HTML

<div id="div-x">
If this div is too small to display its contents, the content to the left and right will be clipped.
</div>

<div id="div-y">
If this div is too small to display its contents, the content to the top and bottom will be clipped.
</div>

CSS

div {
width: 200px;
height: 200px;
}

#div-x {
overflow-x: hidden;
}
#div-y {
overflow-y: hidden;
}

Section 12.3: overﬂow: scroll

HTML

<div>
This div is too small to display its contents to display the effects of the overflow property.
</div>

CSS

div { width:100px; height:100px;

overflow:scroll;
}

Result

The content above is clipped in a 100px by 100px box, with scrolling available to view overﬂowing content.

Most desktop browsers will display both horizontal and vertical scrollbars, whether or not any content is
clipped. This can avoid problems with scrollbars appearing and disappearing in a dynamic environment. Printers
may print overﬂowing content.

Section 12.4: overﬂow: visible

HTML

<div>
Even if this div is too small to display its contents, the content is not clipped.
</div>

CSS

div { width:50px; height:50px;

overflow:visible;
}

Result
Content is not clipped and will be rendered outside the content box if it exceeds its container size.

Section 12.5: Block Formatting Context Created with

Overflow
Using the overflow property with a value different to visible will create a new block formatting context. This is
useful for aligning a block element next to a floated element.

CSS

img {
float:left;
margin-right: 10px;
}
div {
overflow:hidden; /* creates block formatting context */
}

HTML

<img src=>
<div>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, cum no paulo mollis pertinacia.</p>
<p>Ad case omnis nam, mutat deseruisse persequeris eos ad, in tollit debitis sea.</p>
</div>

Result
This example shows how paragraphs within a div with the overflow property set will interact with a floated image.
Chapter 13: Media Queries
Parameter Details
mediatype (Optional) This is the type of media. Could be anything in the range of all to screen.
(Optional) Doesn't apply the CSS for this particular media type and applies for
not everything else.
media feature Logic to identify use case for CSS. Options outlined below.
Media Feature Details
aspect-ratio Describes the aspect ratio of the targeted display area of the output device.
Indicates the number of bits per color component of the output device. If the device is
color not a color device, this value is zero.
color-index Indicates the number of entries in the color look-up table for the output device.
grid Determines whether the output device is a grid device or a bitmap device.
height The height media feature describes the height of the output device's rendering surface.
max-width CSS will not apply on a screen width wider than specified.
min-width CSS will not apply on a screen width narrower than specified.
max-height CSS will not apply on a screen height taller than specified.
min-height CSS will not apply on a screen height shorter than specified.
monochrome Indicates the number of bits per pixel on a monochrome (greyscale) device.
orientation CSS will only display if device is using specified orientation. See remarks for more details.
resolution Indicates the resolution (pixel density) of the output device.
scan Describes the scanning process of television output devices.
The width media feature describes the width of the rendering surface of the output
width device (such as the width of the document window, or the width of the page box on a
printer).
Deprecated Features Details
Deprecated
CSS will only display on devices whose height/width ratio matches the specified
device-aspect-ratio max- ratio. This is adeprecatedfeature and is not guaranteed to work.
Deprecated Same as max-width but measures the physical screen width, rather than the display
width of the browser.
device-width min-device-
Deprecated Same as min-width but measures the physical screen width, rather than the display
width of the browser.
width max-device-height Deprecated Same as max-height but measures the physical screen width, rather than the
display width of the browser.
Deprecated Same as min-height but measures the physical screen width, rather than the
min-device-height display width of the browser.

Section 13.1: Terminology and Structure

Media queries allow one to apply CSS rules based on the type of device / media (e.g. screen, print or handheld)
called media type, additional aspects of the device are described with media features such as the availability of
color or viewport dimensions.

General Structure of a Media Query

@media [...] {
/* One or more CSS rules to apply when the query is satisfied */
}

A Media Query containing a Media Type

@media print {
/* One or more CSS rules to apply when the query is satisfied */
}
A Media Query containing a Media Type and a Media Feature
@media screen and (max-width: 600px) {
/* One or more CSS rules to apply when the query is satisfied */
}

A Media Query containing a Media Feature (and an implicit Media Type of "all")
@media (orientation: portrait) {
/* One or more CSS rules to apply when the query is satisfied */
}

Section 13.2: Basic Example

@media screen and (min-width: 720px) { body {
background-color: skyblue;
}
}

The above media query speciﬁes two conditions:

1. The page must be viewed on a normal screen (not a printed page, projector, etc).
2. The width of the user's view port must be at least 720 pixels.

If these conditions are met, the styles inside the media query will be active, and the background color of the
page will be sky blue.

Media queries are applied dynamically. If on page load the conditions speciﬁed in the media query are met, the CSS
will be applied, but will be immediately disabled should the conditions cease to be met. Conversely, if the
conditions are initially not met, the CSS will not be applied until the speciﬁed conditions are met.

In our example, if the user's view port width is initially greater than 720 pixels, but the user shrinks the
browser's width, the background color will cease to be sky blue as soon as the user has resized the view port to
less than 720 pixels in width.

Section 13.3: mediatype

Media queries have an optional mediatype parameter. This parameter is placed directly after the @media
declaration (@media mediatype), for example:

@media print { html {

background-color: white;
}
}

The above CSS code will give the DOM HTML element a white background color when being printed.

The mediatype parameter has an optional not or only prefix that will apply the styles to everything except the
specified mediatype or only the specified media type, respectively. For example, the following code example will
apply the style to every media type except print.

@media not print { html {

background-color: green;
}
}

And the same way, for just showing it only on the screen, this can be used:

@media only screen {

.fadeInEffects {
display: block;
}
}

The list of mediatype can be understood better with the following table:

Media Type Description

all Apply to all devices
screen Default computers
print Printers in general. Used to style print-versions of
websites handheld PDA's, cellphones and hand-held devices with a small
screen projection For projected presentation, for example projectors
aural Speech Systems
braille Braille tactile devices
embossed Paged braille
printers
tv Television-type devices
tty Devices with a ﬁxed-pitch character grid. Terminals, portables.

Section 13.4: Media Queries for Retina and Non

Retina Screens
Although this works only for WebKit based browsers, this is helpful:

/* ----------- Non-Retina Screens */

@media screen
and (min-width: 1200px) and (max-width: 1600px)
and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1) {
}

/* ----------- Retina Screens */

@media screen
and (min-width: 1200px) and (max-width: 1600px)
and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (min-resolution: 192dpi) {
}

Background Information

There are two types of pixels in the display. One is the logical pixels and the other is the physical pixels. Mostly,
the physical pixels always stay the same, because it is the same for all the display devices. The logical pixels
change based on the resolution of the devices to display higher quality pixels. The device pixel ratio is the ratio
between physical pixels and logical pixels. For instance, the MacBook Pro Retina, iPhone 4 and above report a
device pixel ratio of 2, because the physical linear resolution is double the logical resolution.

The reason why this works only with WebKit based browsers is because of:
The vendor preﬁx -webkit- before the rule.
This hasn't been implemented in engines other than WebKit and Blink.

Section 13.5: Width vs Viewport

When we are using "width" with media queries it is important to set the meta tag correctly. Basic meta tag looks
like this and it needs to be put inside the <head> tag.

<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width,initial-scale=1">

Why this is important?

Based on MDN's deﬁnition "width" is

The width media feature describes the width of the rendering surface of the output device (such as the
width of the document window, or the width of the page box on a printer).

What does that mean?

View-port is the width of the device itself. If your screen resolution says the resolution is 1280 x 720, your
view-port width is "1280px".

More often many devices allocate diﬀerent pixel amount to display one pixel. For an example iPhone 6 Plus
has 1242 x 2208 resolution. But the actual viewport-width and viewport-height is 414 x 736. That means 3
pixels are used to create 1 pixel.

But if you did not set the meta tag correctly it will try to show your webpage with its native resolution which
results in a zoomed out view (smaller texts and images).

Section 13.6: Using Media Queries to Target Dierent

Screen Sizes
Often times, responsive web design involves media queries, which are CSS blocks that are only executed
if a condition is satisﬁed. This is useful for responsive web design because you can use media queries to
specify diﬀerent CSS styles for the mobile version of your website versus the desktop version.

@media only screen and (min-width: 300px) and (max-width: 767px) {

.site-title {
font-size: 80%;
}

/* Styles in this block are only applied if the screen size is atleast 300px wide, but no more than 767px */
}

@media only screen and (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 1023px) {

.site-title {
font-size: 90%;
}

/* Styles in this block are only applied if the screen size is atleast 768px wide, but no more than 1023px */
}

@media only screen and (min-width: 1024px) {

.site-title {
font-size: 120%;
}

/* Styles in this block are only applied if the screen size is over 1024px wide. */
}

Section 13.7: Use on link tag

This stylesheet is still downloaded but is applied only on devices with screen width larger than 600px.

Section 13.8: Media queries and IE8

Media queries are not supported at all in IE8 and below.

A Javascript based workaround

To add support for IE8, you could use one of several JS solutions. For example, Respond can be added to add
media query support for IE8 only with the following code :

CSS Mediaqueries is another library that does the same thing. The code for adding that library to your HTML
would be identical :

The alternative

If you don't like a JS based solution, you should also consider adding an IE<9 only stylesheet where you adjust your
styling speciﬁc to IE<9. For that, you should add the following HTML to your code:

Note :

Technically it's one more alternative: using CSS hacks to target IE<9. It has the same impact as an IE<9 only
stylesheet, but you don't need a separate stylesheet for that. I do not recommend this option, though, as they
produce invalid CSS code (which is but one of several reasons why the use of CSS hacks is generally frowned upon
today).
Chapter 14: Floats
Section 14.1: Float an Image Within Text
The most basic use of a float is having text wrap around an image. The below code will produce two
paragraphs and an image, with the second paragraph flowing around the image. Notice that it is always
content after the floated element that flows around the floated element.

HTML:

Nulla quis sem at nibh elementum imperdiet. Duis sagittis ipsum. Praesent mauris. Fusce nec tellus sed augue semper porta. Mauris massa. Vestibulum lacinia arcu eg

ignissim lacinia nunc. Curabitur tortor. Pellentesque nibh. Aenean quam. In scelerisque sem at dolor. Maecenas mattis. Sed convallis tristique sem. Proin ut ligula vel

CSS:

img {
float:left; margin-right:1rem;
}

This will be the output

Codepen Link

Section 14.2: clear property

The clear property is directly related to ﬂoats. Property Values:

none - Default. Allows ﬂoating elements on both

sides left - No floating elements allowed on the left
side right - No floating elements allowed on the
right side
both - No floating elements allowed on either the left or the right side
initial - Sets this property to its default value. Read about initial
inherit - Inherits this property from its parent element. Read about inherit
<html>
<head>
<style>
img {
float: left;
}

p.clear {
clear: both;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

<img src="https://static.pexels.com/photos/69372/pexels-photo-69372-medium.jpeg" width="100">

<p>Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum
<p class="clear">Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum Lorem ipsoum

</body>
</html>

Section 14.3: Clearﬁx

The clearﬁx hack is a popular way to contain ﬂoats (N. Gallagher aka @necolas)

Not to be confused with the clear property, clearfix is a concept (that is also related to floats, thus the possible
confusion). To contain floats, you've to add .cf or .clearfix class on the container (the parent) and style this class
with a few rules described below.

3 versions with slightly different effects (sources :A new micro clearfix hack by N. Gallagher and clearfix reloaded by
T. J. Koblentz):

Clearﬁx (with top margin collapsing of contained ﬂoats still occurring)

.cf:after {
content: "";
display: table;
}

.cf:after {
clear: both;
}

Clearﬁx also preventing top margin collapsing of contained ﬂoats

/**
For modern browsers
1. The space content is one way to avoid an Opera bug when the
contenteditable attribute is included anywhere else in the document.
Otherwise it causes space to appear at the top and bottom of elements
that are clearfixed.
2. The use of `table` rather than `block` is only necessary if using
`:before` to contain the top-margins of child elements.
*/
.cf:before,
.cf:after {
content: " "; /* 1 */
display: table; /* 2 */
}

.cf:after {
clear: both;
}
Clearﬁx with support of outdated browsers IE6 and IE7
.cf:before,
.cf:after {
content: " ";
display: table;
}

.cf:after {
clear: both;
}

/**
For IE 6/7 only
Include this rule to trigger hasLayout and contain floats.
*/
.cf {
*zoom: 1;
}

Codepen showing clearﬁx eﬀect

Other resource: Everything you know about clearﬁx is wrong (clearﬁx and BFC - Block Formatting Context while
hasLayout relates to outdated browsers IE6 maybe 7)

Section 14.4: In-line DIV using ﬂoat

The div is a block-level element, i.e it occupies the whole of the page width and the siblings are place one below
the other irrespective of their width.

The output of the following code will be

We can make them in-line by adding a float css property to the div.
HTML:

CSS

.inner-div1 {
width: 50%; margin-right:0px; float:left;
background : #337ab7;
padding:50px 0px;
}

.inner-div2 {
width: 50%; margin-right:0px; float:left;
background : #dd2c00;
padding:50px 0px;
}

p{
text-align:center;
}
Codepen Link

Section 14.5: Use of overﬂow property to clear ﬂoats

Setting overflow value to hidden,auto or scroll to an element, will clear all the ﬂoats within that element.

Note: using overflow:scroll will always show the scrollbox

Section 14.6: Simple Two Fixed-Width Column Layout

A simple two-column layout consists of two fixed-width, floated elements. Note that the sidebar and content
area are not the same height in this example. This is one of the tricky parts with multi-column layouts using
floats, and requires workarounds to make multiple columns appear to be the same height.

HTML:

enaeos.
sque nibh. Aenean quam. In scelerisque sem at dolor. Maecenas mattis. Sed convallis tristique sem. Proin ut ligula vel nunc egestas porttitor. Morbi lectus risus, iacul

CSS:

rapper { width:600px; padding:20px;

ackground-color:pink;

Floated elements don't use any height. Adding "overflow:hidden;" forces the parent element to expand to contain its floated children.
verflow:hidden;

debar { width:150px; float:left;

ackground-color:blue;
}

.content { width:450px; float:right;

background-color:yellow;
}

Section 14.7: Simple Three Fixed-Width Column Layout

HTML:

tra, per inceptos himenaeos.

abitur tortor. Pellentesque nibh. Aenean quam. In scelerisque sem at dolor. Maecenas mattis. Sed convallis tristique sem. Proin ut ligula vel nunc egestas porttitor. Mo

CSS:

rapper {
idth:600px; background-color:pink; padding:20px;

Floated elements don't use any height. Adding "overflow:hidden;" forces the parent element to expand to contain its floated children.
verflow:hidden;

ft-sidebar { width:150px; background-color:blue; float:left;

ontent {
width:300px;
background-color:yellow; float:left;
}

.right-sidebar {
width:150px;
background-color:green; float:right;
}
Section 14.8: Two-Column Lazy/Greedy Layout
This layout uses one ﬂoated column to create a two-column layout with no deﬁned widths. In this example the
left sidebar is "lazy," in that it only takes up as much space as it needs. Another way to say this is that the left
sidebar is "shrink-wrapped." The right content column is "greedy," in that it takes up all the remaining space.

HTML:

iet. Duis sagittis ipsum. Praesent mauris. Fusce nec tellus sed augue semper porta. Mauris massa. Vestibulum lacinia arcu eget nulla. </p>
llentesque nibh. Aenean quam. In scelerisque sem at dolor. Maecenas mattis. Sed convallis tristique sem. Proin ut ligula vel nunc egestas porttitor. Morbi lectus risus,

CSS:

.sidebar {
/* `display:table;` shrink-wraps the column */
display:table; float:left; background-color:blue;
}

.content {
/* `overflow:hidden;` prevents `.content` from flowing under `.sidebar` */
overflow:hidden; background-color:yellow;
}

Fiddle
Chapter 15: Typography
Parameter Details
font-style italics or oblique
font-variant normal or small-caps
font-weight normal, bold or numeric from 100 to 900.
font-size The font size given in %, px, em, or any other valid CSS measurement
line-height The line height given in %, px, em, or any other valid CSS
measurement font-family This is for deﬁning the family's name.
color Any valid CSS color representation, like red, #00FF00, hsl(240, 100%, 50%) etc.
Whether or not to use a confenced or expanded face from font. Valid values are normal, ultra-
font-stretch condensed, extra-condensed, condensed, semi-condensed, semi-expanded, expanded, extra- expanded or ultra-
expanded
text- start, match-parent
end, left, right, center, justify,
align
text-decoration none, underline, overline, line-through, initial, inherit;

Section 15.1: The Font Shorthand

With the syntax:

element {
font: [font-style] [font-variant] [font-weight] [font-size/line-height] [font-family];
}

You can have all your font-related styles in one declaration with the font shorthand. Simply use the font property,
and put your values in the correct order.

For example, to make all p elements bold with a font size of 20px and using Arial as the font family typically you
would code it as follows:

p{
font-weight: bold;
font-size: 20px;
font-family: Arial, sans-serif;
}

However with the font shorthand it can be condensed as follows:

p{
font: bold 20px Arial, sans-serif;
}

Note: that since font-style, font-variant, font-weight and line-height are optional, the three of them are skipped in this
example. It is important to note that using the shortcut resets the other attributes not given.
Another important point is that the two necessary attributes for the font shortcut to work are font-size and font- family.
If they are not both included the shortcut is ignored.

Initial value for each of the properties:

font-style: normal;
font-variant: normal;
font-weight: normal;
font-stretch: normal;
font-size: medium;
line-height: normal;

font-family – depends on user agent

Section 15.2: Quotes

The quotes property is used to customize the opening and closing quotation marks of the <q> tag.

q{
quotes: "«" "»";
}

Section 15.3: Font Size

HTML:

<div id="element-one">Hello I am some text.</div>

<div id="element-two">Hello I am some smaller text.</div>

CSS:

#element-one {
font-size: 30px;
}

#element-two {
font-size: 10px;
}

The text inside #element-one will be 30px in size, while the text in #element-two will be 10px in size.

