Changing Talk About Text: New Roles for Teachers and Students

Author(s): JAMES R. GAVELEK and TAFFY E. RAPHAEL

Source: Language Arts, Vol. 73, No. 3, Language Variety and Teaching the Language Arts (March
1996), pp. 182-192
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41484059
Accessed: 13-01-2016 11:54 UTC

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41484059?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents

You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

National Council of Teachers of English is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Language Arts.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Changing Talk About Text:

New Roles for Teachers

and Students

JAMES R. GAVELEK AND

TAFFY E. RAPHAEL

pectsofbookclubs.First,likeothers(e.g.,Gilles,
Many language arts educators champion dis- 1994),we foundthatinitialdiscussionsamongstudents
cussion as a way of building and deepening werenotas highlydevelopedas thetalkabouttextwe
reader response to literature. This article of- hadencountered inmanychapters andarticles.Second,
fers a theoretical perspective on how and why we notedthatteachers'talkwithinwhole-classsettings
differentways of talking about textcan be so appearedtoplaya crucialrolein students' developing
importantfor learning to read literature. thelanguageoftalkabouttext,whether thelanguage
was aboutliterary elements,authors'craft, responseto
orunderstanding
literature, andclarification. Third,
Like manyresearchers andteacherstoday,we have multiple opportunitiesforstudents to engagein talk
sharedtheexcitement overchanging about
perspectives abouttextappearedtobe critical.Suchtalkoccursin
literacyinstruction.We havereadchapters andarticles thepublicsettings ofwhole-classandsmall-group dis-
thatsuggesttheimportance ofmoreanddifferent kinds cussions,as wellas in moreprivatesettings wherestu-
oflanguageinteractions betweenteacherandstudents dentsengageininternal dialoguesas theywriteintheir
andamongstudents as theytalkaboutthetextsthatthey readinglogsorrespondto literature as theyreadalone.
readandthosethattheycreate(Roser& Martinez, Thereadingwe haveengagedinandtheresearch ob-
1995;Short& Pierce,1990). Scholars(e.g.,Eeds & servationsandanalysiswe havedonearethebasisfor
Wells,1989;Raphael& Goatley,1994;Wells& thispaper.In thispaper,we examinethecriticalandfor-
Chang-Wells,1992) havesuggested changing thena- mativeroleofteachersin orchestrating students'talk
tureofteacherleadership in classroomliterature
and abouttext.Wefirst explorethetheoretical basisfortalk
othercontent areadiscussions.Forexample,some abouttextthatis appropriate andcrucialtolanguage
scholars(Freedman,1993;Villaume,Worden, Will- artseducation.Second,we detaila modeloflanguage
iams,Hopkins,& Rosenblatt, 1994)havesuggested use withintheclassroomanditsimplications about
thatteachersfacilitateorparticipate inratherthandom- teachers'andstudents' roleswithinliterature discus-
inatetalkabouttext.OthersargueforwhatWiencek sions,as wellas thecontextsinwhichthesediscussions
andO'Flahavan(1994) referto as "decentralized struc- occur.Third,we considerimplications ofthemodelfor
tures"(p. 488), in whichteachersdrasticallyreduce theinstructionandassessment oflanguageandliteracy.
theirroleorremovethemselves entirelyfromthestu-
dents'discussions. Social Constructionism
and the
In theworkwithintheBook ClubProject(see Crucial Role ofLanguage
McMahon,1994;Raphael,Goatley,McMahon,& Underlying muchofthecurrent workthatexplores
Woodman,1995;Raphael& McMahon,1994),we have languagepractices inclassrooms, conversa-
specifically
hadtheopportunity to studyteacher-studentinterac- tionabouttext,is frustration
withtraditional
modelsof
tionsduringtalkabouttext,as wellas theinteractions instruction.
Traditionalmodelsarecharacterized by
amongchildren withintheirstudent-leddiscussions teachers'dominating classroomtalk,students'respond-
knownas bookclubs.We observedthreeimportant as- ingtoquestionsprovidedattheendofstoriesorwithin

