Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing

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A comparative study on the motivated consumer

innovativeness of drone food delivery services
before and after the outbreak of COVID-19

Jinsoo Hwang, Ja Young Choe, Young Gin Choi & Jinkyung Jenny Kim

To cite this article: Jinsoo Hwang, Ja Young Choe, Young Gin Choi & Jinkyung Jenny Kim (2021)
A comparative study on the motivated consumer innovativeness of drone food delivery services
before and after the outbreak of COVID-19, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 38:4, 368-382,
DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2021.1921671

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2021.1921671

Published online: 29 Apr 2021.

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JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
2021, VOL. 38, NO. 4, 368–382
https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2021.1921671

ARTICLE

A comparative study on the motivated consumer innovativeness of drone food

delivery services before and after the outbreak of COVID-19
a
Jinsoo Hwang , Ja Young Choeb, Young Gin Choi and Jinkyung Jenny Kim c

a
The College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, Seoul, Korea; bFaculty of Business Administration, University of
Macau, Taipa, Macau, China; cRecreation, Park and Tourism/Hospitality Management, Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study sought to identify the importance of motivated consumer innovativeness through the Received 15 January 2021
moderating role of the COVID-19 outbreak in the context of drone food delivery services. The data Revised 2 March 2021
were collected from the different periods that are before and after the COVID-19 outbreak, Accepted 19 April 2021
respectively. The structural equation modeling analysis showed that three sub-dimensions of KEYWORDS
motivated consumer innovativeness, such as functional, hedonic, and social motivations, positively Motivated consumer
affected attitude toward drone food delivery services. In addition, the attitude had a positive innovativeness; attitude;
influence on intentions to use the services. Furthermore, the outbreak of COVID-19 moderated the intentions to use; novel
relationship between functional motivation and attitude. technology; drone food
delivery services; Covid-19

Introduction a successful diffusion of innovative technologies. Therefore,

large efforts have been made to identify the driving forces
Embracing novel technologies has been an innovative
behind consumers’ adoption behaviors toward technology
solution used to gain a decisive competitive edge in
in diverse service settings (Hwang, Lee et al., 2019;
many industries, and that applies in the hospitality
Pourfakhimi et al., 2018). The technology acceptance
industry (Anderson & Rainie, 2018; Ivanov et al., model (TAM) is one of the most cited theories used to
2017). Likewise, many novel technologies have been explain the formation of consumer behavior toward
adopted in the area of food services, and drone- accepting technology (Cobanoglu et al., 2015; Okumus &
based food delivery services have received an enor­ Bilgihan, 2014). The TAM has posited two essential deter­
mous amount of attention as one of the disruptive minants of users’ attitude: the perceived ease of use and
technologies (Jaramillo et al., 2019; Kim & Hwang, the perceived usefulness, which in turn significantly influ­
2020). In fact, a drone, which is a term for an ence the individuals’ behavioral intentions and their actual
unmanned aerial vehicle, is not a new technology, use (Davis, 1989). Even though the TAM has long been
because it has been used for many years for military supported because of its high predictive power in the
purposes (Springer, 2013). Ever since people began to domain of technology adoption, several scholars have
realize the benefits of drones at a large scale, such as argued that this type of parsimonious model would be
for their accessibility, mobility, and sustainability, insufficient in explaining consumers’ behavior completely
drones have been employed in various sectors, such across a wide scope of technology acceptance (Bagozzi,
as agriculture, broadcasting, cartography, and logis­ 2007; Rauniar et al., 2014; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). For that
tics (Haidari et al., 2016; Muchiri & Kimathi, 2016; reason, there have been many attempts to extend the TAM
Shavarani et al., 2018). Similarly, entrepreneurs in by incorporating other important factors, such as compat­
the food delivery services have endeavored to bring ibility, the subjective norm, and trust, as the antecedents of
drones into their operations. Nonetheless, the appli­ technology acceptance behavior (Kaushik et al., 2015; Shin
cation of drones in food delivery services is still not & Lee, 2014). The concept of motivated consumer innova­
widely commercialized, and it is regarded as an emer­ tiveness, which hereinafter will be referred to as the MCI,
ging, novel technology in many places across the has been proposed as another type of process, and it has
world (Hwang, Kim et al., 2019; Jaramillo et al., 2019). been examined as a stronger predictor of individuals’ adop­
An accurate and minute understanding of the formation tion of a technology (Hwang, Kim et al., 2019; Saeed et al.,
of consumer acceptance is the essential prerequisite for 2014; Viot et al., 2017).

CONTACT Jinkyung Jenny Kim jennykim1120@gmail.com School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Youngsan University, 142 Bansong Beltway,
Haeundae-Gu, Busan 48015, Korea
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING 369