Section 15.4: Text Direction

div {
direction: ltr; /* Default, text read read from left-to-right */
}
.ex {
direction: rtl; /* text read from right-to-left */
}
.horizontal-tb {
writing-mode: horizontal-tb; /* Default, text read from left-to-right and top-to-bottom. */
}
.vertical-rtl {
writing-mode: vertical-rl; /* text read from right-to-left and top-to-bottom */
}
.vertical-ltr {
writing-mode: vertical-rl; /* text read from left-to-right and top to bottom */
}

The direction property is used to change the horizontal text direction of an element.
Syntax: direction: ltr | rtl | initial | inherit;
The writing-mode property changes the alignment of text so it can be read from top-to-bottom or from left-to-right,
depending on the language.
Syntax: direction: horizontal-tb | vertical-rl | vertical-lr;

Section 15.5: Font Stacks

font-family: 'Segoe UI', Tahoma, sans-serif;

The browser will attempt to apply the font face "Segoe UI" to the characters within the elements targeted by
the above property. If this font is not available, or the font does not contain a glyph for the required character,
the browser will fall back to Tahoma, and, if necessary, any sans-serif font on the user's computer. Note that
any font names with more than one word such as "Segoe UI" need to have single or double quotes around them.

font-family: Consolas, 'Courier New', monospace;

The browser will attempt to apply the font face "Consolas" to the characters within the elements targeted by
the above property. If this font is not available, or the font does not contain a glyph for the required character,
the browser will fall back to "Courier New," and, if necessary, any monospace font on the user's computer.

Section 15.6: Text Overﬂow

The text-overflow property deals with how overﬂowed content should be signaled to users. In this example, the
ellipsis represents clipped text.

.text {
overflow: hidden;
text-overflow: ellipsis;
}

Unfortunately, text-overflow: ellipsis only works on a single line of text. There is no way to support ellipsis on
the last line in standard CSS, but it can be achieved with non-standard webkit-only implementation of ﬂexboxes.

.giveMeEllipsis {
overflow: hidden;
text-overflow: ellipsis;
display: -webkit-box;
-webkit-box-orient: vertical;
-webkit-line-clamp: N; /* number of lines to show */
line-height: X;/* fallback */
max-height: X*N;/* fallback */
}

Example (open in Chrome or Safari):

http://jsﬁddle.net/csYjC/1131/
Resources:

https://www.w3.org/TR/2012/WD-css3-ui-20120117/#text-overﬂow0

Section 15.7: Text Shadow

To add shadows to text, use the text-shadow property. The syntax is as follows:

text-shadow: horizontal-offset vertical-offset blur color;

Shadow without blur radius

h1 {
text-shadow: 2px 2px #0000FF;
}

This creates a blue shadow eﬀect around a heading

Shadow with blur radius

To add a blur eﬀect, add an option blur radius argument

h1 {
text-shadow: 2px 2px 10px #0000FF;
}

Multiple Shadows

To give an element multiple shadows, separate them with commas

h1 {
text-shadow: 0 0 3px #FF0000, 0 0 5px #0000FF;
}

Section 15.8: Text Transform

The text-transform property allows you to change the capitalization of text. Valid values are: uppercase, capitalize,
lowercase, initial, inherit, and none

CSS

.example1 {
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.example2 {
text-transform: capitalize;
}
.example3 {
text-transform: lowercase;
}

HTML

<p class="example1">
all letters in uppercase
</p>
<p class="example2">
all letters in capitalize 
</p>
<p class="example3">
all letters in lowercase
</p>

Section 15.9: Letter Spacing

h2 {
/* adds a 1px space horizontally between each letter; also known as tracking */
letter-spacing: 1px;
}

The letter-spacing property is used to specify the space between the characters in a text.

! letter-spacing also supports negative values:

p{
letter-spacing: -1px;
}

Resources: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/letter-spacing

Section 15.10: Text Indent

p{
text-indent: 50px;
}

The text-indent property speciﬁes how much horizontal space text should be moved before the beginning of the
ﬁrst line of the text content of an element.

Resources:

Indenting only the ﬁrst line of text in a paragraph?

https://www.w3.org/TR/CSS21/text.html#propdef-text-indent
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/text-indent

Section 15.11: Text Decoration

The text-decoration property is used to set or remove decorations from text.

h1 { text-decoration: none; }
h2 { text-decoration: overline; }
h3 { text-decoration: line-through; } h4 { text-decoration: underline; }

text-decoration can be used in combination with text-decoration-style and text-decoration-color as a

shorthand property:

.title { text-decoration: underline dotted blue; }

This is a shorthand version of

.title {
text-decoration-style: dotted; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-color: blue;
}

It should be noted that the following properties are only supported in Firefox

text-decoration-color
text-decoration-line
text-decoration-style
text-decoration-skip
Section 15.12: Word Spacing
The word-spacing property speciﬁes the spacing behavior between tags and words.

Possible values

a positive or negative length (using em px vh cm etc.) or percentage (using %)

the keyword normal uses the font's default word spacing
the keyword inherit takes the value from the parent element

CSS

.normal { word-spacing: normal; }

.narrow { word-spacing: -3px; }
.extensive { word-spacing: 10px; }

HTML

<p>
<span class="normal">This is an example, showing the effect of "word-spacing".</span><br>
<span class="narrow">This is an example, showing the effect of "word-spacing".</span><br>
<span class="extensive">This is an example, showing the effect of "word-spacing".</span><br>
</p>

Online-Demo

Try it yourself

Section 15.13: Font Variant

Attributes:

normal

Default attribute of fonts.

small-caps

Sets every letter to uppercase, but makes the lowercase letters(from original text) smaller in size than the
letters that originally uppercase.

CSS:

.smallcaps{
font-variant: small-caps;
}

HTML:

<p class="smallcaps"> Documentation about CSS Fonts

<br>
aNd ExAmpLe
</p>

Output:

Note: The font-variant property is a shorthand for the properties: font-variant-caps, font-variant-numeric,
font- variant-alternates, font-variant-ligatures, and font-variant-east-asian.
Chapter 16: Flexible Box Layout (Flexbox)
The Flexible Box module, or just 'flexbox' for short, is a box model designed for user interfaces, and it allows
users to align and distribute space among items in a container such that elements behave predictably when the
page layout must accommodate different, unknown screen sizes. A flex container expands items to fill available
space and shrinks them to prevent overflow.

Section 16.1: Dynamic Vertical and Horizontal Centering

(align- items, justify-content)
Simple Example (centering a single element)
HTML
<div class="aligner">
<div class="aligner-item">…</div>
</div>

CSS
.aligner {
display: flex;
align-items: center;
justify-content: center;
}

.aligner-item {
max-width: 50%; /*for demo. Use actual width instead.*/
}

Here is a demo.

Reasoning
Property Value Description
This centers the elements along the axis other than the one specified by flex-direction,
align-items center i.e., vertical centering for a horizontal flexbox and horizontal centering for a vertical
flexbox.
This centers the elements along the axis specified by flex-direction. I.e., for a
justify-content center horizontal (flex-direction: row) flexbox, this centers horizontally, and for a vertical flexbox
(flex-direction: column) flexbox, this centers vertically)

Individual Property Examples

All of the below styles are applied onto this simple layout:

where #container is the flex-box.

Example: justify-content: center on a horizontal ﬂexbox

CSS:
div#container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: row;
justify-content: center;
}

Outcome:

Here is a demo.

Example: justify-content: center on a vertical ﬂexbox

CSS:

div#container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: column;
justify-content: center;
}

Outcome:
Here is a demo.

Example: align-content: center on a horizontal ﬂexbox

CSS:

div#container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: row;
align-items: center;
}

Outcome:
Here is a demo.

Example: align-content: center on a vertical ﬂexbox

CSS:

div#container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: column;
align-items: center;
}

Outcome:
Here is a demo.

Example: Combination for centering both on horizontal ﬂexbox

div#container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: row; justify-content: center; align-items: center;
}

Outcome:
Here is a demo.

Example: Combination for centering both on vertical ﬂexbox

div#container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: column; justify-content: center; align-items: center;
}

Outcome:
Here is a demo.

Section 16.2: Sticky Variable-Height Footer

This code creates a sticky footer. When the content doesn't reach the end of the viewport, the footer sticks to
the bottom of the viewport. When the content extends past the bottom of the viewport, the footer is also
pushed out of the viewport. View Result

HTML:

ulla quis sem at nibh elementum imperdiet. Duis sagittis ipsum. Praesent mauris. Fusce nec tellus sed augue semper porta. Mauris massa. Vestibulum lacinia arcu eget
<h4>Footer</h4>
</div>

CSS:

html, body {
height: 100%;
}

body {
display: flex;
flex-direction: column;
}

.content {
/* Include `0 auto` for best browser compatibility. */
flex: 1 0 auto;
}

.header, .footer { background-color: grey; color: white;

flex: none;
}

Section 16.3: Optimally ﬁt elements to their container

One of the nicest features of ﬂexbox is to allow optimally ﬁtting containers to their parent
element. Live demo.

HTML:

CSS:

.flex-container {
background-color: #000;
height: 100%;
display:flex;
flex-direction: row;
flex-wrap: wrap;
justify-content: flex-start; align-content: stretch; align-items: stretch;
}

.flex-item {
background-color: #ccf;
margin: 0.1em;
flex-grow: 1;
flex-shrink: 0;
flex-basis: 200px; /* or % could be used to ensure a specific layout */
}

Outcome:

Columns adapt as screen is resized.

Section 16.4: Holy Grail Layout using Flexbox

Holy Grail layout is a layout with a fixed height header and footer, and a center with 3 columns. The 3 columns
include a fixed width sidenav, a fluid center, and a column for other content like ads (the fluid center appears
first in the markup). CSS Flexbox can be used to achieve this with a very simple markup:

HTML Markup:

<div class="container">
<header class="header">Header</header>
<div class="content-body">
<main class="content">Content</main>
<nav class="sidenav">Nav</nav>
<aside class="ads">Ads</aside>
</div>
<footer class="footer">Footer</footer>
</div>

CSS:

body {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}

.container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: column;
height: 100vh;
}

.header {
flex: 0 0 50px;
}

.content-body {
flex: 1 1 auto;

display: flex;
flex-direction: row;
}

.content-body .content { flex: 1 1 auto; overflow: auto;

}

.content-body .sidenav {
order: -1;
flex: 0 0 100px;
overflow: auto;
}

.content-body .ads { flex: 0 0 100px; overflow: auto;

}

.footer {
flex: 0 0 50px;
}

Demo

Section 16.5: Perfectly aligned buttons inside cards with

ﬂexbox
It's a regular pattern in design these days to vertically align call to actions inside its containing cards like this:

This can be achieved using a special trick with flexbox

HTML
<div class="cards">
<div class="card">
<p>Lorem ipsum Magna proident ex anim dolor ullamco pariatur reprehenderit culpa esse enim mollit labore dolore voluptate ullamco et ut sed qui minim
<p><button>Action</button></p>
</div>
<div class="card">
<p>Lorem ipsum Magna proident ex anim dolor ullamco pariatur reprehenderit culpa esse enim mollit labore dolore voluptate ullamco et ut sed qui minim
<p>Lorem ipsum Magna proident ex anim dolor ullamco pariatur reprehenderit culpa esse enim mollit labore dolore voluptate ullamco et ut sed qui minim
<p>Lorem ipsum Magna proident ex anim dolor ullamco pariatur reprehenderit culpa esse enim mollit labore dolore voluptate ullamco et ut sed qui minim
<p>Lorem ipsum Magna proident ex anim dolor ullamco pariatur reprehenderit culpa esse enim mollit labore dolore voluptate ullamco et ut sed qui minim
<p><button>Action</button></p>
</div>
</div>

First of all, we use CSS to apply display: flex; to the container. This will create 2 columns equal in height with the
content ﬂowing naturally inside it

CSS

.cards {
display: flex;
}
.card {
border: 1px solid #ccc; margin: 10px 10px; padding: 0 20px;
}
button {
height: 40px; background: #fff; padding: 0 40px; border: 1px solid #000;
}
p:last-child {
text-align: center;
}

The layout will change and become like this:

In order to move the buttons to the bottom of the block, we need to apply display: flex; to the card itself with
the direction set to column. After that, we should select the last element inside the card and set the margin-top
to auto. This will push the last paragraph to the bottom of the card and achieve the required result.

Final CSS:

.cards {
display: flex;
}
.card {
border: 1px solid #ccc; margin: 10px 10px; padding: 0 20px; display: flex;
flex-direction: column;
}
button {
height: 40px; background: #fff; padding: 0 40px; border: 1px solid #000;
}
p:last-child {
text-align: center;
margin-top: auto;
}

Section 16.6: Same height on nested containers

This code makes sure that all nested containers are always the same height. This is done by assuring that all nested
elements are the same height as the containing parent div. See working example: https://jsﬁddle.net/3wwh7ewp/

This eﬀect is achieved due to the property align-items being set to stretch by default.

HTML

<div class="container">
<div style="background-color: red"> Some <br />
data <br />
to make<br />
a height <br />
</div>
<div style="background-color: blue"> Fewer <br />
lines <br />
</div>
</div>

CSS

.container {
display: flex;
align-items: stretch; // Default value
}

Note: Does not work on IE versions under 10

Chapter 17: Cascading and Specificity
Section 17.1: Calculating Selector Specificity
Each individual CSS Selector has its own specificity value. Every selector in a sequence increases the
sequence's overall specificity. Selectors fall into one of three different specificity groups: A, B and c. When
multiple selector sequences select a given element, the browser uses the styles applied by the sequence with
the highest overall specificity.

Group Comprised of Examples

A id selectors #foo
class selectors .bar
B attribute selectors [title], [colspan="2"]
pseudo-classes :hover, :nth-child(2)
type selectors div, li
c pseudo-elements
::before, ::first-letter

Group A is the most speciﬁc, followed by Group B, then ﬁnally Group c.

The universal selector (*) and combinators (like > and ~) have no speciﬁcity.

Example 1: Speciﬁcity of various selector sequences

#foo #baz {} /* a=2, b=0, c=0 */

#foo.bar {} /* a=1, b=1, c=0 */

#foo {} /* a=1, b=0, c=0 */

.bar:hover {} /* a=0, b=2, c=0 */

div.bar {} /* a=0, b=1, c=1 */

:hover {} /* a=0, b=1, c=0 */

[title] {} /* a=0, b=1, c=0 */

.bar {} /* a=0, b=1, c=0 */

div ul + li {} /* a=0, b=0, c=3 */

p::after {} /* a=0, b=0, c=2 */

::before {} / a=0, b=0, c=1 */

::before {} /* a=0, b=0, c=1 */

div {} /* a=0, b=0, c=1 */

* {} /* a=0, b=0, c=0 */

Example 2: How speciﬁcity is used by the browser

Imagine the following CSS implementation:

#foo {
color: blue;
}
.bar {
color: red;
background: black;
}

Here we have an ID selector which declares color as blue, and a class selector which declares color as red and
background as black.

An element with an ID of #foo and a class of .bar will be selected by both declarations. ID selectors have a Group A
specificity and class selectors have a Group B specificity. An ID selector outweighs any number of class selectors.
Because of this, color:blue; from the #foo selector and the background:black; from the .bar selector will be applied to
the element. The higher specificity of the ID selector will cause the browser to ignore the .bar selector's color
declaration.

Now imagine a diﬀerent CSS implementation:

.bar {
color: red;
background: black;
}

.baz {
background: white;
}

Here we have two class selectors; one of which declares color as red and background as black, and the other declares
background as white.

An element with both the .bar and .baz classes will be affected by both of these declarations, however the problem
we have now is that both .bar and .baz have an identical Group B specificity. The cascading nature of CSS resolves
this for us: as .baz is defined after .bar, our element ends up with the red color from .bar but the white background from
.baz.

Example 3: How to manipulate speciﬁcity

The last snippet from Example 2 above can be manipulated to ensure our .bar class selector's color declaration is
used instead of that of the .baz class selector.

.bar {} /* a=0, b=1, c=0 */

.baz {} /* a=0, b=1, c=0 */

The most common way to achieve this would be to ﬁnd out what other selectors can be applied to the .bar selector
sequence. For example, if the .bar class was only ever applied to span elements, we could modify the .bar selector to
span.bar. This would give it a new Group C speciﬁcity, which would override the .baz selector's lack thereof:

span.bar {} /* a=0, b=1, c=1 */

.baz {} /* a=0, b=1, c=0 */

However it may not always possible to find another common selector which is shared between any element which
uses the .bar class. Because of this, CSS allows us to duplicate selectors to increase specificity. Instead of just
.bar, we can use .bar.bar instead (See The grammar of Selectors, W3C Recommendation). This still selects any
element with a class of .bar, but now has double the Group B specificity:

.bar.bar {} /* a=0, b=2, c=0 */

.baz {} /* a=0, b=1, c=0 */
!important and inline style declarations

The !important flag on a style declaration and styles declared by the HTML style attribute are considered to have a
greater specificity than any selector. If these exist, the style declaration they affect will overrule other
declarations regardless of their specificity. That is, unless you have more than one declaration that contains an !
important flag for the same property that apply to the same element. Then, normal specificity rules will apply to
those properties in reference to each other.

Because they completely override specificity, the use of !important is frowned upon in most use cases. One should
use it as little as possible. To keep CSS code efficient and maintainable in the long run, it's almost always better
to increase the specificity of the surrounding selector than to use !important.

One of those rare exceptions where !important is not frowned upon, is when implementing generic helper classes
like a .hidden or .background-yellow class that are supposed to always override one or more properties wherever they
are encountered. And even then, you need to know what you're doing. The last thing you want, when writing
maintainable CSS, is to have !important ﬂags throughout your CSS.

A ﬁnal note

A common misconception about CSS specificity is that the Group A, B and c values should be combined with each
other (a=1, b=5, c=1 => 151). This is not the case. If this were the case, having 20 of a Group B or c selector would
be enough to override a single Group A or B selector respectively. The three groups should be regarded as
individual levels of specificity. Specificity cannot be represented by a single value.