, Vol.73,March1996
Arts
Language
182

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ChangingTalk AboutText
teachers'manuals,andstudents' lackingopportunities knowledge. Insteadofviewingknowledgeas immuta-
toparticipate in meaningful discussionswithboththeir ble,thosewhoadopta socialconstructionist perspec-
teacherandtheirpeers(Denyer& Florio-Ruane, 1995; tivesuggestthatwhatwe acceptas knowledgeis based
Ulichny& Watson-Gegeo, 1989).Manyeducationalre- on conventions thatwe,as a community, havecon-
searchers havedealtwiththisfrustration byclosely structedand agreed on. For example, our sense ofnarra-
studying classroom and
languagepractices experiment- tive structure is a reflection of our culture's wayof
ing with of
ways reconceptualizing the teacher's role to presenting stories, but there is nothing inherently "real"
encourage talk about text that is more meaningful and about our narrative structures.
moreeducativethantalkfostered bypastpractices Thisperspective has thepotential to shiftourfocus
&
(Eeds Wells,1989; Green & Dixson,1993). on talk about text away from seeking "facts" or"truths"
Emphases in theresearch literature on theimpor- toward constructing and
"interpretations" offering
tanceofchangingrolesforteachersandincreasing lan- "warranted justifications" forinterpretations. Fromthis
guageopportunities for students reflect a fundamental perspective, the teacher's role would shift from asking
shiftinthetheoretical perspective thatguidesourdevel- questionsto ensurethatstudents arriveatthe"right"
opmentofinstructional practices.Halliday(1993) sug- meaningto creating prompts thatencouragestudents'
gests that language should be at the center of any exploratory (Barnes,1995).Teacherswoulden-
talk
of
concept learning. Many current researchers have couragetalkthatelicitsa rangeofpossibleinterpreta-
adopted a social constructionist perspective, which en- tions amongindividuals readingandresponding at any
compasses both Vygotsky's (1978) sociohistorical theo- given time. Teachers would also encouragetalking
ryandmorerecentcontributions fromsociolinguistists aboutpreviously readtextsbecauseindividuals con-
anddiscursive psychologists (Bruner,1990;Wertsch, struct different readings at different periods in life or
1985). Others have applied social constructionist ideas within different contexts (Rosenblatt, 1938). Textual
to languageandliteracy instruction (see Au & meaningis not"outthere"tobe acquired;itis some-
Kawakami,1986;Bruffee, 1986;Gavelek,1986; thingthatis constructed byindividuals through theirin-
Langer,1991;McMahon,1992; Wells & Chang- Wells, teractions with each other and the world. In classrooms,
1992).Centraltothisperspective is theconstitutive role theseinteractions taketheformofdiscussions, andthe
oflanguagein mediating therelationship betweenthe teacherhelpsguideandparticipates in them.Underly-
student as know er andthetextas known ; boththecon- ingtheprocessesofinterpretations andjustifications in
struction ofwhatcomestobe understood as knowledge discussionsis language.
ofa textandthedevelopment ofstudent as knowerof
textsdependcritically uponlanguagepractices. Wefirst Language and theDevelopmentofLiterateMinds
discusstheroleoflanguageinknowledgeconstruction, The secondwayin whichlanguage,froma socialcon-
thedevelopment ofliterate minds,andtheinterrelation-structionist perspective, playsa centralrolein thede-
ship between the two processes.We thenexplorethese velopment ofliterate mindsis in mediating students'
conceptswithin thecontext ofclassroomliteracy events abilitiesto think, feel,andact.To appreciate theimpor-
thatemphasizetalkabouttext. tanceoflanguagein thisdevelopment ofmind,itis
helpfultoturnto Vygotsky's sociohistorical theory.
Language and theConstruction In hisgenerallaw ofculturaldevelopment, Vygotsky
of(Textual)Knowledge
suggeststhattheacquisitionanduse ofall higherpsy-
Traditional theories oflearningsuggestthatknowledge chologicalprocesseshavetheiroriginsin individuals'
corresponds to or "pictures" theworldas it"really"is. interactions withothers.Thatis, "anyfunction appears
In otherwords,theworldunambiguously presents itself on the social plane,andthenon thepsychological
tous. Usingtraditional theories, ourgoal as teachersis plane.First,itappearsbetweenpeopleas an interpsy-
tore-present ortransmit thoserules(e.g.,grammatical), chologicalcategory, andthenwithinthechildas an in-
conceptualcategories(e.g.,scientific), or facts (e.g., trapsychological category" (Vygotsky, 1981,p. 163).
historical)thatwe assumetobe true.In contrast, propo- Vygotsky's distinction betweenelementary andhigher
nentsofa socialconstructionist perspective suggest that psychological functions is crucial to understanding
knowledge is constructed collaboratively byindividuals theimportant rolethathe attachedto language-
as theydiscussandarguea particular perspective orin- mediatedinteractions.
terpretation.Proponents of this view question those On theonehand,humansareuniquelyconstituted as
whoassumethe"givenness"andunchanging natureof biologicalindividuals to acquireandmakeuse ofthe

183

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
"LanguageArts
variousoralandliterate practicesthatconstitute a lan- teaching toscaffolding, facilitating,andparticipating in
guage. It is the existence of these biologicallybased, the conversations &
(Raphael Goatley,1994).
elementary psychological processes(e.g.,involuntary Otherresearchers havefocusedspecifically on the
perception, memory) that is necessary but not sufficient role of peers and the educative importance of their lan-
fortheemergence ofmind(e.g.,oralandliterate lan- use
guage through discussion and play and the ultimate
guage,humanemotions).Ourbiologicalpotential to impactofthislanguageon theirabilityto createand
think,feel,andactas humanscan onlybe realized talkabouttext.Dyson(1992) describesherstudyof
through our interactions with others. Each language's earlyelementary readersandwriters andtheroleofdra-
creation- and the and
meanings processes that are a ma and in
play developingliteracy abilities.She shows
of
part every one - is to be understood as a cultural how students' language and discussion amongpeersre-
achievement witha uniquehistory. emerges in their writing and their talkabout thatwrit-
Through our interactions with more knowledgeable ing. Graves and Hansen (1983) describe thelearning
others, we acquiretheculturally variableandhistorical-
lychanginghigherpsychological functions thatmake
the
possible intelligence unique to humankind. The Public language about text does
higher psychological processes that define us as cultural not simply create an authentic
beingsthusemergefrom, butarenotreducibleto,the
audience or purpose for text
elementary psychological processesthatcharacterize us
as biologicalbeings. production and comprehension,
nor does it simply motivate
Language Practicesin Talk AboutText
students. Rather, these social
Vygotsky's generallaw ofcultural development carries
profound implications forhowwe thinkaboutlanguage settings are the very means by
artseducation - specifically, teaching talk about text. which students come to acquire
Social constructionists place individuals suchas the and construct new knowledge,
teacher, otheradults,andmoreknowledgeable peersin
thecrucialroleofmediating thelearning oftheindivid- new meanings, and new
ual. Severalrelatively recentdescriptions illustrate the interpretations of text through
importance on
placed language use in literacy learning interactive use of language.
(see Dyson,1992;Graves& Hansen,1983;Raphael
etal., 1995).
Raphaelandhercolleagues(e.g.,Goatley,Brock,& thatoccursthrough student-teacher andstudent-student
Raphael,1995;McMahon,1994;Raphael al., 1995) et interactions during author's chair. Graves andHansen
offermanydescriptions of students' participating in also demonstrate thatstudents did not simplysharefa-
Book Club,a literacy learning program centered vorite texts they or othershave written; rather, students
aroundtalkabouttext.Within whole-classsettings, Ms. hadengagedin conversation thatpushedeachothers'
Woodman(teachingfourth grade)andMrs.Pardo thinking in waysthathelpedtheirdevelopment as read-
(teaching fifth grade) shared their personalresponses ers and writers.
andframed discussionswithstudents toencouragesim- Thepointofthesestudiesis thatthepubliclanguage
ilarcontributions. Students also participated in student- abouttextdoes notsimplycreatean authentic audience
led responsegroups.Theyhadtheresponsibility for orpurposefortextproduction andcomprehension, nor
identifying of
topics interest, raisingquestions, and does it simply motivate students. Rather, these social
clarifying confusions fortheirpeers.Theirteachersob- settings aretheverymeansbywhichstudents cometo
servedthemcarefully this
during time,using the stu- acquire and construct new new
knowledge, meanings,
dents'languageas a windowintotheirthinking. In andnewinterpretations oftextthrough interactive use
subsequent whole-class settings, the students' ideas of language. Students need leadership from their teach-
formed thebasisforwhole-classdiscussions, which ersin makingthesesituations educativeandmeaning-
wereorchestrated by the teacher tohelp students extend ful,as well as multiple opportunities inwhichtoengage
theirsmall-group conversations. The teachersalso cre- in discussions.
atedopportunities withinthewhole-classsetting for Jason,a student whohadparticipated in Book Club
"teachablemoments" basedon students' ownquestions inbothfourth andfifth grades,helps to illustrate the
andcomments. Teachers'rolesshifted among direct idea of social of
origins higherpsychological processes