The MCI describes the central triggers that drive con­ and they affect how people consume foods as well
sumers’ innovative buying behavior, and it was pro­ (Gursoy & Chi, 2020; Karim et al., 2020). With this respect,
posed with four underlying dimensions: the functional, the current study nests in the theory of perceived risk
hedonic, cognitive, and social facets of motivation (Bauer, 1960), which explicates how consumers with risk
(Caricati & Raimondi, 2015; Vandecasteele & Geuens, perception attempt to avoid or decrease negative out­
2010). According to Vandecasteele and Geuens (2010), comes, in evaluating the difference of consumer beha­
the functional MCI and the hedonic MCI are conceptua­ vior before and after the COVID-19 outbreak.
lized as consumer innovativeness, which therefore is Stated clearly, COVID-19 has marked another mile­
driven by a utilitarian aspect and an affective aspect, stone in food delivery services – more specifically, con­
respectively. The cognitive MCI is also described as an tactless or distanced food delivery services. Furthermore,
aspect of consumer innovativeness that is motivated by drones have attracted the most attention for such ser­
wanting to be intelligent and informed, and the social vices because they perfectly support social distancing
MCI refers to an aspect of consumer innovativeness that without human encounters (Research and Markets,
is motivated by the desire to be unique (Caricati & 2020; Zeng et al., 2020). However, no empirical evidence
Raimondi, 2015; Vandecasteele & Geuens, 2010). The exists to provide an understanding of how consumers’
existing studies have tested these multiple dimensions pre-COVID-19 responses toward these types of innova­
of the MCI in various settings and have provided evi­ tive technology differ from their responses since the
dence for how these underlying motivations play COVID-19 outbreak. That knowledge gap evokes curios­
a significant role in the formation of consumers’ adop­ ity about how consumers’ responses specifically toward
tion behavior of innovative technologies (Hwang, Kim drone-based food delivery services have changed since
et al., 2019; Reinhardt & Gurtner, 2015; Saeed et al., the outbreak of COVID-19, and that topic is another
2014). That evidence means that the MCI should be fundamental research question of the current study.
assessed as a potential primary factor for unleashing Therefore, this study was designed to increase our
state-of-the-art technologies, and it would be meaning­ understanding of (1) the influence of the multidimen­
ful to evaluate its contribution toward building custo­ sional MCI on consumer attitudes, (2) the association
mers’ positive attitudes and their behavioral intentions, between consumers’ attitudes and their intentions to
on the basis of the TAM. Thus, we can form our first use a novel technology, and (3) the moderating role of
research question: How do the four facets of the MCI the COVID-19 outbreak in the relationship between the
toward drone food delivery services enhance consu­ public’s MCI and their attitude in the context of drone
mers’ attitudes and eventually their intentions to use food delivery services. Through the course of our study
those types of services. and its results, the present research contributes toward
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious filling the gap in the extant literature and to offering
disease that is caused by the newly discovered novel useful insights to practitioners in the food delivery ser­
coronavirus known as SARS-CoV-2 (World Health vices industry.
Organization, 2020a). Following the outbreak of COVID-
19 in December 2019, a total of 23.06 million cases and
800,906 deaths had been confirmed as of August 23 Literature review
2020 (World Health Organization, 2020b). Due to the
Drone food delivery services
nature of the coronavirus, which spreads primarily
through the respiratory system of the people infected Technology-based innovations enhance the arena of
(World Health Organization, 2020a), governments and operational excellence that includes service automation
officials around the globe have enforced various policies in the hospitality industry (Chan & Tung, 2019; Hwang,
and rules under the name of social distancing, which Cho et al., 2019; Moreno & Tejada, 2019; Okumus &
includes face-covering mandates, gathering size limits, Bilgihan, 2014). Likewise, active adoptions of technol­
and mobility restrictions, in an effort to combat the ogy-powered products and systems have increased,
spread of COVID-19 (USA Today, 2020). During the such as through the use of mobile applications, table
COVID-19 pandemic, people generally experience nega­ tablets, self-service technologies, and service robots
tive emotions such as anxiety, fear, and frustration, (Cobanoglu et al., 2015; Ivanov et al., 2017). In that
which are caused by perceived risk to the chances of light, drones are frequently referred to because robotics
unpleasant results of a behavior and/or perceived uncer­ is at the heart of the disruptive technologies in the food
tainty about the potential outcomes of a behavior services industry (Bamburry, 2015; Hwang, Lee et al.,
(Foroudi et al., 2021; Shin & Kang, 2020). Hence, many 2019). One of the earliest attempts to use drones with
changes in our daily routines have become inevitable, a food delivery was in 2013, when Domino’s Pizza, Inc.
370 J. HWANG ET AL.

dispatched a drone to deliver two pizzas to a customer’s Geuens, 2010). The functional MCI is related to the per­
door (Pepitone, 2013). Drones in the food delivery ser­ ceived usefulness (in this case, of a technology), which
vices stimulate positive effects that involve improving has been proposed in the TAM as a key determinant of
productivity, maximizing efficiency, and reducing the attitude and which in turn enhances customers’ beha­
environmental footprint (Jaramillo et al., 2019; Kim & vioral intentions toward a specific technology (Hwang,
Hwang, 2020). In other words, drones are one of the Kim et al., 2019). Meanwhile, the hedonic MCI illustrates
innovative tools that drive the greatest return in many individuals’ innovativeness as motivated by emotional
respects. Nevertheless, drone food delivery services are arousal and affective stimulation (Caricati & Raimondi,
not regarded as being mature enough on a large scale, 2015). A person’s need to have fun, enjoyment, and
which would involve privacy and safety, and the services pleasure is often described as the hedonic MCI. The
are still not available in many places around the world cognitive MCI, which is the third dimension of the MCI,
(Hwang & Choe, 2019; Ross, 2018). explains the fact that novel technologies are more wel­
comed by individuals when the individuals’ desire for
intellectual creativity becomes strong (Vandecasteele &
Motivated consumer innovativeness (MCI)
Geuens, 2010). Hwang, Kim et al. (2019) treated the
Technological developments can promote smarter busi­ notion of the cognitive MCI as being in line with the
ness methods by streamlining operations for industry perceived ease of use, which in the TAM is another
practitioners that involve labor cost savings and higher determinant of attitude, since a person’s cognitive
productivity (Ivanov et al., 2017). Therefore, adding tech­ goals include the desire to have a comprehensive under­
nologies into existing operations is absolutely indispen­ standing. Last, the social dimension of the MCI deals
sable in efforts toward improving one’s chance at winning with a fourth aspect of the consumer’s innovativeness
a competition in an era of new technology. However, and motivates the person to differentiate himself or
without a detailed understanding of their consumers, herself from others (Caricati & Raimondi, 2015). Thus,
entrepreneurs’ adoption of an innovative technology different MCI facets may underlie consumers’ adoption
does not guarantee the successful diffusion of the tech­ behaviors, and it is very important to recognize the
nology and an improvement in customer services (Kim & different MCI sources that lead to the successful diffu­
Hwang, 2020; Moreno & Tejada, 2019). To extend the TAM sion of a technology (Hwang, Kim et al., 2019; Saeed
for better predictive power in explaining customer adop­ et al., 2014; Viot et al., 2017). Indeed, Vandecasteele
tion behaviors in the technology domain, the MCI often and Geuens (2010) asserted that the use of
has been examined as a significant antecedent (Hwang, a multidimensional MCI approach is helpful for industry
Kim et al., 2019; Reinhardt & Gurtner, 2015; Saeed et al., professionals in more effectively and efficiently identify­
2014; Vandecasteele & Geuens, 2010). ing and pursuing customers for their innovative pro­
The MCI is a combined terminology that integrates ducts or services.
the notions of motivation and consumer innovative­
ness (Hwang, Kim et al., 2019; Vandecasteele &
Geuens, 2010). Motivation refers to the psychological The effects of motivated consumer innovativeness
states that arouse and guide a person’s specific beha­ on attitude
vior intended to help him or her achieve a goal
(Crompton & McKay, 1997). Thus, motivation can pro­ Attitude is defined as “an individual’s propensity to evalu­
vide reliable explanations of consumers’ intentions to ate a particular entity with some degree of favorability or
use technologies in pursuit of their goals. In the other unfavorability” (Eagly & Chaiken, 2007, p. 583). In the con­
half of the term, consumer innovativeness refers to an text of the adoption of a technology, attitude has been
individual’s propensity to try new products or services widely examined as an important construct that indicates
instead of remaining with the existing selections consumers’ intentions to use, and their actual use of,
(Steenkamp et al., 1999). Thus, consumer innovative­ a novel technology (Davis, 1989; Ha & Janda, 2016).
ness offers a fundamental clue about individuals’ Likewise, many studies have been conducted to predict
acceptance of novel technologies. By integrating the consumer acceptance of new technologies in the hospi­
two concepts, the MCI is defined as “the internal and tality industry, and they have provided empirical evidence
external factors that lead to the consumers’ innovative that the consumer’s attitude is the key variable that should
buying behavior” (Hwang, Kim et al., 2019, p. 103). be used to explain the person’s willingness to embrace
The MCI consists of four subdimensions of motiva­ technologies, such as mobile location-based services (Mak
tion: the functional, hedonic, cognitive, and social et al., 2015), self-services technologies (Kaushik et al.,
aspects (Caricati & Raimondi, 2015; Vandecasteele & 2015), and service robots (Ivanov et al., 2018).
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING 371