When creating your CSS style sheet, you should maintain the lowest speciﬁcity as possible. If you need to make
the speciﬁcity a little higher to overwrite another method, make it higher but as low as possible to make it
higher. You shouldn't need to have a selector like this:

body.page header.container nav div#main-nav li a {}

This makes future changes harder and pollutes that css page.
You can calculate the speciﬁcity of your selector here

Section 17.2: The !important declaration

The !important declaration is used to override the usual speciﬁcity in a style sheet by giving a higher priority to a
rule. Its usage is: property : value !important;

#mydiv {
font-weight: bold !important;/* This property won't be overridden
by the rule below */
}

#outerdiv #mydiv {
font-weight: normal; /* #mydiv font-weight won't be set to normal even if it has a higher specificity because
of the !important declaration above */

Avoiding the usage of !important is strongly recommended (unless absolutely necessary), because it will disturb
the natural flow of css rules which can bring uncertainty in your style sheet. Also it is important to note that
when multiple !important declarations are applied to the same rule on a certain element, the one with the higher
specificity will be the ona applied.
Here are some examples where using !important declaration can be justified:

If your rules shouldn't be overridden by any inline style of the element which is written inside style
attribute of the html element.
To give the user more control over the web accessibility, like increasing or decreasing size of the font-size, by
overriding the author style using !important.
For testing and debugging using inspect element.

Section 17.3: Cascading

Cascading and specificity are used together to determine the final value of a CSS styling property. They also
define the mechanisms for resolving conflicts in CSS rule sets.

CSS Loading order

Styles are read from the following sources, in this order:

1. User Agent stylesheet (The styles supplied by the browser vendor)

2. User stylesheet (The additional styling a user has set on his/her browser)
3. Author stylesheet (Author here means the creator of the
webpage/website) Maybe one or more .css ﬁles
In the <style> element of the HTML document
4. Inline styles (In the style attribute on an HTML element)

The browser will lookup the corresponding style(s) when rendering an element.

How are conﬂicts resolved?

When only one CSS rule set is trying to set a style for an element, then there is no conﬂict, and that rule set is used.

When multiple rule sets are found with conflicting settings, first the Specificty rules, and then the Cascading
rules are used to determine what style to use.

Example 1 - Speciﬁcity rules

.mystyle { color: blue; }/* specificity: 0, 0, 1, 0 */
div { color: red; }/* specificity: 0, 0, 0, 1 */
<div class="mystyle">Hello World</div>

What color will the text be? (hover to see the

answer) blue

First the speciﬁcity rules are applied, and the one with the highest speciﬁcity "wins".

Example 2 - Cascade rules with identical selectors

External css ﬁle

.class {
background: #FFF;
}

Internal css (in HTML ﬁle)

In this case, where you have identical selectors, the cascade kicks in, and determines that the last one loaded
"wins".

Example 3 - Cascade rules after Speciﬁcity rules

body > .mystyle { background-color: blue; }/* specificity: 0, 0, 1, 1 */
.otherstyle > div { background-color: red; }/* specificity: 0, 0, 1, 1 */
<body class="otherstyle">
<div class="mystyle">Hello World</div>
</body>

What color will the background be?

red

After applying the specificity rules, there's still a conflict between blue and red, so the cascading rules are
applied on top of the specificity rules. Cascading looks at the load order of the rules, whether inside the same
.css file or in the collection of style sources. The last one loaded overrides any earlier ones. In this case, the
.otherstyle > div rule "wins".

A ﬁnal note

Selector speciﬁcity always take precedence.

Stylesheet order break ties.
Inline styles trump everything.

Section 17.4: More complex speciﬁcity example

div {
font-size: 7px;
border: 3px dotted pink; background-color: yellow; color: purple;
}

body.mystyle > div.myotherstyle {

font-size: 11px;
background-color: green;
}

#elmnt1 {
font-size: 24px;
border-color: red;
}
.mystyle .myotherstyle { font-size: 16px; background-color: black; color: red;
}

<body class="mystyle">
<div id="elmnt1" class="myotherstyle"> Hello, world!
</div>
</body>

What borders, colors, and font-sizes will the text

be? font-size:

font-size: 24;, since #elmnt1 rule set has the highest speciﬁcity for the <div> in question, every
property here is set.

border:

border: 3px dotted red;. The border-color red is taken from #elmnt1 rule set, since it has the highest
speciﬁcity. The other properties of the border, border-thickness, and border-style are from the div
rule set.

background-color:

background-color: green;. The background-color is set in the div, body.mystyle > div.myotherstyle, and .mystyle
.myotherstyle rule sets. The speciﬁcities are (0, 0, 1) vs. (0, 2, 2) vs. (0, 2, 0), so the middle one "wins".

color:

color: red;. The color is set in both the div and .mystyle .myotherstyle rule sets. The latter has the higher
speciﬁcity of (0, 2, 0) and "wins".
Chapter 18: Colors
Section 18.1: currentColor
currentColor returns the computed color value of the current element.

Use in same element

Here currentColor evaluates to red since the color property is set to red:

div {
color: red;
border: 5px solid currentColor;
box-shadow: 0 0 5px currentColor;
}

In this case, specifying currentColor for the border is most likely redundant because omitting it should produce
identical results. Only use currentColor inside the border property within the same element if it would be
overwritten otherwise due to a more speciﬁc selector.

Since it's the computed color, the border will be green in the following example due to the second rule overriding
the ﬁrst:

div {
color: blue;
border: 3px solid currentColor;
color: green;
}

Inherited from parent element

The parent's color is inherited, here currentColor evaluates to 'blue', making the child element's border-color blue.

.parent-class {
color: blue;
}

.parent-class .child-class {
border-color: currentColor;
}

currentColor can also be used by other rules which normally would not inherit from the color property, such
as background-color. The example below shows the children using the color set in the parent as its
background:

.parent-class {
color: blue;
}

.parent-class .child-class {
background-color: currentColor;
}

Possible Result:
Section 18.2: Color Keywords
Most browsers support using color keywords to specify a color. For example, to set the color of an element to
blue, use the blue keyword:

.some-class {
color: blue;
}

CSS keywords are not case sensitive—blue, Blue and BLUE will all result in #0000FF.

Color Keywords
Color name Hex value RGB values Color

AliceBlue #F0F8FF rgb(240,248,255)

AntiqueWhite #FAEBD7 rgb(250,235,215)

Aqua #00FFFF rgb(0,255,255)

Aquamarine #7FFFD4 rgb(127,255,212)

Azure #F0FFFF rgb(240,255,255)

Beige #F5F5DC rgb(245,245,220)

Bisque #FFE4C4 rgb(255,228,196)

Black #000000 rgb(0,0,0)

BlanchedAlmond #FFEBCD rgb(255,235,205)

Blue #0000FF rgb(0,0,255)

BlueViolet #8A2BE2 rgb(138,43,226)

Brown #A52A2A rgb(165,42,42)
BurlyWood #DEB887 rgb(222,184,135)

CadetBlue #5F9EA0 rgb(95,158,160)

Chartreuse #7FFF00 rgb(127,255,0)

Chocolate #D2691E rgb(210,105,30)

Coral #FF7F50 rgb(255,127,80)

CornﬂowerBlue #6495ED rgb(100,149,237)

Cornsilk #FFF8DC rgb(255,248,220)

Crimson #DC143C rgb(220,20,60)

Cyan #00FFFF rgb(0,255,255)

DarkBlue #00008B rgb(0,0,139)

DarkCyan #008B8B rgb(0,139,139)

DarkGoldenRod #B8860B rgb(184,134,11)

DarkGray #A9A9A9 rgb(169,169,169)

DarkGrey #A9A9A9 rgb(169,169,169)

DarkGreen #006400 rgb(0,100,0)

DarkKhaki #BDB76B rgb(189,183,107)

DarkMagenta #8B008B rgb(139,0,139)

DarkOliveGreen #556B2F rgb(85,107,47)

DarkOrange #FF8C00 rgb(255,140,0)

DarkOrchid #9932CC rgb(153,50,204)

DarkRed #8B0000 rgb(139,0,0)

DarkSalmon #E9967A rgb(233,150,122)

DarkSeaGreen #8FBC8F rgb(143,188,143)

DarkSlateBlue #483D8B rgb(72,61,139)

DarkSlateGray #2F4F4F rgb(47,79,79)

DarkSlateGrey #2F4F4F rgb(47,79,79)

DarkTurquoise #00CED1 rgb(0,206,209)

DarkViolet #9400D3 rgb(148,0,211)

DeepPink #FF1493 rgb(255,20,147)

DeepSkyBlue #00BFFF rgb(0,191,255)

DimGray #696969 rgb(105,105,105)

DimGrey #696969 rgb(105,105,105)

DodgerBlue #1E90FF rgb(30,144,255)

FireBrick #B22222 rgb(178,34,34)

FloralWhite #FFFAF0 rgb(255,250,240)

ForestGreen #228B22 rgb(34,139,34)

Fuchsia #FF00FF rgb(255,0,255)

Gainsboro #DCDCDC rgb(220,220,220)

GhostWhite #F8F8FF rgb(248,248,255)

Gold #FFD700 rgb(255,215,0)

GoldenRod #DAA520 rgb(218,165,32)

Gray #808080 rgb(128,128,128)

Grey #808080 rgb(128,128,128)

Green #008000 rgb(0,128,0)

GreenYellow #ADFF2F rgb(173,255,47)

HoneyDew #F0FFF0 rgb(240,255,240)

HotPink #FF69B4 rgb(255,105,180)

IndianRed #CD5C5C rgb(205,92,92)

Indigo #4B0082 rgb(75,0,130)

Ivory #FFFFF0 rgb(255,255,240)

Khaki #F0E68C rgb(240,230,140)

Lavender #E6E6FA rgb(230,230,250)

LavenderBlush #FFF0F5 rgb(255,240,245)

LawnGreen #7CFC00 rgb(124,252,0)

LemonChiﬀon #FFFACD rgb(255,250,205)

LightBlue #ADD8E6 rgb(173,216,230)

LightCoral #F08080 rgb(240,128,128)

LightCyan #E0FFFF rgb(224,255,255)

LightGoldenRodYellow #FAFAD2 rgb(250,250,210)

LightGray #D3D3D3 rgb(211,211,211)

LightGrey #D3D3D3 rgb(211,211,211)

LightGreen #90EE90 rgb(144,238,144)

LightPink #FFB6C1 rgb(255,182,193)

LightSalmon #FFA07A rgb(255,160,122)

LightSeaGreen #20B2AA rgb(32,178,170)

LightSkyBlue #87CEFA rgb(135,206,250)

LightSlateGray #778899 rgb(119,136,153)

LightSlateGrey #778899 rgb(119,136,153)

LightSteelBlue #B0C4DE rgb(176,196,222)

LightYellow #FFFFE0 rgb(255,255,224)

Lime #00FF00 rgb(0,255,0)

LimeGreen #32CD32 rgb(50,205,50)

Linen #FAF0E6 rgb(250,240,230)

Magenta #FF00FF rgb(255,0,255)

Maroon #800000 rgb(128,0,0)

MediumAquaMarine #66CDAA rgb(102,205,170)

MediumBlue #0000CD rgb(0,0,205)

MediumOrchid #BA55D3 rgb(186,85,211)

MediumPurple #9370DB rgb(147,112,219)

MediumSeaGreen #3CB371 rgb(60,179,113)

MediumSlateBlue #7B68EE rgb(123,104,238)

MediumSpringGreen #00FA9A rgb(0,250,154)

MediumTurquoise #48D1CC rgb(72,209,204)

MediumVioletRed #C71585 rgb(199,21,133)

MidnightBlue #191970 rgb(25,25,112)

MintCream #F5FFFA rgb(245,255,250)

MistyRose #FFE4E1 rgb(255,228,225)

Moccasin #FFE4B5 rgb(255,228,181)

NavajoWhite #FFDEAD rgb(255,222,173)

Navy #000080 rgb(0,0,128)

OldLace #FDF5E6 rgb(253,245,230)

Olive #808000 rgb(128,128,0)

OliveDrab #6B8E23 rgb(107,142,35)

Orange #FFA500 rgb(255,165,0)

OrangeRed #FF4500 rgb(255,69,0)

Orchid #DA70D6 rgb(218,112,214)

PaleGoldenRod #EEE8AA rgb(238,232,170)

PaleGreen #98FB98 rgb(152,251,152)

PaleTurquoise #AFEEEE rgb(175,238,238)

PaleVioletRed #DB7093 rgb(219,112,147)

PapayaWhip #FFEFD5 rgb(255,239,213)

PeachPuﬀ #FFDAB9 rgb(255,218,185)

Peru #CD853F rgb(205,133,63)

Pink #FFC0CB rgb(255,192,203)

Plum #DDA0DD rgb(221,160,221)

PowderBlue #B0E0E6 rgb(176,224,230)

Purple #800080 rgb(128,0,128)

RebeccaPurple #663399 rgb(102,51,153)

Red #FF0000 rgb(255,0,0)

RosyBrown #BC8F8F rgb(188,143,143)

RoyalBlue #4169E1 rgb(65,105,225)

SaddleBrown #8B4513 rgb(139,69,19)

Salmon #FA8072 rgb(250,128,114)

SandyBrown #F4A460 rgb(244,164,96)

SeaGreen #2E8B57 rgb(46,139,87)

SeaShell #FFF5EE rgb(255,245,238)

Sienna #A0522D rgb(160,82,45)

Silver #C0C0C0 rgb(192,192,192)

SkyBlue #87CEEB rgb(135,206,235)

SlateBlue #6A5ACD rgb(106,90,205)

SlateGray #708090 rgb(112,128,144)

SlateGrey #708090 rgb(112,128,144)

Snow #FFFAFA rgb(255,250,250)

SpringGreen #00FF7F rgb(0,255,127)

SteelBlue #4682B4 rgb(70,130,180)

Tan #D2B48C rgb(210,180,140)

Teal #008080 rgb(0,128,128)

Thistle #D8BFD8 rgb(216,191,216)

Tomato #FF6347 rgb(255,99,71)

Turquoise #40E0D0 rgb(64,224,208)

Violet #EE82EE rgb(238,130,238)

Wheat #F5DEB3 rgb(245,222,179)

White #FFFFFF rgb(255,255,255)

WhiteSmoke #F5F5F5 rgb(245,245,245)

Yellow #FFFF00 rgb(255,255,0)

YellowGreen #9ACD32 rgb(154,205,50)

In addition to the named colors, there is also the keyword transparent, which represents a fully-transparent black:
rgba(0,0,0,0)
Section 18.3: Hexadecimal Value
Background

CSS colors may also be represented as a hex triplet, where the members represent the red, green and blue
components of a color. Each of these values represents a number in the range of 00 to FF, or 0 to 255 in decimal
notation. Uppercase and/or lowercase Hexadecimal values may be used (i.e. #3fc = #3FC = #33ffCC). The browser
interprets #369 as #336699. If that is not what you intended but rather wanted #306090, you need to specify that
explicitly.

The total number of colors that can be represented with hex notation is 256 ^ 3 or 16,777,216.

Syntax
color: #rrggbb;
color: #rgb

Value Description
rr 00 - FF for the amount of red
gg 00 - FF for the amount of green
bb 00 - FF for the amount of blue
.some-class {
/* This is equivalent to using the color keyword 'blue' */
color: #0000FF;
}

.also-blue {
/* If you want to specify each range value with a single number, you can!
This is equivalent to '#0000FF' (and 'blue') */
color: #00F;
}

Hexadecimal notation is used to specify color values in the RGB color format, per the W3C's 'Numerical color
values'.

There are a lot of tools available on the Internet for looking up hexadecimal (or simply hex) color values.

Search for "hex color palette" or "hex color picker" with your favorite web browser to ﬁnd a bunch of options!

Hex values always start with a pound sign (#), are up to six "digits" long, and are case-insensitive: that is, they
don't care about capitalization. #FFC125 and #ffc125 are the same color.

Section 18.4: rgb() Notation

RGB is an additive color model which represents colors as mixtures of red, green, and blue light. In essence,
the RGB representation is the decimal equivalent of the Hexadecimal Notation. In Hexadecimal each number
ranges from 00-FF which is equivalent to 0-255 in decimal and 0%-100% in percentages.

.some-class {
/* Scalar RGB, equivalent to 'blue'*/
color: rgb(0, 0, 255);
}

.also-blue {
/* Percentile RGB values*/
color: rgb(0%, 0%, 100%);
}
Syntax
rgb(<red>, <green>, <blue>)

Value Description
<red> an integer from 0 - 255 or percentage from 0 - 100%
<green> an integer from 0 - 255 or percentage from 0 - 100%
<blue> an integer from 0 - 255 or percentage from 0 - 100%

Section 18.5: rgba() Notation

Similar to rgb() notation, but with an additional alpha (opacity) value.

.red {
/* Opaque red */
color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 1);
}

.red-50p {
/* Half-translucent red. */
color: rgba(255, 0, 0, .5);
}

Syntax
rgba(<red>, <green>, <blue>, <alpha>);

Value Description
<red> an integer from 0 - 255 or percentage from 0 - 100%
<green> an integer from 0 - 255 or percentage from 0 - 100%
<blue>an integer from 0 - 255 or percentage from 0 - 100%

<alpha> a number from 0 - 1, where 0.0 is fully transparent and 1.0 is fully opaque

Section 18.6: hsl() Notation

HSL stands for hue ("which color"), saturation ("how much color") and lightness ("how much white").

Hue is represented as an angle from 0° to 360° (without units), while saturation and lightness are represented as
percentages.

p{
color: hsl(240, 100%, 50%); /* Blue */
}
Syntax
color: hsl(<hue>, <saturation>%, <lightness>%);

A saturation of 0% always produces a grayscale color; changing the hue has no eﬀect.
A lightness of 0% always produces black, and 100% always produces white; changing the hue or saturation
has no eﬀect.

Section 18.7: hsla() Notation

Similar to hsl() notation, but with an added alpha (opacity) value.

hsla(240, 100%, 50%, 0) /* TRANSPARENT */

hsla(240, 100%, 50%, 0.5) /* HALF-TRANSLUCENT blue */
hsla(240, 100%, 50%, 1) /* fully opaque blue */
Syntax
hsla(<hue>, <saturation>%, <lightness>%, <alpha>);

Value Description
speciﬁed in degrees around the color wheel (without units), where 0° is red, 60° is yellow,
<hue> 120° is green, 180° is cyan, 240° is blue, 300° is magenta, and 360° is red
<saturation> percentage where 0% is fully desaturated (grayscale) and 100% is fully saturated (vividly colored)
<lightness> percentage where 0% is fully black and 100% is fully white
<alpha> a number from 0 - 1 where 0 is fully transparent and 1 is fully opaque
Chapter 19: Opacity
Section 19.1: Opacity Property
An element's opacity can be set using the opacity property. Values can be anywhere from 0.0 (transparent) to 1.0
(opaque).