184

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ChangingTalk AboutText

through hisexperiences in Book Club.Jasonwas invit- ConceptualizingStudent'sTalk AboutText:

ed to thestatereadingassociationconference to speak The Vygotsky Space
to teachersaboutBook Club.In histalk,he stated: The Vygotsky Space highlights features
five ofa social
Oneofmyfavorite aboutBookClubis thatwe constructionist on
perspective learning. First,itrepre-
things
sents the relationship between discourse amongstu-
geta chancetotalktoourpeers.Whenwetalkwithour
peers,wefindoutaboutother people'sideas,havea dents and between teacher and students. Second,it
chancetosaysomething reallyimportant, gettotell speaks to the idea that many voices contribute to an
whattheauthor should dobetter ordifferent,askques- individual's learning. Third, it delineates how conven-
tionsaboutthebook,andexpress ourfeelings and tionalknowledgesupports invention. Fourth, itsug-
ideas. gests reasons whycreating an environment that fosters
Also,sometimes bookswerehardformetounder- risktakingis criticalto thedevelopment ofhigherpsy-
stand.InBookClub,theother students ortheteacher
chologicalprocesses.Finally,ithelpsto explainthe
helpedanother tounderstand thestory Talking is ideathatlearning is notlinear,nordoesitdevelopinthe
important becauseyoucansaywhatyoufeelyouwant
space of a single event. Harré(1984; Harréetal., 1985)
tosay,andyoucanlisten toothers. Thishelpsyouget
otherideasorfeelings. WhatI meanis yougettosay created the Vygotsky Space (see Figure1) byoverlay-
whatyouwanttosay.Thisis important becausekids ingtwodimensions.
haveimportant things tosay. The firstdimension is public^private, characteriz-
the
ing degree to which anycognitiveactivity is visible
Jasonexperienced an environment thatencouraged him andthusavailableforobservation. Thatis, cognitive
totrynewwaysofusinglanguage,oftalkingabouttext. activities, suchas strategies usedto interpret text,can
His comments suggest that he has internalized key con- be public and observable or they can be privateand
cepts about and
language literacy that form the basis of unobservable.
his argument forhavingopportunities to talkwithhis Publiccognitiveactivity mayoccurin a whole-class
peers about books. instructional setting or smaller one-to-one settings, such
The transition frominterpsychological to intrapsy- as a teacher-student writing conference. An exampleof
chologicalfunctioning, which is illustrated by Jason's a whole-class setting is teachers' reading aloud to their
has
remarks, important for
implications teaching. The students, frequently thinking aloud as they read. Teach-
transition suggests that whatever children are able to do ers' use of "think-alouds" makes what would otherwise
as individuals originates in socialinteractions with be invisiblecognitiveactivity visibleto students
moreknowledgeable others(e.g.,teachers, parents, old- the
through modeling particular of waysto thinkabout
er siblings,peers).Publicdiscoursein whichchildren orrespondto text.Forexample,duringa Book Club
participate providesa foundation fortheirlaterinner unitthematically organizedaroundthestudyoftheCiv-
speech. Where does public discourse related to il
literacy War, Mrs. Pardo readHunt's(1964) AcrossFive
occur?As Heath(1989) andothershavedocumented, Aprilsaloudtoherstudents eachday.She oftenpaused
oneimportant place is the home. However, there is little to make comments such as, "I wonderwhatBill is wor-
argument that most of children's talk about text occurs rying about here, what the decisionis thathe keeps
in schoolsettings. Studentinteractions withteachers thinking about," then continued thereadingwithout fur-
andwithpeersprovidethebasisfortheireventualinde- therdiscussion.Throughlanguage,shemadevisiblea
pendentabilities. skilledreader'sabilitytokeepa questionin mindand
Social psychologist andphilosopher RomHarré readforfurther information. In another unit,whenread-
(1984; Harré,Clarke, & De Carlo,1985) created a mod- ing about the plane crash in the novel Hatchet (Paulsen,
el thathelpsclarify howlearnerssuchas Jasonmove 1987),shepausedto comment, "Thisis getting excit-
fromusingnewmeaningsor strategies publicly and in ing - I'll bet having his hatchet attached to his belt is
interaction withothersto individually appropriating going to make a big difference in his survival!" She
andtransforming theseconceptsandstrategies into thought aloudto shareboththefeelingshehadin re-
newlyinvented waysofthinking. Harré'smodel,the sponsetothetextanda pointatwhicha prediction may
Vygotsky Space , illustrates the relationship between the make sense.In short, thinking aloudis one way
publicdiscoursethatoccurs(betweenteachersandstu- ofmakingthinking andfeelingpublicin a large-group
dents,amongstudents themselves) and individuals' setting.
subsequent abilityto think, feel,andact.We describe In contrast, whencognitiveactivity is private, the
theVygotsky Space,extending Harré's model to lan- can
thinking only be inferred - for example,byreading
guageandliteracy education. something a childhas written (i.e.,inferring, basedon

185

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
L anguage Arts

Figure1. TheVytgotsky from

Space(Adapted ModelbyRomHarré[1984])