In endeavors to identify the determinants that are H4. The social motivated consumer innovativeness
useful for building a favorable attitude in the field of toward drone food delivery services enhances attitude.
technology adoption, the MCI has been widely validated
as an essential factor behind consumers’ attitude (Lyu
et al., 2017; Vandecasteele & Geuens, 2010). In particular,
the close association between the MCI and attitude has The effects of attitude on intentions to use
been explained in reference to an extended version of
Intentions to use are often adapted to measure indi­
the TAM (Hwang, Kim et al., 2019). Lien and Cao (2014)
viduals’ behavioral intentions toward a specific tech­
investigated the influence of individuals’ psychological
nology, and also their actual behavior (Davis, 1989;
motivations toward a social media platform, and the
Hwang, Lee et al., 2019; Kim & Han, 2020; Lyu et al.,
path effects they identified showed that entertainment,
2017; Ramkumar & Woo, 2017). Attitude, as one of
sociality, and information enhanced the users’ attitudes.
the various triggers of intentions to use, has long
Saeed et al. (2014) validated that the four motivational
been supported as a strong predictor in various set­
dimensions of the MCI– – functional, hedonic, cognitive,
tings, including that of technology adoption. Kaushik
and social motivations––underlie the consumer’s pro­
et al. (2015) identified a significant link between
pensity for innovativeness, and they determined that
tourists’ attitudes and their intentions toward adopt­
the functional aspect was a salient factor for the adop­
ing a self-service hotel technology. S. Ivanov et al.
tion of innovation. Similarly, Lyu et al. (2017) examined
(2018) paid attention to the increasing adoption of
the relationship between the MCI and consumers’ atti­
robots in the hospitality sector and tested the indivi­
tude toward 3D-printed fashion products, and their
duals’ attitudes toward the potential use of robots.
empirical analysis also supported the enhanced impor­
Their results, which were based on 260 responses,
tance of the functional aspect in the domain of technol­
confirmed the strong influence of attitude on the
ogy adoption. Ramkumar and Woo (2017) explored
respondents’ intentions to use. Hwang, Lee et al.
consumers’ attitude in the area of a subscription-based
(2019) emphasized the high innovativeness of drone
online service that provided periodic delivery of perso­
food delivery services in recent times and examined
nalized boxes of merchandise to the customers. Their
how consumers’ behavioral intentions were formu­
analysis sought to identify the key antecedents that led
lated. Their results, which were based on an analysis
to the individuals’ favorable attitude toward the service
that used 324 pieces of data, revealed that consu­
and discovered significant roles were played by the
mers’ positive attitudes toward using drone food
utilitarian motivation and the hedonic motivation. Lee
delivery services increased their intentions to use
et al. (2020) more recently derived the pursuit of practic­
the services. Similarly, Kim and Hwang (2020) incor­
ability as a functional aspect, play and relaxation as
porated the norm activation model and the theory of
a hedonic aspect, informational learning as a cognitive
planned behavior in order to understand individuals’
aspect, and virtual interaction to escape from reality as
intentions to accept drone food delivery services.
a social aspect that together formed the four motives for
Those authors focused particularly on the pro-
individuals’ use of a smart speaker. Their empirical ana­
environment role of drones in food delivery services
lysis, which was based on 330 pieces of data, illustrated
and asserted that the consumers’ attitudes were
how the hedonic and social factors exerted a meaningful
essential to the inducement of positive intentions, in
influence on the respondents’ attitudes. The stream of
conjunction with the consumers’ sense of a moral
findings from these studies thus has supported the rela­
obligation. Lee et al. (2020) assessed the link between
tionships between the MCI and attitude, so we offer the
consumers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions
following hypotheses.
toward virtual reality applications in the tourism sec­
tor. Their analytic results used 247 responses from US
H1. The functional motivated consumer innovativeness
citizens and revealed that the respondents’ attitude
toward drone food delivery services enhances attitude.
had a significant and positive influence on their
future intentions to visit a tourism destination. We
H2. The hedonic motivated consumer innovativeness
formulated the following hypothesis following that
toward drone food delivery services enhances attitude.
logic.

H3. The cognitive motivated consumer innovativeness

H5. Attitude toward drone food delivery services
toward drone food delivery services enhances
enhances the consumers’ intentions to use such services.
attitude.
372 J. HWANG ET AL.