Example Usage

<div style="opacity:0.8;">
This is a partially transparent element
</div>

Property Value Transparency

opacity: 1.0; Opaque
opacity: 0.75; 25% transparent (75% Opaque)
opacity: 0.5; 50% transparent (50% Opaque)
opacity: 0.25; 75% transparent (25% Opaque)
opacity: 0.0; Transparent

Section 19.2: IE Compatibility for `opacity`

To use opacity in all versions of IE, the order is:

.transparent-element {
/* for IE 8 & 9 */
-ms-filter:"progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.Alpha(Opacity=60)"; // IE8
/* works in IE 8 & 9 too, but also 5, 6, 7 */
filter: alpha(opacity=60); // IE 5-7
/* Modern Browsers */
opacity: 0.6;
}
Chapter 20: Length Units
Unit Description
% Deﬁne sizes in terms of parent objects or current object dependent on property
em Relative to the font-size of the element (2em means 2 times the size of the current
font) rem Relative to font-size of the root element
vw Relative to 1% of the width of the
viewport* vh Relative to 1% of the height
of the viewport*
vmin Relative to 1% of viewport's* smaller
dimension vmax Relative to 1% of viewport's* larger
dimension cm centimeters
mm millimeters
in inches (1in = 96px =
2.54cm) pxpixels (1px = 1/96th
of 1in) pt points (1pt = 1/72 of
1in)
pc picas (1pc = 12 pt)
s seconds (used for animations and transitions)
ms milliseconds (used for animations and
transitions) ex Relative to the x-height of the
current font
ch Based on the width of the zero (0)
character fr fractional unit (used for CSS
Grid Layout)

A CSS distance measurement is a number immediately followed by a length unit (px, em, pc, in, …)
CSS supports a number of length measurements units. They are absolute or relative.

Section 20.1: Creating scalable elements using rems and ems

Version ≥ 3

You can use rem deﬁned by the font-size of your html tag to style elements by setting their font-size to a value of
rem and use em inside the element to create elements that scale with your global font-size.

HTML:

<input type="button" value="Button">

Relevant CSS:

html {
font-size: 16px;
}

input[type="button"] { font-size: 1rem; padding: 0.5em 2em;

}

input[type="range"] {
font-size: 1rem;
width: 10em;
}

input[type=text] { font-size: 1rem; padding: 0.5em;

}

Possible Result:

Section 20.2: Font size with rem

CSS3 introduces a few new units, including the rem unit, which stands for "root em". Let's look at how rem works.
First, let's look at the diﬀerences between em and rem.

em: Relative to the font size of the parent. This causes the compounding issue
rem: Relative to the font size of the root or <html> element. This means it's possible to declare a single
font size for the html element and deﬁne all rem units to be a percentage of that.

The main issue with using rem for font sizing is that the values are somewhat diﬃcult to use. Here is an example
of some common font sizes expressed in rem units, assuming that the base size is 16px :

10px = 0.625rem
12px = 0.75rem
14px = 0.875rem
16px = 1rem (base)
18px = 1.125rem
20px = 1.25rem
24px = 1.5rem
30px = 1.875rem
32px = 2rem

CODE:

Version ≥ 3
html {
font-size: 16px;
}
h1 {
font-size: 2rem; /* 32px */
}

p{
font-size: 1rem; /* 16px */
}

li {
font-size: 1.5em; /* 24px */
}

Section 20.3: vmin and vmax

vmin: Relative to 1 percent of the viewport's smaller dimension
vmax: Relative to 1 percent of the viewport's larger dimension

In other words, 1 vmin is equal to the smaller of 1 vh and 1 vw

1 vmax is equal to the larger of 1 vh and 1 vw

Note: vmax is not supported in:

any version of Internet

Explorer Safari before version
6.1

Section 20.4: vh and vw

CSS3 introduced two units for representing size.

vh, which stands for viewport height is relative to 1% of the viewport height
vw, which stands for viewport width is relative to 1% of the viewport width
Version ≥ 3
div {
width: 20vw;
height: 20vh;
}

Above, the size for the div takes up 20% of the width and height of the viewport

Section 20.5: using percent %

One of the useful unit when creating a responsive
application. Its size depends on its parent container.

Equation:

( Parent Container`s width ) * ( Percentage(%) ) = Output

For Example:

Parent has 100px width while the Child has 50%.

On the output, the Child's width will be half(50%) of the Parent's, which is

50px. HTML

<div class="parent"> PARENT

<div class="child"> CHILD
</div>
</div>

CSS

<style>

*{
color: #CCC;
}

.parent{
background-color: blue; width: 100px;
}

.child{
background-color: green; width: 50%;
}

</style>

OUTPUT
Chapter 21: Pseudo-Elements
pseudo-element Description
::after Insert content after the content of an element
::before Insert content before the content of an element
::first-letter Selects the first letter of each element
::first-line Selects the first line of each element
::selection Matches the portion of an element that is selected by a user
Used to create a backdrop that hides the underlying document for an element in the top
::backdrop layer's stack
::placeholder Allows you to style the placeholder text of a form element
(Experimental) For applying list-style attributes on a given element
::marker
(Experimental)
::spelling-error Represents a text segment which the browser has flagged as incorrectly spelled (Experimental)
Represents a text segment which the browser has flagged as grammatically incorrect
::grammar-error (Experimental)

Pseudo-elements, just like pseudo-classes, are added to a CSS selectors but instead of describing a special state,
they allow you to scope and style certain parts of an html element.

For example, the ::first-letter pseudo-element targets only the first letter of a block element specified by the
selector.

Section 21.1: Pseudo-Elements

Pseudo-elements are added to selectors but instead of describing a special state, they allow you to style certain
parts of a document.

The content attribute is required for pseudo-elements to render; however, the attribute can have an empty value
(e.g. content: "").

div::after { content: 'after'; color: red;

border: 1px solid red;
}

div {
color: black;
border: 1px solid black;
padding: 1px;
}

div::before { content: 'before'; color: green;

border: 1px solid green;
}

Section 21.2: Pseudo-Elements in Lists

Pseudo-elements are often used to change the look of lists (mostly for unordered lists, ul).
The ﬁrst step is to remove the default list bullets:

ul {
list-style-type: none;
}

Then you add the custom styling. In this example, we will create gradient boxes for bullets.

li:before {
content: "";
display: inline-block; margin-right: 10px; height: 10px;
width: 10px;
background: linear-gradient(red, blue);
}

HTML

Result
Chapter 22: Positioning
Parameter Details
Default value. Elements render in order, as they appear in the document flow. The top, right, bottom,
static left and z-index properties do not apply.
The element is positioned relative to its normal position, so left:20px adds 20 pixels to the element's
relative LEFT position
fixed The element is positioned relative to the browser window
absolute The element is positioned relative to its first positioned (not static) ancestor
element initial Sets this property to its default value.
inherit Inherits this property from its parent element.
Experimental feature. It behaves like position: static within its parent until a given offset threshold
sticky is reached, then it acts as position: fixed.
unset Combination of initial and inherit. More info here.

Section 22.1: Overlapping Elements with z-index

To change the default stack order positioned elements (position property set to relative, absolute or fixed), use the z-index
property.

The higher the z-index, the higher up in the stacking context (on the z-axis) it is placed.

Example

In the example below, a z-index value of 3 puts green on top, a z-index of 2 puts red just under it, and a z-index
of 1 puts blue under that.

HTML
<div id="div1"></div>
<div id="div2"></div>
<div id="div3"></div>

CSS
div {
position: absolute; height: 200px; width: 200px;
}
div#div1 {
z-index: 1; left: 0px; top: 0px;
background-color: blue;
}
div#div2 {
z-index: 3; left: 100px; top: 100px;
background-color: green;
}
div#div3 {
z-index: 2;
left: 50px;
top: 150px;
background-color: red;
}

This creates the following eﬀect:

See a working example at JSFiddle.

Syntax
z-index: [ number ] | auto;

Parameter Details
An integer value. A higher number is higher on the z-index stack. 0 is the default value. Negative
number values are allowed.
auto Gives the element the same stacking context as its parent. (Default)

Remarks

All elements are laid out in a 3D axis in CSS, including a depth axis, measured by the z-index property. z-index only
works on positioned elements: (see: Why does z-index need a deﬁned position to work?). The only value where it
is ignored is the default value, static.

Read about the z-index property and Stacking Contexts in the CSS Speciﬁcation on layered presentation and at the
Mozilla Developer Network.

Section 22.2: Absolute Position

When absolute positioning is used the box of the desired element is taken out of the Normal Flow and it no longer
aﬀects the position of the other elements on the page. Oﬀset properties:

1. top
2. left
3. right
4. bottom
specify the element should appear in relation to its next non-static containing element.

.abspos{
position:absolute; top:0px; left:500px;
}

This code will move the box containing element with attribute class="abspos" down 0px and right 500px relative to
its containing element.

Section 22.3: Fixed position

Defining position as fixed we can remove an element from the document flow and set its position relatively to the
browser window. One obvious use is when we want something to be visible when we scroll to the bottom of a
long page.

#stickyDiv {
position:fixed; top:10px; left:10px;
}

Section 22.4: Relative Position

Relative positioning moves the element in relation to where it would have been in normal ﬂow .Oﬀset properties:

1. top
2. left
3. right
4. bottom

are used to indicate how far to move the element from where it would have been in normal ﬂow.

.relpos{
position:relative; top:20px; left:30px;
}

This code will move the box containing element with attribute class="relpos" 20px down and 30px to the right
from where it would have been in normal ﬂow.

Section 22.5: Static positioning

The default position of an element is static. To quote MDN:

This keyword lets the element use the normal behavior, that is it is laid out in its current position in the
ﬂow. The top, right, bottom, left and z-index properties do not apply.

.element{
position:static;
}
Chapter 23: Layout Control
Value Effect
none Hide the element and prevent it from occupying space.
block Block element, occupy 100% of the available width, break after element.
inline Inline element, occupy no width, no break after element.
inline-block Taking special properties from both inline and block elements, no break, but can have width.
inline-flex Displays an element as an inline-level flex container.
inline-table The element is displayed as an inline-level table.
grid Behaves like a block element and lays out its content according to the grid model.
Behaves like a block element and lays out its content according to the flexbox
flex model.
inherit Inherit the value from the parent element.
Reset the value to the default value taken from behaviors described in the HTML specifications or
initial from the browser/user default stylesheet.
table Behaves like the HTML table element.
table-cell Let the element behave like a <td> element
table-column Let the element behave like a <col> element
table-row Let the element behave like a<tr> element
list-item Let the element behave like a <li> element.

Section 23.1: The display

property
The display CSS property is fundamental for controlling the layout and ﬂow of an HTML document. Most elements
have a default display value of either block or inline (though some elements have other default values).

Inline

An inline element occupies only as much width as necessary. It stacks horizontally with other elements of the
same type and may not contain other non-inline elements.

<span>This is some <b>bolded</b> text!</span>

As demonstrated above, two inline elements, <span> and <b>, are in-line (hence the name) and do not break the
ﬂow of the text.

Block

A block element occupies the maximum available width of its' parent element. It starts with a new line and, in
contrast to inline elements, it does not restrict the type of elements it may contain.

<div>Hello world!</div><div>This is an example!</div>

The div element is block-level by default, and as shown above, the two block elements are vertically stacked and,
unlike the inline elements, the ﬂow of the text breaks.
Inline Block

The inline-block value gives us the best of both worlds: it blends the element in with the ﬂow of the text while
allowing us to use padding, margin, height and similar properties which have no visible eﬀect on inline elements.

Elements with this display value act as if they were regular text and as a result are aﬀected by rules
controlling the ﬂow of text such as text-align. By default they are also shrunk to the the smallest size possible to
accommodate their content.

border-width:2px; border-color:black; border-style:solid;

}
</style>

<ul>
<li>First Element </li>
<li>Second Element </li>
<li>Third Element </li>
</ul>

border-width:2px; border-color:black; border-style:solid;

}
</style>

<ul>
<li>First Element </li>
<li>Second Element </li>
<li>Third Element </li>
</ul>

<style>
li {
display : inline-block; background : lightblue; padding:10px;

border-width:2px; border-color:black; border-style:solid;

}

</style>

<ul>
<li>First Element </li>
<li>Second Element </li>
<li>Third Element </li>
</ul>

none

An element that is given the none value to its display property will not be displayed at
all. For example let's create a div-element that has an id of myDiv:

This can now be marked as not being displayed by the following CSS rule:

#myDiv {
display: none;
}

When an element has been set to be display:none; the browser ignores every other layout property for that
speciﬁc element (both position and float). No box will be rendered for that element and its existence in html does
not aﬀect the position of following elements.

Note that this is diﬀerent from setting the visibility property to hidden. Setting visibility: hidden; for an element
would not display the element on the page but the element would still take up the space in the rendering process
as if it would be visible. This will therefore aﬀect how following elements are displayed on the page.

The none value for the display property is commonly used along with JavaScript to show or hide elements at will,
eliminating the need to actually delete and re-create them.

Section 23.2: To get old table structure using div

This is the normal HTML table structure
<style>
table {
width: 100%;
}
</style>

<table>
<tr>
<td>
I'm a table
</td>
</tr>
</table>

You can do same implementation like this

<div class="table-div">
<div class="table-row-div">
<div class="table-cell-div"> I behave like a table now
</div>
</div>
</div>
Chapter 24: Grid
Grid layout is a new and powerful CSS layout system that allows to divide a web page content into rows and
columns in an easy way.

Section 24.1: Basic Example

Property Possible Values
display grid / inline-grid

The CSS Grid is deﬁned as a display property. It applies to a parent element and its immediate children only.
Consider the following markup:

The easiest way to deﬁne the markup structure above as a grid is to simply set its display property to grid:

.container {
display: grid;
}

However, doing this will invariably cause all the child elements to collapse on top of one another. This is
because the children do not currently know how to position themselves within the grid. But we can explicitly
tell them.

First we need to tell the grid element .container how many rows and columns will make up its structure and we can
do this using the grid-columns and grid-rows properties (note the pluralisation):

.container {
display: grid;
grid-columns: 50px 50px 50px;
grid-rows: 50px 50px;
}

However, that still doesn't help us much because we need to give an order to each child element. We can do this by
specifying the grid-row and grid-column values which will tell it where it sits in the grid:

.container .item1 {
grid-column: 1;
grid-row: 1;
}
.container .item2 {
grid-column: 2;
grid-row: 1;
}
.container .item3 {
grid-column: 1;
grid-row: 2;
}
.container .item4 {
grid-column: 2;
grid-row: 2;
}

By giving each item a column and row value it identiﬁes the items order within the container.

View a working example on JSFiddle. You'll need to view this in IE10, IE11 or Edge for it to work as these are
currently the only browsers supporting Grid Layout (with vendor preﬁx -ms-) or enable a ﬂag in Chrome, Opera
and Firefox according to caniuse in order to test with them.
Chapter 25: Tables
Section 25.1: table-layout
The table-layout property changes the algorithm that is used for the layout of a table.
Below an example of two tables both set to width: 150px:

The table on the left has table-layout: auto while the one on the right has table-layout: fixed. The former is
wider than the specified width (210px instead of 150px) but the contents fit. The latter takes the defined
width of 150px, regardless if the contents overflow or not.

Value Description
auto This is the default value. It defines the layout of the table to be determined by the contents of its' cells.
This value sets the table layout to be determined by the width property provided to the table. If the
fixed content of a cell exceeds this width, the cell will not resize but instead, let the content overflow.

Section 25.2: empty-cells

The empty-cells property determines if cells with no content should be displayed or not. This has no eﬀect unless
border-collapse is set to separate.

Below an example with two tables with diﬀerent values set to the empty-cells property:

The table on the left has empty-cells: show while the one on the right has empty-cells: hide. The former does
display the empty cells whereas the latter does not.
Value Description
show This is the default value. It shows cells even if they are empty.
hide This value hides a cell altogether if there are no contents in the cell.

More Information:

https://www.w3.org/TR/CSS21/tables.html#empty-cells
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/empty-cells
http://codepen.io/SitePoint/pen/yfhtq
https://css-tricks.com/almanac/properties/e/empty-cells/

Section 25.3: border-collapse

The border-collapse property determines if a tables' borders should be separated or merged.
Below an example of two tables with diﬀerent values to the border-collapse property:

The table on the left has border-collapse: separate while the one on the right has border-collapse: collapse.

Value Description
separate This is the default value. It makes the borders of the table separate from each other.
collapse This value sets the borders of the table to merge together, rather than being distinct.

Section 25.4: border-spacing

The border-spacing property determines the spacing between cells. This has no eﬀect unless border-collapse is set to
separate.

Below an example of two tables with diﬀerent values to the border-spacing property:

The table on the left has border-spacing: 2px (default) while the one on the right has border-spacing: 8px.

Value Description
<length> This is the default behavior, though the exact value can vary between browsers.
<length> <length> This syntax allows specifying separate horizontal and vertical values respectively.

Section 25.5: caption-side

The caption-side property determines the vertical positioning of the <caption> element within a table. This has no
eﬀect if such element does not exist.

Below an example with two tables with diﬀerent values set to the caption-side property:

The table on the left has caption-side: top while the one on the right has caption-side: bottom.

Value Description
top This is the default value. It places the caption above the
table. bottom This value places the caption below the table.
Chapter 26: Transitions
Parameter Details
The speciﬁc CSS property whose value change needs to be transitioned (or) all, if all the
transition-property transitionable properties need to be transitioned.
The duration (or period) in seconds (s) or milliseconds (ms) over which the
transition-duration
must take
place.
transition A function that describes how the intermediate values during the

transition are
calculated. Commonly used values are ease, ease-in, ease-out, ease-in-out, linear,
transition-timing-function cubic-bezier(), steps(). More information about the various timing functions can be found in
the W3C specs.
The amount of time that must have elapsed before the transition can start. Can be
transition-delay speciﬁed in seconds (s) or milliseconds (ms)

Section 26.1: Transition shorthand

CSS

div{
width: 150px; height:150px; background-color: red;
transition: background-color 1s;
}
div:hover{
background-color: green;
}

HTML

This example will change the background color when the div is hovered the background-color change will last 1
second.