186

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ChangingTalk AboutText
thatpublicperformance, whatmighthaveprecededit). sponsetotailorthemtohisownpurposesandneeds,he
Thus,privatecognitiveactivity involvestheindividu- movedtowardtheindividualendofthesocial<->indi-
al's largelyunobservable engagement withlanguage, vidualdimension. Forexample,Jasoninvented a type
suchas readingindependently andengaginginpersonal ofreadinglog responsecalled"titles,"whichfocused
response.We cannotknowdirectly whatprocessesthe on an analysisofthetitlesauthors use forchapters with-
childhas used. intheirbooks,theirdecisionsofwhether touse titlesor
Sometimes thepublicandtheprivateseemtomerge, numbers, andthereaders'creationofalternate possibil-
as is thecase whenchildren areaskedtorecordtheirre- itiesforchaptertitles(Pardo,in press).The socialuse
sponsesin readinglogs.The writing is observable, giv- oftaughtstrategies provideda basisfromwhichstu-
the
ing response the status of a publicact, but the dentsinvented their owntypesofresponse.
thinking that led to the response - the intertextual or When these two dimensions arecombinedas shown
cross-situational connections thechildhas made- is inFigure1,theydefinetheVygotsky Space,whichcon-
unobservable. We inferthekindsofcognitiveactivities sistsoffourparts:(1) public/social, (2) private/social,
thatthechildmighthaveutilizedfromthepublicrecord (3) private/individual, and(4) public/individual. Atany
createdbythereadinglog entry. In short, on thepublic giventime,learners'cognitivefunctioning may be
privatedimension, performances rangefrombeing characterized schematically as occurring withinonethe
observabletobeingunobservable. ofquadrants. QuadrantSj andIV(Q¡, QIV)consistofob-
The seconddimension oftheVygotsky Space is servableevents that differ in termsofthelocation.Qj
socials individualThisdimension reflects thedegree reflects a collective,socialsetting, whileQIVreflects
to whichstudents eitheruse theknowledgelearned theindividual.Quadrantsn andш (Qn, Qln) reflect un-
fromothersormakewhatwas learnedtheirown.In the observablecognitiveactivity through which learners
socialworldofclassroomdiscourse,students areintro- progressas theymakestrategies theirown.Following
ducedto a vastnumberofconcepts,meanings, and Vygotsky, Harré (1984; Harré etal., 1985)proposesthat
The
strategies. goal of education is usually two-fold: in thecourse of their development, individuals movere-
Educatorswantstudents topossesstheconventional cursively through these quadrants.
knowledgeofourcultureandbe able touse theknow- Harréidentifies fourprocessesthatcharacterize de-
in
ledge ways that help them construct meanings for velopmental transitions between adjoiningquadrants,
themselves (Dewey,1916).Thisseconddimension of transitionsthatshedlighton thesequentialandrecur-
theVygotsky Space represents themovement from sivemovement through thequadrants. Movementbe-
whatis taughtandlearnedas partoftheclassroom's tweenQj andQn describestheprocessofappropriation.
socialsetting to whateventually becomesan individu- Appropriation refersto learners'"uptake"ofconcepts
al's personalized This of
learning. process internalizing and strategies areintroduced
that andusedwithinthe
andpersonalizing whathasbeentaught is characterized public/social setting ofthe firstquadrant. Themeanings
intermsofdegreesinsteadofabsolutes.Thatis,person- andwaysofknowingdiscussedin thepublic/social
alizationis an ongoingprocesswithinwhichthelearn- quadrantarisefromvarioussources.Teachersmaypre-
ingis evolvingandchangingovertimeandwith dictwhatstudents needbasedon pastexperiences.
experiences. Teachers may decide to focuson instructional areas
Forexample,in Book Club students areintroduced basedon inferences abouttheprivate/individual cogni-
towaysofwriting intheirreadinglogs,whichareused, tionsofstudents. Students themselves mayexplicitly
inturn,as a basisforBook Club discussions.Thereis a raisequestionswithin thepublic/social quadrant, tryout
socialaspectto readinglogsin thatstudents use partic- newmeanings, andbegintheprocessofappropriation
ularformsofresponsein thesamewayas theywere ofthoseideasfortheirprivateuse.
taught. To the extent thatstudents continue to use the Forexample,Mrs.Pardo's modelingduringa unit
formswithout variation fromtheoriginalexamplesof shetaughtwiththird-grade students illustrateslan-
theteacher, are
they performing on the social end of guage-basedactivity within the public/social quadrant
social <-» individualdimension. The readinglogsof (Pardo& Raphael,1991). She taughtwaysfororganiz-
suchstudents oftensharesimilarfeatures. Forexample, ingtheinformation thatsmallgroupsofstudents had
a character map thatJason created for Sadako, the main gathered about particular forms of communication
character in Coerr's(1977) novelSadakoand the (e.g.,newspapers, radio).Mrs.Pardohadusedthesame
ThousandPaper Cranes, was identicalinformat andin sourcesas thestudents (i.e.,informational texts,inter-
many of the features to his peers'readinglog entries. views, to
tradebooks) gather information. She then
However,whenJasonmadechangesin theformsofre- modeledhowto generate and
categories organizeall