The moderating effect of the COVID-19 outbreak 2020). More importantly, drone food delivery services in
the current pandemic period have emerged as an inno­
The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly impacted how
vative solution that guarantees no-contact environments
food services operate, and a considerable change is
in the food delivery services industry (Research and
underway. The most well-known fact that is used to
Markets, 2020; Zeng et al., 2020). In other words, drones
prevent the spread of the coronavirus is for people to
are now recognized as a strong precautionary tool in the
stay several feet apart in order to reduce face-to-face
battle against COVID-19. In light of that opportunity, some
interactions (World Health Organization, 2020a). In order
authorities have lowered the bar and allowed drones to
to minimize human-to-human contact during the pan­
operate in the food delivery services industry. For exam­
demic, people have exhibited a reluctance to dine at
ple, Manna Aero recently received a license from the Irish
restaurants (Gursoy & Chi, 2020), so the demand for
Aviation Authority for drone food delivery services in
drive-through, take-out, and delivery in food services
Dublin (Forbes, 2020). A pilot program partnered with
has increased significantly as a result (Jain, 2020;
the drone delivery company Flytrex is being launched in
Manivannan et al., 2020; Wen et al., 2020). This current
North Carolina in the US to use drones for meal deliveries
phenomenon of consumer behavior is explained by the
in order to provide contactless food delivery to stem the
theory of perceived risk, which refers to the significant
spread of COVID-19 (Fox News, 2020). Therefore, drones
influence of consumers’ risk perception in their purchas­
have become an innovative solution used to fight the
ing decision behavior (Bauer, 1960). Similarly, Shin and
COVID-19 pandemic, and the golden era of drone food
Kang (2020) documented the salient role of perceived
delivery services will arrive in the near future.
health risk in hotel customers’ decision-making during
Evidence supports the notion that the way people
the COVID-19 pandemic. Foroudi et al. (2021) deter­
perceive drones may change. In addition, the emergence
mined how customers’ risk perception toward the
of COVID-19 may foster a different impact from the MCI
COVID-19 epidemic influenced the development of
facets toward drone food delivery services. On that topic,
future desire towards visiting restaurants.
Hwang, Lee et al.’s findings (2019) validated a significant
Also, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention influence of the functional, hedonic, and social MCI
introduced guidelines for food handling by pick-up and dimensions on individuals’ attitudes toward drone food
delivery drivers in order to minimize the number of COVID- delivery services but did not uncover any effect from the
19 cases (CDC, 2020), which means that the efforts to cognitive MCI. In response to the dramatic changes that
maintain social distancing affect how people obtain their have evolved in consumers’ food consumption behavior
food in their daily lives and thus increase the demand for since the onset of COVID-19 and in the important roles
contactless food services. Furthermore, several cases have that have been highlighted showing drone use during
been confirmed of delivery personnel who were infected the pandemic, we believed it would be meaningful to
with COVID-19 (Global Times, 2020; The Economic; The examine how those path effects differ presently.
Economic Times, 2020), and that concern has driven the First of all, consumers may now perceive functional
interest in contactless environments in the food services motivation of drone food delivery services to be more
industry. In summary, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused critical than before COVID-19 because of the importance
a higher demand for contactless food deliveries in order to of contactless food delivery services under the circum­
avoid human contact (Forbes, 2020; Karim et al., 2020). For stances of the pandemic. According to recent news
instance, recently several pizza chains have launched car­ reports (Chandler, 2020; McFarland, 2020), engineers
side delivery and contactless pickup services (Bloomberg, working on drone technology believe that consumers
2020). Likewise, Dube et al. (2020) have recommended new could be more motivated to use drone delivery services
safety and health protocols in the restaurant and hospital­ because of its functional benefits under the circum­
ity industry. In that regard, a large portion of restaurant stances of the pandemic.
patrons––64.71%––have been shown to believe that the Next, consumers may now consider cognitive motiva­
use of innovative technologies is required in the COVID-19 tion of drone food delivery services more seriously than
environment (Gursoy & Chi, 2020). Consequently, practi­ before COVID-19. Under pandemic, consumers may per­
tioners in food delivery services have been pressured to ceive a wide range of health risks that they can encoun­
redesign how their services meet the demands of the new ter when using hospitality services (Kim & Lee, 2020; Shin
normal to protect both the consumers and the delivery & Kang, 2020). After COVID-19, it was found that con­
personnel. sumers feel less health risk when they are provided with
Indeed, there are many benefits with using drones in contactless services that involve high technology (Shin &
the food delivery services, such as saving time and gaining Kang, 2020). In this regard, consumers are more likely to
superior accessibility (Jaramillo et al., 2019; Kim & Hwang, be concerned about various aspects of drone food
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING 373

delivery services and compare its advantages and dis­ attitude toward the drone food delivery services. More
advantages after COVID-19 than before. specifically, we propose the following hypotheses.
On the other hand, there is a possibility that hedonic
and social motivation could have been more influential on H6a. The outbreak of COVID-19 moderates the relation­
attitude toward the drone food delivery services before ship between functional motivation and attitude.
COVID-19 than after. Elliot (2006) introduces the concept
of approach and avoidance motivation. According to his H6b. The outbreak of COVID-19 moderates the relation­
research, sometimes people are motivated to approach ship between hedonic motivation and attitude.
some circumstances/behavior for their thriving (e.g., self-
development). At the same times, individuals are moti­ H6c. The outbreak of COVID-19 moderates the relation­
vated to avoid certain circumstances/behavior for their ship between cognitive motivation and attitude.
survival (e.g., free from health risk). Applying this concept
into our study context, before COVID-19, diverse MCI H6d. The outbreak of COVID-19 moderates the relation­
could be important for consumers to create positive atti­ ship between social motivation and attitude.
tude toward the drone food delivery services such as
hedonic and social motivations (e.g., Hwang et al., 2019). Figure 1 depicts our proposed theoretical framework,
However, after COVID-19, the impact of MCI on attitude which encompasses a total of nine hypotheses related to
toward the drone food delivery services could be different. the causal relationships among six latent constructs and
For example, consumers are more likely to be motivated the moderating role played by the COVID-19 outbreak.
to use the drone food delivery service because they want
to avoid bigger risks (e.g., transmission of corona virus)
rather than they want to make their life exciting or impress Methodology
others by using drone food delivery services under pan­
Measurements
demic. It is expected that using drone food delivery ser­
vices is a behavior for surviving rather than thriving to All of the measurement items were adopted from prior
many consumers. Therefore, the influence of hedonic and research and were employed after being modified to fit
social motivation on attitude toward the drone food deliv­ the context of drone food delivery services. First, the MCI
ery services could be stronger before COVID-19. was measured with 12 measurement items that
Based on the above discussions, it is rational to Vandecasteele and Geuens (2010) used. Second, consu­
assume that the ongoing COVID-19 crisis may be exert­ mers’ attitudes were measured with three measurement
ing an influence on the relationship between MCI and items that were employed by Bagozzi, Dholakia, and

Motivated consumer
innovativeness
H6b

Functional
motivation H1

H6a

Hedonic H2
motivation
H5
Attitude Intentions to
use

Cognitive
motivation H3

H6d

Social H4
motivation

H6c

Hypothesized moderating role of before and after COVID-19 (H6a–d)

Figure 1. Proposed conceptual model. Hypothesized moderating role of before and after COVID-19 (H6a–d)
374 J. HWANG ET AL.

Basuroy (2003). Third, the respondents’ intentions to use Then, using the same method that had been used in
were measured using three items that were adapted from the first data collection described above, a second round
Han et al. (2020) and Han, Koo et al. (2020). A questionnaire of data collection was performed in May 2020, following
was developed using the above measurement items and the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. The survey com­
employing a seven-point Likert type scale that ranged pany sent invitation emails to a total of 1,479 prospec­
from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. tive participants, and 343 of them participated in the
survey. In that survey, 15 samples were excluded due to
the multivariate outliers and visual inspections, so 328
The data collection samples were analyzed statistically.