Section 26.2: cubic-bezier

The cubic-bezier function is a transition timing function which is often used for custom and smooth transitions.

transition-timing-function: cubic-bezier(0.1, 0.7, 1.0, 0.1);

The function takes four parameters:

cubic-bezier(P1_x, P1_y, P2_x, P2_y)

These parameters will be mapped to points which are part of a Bézier curve:

For CSS Bézier Curves, P0 and P3 are always in the same spot. P0 is at (0,0) and P3 is at (1,1), which menas that the
parameters passed to the cubic-bezier function can only be between 0 and 1.

If you pass parameters which aren't in this interval the function will default to a linear transition.

Since cubic-bezier is the most ﬂexible transition in CSS, you can translate all other transition timing
function to cubic-bezier functions:

linear: cubic-bezier(0,0,1,1)

ease-in: cubic-bezier(0.42, 0.0, 1.0, 1.0)

ease-out: cubic-bezier(0.0, 0.0, 0.58, 1.0)

ease-in-out: cubic-bezier(0.42, 0.0, 0.58, 1.0)

Section 26.3: Transition (longhand)
CSS
div {
height: 100px; width: 100px; border: 1px solid;
transition-property: height, width; transition-duration: 1s, 500ms; transition-timing-function: linear; transition-delay: 0s, 1s;
}
div:hover { height: 200px; width: 200px;
}

HTML
<div></div>

transition-property: Specifies the CSS properties the transition effect is for. In this case, the div will
expand both horizontally and vertically when hovered.
transition-duration: Specifies the length of time a transition takes to complete. In the above example, the
height and width transitions will take 1 second and 500 milliseconds respectively.
transition-timing-function: Specifies the speed curve of the transition effect. A linear value indicates the
transition will have the same speed from start to finish.
transition-delay: Specifies the amount of time needed to wait before the transition effect starts. In this
case, the height will start transitioning immediately, whereas the width will wait 1 second.
Chapter 27: Animations
Transition
Parameter Details
Either the CSS property to transition on, or all, which specifies all transition-able
property properties.
duration Transition time, either in seconds or milliseconds.
Specifies a function to define how intermediate values for properties are computed.
timing-function Common values are ease, linear, and step-end. Check out the easing function cheat- sheet
for more.
delay Amount of time, in seconds or milliseconds, to wait before playing the animation.

@keyframes
You can either specify a set time with a percentage value, or two percentage values, ie
[ from | to | <percentage>
10%, 20%, for a period of time where the keyframe's set attributes are set.
]
block Any amount of CSS attributes for the keyframe.

Section 27.1: Animations with keyframes

For multi-stage CSS animations, you can create CSS @keyframes. Keyframes allow you to deﬁne multiple animation
points, called a keyframe, to deﬁne more complex animations.

Basic Example

In this example, we'll make a basic background animation that cycles between all colors.

0% rainbow-background
@keyframes { background-color:
{ #ff0000; }
8.333% { background-color: #ff8000; }
16.667% { background-color: #ffff00; }
25.000% { background-color: #80ff00; }
33.333% { background-color: #00ff00; }
41.667% { background-color: #00ff80; }
50.000% { background-color: #00ffff; }
58.333% { background-color: #0080ff; }
66.667% { background-color: #0000ff; }
75.000% { background-color: #8000ff; }
83.333% { background-color: #ff00ff; }
91.667% { background-color: #ff0080; }
100.00% { background-color: #ff0000; }
}

.RainbowBackground {
animation: rainbow-background 5s infinite;
View Result
}

There's a few diﬀerent things to note here. First, the actual @keyframes syntax.

@keyframes rainbow-background{

This sets the name of the animation to rainbow-background.

0% { background-color: #ff0000; }

This is the definition for a keyframe within the animation. The first part, the 0% in the case, defines where the
keyframe is during the animation. The 0% implies it is 0% of the total animation time from the beginning.

The animation will automatically transition between keyframes. So, by setting the next background color at
8.333%, the animation will smoothly take 8.333% of the time to transition between those keyframes.

.RainbowBackground {
animation: rainbow-background 5s infinite;
}

This code attaches our animation to all elements which have the .RainbowBackground class. The
actual animation property takes the following arguments.

animation-name: The name of our animation. In this case, rainbow-background

animation-duration: How long the animation will take, in this case 5 seconds.
animation-iteration-count (Optional): The number of times the animation will loop. In this case, the
animation will go on indefinitely. By default, the animation will play once.
animation-delay (Optional): Specifies how long to wait before the animation starts. It defaults to 0
seconds, and can take negative values. For example, -2s would start the animation 2 seconds into its loop.
animation-timing-function (Optional): Specifies the speed curve of the animation. It defaults to ease, where
the animation starts slow, gets faster and ends slow.

In this particular example, both the 0% and 100% keyframes specify { background-color: #ff0000; }. Wherever two
or more keyframes share a state, one may specify them in a single statement. In this case, the two 0% and 100%
lines could be replaced with this single line:

0%, 100% { background-color: #ff0000; }

Cross-browser compatibility

For older WebKit-based browsers, you'll need to use the vendor preﬁx on both the @keyframes declaration and the
animation property, like so:

@-webkit-keyframes{}

-webkit-animation: ...

Section 27.2: Animations with the transition property

Useful for simple animations, the CSS transition property allows number-based CSS properties to animate between
states.

Example
.Example{
height: 100px;
background: #fff;
}

.Example:hover{
height: 120px;
background: #ff0000;
}

View Result

By default, hovering over an element with the .Example class would immediately cause the element's height to
jump to 120px and its background color to red (#ff0000).

By adding the transition property, we can cause these changes to occur over time:

.Example{
...
transition: all 400ms ease;
}

View Result

The all value applies the transition to all compatible (numbers-based) properties. Any compatible property name
(such as height or top) can be substituted for this keyword.

400ms speciﬁes the amount of time the transition takes. In this case, the element's change in height will take 400
milliseconds to complete.

Finally, the value ease is the animation function, which determines how the animation is played. ease means start
slow, speed up, then end slow again. Other values are linear, ease-out, and ease-in.

Cross-Browser Compatibility

The transition property is generally well-supported across all major browsers, excepting IE 9. For earlier versions
of Firefox and Webkit-based browsers, use vendor preﬁxes like so:

.Example{
transition: all 400ms ease;
-moz-transition: all 400ms ease;
-webkit-transition: all 400ms ease;
}

Note: The transition property can animate changes between any two numerical values, regardless of unit. It can also
transition between units, such as 100px to 50vh. However, it cannot transition between a number and a default or
automatic value, such as transitioning an element's height from 100px to auto.

Section 27.3: Syntax Examples

Our ﬁrst syntax example shows the animation shorthand property using all of the available properties/parameters:

animation: 3s ease-in 1s 2 reverse both paused

slidein;
/*duration | timing-function | delay | iteration-count | direction | fill-mode | play-
state | name*/

Our second example is a little more simple, and shows that some properties can be omitted:

animation: 3s linear 1s slidein;

/*duration | timing-function | delay | name*/
Our third example shows the most minimal declaration. Note that the animation-name and animation-duration
must be declared:

animation: 3s slidein;
/*duration | name */

It's also worth mentioning that when using the animation shorthand the order of the properties makes a diﬀerence.
Obviously the browser may confuse your duration with your delay.

If brevity isn't your thing, you can also skip the shorthand property and write out each property individually:

ion: 3s;
g-function: ease-in;
1s; animation-iteration-count: 2; animation-direction: reverse; animation-fill-mode: both; animation-play-state: paused; anima

Section 27.4: Increasing Animation Performance Using

the
`will-change` Attribute
When creating animations and other GPU-heavy actions, it's important to understand the will-change attribute.

Both CSS keyframes and the transition property use GPU acceleration. Performance is increased by oﬄoading
calculations to the device's GPU. This is done by creating paint layers (parts of the page that are individually
rendered) that are oﬄoaded to the GPU to be calculated. The will-change property tells the browser what will
animate, allowing the browser to create smaller paint areas, thus increasing performance.

The will-change property accepts a comma-separated list of properties to be animated. For example, if you plan
on transforming an object and changing its opacity, you would specify:

.Example{
...
will-change: transform, opacity;
}

Note: Use will-change sparingly. Setting will-change for every element on a page can cause performance problems, as
the browser may attempt to create paint layers for every element, significantly increasing the amount of
processing done by the GPU.
Chapter 28: 2D Transforms
Function/Parameter Details
rotate(x) Defines a transformation that moves the element around a fixed point on the Z axis
translate(x,y) Moves the position of the element on the X and Y
axis Moves the position of the element on the X axis
translateX(x)
translateY(y) Moves the position of the element on the Y axis
scale(x,y) Modifies the size of the element on the X and Y axis
scaleX(x) Modifies the size of the element on the X axis
scaleY(y) Modifies the size of the element on the Y axis
Shear mapping, or transvection, distorting each point of an element by a certain angle
skew(x,y) in each direction
Horizontal shear mapping distorting each point of an element by a certain angle in
skewX(x) the horizontal direction
Vertical shear mapping distorting each point of an element by a certain angle in the
skewY(y) vertical direction
matrix() Defines a 2D transformation in the form of a transformation matrix.
The angle by which the element should be rotated or skewed (depending on the function
angle with which it is used). Angle can be provided in degrees (deg), gradians (grad), radians (rad)
or turns (turn). In skew() function, the second angle is optional. If not provided, there will be
no (0) skew in Y-axis.
The distance expressed as a length or a percentage by which the element should be
length-or-percentage translated. In translate() function, the second length-or-percentage is optional. If not
provided, then there would be no (0) translation in Y-axis.
A number which defines how many times the element should be scaled in the specified axis.
scale-factor In scale() function, the second scale-factor is optional. If not provided, the first scale-factor
will be applied for Y-axis also.

Section 28.1: Rotate

HTML

CSS

.rotate {
width: 100px; height: 100px; background: teal;
transform: rotate(45deg);
}

This example will rotate the div by 45 degrees clockwise. The center of rotation is in the center of the div, 50%
from left and 50% from top. You can change the center of rotation by setting the transform-origin property.

transform-origin: 100% 50%;

The above example will set the center of rotation to the middle of the right side end.
Section 28.2: Scale
HTML

CSS

.scale {
width: 100px; height: 100px; background: teal;
transform: scale(0.5, 1.3);
}

This example will scale the div to 100px * 0.5 = 50px on the X axis and to 100px * 1.3 = 130px on the Y axis. The
center of the transform is in the center of the div, 50% from left and 50% from top.

Section 28.3: Skew

HTML

CSS

.skew {
width: 100px; height: 100px; background: teal;
transform: skew(20deg, -30deg);
}

This example will skew the div by 20 degrees on the X axis and by - 30 degrees on the Y
axis. The center of the transform is in the center of the div, 50% from left and 50% from
top.

See the result here.

Section 28.4: Multiple transforms

Multiple transforms can be applied to an element in one property like this:

transform: rotate(15deg) translateX(200px);

This will rotate the element 15 degrees clockwise and then translate it 200px to the right.

In chained transforms, the coordinate system moves with the element. This means that the translation won't be
horizontal but on an axis rotate 15 degrees clockwise as shown in the following image:
Changing the order of the transforms will change the output. The ﬁrst example will be diﬀerent to

transform: translateX(200px) rotate(15deg);

<div class="transform"></div>
.transform {
transform: rotate(15deg) translateX(200px);
}

As shown in this image:

Section 28.5: Translate

HTML

CSS

.translate {
width: 100px; height: 100px; background: teal;
transform: translate(200px, 50%);
}

This example will move the div by 200px on the X axis and by 100px * 50% = 50px on the Y axis.
You can also specify translations on a single axis.

On the X axis:

.translate {
transform: translateX(200px);
}

On the Y axis:

.translate {
transform: translateY(50%);
}

Section 28.6: Transform Origin

Transformations are done with respect to a point which is deﬁned by the transform-origin property.
The property takes 2 values : transform-origin: X Y;
0 0; and
In the following example the ﬁrst div (.tl) is rotate around the top left corner with
transform-origin:
the second (.tr)is transformed around it's top right corner with transform-origin: 100% 1. The rotation is applied
on hover :

HTML:
<div class="transform originl"></div>
<div class="transform origin2"></div>

CSS:

.transform {
display: inline-block;
width: 200px; height: 100px; background: teal;
transition: transform 1s;
}

.origin1 {
transform-origin: 0 0;
}

.origin2 {
transform-origin: 100% 0;
}

.transform:hover {
transform: rotate(30deg);
}

The default value for the transform-origin property is 50% 50% which is the center of the element.
Chapter 29: 3D Transforms
Section 29.1: Compass pointer or needle shape using 3D
transforms
CSS
div.needle { margin: 100px; height: 150px; width: 150px;
transform: rotateY(85deg) rotateZ(45deg);
/* presentational */
background-image: linear-gradient(to top left, #555 0%, #555 40%, #444 50%, #333 97%);
box-shadow: inset 6px 6px 22px 8px #272727;
}

HTML
<div class='needle'></div>

In the above example, a needle or compass pointer shape is created using 3D transforms. Generally when we apply
the rotate transform on an element, the rotation happens only in the Z-axis and at best we will end up with
diamond shapes only. But when a rotateY transform is added on top of it, the element gets squeezed in the Y-axis
and thus ends up looking like a needle. The more the rotation of the Y-axis the more squeezed the element looks.

The output of the above example would be a needle resting on its tip. For creating a needle that is resting on its
base, the rotation should be along the X-axis instead of along Y-axis. So the transform property's value would have
to be something like rotateX(85deg) rotateZ(45deg);.

This pen uses a similar approach to create something that resembles the Safari logo or a compass dial.

Screenshot of element with no transform:

Screenshot of element with only 2D transform:

Screenshot of element with 3D transform:

Section 29.2: 3D text eect with shadow

HTML:

<div id="title">
<h1 data-content="HOVER">HOVER</h1>
</div>

CSS:

*{margin:0;padding:0;} html,body{height:100%;width:100%;overflow:hidden;background:#0099CC;} #title{

position:absolute; top:50%; left:50%;
transform:translate(-50%,-50%); perspective-origin:50% 50%; perspective:300px;
}
h1{
text-align:center; font-size:12vmin;
font-family: 'Open Sans', sans-serif;
color:rgba(0,0,0,0.8); line-height:1em; transform:rotateY(50deg); perspective:150px; perspective-origin:0% 50%;
}
h1:after{
content:attr(data-content); position:absolute; left:0;top:0;
transform-origin:50% 100%; transform:rotateX(-90deg); color:#0099CC;
}
#title:before{ content:''; position:absolute; top:-150%; left:-25%;
width:180%; height:328%; background:rgba(255,255,255,0.7); transform-origin: 0 100%;
transform: translatez(-200px) rotate(40deg) skewX(35deg);
border-radius:0 0 100% 0;
}

View example with additional hover eﬀect

In this example, the text is transformed to make it look like it is going into the screen away from the user.

The shadow is transformed accordingly so it follows the text. As it is made with a pseudo element and the data
attribute, it inherits the transforms form it's parent (the H1 tag).

The white "light" is made with a pseudo element on the #title element. It is skewed and uses border-radius for the
rounded corner.

Section 29.3: backface-visibility

The backface-visibility property relates to 3D transforms.

With 3D transforms and the backface-visibility property, you're able to rotate an element such that the original
front of an element no longer faces the screen.
For example, this would ﬂip an element away from the screen:
JSFIDDLE

<div class="flip">Loren ipsum</div>

<div class="flip back">Lorem ipsum</div>
.flip {
-webkit-transform: rotateY(180deg);
-moz-transform: rotateY(180deg);
-ms-transform: rotateY(180deg);
-webkit-backface-visibility: visible;
-moz-backface-visibility:visible;
-ms-backface-visibility:visible;
}

.flip.back {
-webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;
-moz-backface-visibility:hidden;
-ms-backface-visibility:hidden;
}

Firefox 10+ and IE 10+ support backface-visibility without a preﬁx. Opera, Chrome, Safari, iOS, and Android all need
-webkit-backface-visibility.

It has 4 values:

2. visible (default) - the element will always be visible even when not facing the screen.
3. hidden - the element is not visible when not facing the screen.
4. inherit - the property will gets its value from the its parent element
5. initial - sets the property to its default, which is visible

Section 29.4: 3D cube

3D transforms can be use to create many 3D shapes. Here is a simple 3D CSS cube example:

HTML:

CSS:

body {
perspective-origin: 50% 100%; perspective: 1500px; overflow: hidden;
}
.cube {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 20%; transform-style: preserve-3d; transform-origin: 50% 100%;
transform: rotateY(45deg) rotateX(0);
}
.cubeFace {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 40%;
width: 20%;
height: 100%;
margin: 0 auto;
transform-style: inherit;
background: #C52329;
box-shadow: inset 0 0 0 5px #333;
transform-origin: 50% 50%; transform: rotateX(90deg); backface-visibility: hidden;
}
.face2 {
transform-origin: 50% 50%;
transform: rotatez(90deg) translateX(100%) rotateY(90deg);
}
.cubeFace:before, .cubeFace:after {
content: ''; position: absolute; width: 100%;
height: 100%;
transform-origin: 0 0; background: inherit; box-shadow: inherit;
backface-visibility: inherit;
}
.cubeFace:before {
top: 100%;
left: 0;
transform: rotateX(-90deg);
}
.cubeFace:after {
top: 0;
left: 100%;
transform: rotateY(90deg);
}

View this example

Additional styling is added in the demo and a transform is applied on hover to view the 6 faces of the cube.
Should be noted that:
4 faces are made with pseudo elements
chained transforms are applied
Chapter 30: Filter Property
Value Description
blur(x) Blurs the image by x pixels.
Brightens the image at any value above 1.0 or 100%. Below that, the image will be
brightness(x) darkened.
Provides more contrast to the image at any value above 1.0 or 100%. Below that,
contrast(x) the image will get less saturated.
drop-shadow(h, v, x, y, z) Gives the image a drop-shadow. h and v can have negative values. x, y, and z are
optional. greyscale(x) Shows the image in greyscale, with a maximum value of 1.0 or 100%.
hue-rotate(x) Applies a hue-rotation to the image.
invert(x) Inverts the color of the image with a maximum value of 1.0 or 100%.
opacity(x) Sets how opaque/transparent the image is with a maximum value of 1.0 or 100%.
Saturates the image at any value above 1.0 or 100%. Below that, the image will
saturate(x) start to de-saturate.
sepia(x) Converts the image to sepia with a maximum value of 1.0 or 100%.