187

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
language Arts
shehadlearnedwithinrelevant categories. Thiswas a andthisinvitation empowered students to maketheir
public event (a think-aloud) in a social (a whole-
setting thinking public.
class session). Publicationdescribestheprocessbywhicha per-
Students appropriated muchofwhatwas modeled. son'smeaningsandstrategies aremadepublicso that
They used formats similar to theonesMrs.Pardohad otherscan respond.Publications can makevisibleap-
and
modeled, they often identified similarcategories. propriated and
meanings strategies thathavechanged
Although students' thinking was no longereasilyvisi- littlein thewaystheindividual learnerhas usedthem.
ble,Mrs. Pardo was able to infer what students had Alternatively, publications mayshowevidenceoftrans-
beenthinking byeavesdropping on their small-group formations ofappropriated meaningsandstrategies.
discussionsandanalyzing thewritten worktheycreated Jasonillustrated theprocessofpublication whenhe
on theirown.The students'individual thinking in this analyzedthetitlesofchapters theauthorsofvarious
case was stillstrongly socialin nature, withevidence tradebooks hadused,sharedthisnewresponsecategory
withpeers,andtaughtthemhowhe analyzedthetitles.
His thoughts weremadepublicthrough oraldiscourse
By examining students' andwritten logs.
teachers can infer Finally,conventionalization describestheprocesses
publications,
bywhichindividuals'publicmanifestations ofthinking
the process by which students (i.e.,theiractionsandtheirideas) areincorporated as
transform meanings and partofthecommunity ofdiscoursein whichtheypar-
within the ticipate.Forexample,whenJason'stitleanalysiswas
strategies appropriated addedtoa chartthatlistedtypesofreadinglogresponse
social domain , making those entries, otherstudents intheclassbegantouse thecate-
strategies their own. gory. Conversation about responsein hisclassroomin-
cludedanalysisoftitles.Throughconventionalization,
Jason'sappropriation, transformation, andpublication
ofappropriation in sectionsofthechartthattheypro- ofa conceptrelatedtoresponseto literature became
duced.In bothlabelsusedandinitemslistedwithincat- partoftheconventional knowledgeofhisclassroom,
egories,thesesectionsmirrored onesMrs.Pardohad knowledgethatwas nowavailabletohisteacherand
used,thoughtheywerenotsimplycopiedsincethe peers.Further, theprocessofinventing newreadinglog
choicesofcategorieschangedaccordingto thestu- entrieswas also conventionalized as otherstudents de-
dents'particulartopics. velopednewformsofresponse.Forexample,Mei-
As students movefromtheprivate/social (Qn) tothe one ofJason'sclassmates - introduced thecategory of
(Qin), theyengagein a processof
private/individual "feelings," modifying a more general form of personal
transformation.Transformations frequentlyoccurwith- response.
in theprivatedimension and,therefore, can onlybe in- We believethatHarré's(1984; Harréet al., 1985)
ferredfromstudents' individualworkonceitis made modelis richinitscapacitytohelpus conceptualize the
public.By examining students' publications,teachers relationship between the discourse that students are
can infertheprocessbywhichstudents transform guidedtoparticipate in through socialvenuesandthe
meaningsandstrategies appropriated withinthesocial text-related that
thinking theyindependently demon-
domain,making those strategies own.
their strateovertime.WithHarré'smodel,we can see that
Students showedevidenceoftransformation in languagedoesn'tsimplyreflect thought; language
classroomsoverthe2 yearsoftheirparticipation in makespossiblewhatindividuals think. Thatis,through
Book Club.Forexample,we caninferfromJason'spre- classroomdiscoursestudents' knowledgeis actually
sentationofanalysesoftitlesas a newtypeofreading constructed. Themodelhighlights theimportance ofthe
log entry he hadtransformed
that taughtentriesin a public/social of
aspects discourse, for it is in public
way that
he found and
interesting meaningful. Jason's wherebothmeaningsandtheprocessesbywhichthose
teachers,Ms. Woodman in fourth gradeand Mrs. Pardo meaningsareconstructed are"outintheopen"tobe ac-
in fifth,
modelednumerous log entries
and the criteria and
quired subsequently become thesubjectofdiscus-
forevaluating typesoflog entries. Further,theyboth sion,clarification, and furtherdevelopment bystudents.
modeledhownewwaysofresponding inthelogscould The modelalso highlights theimportance ofconsid-
be invented.Sucha climateinvitedstudents toconsider the
ering powerrelationships that exist in school set-
as
knowledge something that is activelyconstructed, tings, for itis in the public/social quadrant that

188

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ChangingTalk AboutText
students'meaningsaremostfragile.It is herethat kindsofsocialrelationships andconversations thatare
an
teacherscan eithercreate atmosphere in which will
tak- encouraged greatly impactthethinking processes
ingintellectual risksis safeandencouraged, orone in oflearners"(p. 34).
whichrisktakingleavesstudents to
vulnerable both It is notsurprising thatstudents suchas Jasonand
adults'andpeers'harshcriticisms. The teachers play a Mei felt comfortable sharing their text interpretations
criticalrolein establishing theenvironment in which andinventing categories forresponseandsharing them
students learnto respectone another, in
to engage con- with their peers. The public/social discourse in both
flictaroundideasrather thanpersonalities, andto en- classroomshadencouraged thestudents to see knowl-
courageeach otherandsupport peers'learning. In edgeconsisting ofbothconventional knowledgetobe
short,language used within the public/social quadrant learned and concepts and ideas to be constructed. Over
be
may positive, but there are no guarantees that such their 2 of
years participating in Book Club,they both
an environment willnaturally emergewithout explicit haddevelopeda rangeofresponsesto drawupon.The
attention to itsdevelopment (Lensmire,1994). students saw strategies as toolstobe usedandadapted,
Further, the model provides a framework for teach- and as
learning something tobe shared.Theirtalkabout
erstohelpstudents developfacility with and ownership text, often prompted the
by thinking theyhadengaged
ofa rangeofcognitiveandmetacognitive strategies. In- in while writing in their logs, became richerandmore
structional conversations can encouragemovement variedas theylearneda rangeofpersonal,creative, and
the
among quadrants. Alternative and flexible grouping critical responses to the texts they read and as they
patterns can providestudents witha rangeofopportuni- learnedto inventnewwaysofresponding.
tiesfortalkingandwriting abouttextwiththesupport
ofmoreknowledgeable bothadultsandpeers. TheCurricularContent
others,
Creatingopportunities forstudents totransform what The veryabilitytotransform restsin students'master-
they have learned and inventing of
ways using their ing conventions that have been developedovertime
to
knowledge support their own literacy activities can within the culture. These conventions makepossible
encouragelifelong habits of literate thinking. Students' more inventive ways usinglanguageiftheyare
of
individuallearningarisesfrom, butis notreducibleto, taughtin a mannerthathelpsstudents realizethatcon-
thesesocialinteractions. In otherwords,students devel- ventionandinvention don'tstandin opposition toeach
op a "mind of their
own." Students' individual learning other. To transform or invent presupposes certain con-
is theresultofpublic/social interactions withmanydif- ventions. In Book Club,students talkedabouttextin
ferent individuals. Whatbetter placethantheclassroom waysthatspannedseveralresponsetypes:personalre-
to createsuchopportunities? In thenextsection,we sponse,orreacting individually toissuesandideas;cre-
discussimplications oftheVygotsky Space for literacy ative or
response, "playing with" ideas (e.g.,placing
instruction. themselves in thecharacter's situation orconsidering
alternative eventsinoneofthestoriesthey'dread);and
ImplicationsoftheModel forLiteracyInstruction critical
response,orevaluating authors'use ofthecraft
Adopting Harré's (1984; Harré et al., 1985) model for or the success of various literary elementswithinthe
teachingprovides a lens for thinking about the kind of story. Their to
ability engage in these conversations re-
collaborative classroomenvironment teacherscreate flectednotonlyan understanding ofthelanguagecon-
fortheirstudents, thecontent ofthecurriculum theyof- ventionsandtoolsthatcomprisewriting andreading
fer,themutualnegotiation ofthecontent between butalso theirunderstanding oftheinventive andinter-
teachersandstudents, andthewaysstudents' of
progress pretiveaspects reading discussing and texts. Thus,
is evaluated. fromtheperspective oftheVygotsky Space,one aspect
ofthecurriculum tobe taughtis theconventional
TheClassroomEnvironment of our foritis thisknowledgethat
knowledge culture,
The publicdiscourse(e.g.,modelingandtheuptakeof providesa foundation forstudents' invention, their
others'ideas) in whichteachersengageandalso en- transformation oftaughtconceptsandideas.
couragein theirstudents withinQj setstheclimateof The senseofconvention versusinvention in thelan-
theclassroom.Whatis more,thisclimatestrongly in- guage arts stems from lack of consensus about therole
fluencesthewillingness ofstudents to go publicin QIV ofskillinstruction in a movetowardan emphasison
withtheirownthinking andthusmaketheirinvented processandon moreholisticwaysofteaching. We sug-
ideasopentofurther refinement. As Short(1990) notes gestthatknowledgeofskills,strategies, andconven-
in herdescription ofcommunities oflearners, "The tionsprovidesa muchneededbases forengagingin