In order to test the moderating role played by the outbreak

of COVID-19, this study collected data at two different Data analysis
times: once before the COVID-19 outbreak and once after
the COVID-19 outbreak. First, we collected data in Profile of the respondents
February 2018, before COVID-19 had appeared, using an Table 1 provides the profile of the respondents. For the
online survey company to examine the importance of survey conducted before the outbreak of COVID-19, the
motivated consumer innovativeness in the background of group of 320 respondents consisted of 184 males
drone food delivery services. Because drone food delivery (57.5%) and 136 females (42.5%). In addition, the num­
services have not been commercialized in South Korea yet, ber of respondents in their twenties (n = 121, 37.8%) was
the respondents did not have a high understanding of the the largest cohort, followed by those in their thirties
services. To overcome that problem, we prepared a survey (n = 97, 30.3%). In terms of the respondents’ educational
system to make sure that before the respondents partici­ level, 58.8% (n = 188) held a bachelor’s degree. More
pated in the survey they watched a video that was 2 min­ than half of the respondents were single (n = 179,
utes and 30 seconds in length and clearly explained the 55.9%). Regarding household income, 71 respondents
system of drone food delivery services (see Appendix). The (22.2%) answered that their monthly income level was
survey company initially sent invitation emails to 2,794 between 2,001 USD US and 3,000 USD US.
prospective participants, of whom 346 took part in the Of the 328 respondents surveyed after the outbreak
survey. After a check of the multivariate outliers and visual of COVID-19, 51.8% (n = 170) were males and 48.2%
inspections, 26 samples were deleted. Consequently, 320 (n = 158) were females. Respondents in their thirties
samples were used for further statistical analysis. (31.4%, n = 103) were the largest cohort, followed by

Table 1. Profile of survey respondents.

Before the outbreak of COVID-19 After the outbreak of COVID-19 Merging two data
Variable (n = 320) (n = 328) (n = 648)
Gender
Male 184 (57.5%) 170 (51.8%) 354 (54.6%)
Female 136 (42.5%) 158 (48.2%) 294 (45.4%)
Age
20s 121 (37.8%) 98 (29.9%) 219 (33.8%)
30s 97 (30.3%) 103 (31.4%) 200 (30.9%)
40s 68 (21.3%) 96 (29.3%) 164 (25.3%)
50s 34 (10.6%) 31 (9.5%) 65 (10.0%)
Education level
Less than High school 31 (9.7%) 29 (8.8%) 60 (9.3%)
diploma
Associate’s degree 52 (16.3%) 40 (12.2%) 92 (14.2%)
Bachelor’s degree 188 (58.8%) 217 (66.2%) 405 (62.5%)
Graduate degree 49 (15.3%) 42 (12.8%) 91 (14.0%)
Marital status
Single 179 (55.9%) 190 (57.9%) 369 (56.9%)
Married 138 (43.1%) 134 (40.9%) 272 (42.0%)
Others 3 (.9%) 4 (1.2%) 7 (1.1%)
Income level
6,001$ US and over 59 (18.4%) 21 (6.4%) 80 (12.3%)
5,001$ US −6,000$ US 35 (10.9%) 8 (2.4%) 43 (6.6%)
4,001$ US −5,000$ US 50 (15.6%) 29 (8.8%) 79 (12.2%)
3,001$ US −4,000$ US 51 (15.9%) 47 (14.3%) 98 (15.1%)
2,001$ US −3,000$ US 71 (22.2%) 93 (28.4%) 164 (25.3%)
1,001$ US −2,000$ US 43 (13.4%) 65 (19.8%) 108 (16.7%)
Under 1,000$ US 11 (3.4%) 65 (19.8%) 76 (11.7%)
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING 375

those in their twenties (29.9%, n = 98). In addition, the .849 for the model after the outbreak of COVID-19, and
majority of the respondents (66.2%, n = 217) held were .826 for the merged version.
a bachelor’s degree, and 57.9% (n = 190) were single. As is indicated in Table 3, all of the values of the average
Finally, the largest proportion of the respondents variance extracted (AVE) for the three models exceeded
(28.4%, n = 93) indicated a monthly household income .50, which suggested that that all of the constructs used in
between 2,001 USD US and 3,000 USD US. this study had a high level of convergent validity (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981). In addition, all of the values of the compo­
site reliabilities for the three models were greater than .70,
The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) which means that internal consistency was not a problem
Table 2 presents the results of the CFA for three models: (Hair et al., 2006). Finally, the data analysis results revealed
one model for the period before the outbreak of COVID- that all values of the AVE for the three models were higher
19, one for the period after the outbreak, and one mer­ than the values of the squared correlations (R2) between
ging the two. The three models each had an adequate fit any pair of constructs, thus suggesting a high level of
(before the outbreak of COVID-19: χ2 = 484.569, df = 224, discriminant validity (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988).
χ2/df = 2.163, p < .001, NFI = .951, IFI = .973, CFI = .973,
TLI = .966, and RMSEA = .060; after the outbreak of
Measurement-invariance assessment
COVID-19: χ2 = 275.165, df = 120, χ2/df = 2.293,
p < .001, NFI = .965, CFI = .980, TLI = .975, and As suggested by Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998), this
RMSEA = .063; and merging the data from before and study performed a measurement invariance assessment.
after the outbreak of COVID-19: χ2 = 447.556, df = 120, The two groups consisted of before the outbreak of
χ2/df = 3.730, p < .001, NFI = .969, CFI = .977, TLI = .970, COVID-19 (n = 320) and after the outbreak of COVID-19
and RMSEA = .065) (Byrne, 2001). In addition, the values (n = 328). As presented in Table 4, the non-restricted
of the factor loadings were equal to or higher than 0.777 model and the full-metric invariance model had accepta­
for the model before the outbreak of COVID-19, were ble fit statistics. Additionally, the difference between the

Table 2. Confirmatory factor analysis: Items and loadings.

Standardized Loadinga
BC (skewness and AC (skewness and MAC (skewness and
Construct and Scale Item kurtosis) kurtosis) kurtosis)
Functional motivation
Drone food delivery services seem to be efficient. .937 (−.866, .387) .954 (−.603, −.433) .958 (−.786, .011)
Drone food delivery services seem to be convenient. .962 (−.769, .266) .973 (−.831, .020) .962 (−.989, .686)
Drone food delivery services are likely to shorten the delivery time. .893 (−.725, .003) .929 (−.872, .066) .918 (−.961, .553)
Hedonic motivation
Drone food delivery services seem to make my life exciting and stimulating. .965 (−.421,-.264) .955 (−.393, −.087) .964 (−.403, −.178)
It seems to give me a good feeling to use drone food delivery services. .972 (−.343, −.361) .967 (−.353, −.261) .965 (−.346, −.312)
Using drone food delivery services seems to give me a sense of personal enjoyment. .911 (−.387, −.225) .916 (−.372, −.212) .915 (−.381, −.216)
Cognitive motivation
I am likely to think logically when using drone food delivery services. .903 (−.630, −.205) .917 (−.924, .746) .909 (−.888, .775)
I am likely to use drone food delivery services after considering various aspects of .908 (−.516, −.463) .931 (−.774, .332) .912 (−.710, .228)
drone food delivery services.
I am likely to use drone food delivery services after comparing its advantages and .777 (−.516, −.540) .855 (−.791, .235) .826 (−.711, .105)
disadvantages.
Social motivation
Using drone food delivery services could impress others. .834 (−.707, .008) .880 (−.652, .207) .834 (−.689, .171)
Using drone food delivery services could show that I am an early adopter. .906 (−.772, .330) .952 (−.591, .020) .931 (−.672, .128)
Using drone food delivery services could distinguish me from others. .792 (−.490, −.173) .849 (−.450, −.195) .943 (−.467, −.195)
Attitude
Unfavorable – Favorable .889 (−.613, −.049) .928 (−.571, −.257) .916 (−.594, −.145)
Bad – Good .929 (−.443, −.061) .904 (−.496, .189) .918 (−.468, .078)
Negative – Positive .930 (−.371, −.429) .937 (−.343, −.307) .929 (−.352, −.365)
Intentions to use
I will use drone food delivery services when ordering food. .953 (−.168, .102) .954 (−.283, −088.) .950 (−.207, .192)
I am willing to use drone food delivery services when ordering food. .879 (−.479, .142) .960 (−.290, −.188) .929 (−.356, −.126)
I am likely to use drone food delivery services when ordering food. .953 (−.308, .079) .965 (−.286, −.067) .963 (−.285, −.012)
Goodness-of-fit statistics
Before the outbreak of COVID-19: χ2 = 484.569, df = 224, χ2/df = 2.163, p < .001, NFI = .951, IFI = .973, CFI = .973, TLI = .966, and RMSEA = .060
After the outbreak of COVID-19: χ2 = 275.165, df = 120, χ2/df = 2.293, p < .001, NFI = .965, CFI = .980, TLI = .975, and RMSEA = .063
Merging before and after the outbreak of COVID-19: χ2 = 447.556, df = 120, χ2/df = 3.730, p < .001, NFI = .969, CFI = .977, TLI = .970, and RMSEA = .065
BC = Before the outbreak of COVID-19, AC = After the outbreak of COVID-19, and MAB = Merging before and after the outbreak of COVID-19
a
All factors loadings are significant at p < .001
NFI = normed fit index, IFI = incremental fit index, CFI = comparative fit index, TLI = Tucker-Lewis index, and RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation
376 J. HWANG ET AL.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and associated measures.

Mean
(Std dev.) AVE (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
(1) Functional motivation 5.22 (1.26) .868 .952 .593a .633 .589 .556 .572
5.44 (1.31) .907 .967 .670 .783 .726 .791 .677
5.58 (1.25) .895 .962 .636 .739 .672 .694 .649
(2) Hedonic motivation 5.73 (1.17) .902 .352b .965 .474 .717 .646 .642
4.66 (1.45) .895 .449 .962 .598 .756 .679 .655
4.80 (1.45) .899 .404 .964 .555 .741 .664 .648
(3) Cognitive motivation 4.94 (1.43) .748 .401 .225 .899 .433 .423 .392
5.40 (1.19) .813 .613 .358 .929 .685 .697 .562
5.52 (1.16) .780 .546 .308 .914 .594 .586 .511
(4) Social motivation 5.65 (1.11) .715 .347 .514 .187 .882 .599 .535
5.01 (1.28) .801 .527 .572 .469 .923 .724 .630
5.11 (1.28) .817 .452 .549 .353 .930 .669 .595
(5) Attitude 4.88 (1.31) .839 .309 .417 .179 .359 .940 .767
4.53 (1.36) .852 .626 .461 .486 .524 .945 .827
4.70 (1.35) .848 .482 .441 .343 .448 .944 .802
(6) Intentions to use 4.61 (1.32) .863 .327 .412 .154 .286 .588 .950
3.91 (1.37) .921 .458 .429 .316 .397 .684 .972
4.26 (1.39) .898 .421 .420 .261 .354 .643 .963
The unmarked values are for before the outbreak of COVID-19; The underlined values are for after the outbreak of COVID-19; and Values in boldface type are for
merging before and after the outbreak of COVID-19
AVE = Average Variance Extracted
Shades. composite reliabilities are along the diagonal
a. correlations are above the diagonal and b. squared correlations are below the diagonal

Table 4. Measurement-invariance models.

Models χ2 df NFI CFI TLI RMSEA Δχ2 Full-metric invariance
2
Before and after the outbreak of COVID-19 Non-restricted model 575.272 240 .960 .976 .970 .047 Δχ (18) = 26.985 Supported
Full-metric invariance 602.257 258 .954 .972 .967 .049 p > .01 (insignificant)
NFI = Normed Fit Index, CFI = Comparative Fit Index, TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index, and RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
Δχ2 (18) = 34.81 and p > .01

two models was not significant (Δχ2 = 26.985 < χ2 = .01 Structural equation modeling (SEM)
(df = 18) = 34.81), which indicated that the full metric
This study used an SEM analysis to identify whether the
invariance was statistically supported.
proposed hypotheses were accepted or rejected, and the

Figure 2. Standardized theoretical path coefficients. χ2 = 492.724, df = 124, χ2/df = 3.974, p < .001, NFI = .966, CFI = .974, TLI = .968,
and RMSEA = .068NFI = normed fit index, IFI = incremental fit index, CFI = comparative fit index, TLI = Tucker-Lewis index, and
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation*p < .053: S = Significant and NS = Not Significant
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING 377

Table 5. Moderating role of the outbreak of COVID-19.

Unconstrained model
Before the outbreak of COVID-19 After the outbreak of COVID-19 Constrained model Tests of moderator
Path β t-value β t-value Δχ2 (248) = 623.488 χ2 difference Hypotheses
H6a F → A .221 3.872* .457 6.913* Δχ2 (347) = 627.392 Δχ2(1) = 3.904 Supported
H6b H → A .401 5.857* .182 3.212* Δχ2 (347) = 627.293 Δχ2(1) = 3.805 Not supported
H6c C → A .027 .459 ns .095 1.531 ns - - Not supported
H6d S → A .193 2.697* .196 2.992* Δχ2 (347) = 623.499 Δχ2(1) = .011 Not supported
F = Functional motivation, H = Hedonic motivation, C = Cognitive motivation, S = Social motivation, and A = Attitude
ns
= not significant
*p < .05
2
Δχ (1) = 3.84, p < .05

results are illustrated in Figure 2. The overall evaluation of by food service companies and the restaurant industry
the model fit indicated a satisfactory fit of the model to when considering the application of drone technology
the data (χ2 = 492.724, df = 124, χ2/df = 3.974, p < .001, during a pandemic and after it. The most important
NFI = .966, CFI = .974, TLI = .968, and RMSEA = .068). Of the finding was that functional motivation was more influ­
first five hypotheses, four were statistically supported at ential in generating a positive attitude toward drone
p < .05. More specifically, the respondents’ attitude was food delivery services after the outbreak of COVID-19
affected by functional, hedonic, and social motivations, than before it. In addition, we found that functional,
thus supporting Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 2, and hedonic, and social motivations all positively affected
Hypothesis 4. However, cognitive motivation did not the respondents’ attitude toward drone food delivery
affect the respondents’ attitude, so Hypothesis 3 was not services. Accordingly, to generate a positive attitude
supported. Finally, attitude played an important role in among consumers, food service companies and the res­
the formation of the respondents’ intentions to use drone taurant industry need to identify the specific aspects of
food delivery services. Therefore, Hypothesis 5 was motivated consumer innovativeness that are likely to be
supported. effective with their consumers. Based on the empirical
analyses, the findings of the study are discussed below.
First, it was found that functional motivation signifi­
The moderating role of the outbreak of COVID-19 cantly influenced attitude, meaning that if respondents
considered drone food delivery to be efficient, conveni­
This study performed multiple-group analyses in order
ent, and beneficial in terms of saving time, that assess­
check the moderating role of the outbreak of COVID-19,
ment motivated them to have a positive attitude toward
and those results are presented in Table 5. First, the data
drone food delivery services. This is in line with the
analyses indicated that the outbreak of COVID-19 mod­
findings from previous studies (Lyu et al., 2017; Saeed
erated the relationship between the respondents’ func­
et al., 2014), which determined that functional motiva­
tional motivation and their attitude (Δχ2 = 3.904
tions were important in affecting the adoption of a new
> χ2 = .5(1) = 3.84, and df = 1), which supported
technology. The results of the current study also indi­
Hypothesis 6a. More specifically, the path coefficient
cated that consumers who were motivated to use drone
for the group after the outbreak of COVID-19 (β = .457
food delivery services because of the functional aspects
and t = 6.913*) was higher than that for the group before
of the technology showed more favorable attitudes
the outbreak (β = .221 and t = 3.872*). However, the data
toward that new technology.
did not support Hypotheses 6b (Δχ2 = 3.805
Second, this study confirmed the positive relationship
< χ2 = .5(1) = 3.84 and df = 1) and 6d (Δχ2 = .011
between the hedonic motivation dimension of the MCI
< χ2 = .5(1) = 3.84 and df = 1).
and individuals’ attitudes toward drone food delivery
services. In other words, the more consumers thought
that utilizing drone food delivery services was exciting,
Discussion and implications
fun, and enjoyable, the more they evaluated those ser­
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects vices positively. The role of the hedonic motivation in
that the MCI had on consumers’ attitudes toward drone affecting consumers’ evaluation of a hospitality and
food delivery services and their intentions to use such tourism product has also been demonstrated by the
services. Moreover, the moderating effect of the COVID- previous studies (Kim & Hall, 2019; Yüksel, 2007).
19 outbreak was evaluated. The results point to Contemporary consumers are seeking excitement, plea­
a number of factors that should be taken into account sure, and fun when they purchase a service product.
378 J. HWANG ET AL.

Likewise, the activity of trying a new technology, includ­ outbreak was not significantly influential between the
ing one such as drone food delivery services, reflects respondents’ hedonic, cognitive, or social motivation and
symbolic aspects. The current study clarified that the their attitude toward drone food delivery services. These
hedonic motivation mattered when using drone food findings provide an important clue for restaurants and food
delivery services. Thus, it is important for food service delivery companies who have been placed under pressure
companies and restaurant industry personnel to keep to redesign their services by incorporating innovative tech­
this point in mind. nologies that minimize human contacts as a result of the
Third, we found that a cognitive motivation did not pandemic.
significantly affect the respondents’ attitude toward Seventh, we proposed that hedonic and social moti­
drone food delivery services. That finding is somewhat vated consumer innovativeness toward drone food deliv­
different from those in previous studies (Lyu et al., 2017), ery services will have more positive influence on attitude
which indicated that a cognitive motivation enhanced before COVID-19 than after COVID-19. However, these
the users’ positive attitude toward a new technology. In hypotheses were not supported. The results show that
contrast, the results of the current study showed that hedonic and social motivated consumer innovativeness
consumers may not necessarily think logically or compare are important for both before and after COVID-19. These
all of the advantages and disadvantages of using drone findings provide an important clue for restaurants and
food delivery services. Vandecasteele and Geuens (2010) food delivery companies that the role of hedonic and
mentioned that consumers welcomed novel technologies social motivated consumer innovativeness toward
to a greater extent when their intellectual creativity drone food delivery services are important and will be
became stronger. However, that relationship may not continuously critical in the long term.
apply in the context of drone food delivery services. Last, we proposed that cognitive consumer innovative­
Fourth, our results showed that people who are socially ness toward drone food delivery services will have more
motivated tend to generate favorable attitudes toward positive influence on attitude after COVID-19 than before.
drone food delivery services. This result is consistent with However, this was not supported. As the relationship
previous studies (Hwang, Kim et al., 2019; Saeed et al., between cognitive consumer innovativeness on attitude
2014), which discovered a positive relationship between toward drone food delivery services was not significant
social motivation and attitude toward a new technology. for both before and after COVID-19, the effect of cognitive
Consumers who are motivated to use drone food delivery motivated consumer innovativeness on attitude on drone
services to impress others or enhance their social status by food delivery services needs further examination.
adopting a new technology are more likely to have
a positive attitude toward drone food delivery services.
Theoretical implications
Fifth, the respondents’ attitude toward drone food
delivery services was positively related to a high level of This study provides several important academic implica­
intention to use it. This result is also in line with the tions. First, we proposed a conceptual model of the MCI
findings of previous studies (Kim & Hwang, 2020; Lee in the context of drone food delivery services and
et al., 2020), which confirmed a positive relationship empirically tested it. Few other studies have applied
between attitude toward a service product and the inten­ the MCI as a salient factor behind consumers’ attitudes
tion to use that product. Thus, individuals who favorably and intentions to use a service product, particularly in
evaluate drone food delivery services would be more the context of drone food delivery services. The study’s
willing to order their meals using drone technology. model proves that the MCI can be effective in explaining
Sixth, the moderating effect of the COVID-19 outbreak consumer adoption in the domain of drone food deliv­
was demonstrated in this study by the relationship ery services. Therefore, the model should benefit future
between the respondents’ functional motivation and their studies that aim to focus on the role of the MCI in regard
attitude toward drone food delivery services, which means to other service products that involve a high level of
that the consumers paid more attention to the functional innovative technology.
aspects of drone food delivery services and were more likely Second, this study’s findings support the original idea
to be motivated to use them because of the services’ con­ of the theory of planned behavior and demonstrate the
venience and efficiency, particularly after the outbreak of positive relationship between consumers’ attitudes and
COVID-19. This confirms our notion that has been discussed their intentions to use drone food delivery services. This
previously and demonstrates the fact that the consumers’ study strengthens the findings of previous studies that
perception of drone food delivery services has changed had determined positive relationships between attitude
since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is interesting and intention to use a service product. This strong rela­
to note that the moderating effect of the COVID-19 tionship also applies in the context of drone food
 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING 379

delivery services, which are considered to be innovative excitement, pleasure, fun, and positive feelings.
technology-based services. Emphasizing these hedonic aspects of drone food delivery
Third, our findings regarding the moderating role of the services is not something that has to be conducted under
COVID-19 are in line with studies conducted by Foroudi special circumstances such as pandemic since the modera­
et al. (2021) and Shin and Kang (2020) that explained con­ tion effect of hedonic motivation on attitude before and
sumers’ behavioral change through the risk perception after COVID-19 was not significant. Rather, restaurant man­
theory in the hospitality setting during a global pandemic. agers and marketers should continuously keep in their
As our daily lives during the pandemic have increased the mind about the significance of hedonic motivation of
demand for contactless food services, particular attention drone food delivery services regardless of pandemic
has been given to how consumers’ perceptions have been situation.
changed regarding innovative technology that involves Third, food service companies and restaurant practi­
contactless food services since the outbreak of COVID-19. tioners can encourage social motivation through marketing
However, to the best of our knowledge, few longitudinal messages emphasizing that using drone food delivery ser­
studies have tested a comprehensive model before and vices is special and that consumers can boast that they are
again after the outbreak of COVID-19. Therefore, this early adopters of the latest technology. Restaurant man­
study broadens the range of studies regarding the moder­ agers can point out, through social networking sites and
ating effect that the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has other forms of media, that trying drone food delivery ser­
had on consumer adoption of a new technology. vices can enhance consumers’ self-expression. Restaurants
can employ specific social media marketing strategies, such
as offering rewards to customers who post about how their
Practical implications
positive experiences with ordering meals delivered by
The current study provides insights into what the manage­ drone food delivery services enable them to express them­
ment and marketing strategies should be for food service selves favorably to others. Again, the findings of this study
companies and practitioners in the restaurant industry who suggested that social motivation is influential on attitude
wish to apply drone technology to deliver food to their toward the drone food delivery services both before and
customers. First, practitioners should focus on consumers’ after COVID-19.
functional motivation in order to inspire a positive consu­ Fourth, we found that the consumers who developed
mer attitude toward drone food delivery services. Such an positive attitudes toward drone food delivery services
effort has become particularly important since the outbreak showed a high level of willingness to use those services
of COVID-19, and we encourage food service companies to when ordering food in the future, meaning that restaurant
emphasize to their customers the functional utilities of practitioners need to understand the antecedents of con­
drone food delivery services. For example, it is important sumer attitudes toward such delivery services. Specifically,
to inform potential customers in detail about total flight this study found that functional, hedonic, and social moti­
ranges and the actual speed of drone delivery services. How vations were effective in influencing consumer attitudes.
the drone is designed to perform delivery services effi­ Moreover, we found that in developing a positive attitude,
ciently and how useful it is during a pandemic should be consumers may not necessarily be motivated to think logi­
emphasized in newly created promotional videos and mar­ cally or to critically consider the various points regarding
keting materials for drone food delivery services. drone food delivery services. Therefore, rather than appeal­
When consumers are particularly interested in the func­ ing to a person’s desire for intellectual confirmation, any
tional aspects of drone food delivery services, restaurant focus on the critical points for consumers––that is, on their
managers will need to cooperate very closely with the functional, hedonic, and social motivations– – should be
distributors of the drones that are designed particularly effective in stimulating consumer approval.
for food delivery services, because restaurant managers
are not likely to be experts on the drone technology itself.
Limitations and future research
Restaurant managers should constantly communicate well
with their drone vendors, so that the vendors can reflect the This study has several important theoretical and practical
wants and the needs of the consumers when they update implications, which are discussed above, but it also had
or design new functional aspects of drone technology. limitations. First, because the data were collected in
Second, knowing that hedonic motivation is also an South Korea, applying the results of this study to other
important MCI facet that affects people’s attitude toward regions will be somewhat difficult. In particular, the con­
drone food delivery services, we recommend that restau­ sumer attitudes toward new technology-based services
rant practitioners emphasize for consumers the fact that vary with cultural differences (Kumar, 2014), so we recom­
using drone food delivery services can generate mend that future studies collect data from other regions.
380 J. HWANG ET AL.

Furthermore, demographic profiles such as age and gen­ berg.com/news/articles/2020-07-15/pizza-s-strength-is-about-

der are often discussed as important moderators in to-be-tested-by-the-economy-reopening
accepting technology mediated services (Hwang et al., Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS,
EQS, and LISREL: Comparative approaches to testing for the
2019). Thus, studies in future are suggested to take
factorial validity of a measuring instrument. International
demographic characteristics into consideration in Journal of Testing, 1(1), 55–86.
explaining consumer behavior. Second, drone food deliv­ Caricati, L., & Raimondi, M. (2015). The motivated consumer
ery services are not commercialized in South Korea, so innovativeness scale: Initial Italian validation. TPM: Testing,
this study showed a video in order to enhance the psychometrics. Methodology in Applied Psychology, 22(3),
respondents’ understanding of the services. However, in 363–383. doi: 10.4473/TPM22.3.4
CDC (2020, April 17). What food and grocery pick-up and delivery
future research it would be meaningful to investigate
drivers need to know about COVID-19. Centers for Disease
customers who have actually used drone food delivery Control and Prevention.https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/
services. Third, the COVID-19 pandemic was in progress 2019-ncov/community/organizations/food-grocery-drivers.
at the time of this study, so our findings about consumer html
behavior toward drone food delivery services may be Chan, A. P. H., & Tung, V. W. S. (2019). Examining the effects of
different from people’s behavior after the pandemic is robotic service on brand experience: The moderating role of
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study consumer behavior toward drone food delivery Chandler, K. (2020). 1 DRONE. In Unmanning (pp. 16–36).
services after the coronavirus pandemic has ended. Rutgers University Press.
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variables at the same time, which can lead common consumers ready for mobile payment? An examination of con­
method bias. Thus, in order to measure independent sumer acceptance of mobile payment technology in restaurant
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Disclosure statement Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use,
and user acceptance of information technology. MIS
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). Quarterly, 13(3), 319–340. https://doi.org/10.2307/249008
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Jinkyung Jenny Kim http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1704-3272 https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.582
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