Section 30.1: Blur

HTML

<img src='donald-duck.png' alt='Donald Duck' title='Donald Duck' />

CSS

img {
-webkit-filter: blur(1px);
filter: blur(1px);
}

Result

Makes you wanna rub your glasses.

Section 30.2: Drop Shadow (use box-shadow instead if

possible)
HTML

<p>My shadow always follows me.</p>

CSS

p{
-webkit-filter: drop-shadow(10px 10px 1px green);
filter: drop-shadow(10px 10px 1px green);
}

Result

Section 30.3: Hue Rotate

HTML

<img src='donald-duck.png' alt='Donald Duck' title='Donald Duck' />

CSS

img {
-webkit-filter: hue-rotate(120deg);
filter: hue-rotate(120deg);
}

Result

Section 30.4: Multiple Filter Values

To use multiple ﬁlters, separate each value with a space.

HTML
<img src='donald-duck.png' alt='Donald Duck' title='Donald Duck' />

CSS

img {
-webkit-filter: brightness(200%) grayscale(100%) sepia(100%) invert(100%);
filter: brightness(200%) grayscale(100%) sepia(100%) invert(100%);
}

Result

Section 30.5: Invert Color

HTML

CSS

div {
width: 100px;
height: 100px;
background-color: white;
-webkit-filter: invert(100%);
filter: invert(100%);
}

Result

Turns from white to black.

Chapter 31: Cursor Styling
Section 31.1: Changing cursor type
cursor: value;

Examples:

Value Description
none No cursor is rendered for the
element auto Default. The browser sets
a cursor
help The cursor indicates that help is available
wait The cursor indicates that the program is
busy
move The cursor indicates something is to be
moved pointer The cursor is a pointer and indicates a
link

Section 31.2: pointer-events

The pointer-events property allows for control over how HTML elements respond to mouse/touch events.

.disabled {
pointer-events: none;
}

In this example,

'none' prevents all click, state and cursor options on the speciﬁed HTML element [[1]]

Other valid values for HTMl elements are:

auto;
inherit.
1. https://css-tricks.com/almanac/properties/p/pointer-events/
Other resources:
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/pointer-events
https://davidwalsh.name/pointer-events

Section 31.3: caret-color

The caret-color CSS property speciﬁes the color of the caret, the visible indicator of the insertion point in an
element where text and other content is inserted by the user's typing or editing.

HTML

<input id="example" />

CSS

#example {
caret-color: red;
}

Resources:

https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/caret-color
Chapter 32: box-shadow
Parameters Details
by default, the shadow is treated as a drop shadow. the inset keyword draws the shadow inside the
inset frame/border.
oﬀset-x the horizontal distance
oﬀset-y the vertical distance
0 by default. value cannot be negative. the bigger the value, the bigger and lighter the shadow
blur-radius becomes.
0 by default. positive values will cause the shadow to expand. negative values will cause the
spread-radius
to
shadow color can be of various notations: a color keyword, hexadecimal, rgb(), rgba(), hsl(), hsla()
shrink.

Section 32.1: bottom-only drop shadow using a pseudo-

element
JSFiddle: https://jsﬁddle.net/UnsungHero97/80qod7aL/2/

HTML

CSS

.box_shadow {
background-color: #1C90F3;
width: 200px; height: 100px; margin: 50px;
}

.box_shadow:after { content: ""; width: 190px; height: 1px; margin-top: 98px; margin-left: 5px; display: block;
position: absolute;
z-index: -1;
-webkit-box-shadow: 0px 0px 8px 2px #444444;
-moz-box-shadow: 0px 0px 8px 2px #444444;
box-shadow: 0px 0px 8px 2px #444444;
}
Section 32.2: drop shadow
JSFiddle: https://jsﬁddle.net/UnsungHero97/80qod7aL/

HTML

CSS

.box_shadow {
-webkit-box-shadow: 0px 0px 10px -1px #444444;
-moz-box-shadow: 0px 0px 10px -1px #444444;
box-shadow: 0px 0px 10px -1px #444444;
}

Section 32.3: inner drop shadow

HTML

CSS

.box_shadow {
background-color: #1C90F3;
width: 200px; height: 100px; margin: 50px;
-webkit-box-shadow: inset 0px 0px 10px 0px #444444;
-moz-box-shadow: inset 0px 0px 10px 0px #444444;
box-shadow: inset 0px 0px 10px 0px #444444;
}

Result:
JSFiddle: https://jsﬁddle.net/UnsungHero97/80qod7aL/1/

Section 32.4: multiple shadows

JSFiddle: https://jsﬁddle.net/UnsungHero97/80qod7aL/5/

HTML

CSS

.box_shadow { width: 100px; height: 100px; margin: 100px; box-shadow:

-52px -52px 0px 0px #f65314, 52px -52px 0px 0px #7cbb00,
-52px 52px 0px 0px #00a1f1, 52px 52px 0px 0px #ffbb00;
}
Chapter 33: Shapes for Floats
Parameter Details
A value of none means that the float area (the area that is used for wrapping content around a float
none element) is unaffected. This is the default/initial value.
Refers to one among inset(), circle(), ellipse() or polygon(). Using one of these functions and its values the
basic-shape shape is defined.
Refers to one among margin-box, border-box, padding-box, content-box. When only <shape-box> is
shape-box provided (without <basic-shape>) this box is the shape. When it is used along with <basic-shape>,
this acts as the reference box.
When an image is provided as value, the shape is computed based on the alpha channel of the image
image specified.

Section 33.1: Shape Outside with Basic Shape – circle()

With the shape-outside CSS property one can define shape values for the float area so that the inline content
wraps around the shape instead of the float's box.

CSS

img:nth-of-type(1) {
shape-outside: circle(80px at 50% 50%);
float: left;
width: 200px;
}
img:nth-of-type(2) {
shape-outside: circle(80px at 50% 50%);
float: right;
width: 200px;
}
p{
text-align: center;
line-height: 30px; /* purely for demo */
}

HTML

content is required to be wrapped such that it follows the curve of the circle on either side. And then there is some filler text just to make the text long enough. Lorem

In the above example, both the images are actually square images and when the text is placed without the shape-
outside property, it will not flow around the circle on either side. It will flow around the containing box of the
image only. With shape-outside the float area is re-defined as a circle and the content is made to flow around this
imaginary circle that is created using shape-outside.

The imaginary circle that is used to re-deﬁne the ﬂoat area is a circle with radius of 80px drawn from the center-
mid point of the image's reference box.

Below are a couple of screenshots to illustrate how the content would be wrapped around when shape-outside is
used and when it is not used.

Output with shape-outside

Output without shape-outside

Section 33.2: Shape margin

The shape-margin CSS property adds a margin to shape-outside.

CSS

img:nth-of-type(1) {
shape-outside: circle(80px at 50% 50%);
shape-margin: 10px; float: left; width: 200px;
}
img:nth-of-type(2) {
shape-outside: circle(80px at 50% 50%);
shape-margin: 10px; float: right; width: 200px;
}
p{
text-align: center;
line-height: 30px; /* purely for demo */
}

HTML

content is required to be wrapped such that it follows the curve of the circle on either side. And then there is some filler text just to make the text long enough. Lorem

In this example, a 10px margin is added around the shape using shape-margin. This creates a bit more space between
the imaginary circle that defines the float area and the actual content that is flowing around.

Output:
Chapter 34: List Styles
Value Description
list-style-type the type of list-item marker.
list-style-position speciﬁes where to place the
marker list-style-image speciﬁes the type of list-
item marker initialsets this property to its default
value
inherit inherits this property from its parent element

Section 34.1: Bullet Position

A list consists of <li> elements inside a containing element (<ul> or <ol>). Both the list items and the
container can have margins and paddings which influence the exact position of the list item content in the
document. The default values for the margin and padding may be different for each browser. In order to get the
same layout cross- browser, these need to be set specifically.

Each list item gets a 'marker box', which contains the bullet marker. This box can either be placed inside or
outside of the list item box.

list-style-position: inside;

places the bullet within the <li> element, pushing the content to the right as needed.

list-style-position: outside;

places the bullet left of the <li> element. If there is not enough space in the padding of the containing element, the
marker box will extend to the left even if it would fall oﬀ the page.

Showing the result of inside and outside positioning: jsﬁddle

Section 34.2: Removing Bullets / Numbers

Sometimes, a list should just not display any bullet points or numbers. In that case, remember to specify
margin and padding.

<ul>
<li>first item</li>
<li>second item</li>
</ul>

CSS

ul {
list-style-type: none;
}
li {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}

Section 34.3: Type of Bullet or Numbering

Speciﬁc for <li> tags within an unordered list (<ul>):
/*
list-style: disc; list-style: circle; list-style: square; list-style: '-'; A filled circle (default) */
/* A hollow circle */
/* A filled square */
/* any string */

Speciﬁc for <li> tags within an ordered list (<ol>):

list-style: decimal; /* Decimal numbers beginning with 1 (default) */

03, … 10) */
list-style: upper-roman; /* Uppercase roman numerals (I., II., III., IV., ...) */ list-style-type: lower-greek; /* Lowercase roman le
tyle-type: lower-latin; /* Lowercase letters (a., b., c., d., ...) */ list-style-type: upper-alpha; /* Uppercase letters (A., B., C., D.,

Non-speciﬁc:

list-style: none; /* No visible list marker */

list-style: inherit; /* Inherits from parent */
Chapter 35: Counters
Parameter Details
This is the name of the counter that needs to be created or incremented or printed. It can be any
counter-name custom name as the developer wishes.
This integer is an optional value that when provided next to the counter name will represent the
integer initial value of the counter (in counter-set, counter-reset properties) or the value by which the counter
should be incremented (in counter-increment).
This is the initial value for all 3 counter-* properties. When this value is used for counter- increment,
the value of none of the counters are aﬀected. When this is used for the other two, no counter
is created.
none
This speciﬁes the style in which the counter value needs to be displayed. It supports all values
supported by the list-style-type property. If none is used then the counter value is not printed at all.

counter-style
This represents the string that must be placed between the values of two diﬀerent counter
levels (like the "." in "2.1.1").
connector-string

Section 35.1: Applying roman numerals styling to the counter

output
CSS
body {
counter-reset: item-counter;
}

.item {
counter-increment: item-counter;
}

.item:before {
content: counter(item-counter, upper-roman) ". "; /* by specifying the upper-roman as style the output would be in roman numbers */
}

HTML
<div class='item'>Item No: 1</div>
<div class='item'>Item No: 2</div>
<div class='item'>Item No: 3</div>

In the above example, the counter's output would be displayed as I, II, III (roman numbers) instead of the usual 1,
2, 3 as the developer has explicitly speciﬁed the counter's style.

Section 35.2: Number each item using CSS Counter

CSS
body {
counter-reset: item-counter; /* create the counter */
}
.item {
counter-increment: item-counter; /* increment the counter every time an element with class "item" is encountered */
}
.item-header:before {
content: counter(item-counter) ". "; /* print the value of the counter before the header and append a "." to it */
}
/* just for demo */

.item {
border: 1px solid; height: 100px; margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.item-header {
border-bottom: 1px solid;
height: 40px;
line-height: 40px;
padding: 5px;
}
.item-content {
padding: 8px;
}

HTML
<div class='item'>
<div class='item-header'>Item 1 Header</div>
<div class='item-content'>Lorem Ipsum Dolor Sit Amet.</div>
</div>
<div class='item'>
<div class='item-header'>Item 2 Header</div>
<div class='item-content'>Lorem Ipsum Dolor Sit Amet.</div>
</div>
<div class='item'>
<div class='item-header'>Item 3 Header</div>
<div class='item-content'>Lorem Ipsum Dolor Sit Amet.</div>
</div>

The above example numbers every "item" in the page and adds the item's number before its header (using content
property of .item-header element's :before pseudo). A live demo of this code is available here.

Section 35.3: Implementing multi-level numbering using

CSS counters
CSS

-style: none;
ter-reset: list-item-number; /* self nesting counter as name is same for all levels */

ter-increment: list-item-number;

re {
ent: counters(list-item-number, ".") " "; /* usage of counters() function means value of counters at all higher levels are combined before print

HTML
<ul>
<li>Level 1
<ul>
<li>Level 1.1
<ul>
<li>Level 1.1.1</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Level 2
<ul>
<li>Level 2.1
<ul>
<li>Level 2.1.1</li>
<li>Level 2.1.2</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Level 3</li>
</ul>

The above is an example of multi-level numbering using CSS counters. It makes use of the self-nesting concept of
counters. Self nesting is a concept where if an element already has a counter with the given name but is having
to create another then it creates it as a child of the existing counter. Here, the second level ul already inherits
the list-item-number counter from its parent but then has to create its own list-item-number (for its children li) and so
creates list-item-number[1] (counter for second level) and nests it under list-item-number[0] (counter for ﬁrst level).
Thus it achieves the multi-level numbering.

The output is printed using the counters() function instead of the counter() function because the counters()
function is designed to preﬁx the value of all higher level counters (parent) when printing the output.
Chapter 36: Functions
Section 36.1: calc() function
Accepts a mathematical expression and returns a numerical value.

It is especially useful when working with diﬀerent types of units (e.g. subtracting a px value from a percentage) to
calculate the value of an attribute.

+, -, /, and * operators can all be used, and parentheses can be added to specify the order of operations if
necessary.

Use calc() to calculate the width of a div element:

#div1 {
position: absolute;
left: 50px;
width: calc(100% - 100px); border: 1px solid black; background-color: yellow; padding: 5px;
text-align: center;
}

Use calc() to determine the position of a background-image:

background-position: calc(50% + 17px) calc(50% + 10px), 50% 50%;

Use calc() to determine the height of an element:

height: calc(100% - 20px);

Section 36.2: attr() function

Returns the value of an attribute of the selected element.

Below is a blockquote element which contains a character inside a data-* attribute which CSS can use (e.g. inside
the ::before and ::after pseudo-element) using this function.

In the following CSS block, the character is appended before and after the text inside the element:

blockquote[data-mark]::before, blockquote[data-mark]::after {
content: attr(data-mark);
}

Section 36.3: var() function

The var() function allows CSS variables to be accessed.

/* set a variable */
:root {
--primary-color: blue;
}

/* access variable */
selector {
color: var(--primary-color);
}

This feature is currently under development. Check caniuse.com for the latest browser support.

Section 36.4: radial-gradient() function

Creates an image representing a gradient of colors radiating from the center of the gradient

red, orange, yellow) /*A gradient coming out from the middle of the gradient, red at the center, then orange, until it is finally yellow at

Section 36.5: linear-gradient() function

Creates a image representing a linear gradient of colors.

linear-gradient( 0deg, red, yellow 50%, blue);

This creates a gradient going from bottom to top, with colors starting at red, then yellow at 50%, and ﬁnishing
in blue.
Chapter 37: Custom Properties (Variables)
CSS Variables allow authors to create reusable values which can be used throughout a CSS document.

For example, it's common in CSS to reuse a single color throughout a document. Prior to CSS Variables this would
mean reusing the same color value many times throughout a document. With CSS Variables the color value can be
assigned to a variable and referenced in multiple places. This makes changing values easier and is more semantic
than using traditional CSS values.

Section 37.1: Variable Color

:root {
--red: #b00;
--blue: #4679bd;
--grey: #ddd;
}
.Bx1 {
color: var(--red); background: var(--grey); border: 1px solid var(--red);
}

Section 37.2: Variable Dimensions

:root {
--W200: 200px;
--W10: 10px;
}
.Bx2 {
width: var(--W200);
height: var(--W200);
margin: var(--W10);
}

Section 37.3: Variable Cascading

CSS variables cascade in much the same way as other properties, and can be restated safely.

You can define variables multiple times and only the definition with the highest specificity will apply to the element
selected.

Assuming this HTML:

<a class="button">Button Green</a>

<a class="button button_red">Button Red</a>
<a class="button">Button Hovered On</a>

We can write this CSS:

.button {
--color: green;
padding: .5rem;
border: 1px solid var(--color);
color: var(--color);
}
.button:hover {
--color: blue;
}

.button_red {
--color: red;
}

And get this result:

Section 37.4: Valid/Invalids

Naming When naming CSS variables, it contains only letters and dashes just like other CSS properties (eg: line-
height, -moz-box-sizing) but it should start with double dashes (--)

//These are Invalids variable names

--123color: blue;
--#color: red;
--bg_color: yellow
--$width: 100px;

//Valid variable names

--color: red;
--bg-color: yellow
--width: 100px;

CSS Variables are case sensitive.

/* The variable names below are all different variables */

--pcolor: ;
--Pcolor: ;
--pColor: ;

Empty Vs Space

/* Invalid */
--color:;

/* Valid */
--color: ; /* space is assigned */

Concatenations

/* Invalid - CSS doesn't support concatenation*/

.logo{
--logo-url: 'logo';
background: url('assets/img/' var(--logo-url) '.png');
}

/* Invalid - CSS bug */

.logo{
--logo-url: 'assets/img/logo.png';
background: url(var(--logo-url));
}
/* Valid */
.logo{
--logo-url: url('assets/img/logo.png');
background: var(--logo-url);
}

Careful when using Units

/* Invalid */
--width: 10;
width: var(--width)px;

/* Valid */
--width: 10px;
width: var(--width);

/* Valid */
--width: 10;
width: calc(1px * var(--width)); /* multiply by 1 unit to convert */
width: calc(1em * var(--width));

Section 37.5: With media queries

You can re-set variables within media queries and have those new values cascade wherever they are used,
something that isn't possible with pre-processor variables.

Here, a media query changes the variables used to set up a very simple grid:

HTML

CSS

:root{
--width: 25%;
--content: 'This is desktop';
}
@media only screen and (max-width: 767px){
:root{
--width:50%;
--content: 'This is mobile';
}
}
@media only screen and (max-width: 480px){
:root{
--width:100%;
}
}

div{
width: calc(var(--width) - 20px);
height: 100px;
}
div:before{
content: var(--content);
}

/* Other Styles */
body {
padding: 10px;
}

div{
display: flex;
align-items: center; justify-content: center; font-weight:bold; float:left;
margin: 10px;
border: 4px solid black;
background: red;
}

You can try resizing the window in this CodePen Demo

Here's an animated screenshot of the resizing in action:
Chapter 38: Single Element Shapes
Section 38.1: Trapezoid
A trapezoid can be made by a block element with zero height (height of 0px), a width greater than zero and a
border, that is transparent except for one side:

HTML:

CSS:

.trapezoid {
width: 50px;
height: 0;
border-left: 50px solid transparent; border-right: 50px solid transparent; border-bottom: 100px solid black;
}

With changing the border sides, the orientation of the trapezoid can be adjusted.