189

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
language Arts
moreinterpretiveaspectsofliteracy. Itis notan issueof fromthedistrictLanguageArtsCenter.She also inter-
whether conventional knowledgeis appropriate to viewsherstudents, askingthemto completeinterest
teach,buta questionofwhen , how; andunderwhatcir- surveysandquestionnaires aboutauthorsandbooks
cumstances. The Vygotsky Space helpsillustrate there- theyhavereadand/or wanttoread.She mergesthestu-
lationbetweenconvention andinvention andtheroleof dents'interests
withthedistrict
guidelinesin order
theteacherin creating theclimateforbothto occur,as to createinterdisciplinary
units(see Lipson,Wixson,
wellas creatingopportunities forstudents to learn.In Valencia,& Peters,1993)thatprovidebroadareas
thismodel,thepublic/social discourseoftheclassroom ofstudyandchoiceswithintheparameters shehas
is thevehiclebywhichstudents cometounderstand the identified.
conventional knowledgeofourcultureandsociety.
Throughsuchdiscoursetheycanbe encouraged totake EvaluatingStudent Progress
whattheyhavelearned,examineitclosely,experiment Traditional meansofassessment oftenlimittheteach-
withtheirknowledge, andtransform itin waysmean- er's abilityto makeongoingevaluations ofstudents'
ingfulto them(as e e cummings didwhenhe choseto progress. Measuressuchas end-of-unit testsorstan-
dardizedachievement testssignalproblems, butoften
The Vygotsky Space helps theydo so at a pointin timewhenintervention is no
longerpossible.Further, single-pointassessments, such
underscore the fact that
as end-of-story questions,mayevenbe misleading
convention and invention do not (Dekker,1991;Watson,1990).TheVygotsky Space un-
oppose each other; rather, they derscores thecomplexity oflearning andthedifferent
two sides of the critical entry pointsa teacherhas to observeandmakedeci-
represent sionsaboutformal interventionorinformal guidance.It
developmental part of learning. also makesclearthefragility oftheevaluativecontext
in whichmuchschoollearning occurs.How and,in-
rejectuppercaseletters).
Through dis-
public/individual deed,whether studentsmaketheirthinking publicon
course,such transformationscan be made publicand, subsequent occasionsis determined toa largeextentby
thus,becomepartoftheconventionalized knowledge of thewaysin whichtheirteachersprovidecriticalfeed-
theclassroom.In short,theVygotsky Space helpsun- back.In goingpublicwiththeirthinking (QIV),students
derscorethefactthatconvention andinvention do not provideteacherswithopportunities to engagein on-
oppose each other;rather,theyrepresenttwo sidesof site,formative assessments andtooffersuggestions as
thecriticaldevelopmental of
part learning. tohowstudents mightimproveuponandfurther devel-
op theirnewlyformulated waysofcomprehending or
Negotiating theCurriculum Content
composingtexts.
Termssuchas teacher-centered andchild-centered im- Forexample,students in Ms. Woodman'sroomhad
plya polaritythatis neither
as simpleas theterms electedtoreadanddiscussLowry's(1989) Newbery
mightconvey,noras oppositional, whenitrelatestothe award-winning bookNumbertheStarsin thespringof
classroomcurriculum. we expectoureduca-
Certainly, 1991,shortly aftertheawardhadbeenannounced. A
tionalsystemto havea vision.Butwe also expectthat groupofstudents hadreadoneofthechapters inwhich
ourstudentsenterschoolwitha richbackground andset theDanishkingwas tormented byGermanforces.In
ofinterests,
bothofwhichcan guidecurricular deci- thesmallgroup,one student asked,"WhywouldHitler
sions.Teachersuse thepublic/socialspaceofQl to wantto takeoverDenmark?"Another student respond-
makevisibletheeducational system's goals;atthesame ed authoritatively thattheDanishkinghada lotofoil
time,theyelicitfromthestudents theirowninterests andwouldn'tshareitwithhisneighbors, so the
andquestionsforinquiry. Germanswentintogettheoil. The student hadapplied
Mrs.Pardorecognizesthepotential tensionbetween hisknowledgeofthePersianGulfWar(whichwas in
theeducationalsystem'sandchildren's goalsandhas progress at thistime)tohisreadingofLowry'snovel.
workedwithherstudents tonegotiatethecontent ofthe Peer-leddiscussionshelpedto makevisiblestudents'
literature
thatformsthebasisofthereadingprogram in confusions andtheirinitialattempts to construct mean-
herclassroom.She drawsondistrict curriculum content ing.The publicdiscoursein theirsmall-group settings
guidelinesandfromgrade-level documents. She has provideda windowintotheinformation theyhaddrawn
listsoftradebooksetsthatareavailableto hergrade upontotryto makesenseofthetextand,atthesame

190

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 ChangingTalk AboutText

time,signaledtheneedto talkaboutsomeofthecon- . languageitselfthathelpsteachersandlearnersachieve

ventional
historical
knowledge. themultipleandvariedgoalsofschooling.

ConcludingComments References
Withinthefieldoflanguageartseducation, we havefo- Au,К. H;,& Kawakami, A. J.(1986).Theinfluence ofthe
cusedconsiderable energyand debate on both oral and socialorganization of instruction on children's text com-
written prehension ability:A Vygotskian perspective. In T. E.
languagepracticeswithinschools.A number of
scholars(e.g.,Corson,1984;Wells,1990) haveargued Raphael(Ed.),Thecontexts ofschool-based literacy
(pp.63-78).NewYork:Random House.
persuasively fortheimportance oforallanguageoppor- Barnes, D. (1995).Talking andlearning inclassrooms: An
tunities withinclassrooms, opportunities thatsupport introduction. Primary Voices K-6,3(1),2-7.
andencouragethedevelopment ofliteratethinking. Re- Barone, D. (1990).Thewritten responses ofyoung children:
centbookshavebeendevotedtotheimportance oftalk Beyond comprehension tostory understanding. TheNew
amongstudents inresponsetothebookstheyhaveread Advocate , 3, 49-56.
(Roser& Martinez,1995;Short& Pierce,1990)andthe Bromley, K. D. (1989).Buddy journals makethereading-
writing connection. TheReading Teacher, 43,122-129.
writing theyhavecreated(Calkins,1986;Graves,
1983). Others(e.g.,Barone,1990;Dekker,1991) have Bruffee, (1986).K. A. Social construction, language, andthe
authority of knowledge. College English, 48, 773-790.
arguedforwritten languageexchangesbetweenteach-
J. Actsofmeaning. MA:Harvard
ersandstudents andamongstudents (Bromley, 1989)to Bruner,(1990). Press.
Cambridge,
makestudents' andlearning morevisible.Lan- University
thinking L. M. (1986).Theartofteaching
guageandlanguagepracticesarecrucialtostudents' in- Calkins, NH:Heinemann.
writing.
Portsmouth,
tellectual,social,andemotionaldevelopment. Butitis E. (1977).Sadakoandthethousand
Coerr, papercranes.
notsimplythelanguagepracticesthemselves thatare NewYork:Putnam.
inherently important. Rather,whatmatters greatly are Corson,D. (1984).Thecasefororallanguage inschooling.
thewaysthesedifferent languageopportunities connect TheElementary SchoolJournal, 81,458-467.
amongeachother, thewaysteachersminetheseoppor- Dekker, M. M. (1991).Books,reading andresponse: A
tunitiesfortheirinstructionalpotential, andtheways teacher-researcher tellsa story. TheNewAdvocate, 4,
students cometounderstand thatlanguageis one ofthe 37^6.
mostimportant toolsofourculture.Usinglanguagein Denyer, J.,& Florio-Ruane, S. (1995).Mixedmessages and
thesewayssuggestswe reexamine theteacher'srole missed opportunities: Moments oftransformation inwrit-
withinlanguageartsinstruction. ingconferences andteacher education. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 75(6),539-551.
Whenchangesin teachers'rolesaresuggested, it
Dewey, J.(1916).Democracy andeducation. NewYork:
oftenseemsas thoughwe arefacedwitha seriesof TheFreePress.
either/orchoices:teacher-controlled versusstudent-
Dyson,A. H. (1992).Socialworlds ofchildren learning to
controlled; convention versusinvention; wholeclass write.NewYork:Teachers CollegePress.
versussmallgroups.The Vygotsky Space opensthe Eeds,M.,& Wells, D. (1989).Grand conversations: Anexpla-
possibilitythateducatorsarenotfacedwitha seriesof nation ofmeaning construction inliterature study groups.
forcedchoices;rather, different
goalsinvitedifferent Research intheTeaching ofEnglish, 23(1), 4-29.
waysofusinglanguage,different fociforinstruction, Freedman, L. (1993).Teacher talk:Theroleoftheteacher in
anddifferent instructional
contexts.It helpsus think literaturediscussion groups. InK. Pierce & C. Gilles
(Eds.),Cyclesofmeaning: Expanding thepotential oftalk
aboutrelationships amongvariousclassroomstructures inlearning communities NH:
(pp.219-235).Portsmouth,
andrelatedtalkthatpromotestudents' literacylearning Heinemann.
andlifelongvaluingoflanguageandliteracy. As Phelps Gavelek, J.R. (1986).Thesocialcontext ofliteracy and
(1988) has noted,"We needa morecomplex,subtle, schooling: A developmental perspective. InT.E. Raphael
andvariablemodelofthewaysin whichteachersand (Ed.),Thecontexts ofschool-based literacy (pp.3-26).
learnersnegotiate wisdom,purpose, New York: Random House.
power,creativity,
consciousness, andactionintheirtransactions" (p. 109). Gilles,С.,withDickson, J.,McBride, C.,& Vandover, M.
relationsamongpublic privateand (1994). Discussing our questions and questioning our dis-
By identifying cussions: intoliterature Arts,
social individuallanguageuse,theVygotsky Growing study. Language
Space 71,499-508.
providesa wayofunpacking therelativelystraightfor- Goatley, V.J.,BrockC.,& Raphael, Т.E. (1985).Diverse
wardmandatetoincreaselanguageopportunity anduse learners inregular education booksclubs.Reading Re-
in ourschools.It is notsimplytheuse oflanguage,but searchQuarterly, 30,352-380.