Section 38.2: Triangles

To create a CSS triangle deﬁne an element with a width and height of 0 pixels. The triangle shape will be formed
using border properties. For an element with 0 height and width the 4 borders (top, right, bottom, left) each
form a triangle. Here's an element with 0 height/width and 4 diﬀerent colored borders.

By setting some borders to transparent, and others to a color we can create various triangles. For example, in
the Up triangle, we set the bottom border to the desired color, then set the left and right borders to
transparent. Here's an image with the left and right borders shaded slightly to show how the triangle is being
formed.
The dimensions of the triangle can be altered by changing the diﬀerent border widths - taller, shorter, lopsided,
etc. The examples below all show a 50x50 pixel triangle.

Triangle - Pointing Up

<div class="triangle-up"></div>
.triangle-up {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-left: 25px solid transparent;
border-right: 25px solid transparent;
border-bottom: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
}

Triangle - Pointing Down

<div class="triangle-down"></div>
.triangle-down {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-left: 25px solid transparent; border-right: 25px solid transparent; border-top: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
}

Triangle - Pointing Right

<div class="triangle-right"></div>
.triangle-right {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-top: 25px solid transparent;
border-bottom: 25px solid transparent;
border-left: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
}

Triangle - Pointing Left

<div class="triangle-left"></div>
.triangle-left {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-top: 25px solid transparent;
border-bottom: 25px solid transparent;
border-right: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
}

Triangle - Pointing Up/Right

<div class="triangle-up-right"></div>
.triangle-up-right {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-top: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
border-left: 50px solid transparent;
}

Triangle - Pointing Up/Left

<div class="triangle-up-left"></div>
.triangle-up-left {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-top: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
border-right: 50px solid transparent;
}

Triangle - Pointing Down/Right

<div class="triangle-down-right"></div>
.triangle-down-right {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-bottom: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
border-left: 50px solid transparent;
}

Triangle - Pointing Down/Left

<div class="triangle-down-left"></div>
.triangle-down-left {
width: 0;
height: 0;
border-bottom: 50px solid rgb(246, 156, 85);
border-right: 50px solid transparent;
}

Section 38.3: Circles and Ellipses

Circle

To create a circle, deﬁne an element with an equal width and height (a square) and then set the border-radius
property of this element to 50%.

HTML
<div class="circle"></div>

CSS

.circle {
width: 50px;
height: 50px;
background: rgb(246, 156, 85);
border-radius: 50%;
}

Ellipse

An ellipse is similar to a circle, but with diﬀerent values for width and height.

HTML

CSS

.oval {
width: 50px;
height: 80px;
background: rgb(246, 156, 85);
border-radius: 50%;
}

Section 38.4: Bursts

A burst is similar to a star but with the points extending less distance from the body. Think of a burst shape as a
square with additional, slightly rotated, squares layered on top.

The additional squares are created using the ::before and ::after psuedo-elements.

8 Point Burst

An 8 point burst are 2 layered squares. The bottom square is the element itself, the additional square is created
using the :before pseudo-element. The bottom is rotated 20°, the top square is rotated 135°.

.burst-8 {
background: rgb(246, 156, 85); width: 40px;
height: 40px; position: relative; text-align: center;
-ms-transform: rotate(20deg); transform: rotate(20eg);
}

.burst-8::before { content: ""; position: absolute; top: 0;

left: 0; height: 40px; width: 40px;
background: rgb(246, 156, 85);
-ms-transform: rotate(135deg); transform: rotate(135deg);
}

12 Point Burst

An 12 point burst are 3 layered squares. The bottom square is the element itself, the additional squares are
created using the :before and :after pseudo-elements. The bottom is rotated 0°, the next square is rotated 30°, and
the top is rotated 60°.

.burst-12 { width: 40px; height: 40px;

position: relative; text-align: center;
background: rgb(246, 156, 85);
}

.burst-12::before, .burst-12::after { content: "";

position: absolute; top: 0;
left: 0; height: 40px; width: 40px;
background: rgb(246, 156, 85);
}

.burst-12::before {
-ms-transform: rotate(30deg); transform: rotate(30deg);
}

.burst-12::after {
-ms-transform: rotate(60deg); transform: rotate(60deg);
}

Section 38.5: Square

To create a square, deﬁne an element with both a width and height. In the example below, we have an element
with a width and height of 100 pixels each.

<div class="square"></div>
.square {
width: 100px;
height: 100px;
background: rgb(246, 156, 85);
}

Section 38.6: Cube

This example shows how to create a cube using 2D transformation methods skewX() and skewY() on pseudo
elements.

HTML:

CSS:

.cube {
background: #dc2e2e; width: 100px; height: 100px; position: relative; margin: 50px;
}

.cube::before {
content: '';
display: inline-block; background: #f15757; width: 100px;
height: 20px;
transform: skewX(-40deg);
position: absolute;
top: -20px;
left: 8px;
}

.cube::after {
content: '';
display: inline-block; background: #9e1515; width: 16px;
height: 100px;
transform: skewY(-50deg);
position: absolute;
top: -10px;
left: 100%;
}

See demo

Section 38.7: Pyramid

This example shows how to create a pyramid using borders and 2D transformation methods skewY() and
rotate() on pseudo elements.

HTML:

CSS:

.pyramid { width: 100px; height: 200px;

position: relative;
margin: 50px;
}

.pyramid::before,.pyramid::after {
content: '';
display: inline-block;
width: 0;
height: 0;
border: 50px solid;
position: absolute;
}

.pyramid::before {
border-color: transparent transparent #ff5656 transparent;
transform: scaleY(2) skewY(-40deg) rotate(45deg);
}

.pyramid::after {
border-color: transparent transparent #d64444 transparent;
transform: scaleY(2) skewY(40deg) rotate(-45deg);
}
Chapter 39: Columns
Section 39.1: Simple Example (column-count)
The CSS multi-column layout makes it easy to create multiple columns of text.

Code

enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit ess

Result

Section 39.2: Column Width

The column-width property sets the minimum column width. If column-count is not deﬁned the browser will make as
many columns as ﬁt in the available width.

Code:

minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum d
</div>
.multi-columns {
-moz-column-width: 100px;
-webkit-column-width: 100px;
column-width: 100px;
}

Result
Chapter 40: Multiple columns
CSS allows to deﬁne that element contents wrap into multiple columns with gaps and rules between them.

Section 40.1: Create Multiple Columns

ex ea commodo consequat. Duis autem vel eum iriure dolor in hendrerit in vulputate velit esse molestie consequat, vel illum dolore eu feugiat nulla facilisis at vero ero

CSS

.content {
-webkit-column-count: 3; /* Chrome, Safari, Opera */
-moz-column-count: 3; /* Firefox */
column-count: 3;
}

Section 40.2: Basic example

Consider the following HTML markup:

et dolore magna aliquyam erat, sed diam voluptua. At vero eos et accusam et justo duo dolores et ea rebum.</p>
met, consetetur sadipscing elitr, sed diam nonumy eirmod tempor invidunt ut labore et dolore magna aliquyam erat, sed diam voluptua. At vero eos et accusam et justo
et dolore magna aliquyam erat, sed diam voluptua. At vero eos et accusam et justo duo dolores et ea rebum. Stet clita kasd gubergren, no sea takimata sanctus est Lorem

With the following CSS applied the content is split into three columns separated by a gray column rule of two pixels.

section {
columns: 3;
column-gap: 40px;
column-rule: 2px solid gray;
}

See a live sample of this on JSFiddle.

Chapter 41: Inline-Block Layout
Section 41.1: Justified navigation bar
The horizontally justified navigation (menu) bar has some number of items that should be justified. The first
(left) item has no left margin within the container, the last (right) item has no right margin within the
container. The distance between items is equal, independent on the individual item width.

HTML
<nav>
<ul>
<li>abc</li>
<li>abcdefghijkl</li>
<li>abcdef</li>
</ul>
</nav>

CSS
nav {
width: 100%;
line-height: 1.4em;
}
ul {
list-style: none; display: block; width: 100%;
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
text-align: justify;
margin-bottom: -1.4em;
}
ul:after {
content: "";
display: inline-block;
width: 100%;
}
li {
display: inline-block;
}

Notes

The nav, ul and li tags were chosen for their semantic meaning of 'a list of navigation (menu) items'. Other
tags may also be used of course.
The :after pseudo-element causes an extra 'line' in the ul and thus an extra, empty height of this block, pushing
other content down. This is solved by the negative margin-bottom, which has to have the same magnitude as the
line-height (but negative).
If the page becomes too narrow for all the items to ﬁt, the items will break to a new line (starting from the
right) and be justiﬁed on this line. The total height of the menu will grow as needed.
Chapter 42: Inheritance
Section 42.1: Automatic inheritance
Inheritance the a fundamental mechanism of CSS by which the computed values of some properties of an element
are applied to its' children. This is particularly useful when you want to set a global style to your elements
rather than having to set said properties to each and every element in your markup.

Common properties that are automatically inherited are: font, color, text-align, line-height. Assume the
following stylesheet:

#myContainer { color: red; padding: 5px;

}

This will apply color: red not only to the <div> element but also to the <h3> and <p> elements. However, due to
the nature of padding its value will not be inherited to those elements.

<div id="myContainer">
<h3>Some header</h3>
<p>Some paragraph</p>
</div>

Section 42.2: Enforced inheritance

Some properties are not automatically inherited from an element down to its' children. This is because those
properties are typically desired to be unique to the element (or selection of elements) to which the property is
applied to. Common such properties are margin, padding, background, display, etc.

However, sometimes inheritance is desired anyway. To achieve this, we can apply the inherit value to the property
that should be inherited. The inherit value can be appied to any CSS property and any HTML element.

Assume the following stylesheet:

#myContainer { color: red; padding: 5px;

}
#myContainer p {
padding: inherit;
}

This will apply color: red to both the <h3> and <p> elements due to the inheritance nature of the color property.
However, the <p> element will also inherit the padding value from its' parent because this was speciﬁed.

<div id="myContainer">
<h3>Some header</h3>
<p>Some paragraph</p>
</div>
Chapter 43: CSS Image Sprites
Section 43.1: A Basic Implementation
What's an image sprite?

An image sprite is a single asset located within an image sprite sheet. An image sprite sheet is an image ﬁle that
contains more than one asset that can be extracted from it.

For example:

The image above is an image sprite sheet, and each one of those stars is a sprite within the sprite sheet. These
sprite sheets are useful because they improve performance by reducing the number of HTTP requests a browser
might have to make.

So how do you implement one? Here's some example code.

HTML

<div class="icon icon1"></div>

CSS

.icon {
background: url(“icons-sprite.png”);
display: inline-block;
height: 20px;
width: 20px;
}
.icon1 {
background-position: 0px 0px;
}
.icon2 {
background-position: -20px 0px;
}
.icon3 {
background-position: -40px 0px;
}

By using setting the sprite's width and height and by using the background-position property in CSS (with an x and y
value) you can easily extract sprites from a sprite sheet using CSS.
Chapter 44: Clipping and Masking
Parameter Details
A URL which can point to an inline SVG element (or) an SVG element in an external file that
clip-source contains the clip path's definition.
Refers to one among inset(), circle(), ellipse() or polygon(). Using one of these
basic-shape functions the clipping path is defined. These shape functions work exactly the same way
as they do in Shapes for Floats
This can have one among content-box, padding-box, border-box, margin-box, fill-box, stroke-box, view-box
as values. When this is provided without any value for <basic-shape>, the edges of the
clip-geometry-box corresponding box is used as the path for clipping. When used with a
<basic-shape>, this acts as the reference box for the shape.
mask-reference This can be none or an image or a reference URL to a mask image source.
This specifies how the mask should be repeated or tiled in the X and Y axes. The supported
repeat-style values are repeat-x, repeat-y, repeat, space, round, no-repeat.
Can be alpha or luminance or auto and indicates whether the mask should be treated as a
mask-mode alpha mask or a luminance mask. If no value is provided and the mask-reference is a
direct image then it would be considered as alpha mask (or) if the mask-reference is a
URL then it would be considered as luminance mask.
position This specifies the position of each mask layer and is similar in behavior to the background-
position property. The value can be provided in 1 value syntax (like top, 10%) or in 2 value
syntax (like top right, 50% 50%).
This specifies the box to which the mask should be clipped (mask painting area) or the
box which should be used as reference for the mask's origin (mask positioning area)
geometry-box depending on the property. The list of possible values are content-box, padding-box, border-
box, margin-box, fill-box, stroke-box, view-box. Detailed explanation of how each of those values
work is available in the W3C Spec.
bg-size This represents the size of each mask-image layer and has the same syntax as background-
size. The value can be length or percentage or auto or cover or contain. Length, percentage
and auto can either be provided as a single value or as one for each axis.
This can be any one among add, subtract, exclude, multiply per layer and defines the type
compositing-operator of compositing operation that should be used for this layer with those below it. Detailed
explanation about each value is available in the W3C Specs.

Section 44.1: Clipping and Masking: Overview and Dierence

With Clipping and Masking you can make some speciﬁed parts of elements transparent or opaque. Both can be
applied to any HTML element.

Clipping

Clips are vector paths. Outside of this path the element will be transparent, inside it's opaque. Therefore you
can deﬁne a clip-path property on elements. Every graphical element that also exists in SVG you can use here as a
function to deﬁne the path. Examples are circle(), polygon() or ellipse().
Example
clip-path: circle(100px at center);

The element will be only visible inside of this circle, which is positioned at the center of the element and has
a radius of 100px.

Masking

Masks are similar to Clips, but instead of deﬁning a path you deﬁne a mask what layers over the element. You can
imagine this mask as an image what consist of mainly two colors: black and white.

Luminance Mask: Black means the region is opaque, and white that it's transparent, but there is also a grey area
which is semi-transparent, so you are able to make smooth transitions.

Alpha Mask: Only on the transparent areas of the mask the element will be opaque.

This image for example can be used as a luminance mask to make for an element a very smooth transition from
right to left and from opaque to transparent.

The mask property let you specify the the mask type and an image to be used as layer.
Example

mask: url(masks.svg#rectangle) luminance;

An element called rectangle deﬁned in masks.svg will be used as an luminance mask on the element.
Section 44.2: Simple mask that fades an image from solid
to transparent
CSS
div {
height: 200px;
width: 200px;
background: url(
mask-image: linear-gradient(to right, white, transparent);
}

HTML
<div></div>

In the above example there is an element with an image as its background. The mask that is applied on the image
(using CSS) makes it look as though it is fading out from left to right.

The masking is achieved by using a linear-gradient that goes from white (on the left) to transparent (on the right) as
the mask. As it is an alpha mask, image becomes transparent where the mask is transparent.

Output without the mask:

Output with the mask:

Note: As mentioned in remarks, the above example would work in Chrome, Safari and Opera only when used with
the -webkit preﬁx. This example (with a linear-gradient as mask image) is not yet supported in Firefox.

Section 44.3: Clipping (Circle)

CSS:
div{
width: 200px; height: 200px; background: teal;
clip-path: circle(30% at 50% 50%); /* refer remarks before usage */

}
HTML
<div></div>

This example shows how to clip a div to a circle. The element is clipped into a circle whose radius is 30% based
on the dimensions of the reference box with its center point at the center of the reference box. Here since no
<clip- geometry-box> (in other words, reference box) is provided, the border-box of the element will be used as
the reference box.

The circle shape needs to have a radius and a center with (x,y) coordinates:

circle(radius at x y)

View Example

Output:

Section 44.4: Clipping (Polygon)

CSS:
div{
width:200px; height:200px; background:teal;
clip-path: polygon(0 0, 0 100%, 100% 50%); /* refer remarks before usage */
}

HTML:
<div></div>

In the above example, a polygonal clipping path is used to clip the square (200 x 200) element into a triangle
shape. The output shape is a triangle because the path starts at (that is, first coordinates are at) 0 0 - which is
the top-left
corner of the box, then goes to 0 100% - which is bottom-left corner of the box and then finally to 100% 50% which is
nothing but the right-middle point of the box. These paths are self closing (that is, the starting point will be
the ending point) and so the final shape is that of a triangle.

This can also be used on an element with an image or a gradient as background.

View Example
Output:

Section 44.5: Using masks to cut a hole in the middle of

an image
CSS
div {
width: 200px;
height: 200px;
background: url(
mask-image: radial-gradient(circle farthest-side at center, transparent 49%, white 50%); /* check remarks before using */
}

HTML

In the above example, a transparent circle is created at the center using radial-gradient and this is then used as a
mask to produce the eﬀect of a circle being cut out from the center of an image.

Image without mask:

Image with mask:

Section 44.6: Using masks to create images with
irregular shapes
CSS
iv { /* check remarks before usage */
height: 200px;
width: 400px;
background-image: url(
mask-image: linear-gradient(to top right, transparent 49.5%, white 50.5%), linear-gradient(to top left, transparent 49.5%, white 50.5%), linear-gradient(white, white
mask-size: 75% 25%, 25% 25%, 100% 75%;
mask-position: bottom left, bottom right, top left;
mask-repeat: no-repeat;

HTML
<div></div>

In the above example, three linear-gradient images (which when placed in their appropriate positions would cover
100% x 100% of the container's size) are used as masks to produce a transparent triangular shaped cut at the
bottom of the image.

Image without the mask:

Image with the mask:

Chapter 45: Fragmentation
Value Description
auto Default. Automatic page
breaks always Always insert a page
break avoid Avoid page break (if
possible)
left Insert page breaks so that the next page is formatted as a left
page right Insert page breaks so that the next page is formatted as a
right page initial Sets this property to its default value.
inherit Inherits this property from its parent element.

Section 45.1: Media print page-break

@media print { p {
page-break-inside: avoid;
}
h1 {
page-break-before: always;
}
h2 {
page-break-after: avoid;
}
}

This code does 3 things:

it prevents a page break inside any p tags, meaning a paragraph will never be broken in two pages, if
possible.
it forces a page-break-before in all h1 headings, meaning that before every h1 occurrence, there will
be a page break.
it prevents page-breaks right after any h2
Chapter 46: CSS Object Model (CSSOM)
Section 46.1: Adding a background-image rule via the CSSOM
To add a background-image rule via the CSSOM, ﬁrst get a reference to the rules of the ﬁrst stylesheet:

var stylesheet = document.styleSheets[0].cssRules;

Then, get a reference to the end of the stylesheet:

var end = stylesheet.length - 1;

Finally, insert a background-image rule for the body element at the end of the stylesheet:

stylesheet.insertRule("body { background-image: }", end);

Section 46.2: Introduction

The browser identiﬁes tokens from stylesheet and coverts them into nodes which are linked into a tree
structure. The entire map of all the nodes with their associated styles of a page would be the CSS Object Model.

To display the webpage, a web browser takes following steps.

1. The web browser examines your HTML and builds the DOM (Document Object Model).
2. The web browser examines your CSS and builds the CSSOM (CSS Object Model).
3. The web browser combines the DOM and the CSSOM to create a render tree. The web browser
displays your webpage.
Chapter 47: Feature Queries
Parameter Details
Evaluates true if the browser can handle the CSS rule. The parenthesis around the rule are
(property: value) required.
and Returns true only if both the previous and next conditions are true.
not Negates the next condition
or Returns true if either the previous or next condition is true.
(...) Groups conditions

Section 47.1: Basic @supports usage

@supports (display: flex) {
/* Flexbox is available, so use it */
.my-container {
display: flex;
}
}

In terms of syntax, @supports is very similar to @media, but instead of detecting screen size and orientation,
@supports will detect whether the browser can handle a given CSS rule.

Rather than doing something like @supports (flex), notice that the rule is @supports (display: flex).

Section 47.2: Chaining feature detections

To detect multiple features at once, use the and operator.

@supports (transform: translateZ(1px)) and (transform-style: preserve-3d) and (perspective: 1px) {

/* Probably do some fancy 3d stuff here */
}

There is also an or operator and a not operator:

@supports (display: flex) or (display: table-cell) {

/* Will be used if the browser supports flexbox or display: table-cell */
}
@supports not (-webkit-transform: translate(0, 0, 0)) {
/* Will *not* be used if the browser supports -webkit-transform: translate(...) */
}

For the ultimate @supports experience, try grouping logical expressions with parenthesis:

@supports ((display: block) and (zoom: 1)) or ((display: flex) and (not (display: table-cell))) or (transform: translateX(1px)) {
/* ... */
}

This will work if the browser

1. Supports display: block AND zoom: 1, or

2. Supports display: flex AND NOT display: table-cell, or
3. Supports transform: translateX(1px).
Chapter 48: Stacking Context
Section 48.1: Stacking Context
In this example every positioned element creates its own stacking context, because of their positioning and z-index
values. The hierarchy of stacking contexts is organized as follows:

Root
DIV #1
DIV #2
DIV #3
DIV #4
DIV #5
DIV #6

It is important to note that DIV #4, DIV #5 and DIV #6 are children of DIV #3, so stacking of those
elements is completely resolved within DIV#3. Once stacking and rendering within DIV #3 is completed,
the whole DIV #3 element is passed for stacking in the root element with respect to its sibling's DIV.

HTML:

<div id="div1">
<h1>Division Element #1</h1>
<code>position: relative;<br/> z-index: 5;</code>
</div>
<div id="div2">
<h1>Division Element #2</h1>
<code>position: relative;<br/> z-index: 2;</code>
</div>
<div id="div3">
<div id="div4">
<h1>Division Element #4</h1>
<code>position: relative;<br/> z-index: 6;</code>
</div>
<h1>Division Element #3</h1>
<code>position: absolute;<br/> z-index: 4;</code>
<div id="div5">
<h1>Division Element #5</h1>
<code>position: relative;<br/> z-index: 1;</code>
</div>
<div id="div6">
<h1>Division Element #6</h1>
<code>position: absolute;<br/> z-index: 3;</code>
</div>
</div>

CSS:

*{
margin: 0;
}
html {
padding: 20px;
font: 12px/20px Arial, sans-serif;
}
div {
opacity: 0.7;
position: relative;
}
h1 {
font: inherit;
font-weight: bold;
}
#div1,
#div2 {
border: 1px dashed #696;
padding: 10px; background-
color: #cfc;
}
#div1 {
z-index: 5;
margin-bottom: 190px;
}
#div2 {
z-index: 2;
}
#div3 {
z-index: 4;
opacity: 1; position:
absolute; top: 40px;
left: 180px;
width: 330px;
border: 1px dashed #900;
background-color: #fdd;
padding: 40px 20px 20px;
}
#div4,
#div5 {
border: 1px dashed #996;
background-color: #ffc;
}
#div4 {
z-index: 6;
margin-bottom: 15px;
padding: 25px 10px 5px;
}
#div5 {
z-index: 1;
margin-top: 15px;
padding: 5px 10px;
}
#div6 {
z-index: 3; position: absolute; top: 20px;
left: 180px; width: 150px; height: 125px;
border: 1px dashed #009; padding-top: 125px; background-color: #ddf; text-align: center;
}

Result:

Source:
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/CSS_Positioning/Understanding_z_index/The_stacking_context.
Chapter 49: Block Formatting Contexts
Section 49.1: Using the overﬂow property with a
value dierent to visible
img{
float:left; width:100px; margin:0 10px;
}
.div1{
background:#f1f1f1;
/* does not create block formatting context */
}
.div2{
background:#f1f1f1; overflow:hidden;
/* creates block formatting context */
}

https://jsﬁddle.net/MadalinaTn/qkwwmu6m/2/

Using the overflow property with a value different to visible (its default) will create a new block
formatting context. This is technically necessary — if a float intersected with the scrolling element it would
forcibly rewrap the content.

This example that show how a number of paragraphs will interact with a ﬂoated image is similar to this example,
on css-tricks.com.

2: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/overﬂow MDN
Chapter 50: Vertical Centering
Section 50.1: Centering with display: table
HTML:

<div class="wrapper">
<div class="outer">
<div class="inner"> centered
</div>
</div>
</div>

CSS:

.wrapper {
height: 600px;
text-align: center;
}
.outer { display: table; height: 100%;
width: 100%;
}
.outer .inner { display: table-cell; text-align: center;
vertical-align: middle;
}

Section 50.2: Centering with Flexbox

HTML:

CSS:

{ height: 500px; width: 500px; display: flex;

tems: center; justify-content: center; background: white;

// Use Flexbox
// This centers children vertically in the parent.
// This centers children horizontally.

d{
th: 100px; height: 100px; background: blue;
Section 50.3: Centering with Transform
HTML:

<div class="wrapper">
<div class="centered"> centered
</div>
</div>

CSS:

.wrapper {
position: relative;
height: 600px;
}
.centered { position: absolute; z-index: 999;
transform: translate(-50%, -50%);
top: 50%;
left: 50%;
}

Section 50.4: Centering Text with Line Height

HTML:

<div class="container">
<span>vertically centered</span>
</div>

CSS:

.container{
height: 50px; /* set height */
line-height: 50px; /* set line-height equal to the height */
vertical-align: middle; /* works without this rule, but it is good having it explicitly set */
}

Note: This method will only vertically center a single line of text. It will not center block elements correctly and if
the text breaks onto a new line, you will have two very tall lines of text.

Section 50.5: Centering with Position: absolute

HTML:

CSS:

.wrapper{
position:relative;
height: 600px;
}
.wrapper img { position: absolute; top: 0;
left: 0;
right: 0;
bottom: 0;
margin: auto;
}

If you want to center other then images, then you must give height and width to that element.

HTML:

<div class="wrapper">
<div class="child"> make me center
</div>
</div>

CSS:

.wrapper{
position:relative; height: 600px;
}
.wrapper .child { position: absolute; top: 0;
left: 0;
right: 0;
bottom: 0; margin: auto; width: 200px; height: 30px;
border: 1px solid #f00;
}

Section 50.6: Centering with pseudo element

HTML:

CSS:

.wrapper{
min-height: 600px;
}

.wrapper:before{
content: "";
display: inline-block;
height: 100%;
vertical-align: middle;
}
.content {
display: inline-block;
height: 80px;
vertical-align: middle;
}

This method is best used in cases where you have a varied-height .content centered inside .wrapper; and you want
.wrapper's height to expand when .content's height exceed .wrapper's min-height.
Chapter 51: Object Fit and Placement
Section 51.1: object-fit
The object-fit property will defines how an element will fit into a box with an established height and width. Usually
applied to an image or video, Object-fit accepts the following five values:

FILL

object-fit:fill;

Fill stretches the image to ﬁt the content box without regard to the image's original aspect ratio.

CONTAIN

object-fit:contain;

Contain ﬁts the image in the box's height or width while maintaining the image's aspect ratio.

COVER

object-fit:cover;
Cover ﬁlls the entire box with the image. The image aspect ratio is preserved, but the image is cropped to the
dimensions of the box.

NONE

object-fit:none;

None ignores the size of the box and is not resized.

SCALE-DOWN

object-fit:scale-down;

Scale-down either sizes the object as none or as contain. It displays whichever option results in a smaller image
size.
Chapter 52: CSS design patterns
These examples are for documenting CSS-speciﬁc design patterns like BEM, OOCSS and SMACSS.
These examples are NOT for documenting CSS frameworks like Bootstrap or Foundation.

Section 52.1: BEM

BEM stands for Blocks, Elements and Modifiers. It's a methodology initially conceived by Russian tech company Yandex, but
which gained quite some traction among American & Western-European web developers as well.

As the same implies, BEM metholology is all about componentization of your HTML and CSS code into three
types of components:

Blocks: standalone entities that are meaningful on their own

Examples are header, container, menu, checkbox & textbox

Elements: Part of blocks that have no standalone meaning and are semantically tied to their blocks.

Examples are menu item, list item, checkbox caption & header title

Modiﬁers: Flags on a block or element, used to change appearance or behavior

Examples are disabled, highlighted, checked, fixed, size big & color yellow

The goal of BEM is to keep optimize the readability, maintainability and ﬂexibility of your CSS code. The way to
achieve this, is to apply the following rules.

Block styles are never dependent on other elements on a page

Blocks should have a simple, short name and avoid _ or - characters
When styling elements, use selectors of format blockname elementname
When styling modifiers, use selectors of format blockname--modifiername and blockname elementname--
modifiername
Elements or blocks that have modifiers should inherit everything from the block or element it is modifying
except the properties the modifier is supposed to modify

Code example

If you apply BEM to your form elements, your CSS selectors should look something like this:

.form { } // Block
.form--theme-xmas { } // Block + modifier
.form--simple { } // Block + modifier
.form input { } // Block > element
.form submit { } // Block > element
.form submit--disabled { } // Block > element + modifier

The corresponding HTML should look something like this:

<form class="form form--theme-xmas form--simple">
<input class="form input" type="text" />
<input class="form submit form submit--disabled" type="submit" />
</form>
Chapter 53: Browser Support & Preﬁxes
Preﬁx Browser(s)
-webkit- Google Chrome, Safari, newer versions of Opera 12 and up, Android, Blackberry and UC browsers
-moz- Mozilla Firefox
-ms- Internet Explorer, Edge
-o-
Opera until version 12
, -xv-
-khtml- Konquerer

Section 53.1: Transitions

div {
-webkit-transition: all 4s ease;
-moz-transition: all 4s ease;
-o-transition: all 4s ease;
transition: all 4s ease;
}

Section 53.2: Transform

div {
-webkit-transform: rotate(45deg);
-moz-transform: rotate(45deg);
-ms-transform: rotate(45deg);
-o-transform: rotate(45deg);
transform: rotate(45deg);
}
Chapter 54: Normalizing Browser Styles
Every browser has a default set of CSS styles that it uses for rendering elements. These default styles may not
be consistent across browsers because: the language speciﬁcations are unclear so base styles are up for
interpretation, browsers may not follow speciﬁcations that are given, or browsers may not have default styles
for newer HTML elements. As a result, people may want to normalize default styles across as many browsers as
possible.

Section 54.1: normalize.css

Browsers have a default set of CSS styles they use for rendering elements. Some of these styles can even be
customised using the browser's settings to change default font face and size deﬁnitions, for example. The styles
contain the deﬁnition of which elements are supposed to be block-level or inline, among other things.

Because these default styles are given some leeway by the language speciﬁcations and because browsers may not
follow the specs properly they can diﬀer from browser to browser.

This is where normalize.css comes into play. It overrides the most common inconsistencies and ﬁxes known bugs.

What does it do

Preserves useful defaults, unlike many CSS

resets. Normalizes styles for a wide range of
elements.
Corrects bugs and common browser inconsistencies.
Improves usability with subtle modiﬁcations.
Explains what code does using detailed comments.

So, by including normalize.css in your project your design will look more alike and consistent across diﬀerent
browsers.

Diﬀerence to reset.css

You may have heard of reset.css. What's the diﬀerence between the two?

While normalize.css provides consistency by setting different properties to unified defaults, reset.css achieves
consistency by removing all basic styling that a browser may apply. While this might sound like a good idea at
first, this actually means you have to write all rules yourself, which goes against having a solid standard.

Section 54.2: Approaches and Examples

CSS resets take separate approaches to browser defaults. Eric Meyer’s Reset CSS has been around for a while.
His approach nulliﬁes many of the browser elements that have been known to cause problems right oﬀ the
back. The following is from his version (v2.0 | 20110126) CSS Reset.

n, applet, object, iframe, h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, p, blockquote, pre, a, abbr, acronym, address, big, cite, code, del, dfn, em, img, ins, kbd, q, s, samp, small, strike, stron

ieldset, form, label, legend,

, tfoot, thead, tr, th, td,
article, aside, canvas, details, embed, figure, figcaption, footer, header, hgroup, menu, nav, output, ruby, section, summary, time, mark, audio, video {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
border: 0;
font-size: 100%; font: inherit;
vertical-align: baseline;
}

Eric Meyer's Reset CSS

Normalize CSS on the other and deals with many of these separately. The following is a sample from the version
(v4.2.0) of the code.

/**
* 1. Change the default font family in all BROWSERS (opinionated).
* 2. Correct the line height in all BROWSERS.
* 3. Prevent ADJUSTMENTS of font SIZE after orientation CHANGES in IE and iOS.
*/

/* Document
========================================================================== */

html {
font-family: sans-serif; /* 1 */
line-height: 1.15; /* 2 */
-ms-text-size-adjust: 100%; /* 3 */
-webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%; /* 3 */
}

/* SECTIONS
========================================================================== */

/**
* Remove the margin in all BROWSERS (opinionated).
*/

body {
margin: 0;
}

/**
* Add the correct DISPLAY in IE 9-.
*/

article, aside,
footer,
header, nav,
section {
display: block;
}

/**
* Correct the font SIZE and margin on `h1` ELEMENTS WITHIN `SECTION` and
* `article` CONTEXTS in Chrome, Firefox, and Safari.
*/
h1 {
font-size: 2em;
margin: 0.67em 0;
}

Normalize CSS
Chapter 55: Internet Explorer Hacks
Section 55.1: Adding Inline Block support to IE6 and IE7
display: inline-block;

The display property with the value of inline-block is not supported by Internet Explorer 6 and 7. A work-around for
this is:

zoom: 1;
*display: inline;

The zoom property triggers the hasLayout feature of elements, and it is available only in Internet Explorer. The
*display makes sure that the invalid property executes only on the aﬀected browsers. Other browsers will simply
ignore the rule.

Section 55.2: High Contrast Mode in Internet Explorer 10 and

greater
In Internet Explorer 10+ and Edge, Microsoft provides the -ms-high-contrast media selector to expose the "High Contrast"
setting from the browser, which allows the programmer to adjust their site's styles accordingly.

The -ms-high-contrast selector has 3 states: active, black-on-white, and white-on-black. In IE10+ it also had a
none state, but that is no longer supported in Edge going forward.

Examples
@media screen and (-ms-high-contrast: active), (-ms-high-contrast: black-on-white) {
.header{
background: #fff;
color: #000;
}
}

This will change the header background to white and the text color to black when high contrast mode is active and
it is in black-on-white mode.

@media screen and (-ms-high-contrast: white-on-black) {

.header{
background: #000;
color: #fff;
}
}

Similar to the ﬁrst example, but this speciﬁcally selects the white-on-black state only, and inverts the header colors
to a black background with white text.

More Information:

Microsoft Documentation on -ms-high-contrast

Section 55.3: Internet Explorer 6 & Internet Explorer 7 only
To target Internet Explorer 6 and Internet Explorer 7, start your properties with *:

.hide-on-ie6-and-ie7 {
*display : none; // This line is processed only on IE6 and IE7
}

Non-alphanumeric preﬁxes (other than hyphens and underscores) are ignored in IE6 and IE7, so this hack works
for any unpreﬁxed property: value pair.

Section 55.4: Internet Explorer 8 only

To target Internet Explorer 8, wrap your selectors inside @media \0 screen { }:

@media \0 screen {
.hide-on-ie8 {
display : none;
}
}

Everything between @media \0 screen { } is processed only by I

Chapter 56: Performance
Section 56.1: Use transform and opacity to avoid
trigger layout
Changing some CSS attribute will trigger the browser to synchronously calculate the style and layout, which is a
bad thing when you need to animate at 60fps.

DON'T

Animate with left and top trigger layout.

#box {
left: 0;
top: 0;
transition: left 0.5s, top 0.5s;
position: absolute; width: 50px; height: 50px;
background-color: gray;
}

#box.active { left: 100px; top: 100px;

}

Demo took 11.7ms for rendering, 9.8ms for painting

Animate with transform with the same animation.

#box {
left: 0;
top: 0;
position: absolute; width: 50px; height: 50px;
background-color: gray;

transition: transform 0.5s;

transform: translate3d(0, 0, 0);
}

#box.active {
transform: translate3d(100px, 100px, 0);
}

Demo same animation, took 1.3ms for rendering, 2.0ms for painting.
Credits
Thank you greatly to all the people from Stack Overﬂow Documentation who helped provide this
content, more changes can be sent to web@petercv.com for new content to be published or
updated

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