191

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
language Arts
Graves, D. (1983).Writing: Teachers andchildren atwork. Raphael, T.E.,Goatley, V.J.,McMahon, S. I.,& Woodman,
Exeter, NH:Heinemann. D. A. (1995).Promoting meaningful conversations instu-
Graves, D. H.,& Hansen, J.(1983).Theauthor's chair. dentbookclubs.InN. Roser& M. Martinez (Eds.),Book
Language Arts, 60,176-183. talkandbeyond: Children andteachers respond toliter-
Green, J.L.,& Dixson, C. N. (1993).Talking into ture(pp.71-83).Newark, DE: International Reading As-
knowledge sociation.
being:Discoursive andsocialpractices inclassrooms. Lin-
guistics andEducation : AnInternational Research Jour- Raphael, T.E.,& McMahon, S. I. (1994).'BookClub':An
nal,5(3,4),231-239. alternative framework forreading instruction. TheRead-
M. A. K. (1993).Toward a language-based of ing Teacher, 48, 102-116.
Halliday, theory
learning. Linguistics & Education, 5,93-116. Rosenblatt, L. M. (1938).Literature as exploration. New
Harré,R. (1984).Personal A individual York:Appleton-Century.
being: theory for
psychology. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press. Roser, N. L.,& Martinez, M. G. (Eds.).(1995).Booktalk
Harré,R.,Clarke, D., & DeCarlo,N. (1985).Motives and and beyond: Children and teachers respond toliterature.
mechanisms. NewYork:Methuen. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Heath,S. B. (1989).Oralandliterate traditions black Short, K. G. (1990).Creating a community oflearners. In
among K. G. Short & K. M. Pierce about books:
Americans living inpoverty. American Psychologist, 44, (Eds.), Talking
367-373. Creating literatecommunities (pp.32-52).Portsmouth,
NH:Heinemann.
Hunt,I. (1964).Across fiveAprils. New York: Berkley. K. & Pierce, K. M. (1990).Talking aboutbooks :
Langer,J.A. (1991).Literacy andschooling: A sociocogni- Short, G.,literate communities. NH:
tiveperspective. InE. H. Hiebert Creating Portsmouth,
(Ed.),Literacyfora Heinemann.
diverse society (pp.9-27).NewYork:Teachers College
Press. Ulichny, P.,& Watson-Gegeo, K. (1989).Interactions andau-
thority: Thedominant interpretive framework inwriting
Lensmire, T. (1994).When children write: Criticalre-visions conferences. Discourse Processes, 12,309-328.
ofthewriting workshop. NewYork:Teachers College S.
Press. Villaume, K., Worden, T., Williams, S.,Hopkins, L.,&
Rosenblatt, C. (1994).Fiveteachers insearch ofa discus-
Lipson,M. Y.,Valencia, S. W.,Wixson, K. K.,& Peters, sion.TheReading
C. W.(1993).Integration andthematic Teacher, 47,480-487.
teaching: Integra- L. S. Mind in MA:
tiontoimprove teaching andlearning. Language Arts, 70, Vygotsky, (1978). society. Cambridge,
252-263. Harvard University Press.
L. (1989).Number thestars.SouthHolland, IL: Vygotsky, L. S. (1981).Thegenesis ofhigher mental func-
Lowry, tions. In J. V. Wertsch The inpsy-
Yearling Books. (Ed.), concept of activity
chology (pp. 144-188). Armonk, NY:M. E. Sharpe.
McMahon, S. I. (1994).Student-led BookClubs:Transvers-
Watson, D. J.(1990).Showme:Wholelanguage evaluation
inga river ofinterpretation. TheNewAdvocate, 7, 109-
of literature In K. G. Short & K. M. Pierce
125. groups. (Eds.),
Talking aboutbooks:Creating literate communities
Pardo,L. S. (inpress).Reflective teaching forcontinuing de- NH:Heinemann.
ofBookClub.InS. I. McMahon & T.E. (pp.157-174).Portsmouth,
velopment G. Talkabout text: Where is learned
Raphael(Eds.),TheBookClubProject: Exploring litera- Wells, (1990). literacy
ture-based instruction.New York: Teachers andtaught. Curriculum Inquiry, 20, 369-404.
literacy
CollegePress. Wells, G.,& Chang- Wells,G. L. (1992).Constructing knowl-
Pardo,L. S.,& Raphael, T.E. (1991).Classroom edge together. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
organization
forinstruction incontent areas.TheReading Teacher, 44, Wertsch, J.V.(1985).Vygotsky andthesocialformation of
556-565. mind. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.
Paulsen,G. (1987).Hatchet. NewYork:Puffin Books. Wiencek, J.,& O'Flahavan, J.F.(1994).Fromteacher-led to
L. W.(1988).Composition as a human science. New peer discussions about literature: Suggestions for making
Phelps, theshift.
York:Oxford University Press. Language Arts, 71,488-498.
Raphael, T.E.,& Goatley, V.J.(1994).Theteacher as "more JamesR. Gavelekis an associateprofessor inthede-
knowledgeable other": Changing rolesforteaching inal- partments of Teacher Education and Educational Psy-
ternative reading instruction programs. InC. Kinzer & atMichiganStateUniversity. E. Raphael,
D. Leu(Eds.),Multidimensional re- chology Taffy
aspectsofliteracy a professor at MichiganStateUniversity
search, theory andpractice (pp.527-536).Chicago: ; coordinates
National Reading Conference. theMasters in
Program Literacy Instruction.

192

This content downloaded from 130.237.29.138 on Wed, 13 Jan 2016 11:54:33 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions