UNIT III: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Overview
Several books on education will demonstrate that the curriculum in the Philippines
underwent radical changes. These changes are critical in order to adapt to the changing educational
paradigm. The Educational Decree of 1863, which was promulgated during this time period,
provided Filipinos with a comprehensive educational system from elementary to tertiary levels.
Since then, and until now the curriculum underwent revision and innovation and is still continuing
to evolve in order to adapt and become relevant to the ever-changing needs of the society - locally
and globally.
The curriculum is the very heart of the school system. There can be no school if there is no
curriculum. It is the very reason for the existence of any learning institution. The school caters to
the students. Hence, the curriculum as the foundation of the teaching-learning process has to be
geared towards the rapid societal changes and to the new responsibilities for the new breed of
Filipinos. It is in this sense that curriculum needs to be carefully reviewed, evaluated and revised as
the necessity arises to adjust on the changing and evolving needs of the country and its people . This
unit discusses the what, and the how of curriculum development and its process. Different
curriculum models will also be discussed as well as the important roles of stakeholders in the
curriculum development.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the Unit III, I should be able to:
state the meaning of Curriculum Development;
explain how the curriculum development process takes
place;
discuss the roles of the stakeholders in curriculum
development;
illustrate by means of a diagram the curriculum
development process; and
analyze the different Models of Curriculum Development.

Setting Up
Direction: Based on your learning and understanding from Unit I and II.

1. Enumerate the role of stakeholders in creating curriculum.

2. Compare the curriculum 10 years ago from the current curriculum we have now. List down
the changes that you observed.
Lesson Proper

DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

What is Curriculum Development?

The best way to define Curriculum Development is to take each term and explain briefly the
concept behind it.
Curriculum
The term curriculum is derived from the Latin root “curere,” which means “to run,” as
defined in the previous unit. In educational parlance, the "course of the race" came to stand for the
"course of study" over time. Curriculum can now mean different things to different people
depending on how it is used.
Curriculum is more than just a list of subjects that students must take as part of a course of
study. Curriculum, in a broad sense, refers to the overall framework of the educational system,
which includes everything from instruction to management and administration. It is a broad
collection of the academic institution's students' growth and experiences. In addition, it defines
both learning and experiential activities and the means of delivering it to the learners. Curriculum
is dynamic because it is constantly changing to meet the changing needs of society and people. It is
also viewed traditionally and progressively, but both perspectives prioritize students.
Development
Development is a specific word that connotes change. Change means any alteration or
modification in the existing order of things.
However, change may not necessarily result in development, it must have the following
characteristics (Palma, 1992) so that change would eventually lead to development:
Change must be PURPOSEFUL
Change that is intentional or directional is referred to as purposeful change. There
must be well-defined targets or objectives. This type of change is something that one wills
or causes to occur, rather than something that happens by chance . As a result, it includes
control over or responsibility for the effect caused by the change.
(https://www.slideshare.net/JingjingFrancisco/a-report-on-curriculum-development).

Change must be PLANNED

It is necessary to plan for change. In this context, planning refers to two things. To
begin, there is a series of careful, systematic, and sequential steps that lead to a goal.
Second, these are carried out over a period of time.
(https://www.slideshare.net/JingjingFrancisco/a-report-on-curriculum-development).

Change must be PROGRESSIVE

Positive change brings about improvement. It takes a person or a group to higher
levels of perfection with the vision aiming for what is ideally relevant in the future
(https://thuongknn.wordpress.com/).
Curriculum Development should then be concerned with the creation of plans for
teaching and learning activities in classroom settings that will result in positive changes in
the lives of learners and society as a whole. It is based on the school’s mission and goals and
identifies ways of translating these into a coherent and coordinated program of meaningful
experiences and conditions eliciting responses that will lead to the transformation of the
learners into authentic, warm and sensitive human beings
(https://www.studymode.com/essays/Curriculum-Development-Process-887334.html).
Curriculum Development
When viewed in a classroom setting or in a teacher’s perspective, Curriculum development
describes all the ways in which a training or teaching organisation plans and guides learning. This
learning can take place in groups or with individual learners. It can take place inside or outside a
classroom. It can take place in an institutional setting like a school, college or training centre, or in a
village or a field. It is central to the teaching and learning process (Rogers and Taylor 1998).
  From this description, one can infer that curriculum development can take place in many
settings, and may involve many people. This means that it is a cooperative venture among teachers,
supervisor, curriculum expert, learners, parents and other stakeholders (Andres and Francisco,
1989).

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The first step in curriculum development is to create a model. The type of curriculum used
is determined by a curriculum development model. It includes educational philosophy, teaching
methods, and methodology. (https://www.slideshare.net/camilleCasela/leadership-curriculum-design).
There are numerous curriculum development models. Curriculum development, as a
process, is concerned with reviewing, planning, developing, implementing, and maintaining
curriculum while ensuring that the stakeholders involved in this process have a strong
commitment to and ownership of the curriculum. For formulating policy, the challenge lies in the
discussion on the form, content, aims and goals of curriculum. Often referred to as curriculum
components. These curriculum components have a great impact on roles of the stakeholders,
parents, educators and students as they connect to vision and practice, decision making, curriculum
planning, development, implementation and evaluation (Joseph, 2011 as cited by Reyes and Dizon,
2015) (https://www.coursehero.com/file/40432977/Curriculum-Development-and-Planningdocx/).

The Tyler Model

The Tyler Model was created by Ralph Tyler in 1949. He presented the model in his book
Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in the same year. It is the first ever model of
curriculum development, it was also considered revolutionary because no one presented such kind
of model in terms of curriculum development.
Some authors call this model as Ends Mean Model. This is because according to Tyler, based
on the presented four basic questions, a curriculum developer should start by deciding what
purposes the curriculum is to have and then plan in accordance with the purpose (See Figure 3 for
a summary of steps of the Tyler’s Model). Additionally, Tyler suggested that several ends, which he
called goals, educational objectives, and purposes, be identified by examining five elements: the
learners, life in the community, subject matter, philosophy, and psychology (Reyes and Dizon,
2015). This idea is presented in Figure 3:

Figure 3. Tyler’s Ends-Means Model

Tyler reiterates that to develop a curriculum, one must be guided by the four (4) basic
questions:
● What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
● What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?
● How can these educational experiences be organized?
● How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
 This figure summarizes the steps of the Tyler Model:

   
Society Philosoph
 
Subject    
Tentative  y  
Precise
Sources Screens
matter   objectives   objective
  Learner Psycholog s
    y
Selected Evaluatio
experience n
s

Figure 4. Tyler’s Model of Curriculum Development

Moreover, Tyler also identified elements as sources of the curriculum. These are students,
society, and subject matter.

The Student as a Source

One of the Principles of Learning states that “one of the richest resources for learning is the
learner himself.” According to Corpuz and Salandanan (2015), "each individual has an accumulation
of experiences, ideas, feelings, and attitudes that constitute a rich vein of material for problem
solving and learning." Learners are central to the teaching and learning processes. All of a teacher's
preparations revolve around the ultimate benefit of the students. Furthermore, Maslow's Hierarchy
of Needs theory revealed that students' basic needs must be met because they are the key to
working on the satisfaction of the individual's higher order needs as a person.
Society as a Source
Authentic learning is valued and must be centered on children's natural interests. Learning
does not take place solely within the four walls of the classroom or from the books that students
read. Life lessons are more important and readily available in the natural setting-the environment,
within society-in which an individual interacts, reacts, and experiences the realities of life . The
society is their big school, their actual training ground, the source of their genuine learning from life
lessons that they can apply in their future and present lives.
Subject Matter as a Source
Tyler was seriously influenced by John Dewey, who emphasized learning by doing. He was
also inspired by Jerome Bruner, who wrote about the structure of knowledge. They said (and Tyler
agreed) that, to master a subject, one must understand its underlying structure (Reyes and Dizon,
2015).
Philosophy as a Source
Tyler stated that good curriculum development begins with good thinking, and good thinking
begins with the formulation of a philosophy. He believed that defining a school's philosophy was
essential. If Tyler were to advise others on curriculum development, he would insist that teachers state
their personal philosophies as well as the philosophies of their school. In this respect, Tyler’s model
reflects the realization that to understand others, you must first understand yourself. To serve others,
teachers must understand both the serving agency and himself/herself. Having a sound personal and
teaching philosophy anchored on the statement of school’s philosophy, only then that the teacher will
have a strong premise to plan effectively and implement the curriculum in the classroom context
effectively.
Psychology as a Source
Tyler believed that effective curriculum development requires understanding the learners’
levels of development and the nature of the learning process. This understanding helps to define the list
of objectives. Curriculum workers should use philosophy and psychology as “ screens,” filtering out
objectives that are beyond students’ capacity to attain and those that run counter to the faculty’s
philosophy (Oliva, 2009).

Taba’s Inverted Model

Hilda Taba was an Architect, a curriculum theorist, a curriculum developer, and a teacher
education educator. She was a student of John Dewey. She wrote a book entitled Curriculum
Development Theory and Practice that was published in 1962.
Taba’s Model follows an inductive approach. In this regard curriculum workers starts with the
specifics and build up to a general design as opposed to the more traditional deductive approach of
starting with the general design working down to the specifics.
The model is also well-known for its teacher approach. The task of the teachers in terms of
lesson preparation is actually reflected on the model. Likewise, she believed that teachers are aware of
the students’ needs, hence they should be the one to develop the curriculum. This is also why it is called
grassroots approach because the needs of the students are at the fore front to the curriculum.
The figure below shows the illustration of the model.

Figure 5. The Steps of the Hilda Taba Model

(Source: https://www.slideshare.net/sohail9595/taba-model-of-curriculum-development)
Steps of the Taba Model
Diagnosis of Needs. Curriculum development and teacher instructional planning both begin by
identifying the needs of the learners for whom the curriculum and instruction are intended. This
step is critical in order to truly identify and sustain what is lacking in terms of the students'
educational needs and the societal expectations of them.
Formulation of the Objectives. After the teacher and curriculum developer have identified the
needs of the learners through the standardized process of diagnosing the needs of the learners, and
have determined which areas require special attention, the next step is to formulate and specify the
learning objectives.
Selection of Content. The content to be included should be carefully determined and chosen based
on its relevance, validity, and significance. Furthermore, the content chosen should be aligned with
the formulated objectives as a result of the standardized process of diagnosing students' needs.
Organization of Content. It is also critical to sequence content effectively after it has been chosen.
The content chosen must also be properly organized in accordance with some type of sequence and
in accordance with set objectives as well as the students' maturity. There are several factors to
consider when properly sequencing curriculum content. This will be covered in a separate section
of the book.
Selection of Learning Experiences. At this point, the teacher chooses instructional methods that
will engage students with the content. Remember that the selection of learning experiences must
also be directed toward the achievement of predetermined goals.
Organization of Learning Experiences. Learning activities, like content, must be sequenced and
organized. It is critical to use strategy when sequencing learning activities to ensure that students
acquire the necessary skills and competencies. The content determines the proper sequence of
learning activities. More importantly, it is determined by the competencies that students must
acquire, which are reflected in the formulated objectives at the outset.
Evaluation and means of evaluation. The teacher and curriculum developer must determine
which objectives have been met. To evaluate the learning outcomes, evaluation procedures must be
designed. The proper alignment of these steps must be strictly adhered to.
Application of the Taba Model
● Currently use as basis in most curriculum designs
● It gives primary consideration in identifying the needs of students
● Use as guide in developing objectives
● Consider in selecting instructional materials
● Use as basis in organizing learning experiences
● Evaluation

The following are the observed strength of the model in developing the curriculum:
● It gives the teacher a greater role by not just making them implementers of the
curriculum but also developers.
● It follows the inductive method.
● It also follows teacher’s approach
● Notes that teachers are aware of the students’ needs therefore they are the one that
should develop the curriculum.
● Sees the curriculum as a “plan for learning”
● Gives importance to objectives in order to establish a sense of purpose in deciding
what to include, exclude and emphasize in a curriculum.
Moreover, Taba as a curriculum expert believed that: “To evolve a theory of curriculum
development and a method of thinking about it, one needs to ask what demands and requirements
of culture and society both are, both for the present and the future. Curriculum is a way of
preparing young people to participate in our culture.”
Application of Taba’s Model in the Classroom
The following are the strengths and weaknesses of Taba model when being applied to classroom
preparation and teaching.
The following are the Strengths of using the Taba Model in the classroom context:
Gifted students begin thinking of a concept, then dive deeper into that concept
● Focuses on open-ended questions rather than right/wrong questions
● The open-endedness requires more abstract thinking, a benefit to our gifted students
● The questions and answers lend themselves to rich classroom discussion
● Easy to assess student learning

However, there are also limitations in the use of the Taba Model in the classroom setting:
It can be difficult for non-gifted students to grasp.
● It is difficult for heterogeneous classrooms.
● It works well for fiction and non-fiction, may be difficult to easily use in all subjects.

The Peter Oliva Model

Peter Oliva was a former professor and chairperson of Southern Illinois University, Florida
International University, and Georgia Southern University. He’s an author of numerous articles in
educational journals, written several textbooks and is a co-author of Supervision for Teaching Schools,
now in its 8th edition. He has served as a high school teacher, guidance counselor and as a professor of
education at the University of Florida, University of Mississippi, India State University at the University
of Hawaii.
In 1976, Peter Oliva introduced his first model of curriculum development. His first model
follows a linear and deductive approach. That is why it is considered by curriculum analysts as simple
and easy to follow, (see the figure below) until he made a revision in 1992.
 Figure 6. Oliva’s first (1976) Model of Curriculum Development

The Oliva Model became more comprehensive and detailed after its revision in 1992, as opposed
to his first model, which was simple and linear in nature. Because the model combines a curriculum
development scheme and an instructional design, it was later regarded as systematic and
comprehensive.
The exact strength of the Oliva model, according to Reyes and Dizon (2015), is its incorporation into
foundations. The original model necessitates a philosophical statement, which is essential but
unfortunately uncommon in curriculum documents. Oliva's revised model takes into account societal
and student needs, both of which are important components of the curriculum model.
12 Components of the Oliva Model
Figure 7 shows the detailed steps of the Oliva model that takes the curriculum developer from the
sources of the curriculum to evaluation. The figure likewise shows its twelve essential components.
These twelve components are:
1. Philosophical formulation, target mission, vision of institution.
2. Analysis of the needs of the community where the school is located.
3. - 4. General purposes and special purpose curricula.
5. Organizing the design and implement curriculum.
6. – 7. Describe the curriculum in the form of the formulation of general objectives and specific
learning.
8. Define the learning strategy.
9. Preliminary studies on possible strategies or assessment techniques to be used.
10. Implement the learning strategy.
11. – 12. Evaluation of learning and curriculum evaluating

Oliva recognized that the needs of the students in particular communities are not always the
same as the general needs of students throughout the society. In this case, the role of the faculty
comes in to always consider the nature, needs and diversified characteristics of students when
preparing a curriculum or even a plan for teaching.

In the Oliva model, a faculty can fashion a plan:

● For the curriculum of an area and design ways in which it will be carried out through
instruction.
● To develop a school – wide interdisciplinary programs that cut across areas of specialization
such as career education, guidance, and class activities.
● For faculty to focus on the curricular components of the model to make programmatic
decision.
● To allow a faculty to concentrate on the instructional components.

The figure below is the illustration of the Oliva’s model.

 Figure 7. The Peter Oliva Model
(Source https://www.slideshare.net/jheallyorlanda/the-oliva-model-of-curriculum)

17 Basic Steps of the Oliva Model

As shown in the illustration above, the steps are:
1. Specify the needs of the students in general.
2. Specify the needs of the society
3. Write a statement of philosophy and aims of education.
4. Specify the needs of students in school.
5. Specify the needs of the particular community
6. Specify the needs of the subject matter.
7. Specify the curriculum goals of your school.
8. Specify the curriculum objectives of your school.
9. Organize and implement the curriculum.
10. Specify instructional goals.
11. Specify instructional objectives.
12. Specify instructional strategies.
13. Begin selection of evaluation technique.
14. Implement instructional strategies
15. Make final selection of evaluation techniques.
16. Evaluate instruction and modify instructional components.
17. Evaluate the curriculum and modify curriculum components
Saylor and Alexander Model
John Galen Saylor (1902 – 1998) was an American educator, he enjoyed a full bright
professorship in Finland in 1962. Whereas, William Marvin Alexander (1912-1996) was an American
Educator and well-known as a father of the American Middle School. They are both well-known authors
of book in Curriculum Planning and development. They co-authored a book entitled Curriculum
Planning for Better Teaching.
Saylor and Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps.
Curriculum according to them is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad
educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school
center” (Bilbao, et.al 2015). Below is the illustration of the model.

Figure 8. The Saylor and Alexander Model

(Tomas, MJ 2019)

Steps of the Saylor and Alexander Model

The Steps in the Saylor and Alexander model is so simple that it only follows the
sequence/phase of the curriculum development process that considers the external variables as bases in
formulating the goals, objectives and domains.

Goals, Objectives and Domain

Alexander and Saylor, like other curriculum development models, place a premium on
identifying goals, objectives, and domains as the starting point for curriculum development. They also
stated that the foundations of which are the external factors that are important sources of learning for
the students.
 Each major goal, according to them, represents a curriculum domain. They advocate four major
goals or domains: personal development, human relations, lifelong learning, and specialization. The
goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful consideration of several external variables such
as findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups and others.
Curriculum Designing
After careful consideration on goals, objectives and domain, the next important step is
curriculum designing. In designing a curriculum vital decision as to how the essential elements will be
properly arranged is given a thorough analysis.
Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student
needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this
stage of the development process (Bilbao,et al, 2015).
Curriculum Implementation
A well-designed curriculum is now ready for use. Curriculum implementation, as a step in
curriculum development, necessitates the pedagogical skills of teachers in order to do justice to the
process of meticulously designing a curriculum. As a process, the teacher will prepare instructional plan,
where instructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods are utilized combined
with an effective assessment strategy.
Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation is the last step of the curriculum development model. Evaluation is always necessary.
It will determine the success or failure of the plan, the design and the implementation taken. Decision for
the next move to take will also base from the result of the evaluation conducted. Bilbao, et al stated, a
comprehensive evaluation using a variety of evaluation technique is recommended. It should involve the
total educational program of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the
achievement of students.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Curriculum development is a dynamic process it changes according to the needs of the society
and the stakeholders of the education system. The curriculum development follows a systematic process
which involves different stages arranged in linear fashion such as curriculum planning, curriculum
designing, curriculum implementing, and curriculum evaluating. Revising and improving curriculum as
essential phases also take place after the result of the evaluation has been obtained and reviewed.

Figure 9. Curriculum Development Process

(Source: http://www.fao.org/3/ah650e/ah650e03.htm)

1. Curriculum Planning
The planning takes place in the classroom, school, local and national level. All the important
considerations are laid down in the plan. Most importantly, curriculum planning involves the analysis of
philosophy, social forces, needs, goals and objectives, treatment of knowledge, human development,
learning process and instruction, and decision. Bilbao et. al. (2015) stated that All of these will
eventually be translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.
2. Curriculum Design
The parent of instructional design is curriculum design. It is the arrangement of the
curriculum's components. Curriculum is always organized in the following order: objectives, content,
instruction, and evaluation (Ronald Doll as cited by Reyes and Dizon, 2015). There are numerous
effective curriculum designs from which teachers and curriculum developers can choose.
Proper alignment must be observed among the four components of the curriculum to ensure
success in the implementation phase (See Figure 10).
 In addition, Curriculum design represents the knowledge theory, social theory, political theory,
and learning theory. In effect, a curriculum outcome arises from the combination of curriculum and
instructional design.

Figure 10. Alignment of the Four Components of the Curriculum Design

(Tomas, MJ 2019)
3. Curriculum Implementing
Curriculum implementation is the act of putting the written plan and conceptualized design of
the curriculum into action through the use of the teacher's pedagogical expertise and creativity. This
pedagogical expertise is concerned with lesson planning, method and strategy selection, identification of
learning experiences, assessment strategies, and the selection and integration of technology in teaching.
Cooperation and collaboration among teachers, co-teachers, and learners are essential for the
implementation to be successful and fulfilling. The principal's and school administration's support is
also required.
Ornstein and Hunkins stated that:
● Implementation requires educators to shift from the current program which they are
familiar with to the new or modified program.
● Implementation involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people
● Implementation can be seen as a process of professional development and growth
involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.
● Implementation is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to
understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviors: often involving using new
resources.
● Implementation involves change which requires effort and will produce a certain
amount of anxiety, and to minimize these, it is useful to organize implementation into
manageable events and to set achievable goals
(https://www.coursehero.com/file/p3d4oukb/Refers-to-specification-of-definite-time-for-
subjectcourse-amount-of-time-given/).
4. Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum evaluation refers to the formal process of determining the quality, effectiveness, or
value of a curriculum (Stufflebeam, 1991 as cited by Reyes and Dizon, 2015). It involves value judgment
about the curriculum, both in terms of its process and its product. Evaluating the curriculum also
involves the process of delineating, obtaining and providing information for judging decisions and
alternatives including value judgment to a set of experiences selected for educational purposes
(https://imjoan.wordpress.com/).
References

Books
Bilbao, Purita P., Dayagbil Filomena T., Corpuz, Brenda B. (2015). Curriculum Development for
Teachers. Cubao, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Co., Inc.
De Guzman, Estefania S., Adamos, Joel L. (2015). Assessment of Learning. Cubao, Quezon City:
Adiana Publishing Co., Inc.
Palma, Jesus C. (1992). Curriculum Development System. 125 Pioneer St., Mandaluyong City:
National Book Store
Pawilen, Greg T. 2015. Curriculum Development: A Guide for Teachers. Rex Book Store. Manila,
Philippines.
Reyes, Emerita D., Dizon, Erlinda (2015). Curriculum Development. Assessment of Learning.
Cubao, Quezon City: Adiana Publishing Co., Inc.
Tyler R.W. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago and London: University
of Chicago Press
Webliography
● http://www.cglrc.cgiar.org/icraf/toolkit/What_is_curriculum_development_.htm
● https://norhazwanishuib.wordpress.com/2017/06/18/reflective-3-taba-model-of-
curriculum-development-efland-theory-cognitive/
● https://www.edglossary.org/stakeholder/
● https://www.researchgate.net/figure/shows-the-twelve-components-of-Oliva-Model-In-
this-Model-Oliva-pointed-out-that-it-is_fig1_314887007
● https://www.slideshare.net/JingjingFrancisco/a-report-on-curriculum-development
● https://thuongknn.wordpress.com/
● https://www.studymode.com/essays/Curriculum-Development-Process-887334.html
● https://www.slideshare.net/camilleCasela/leadership-curriculum-design
● https://www.coursehero.com/file/40432977/Curriculum-Development-and-
Planningdocx/
● https://www.coursehero.com/file/p6au82mn/responsibilities-such-as-milking-cows-
gathering-eggs-and-running-machinery/
● https://www.slideshare.net/sohail9595/taba-model-of-curriculum-development
● https://www.slideshare.net/jheallyorlanda/the-oliva-model-of-curriculum
● http://www.curriculumandlearning.com/
● http://www.fao.org/3/ah650e/ah650e03.htm
● https://journals.sagepub.com/
● https://www.coursehero.com/file/p3d4oukb/Refers-to-specification-of-definite-time-for-
subjectcourse-amount-of-time-given/
● https://imjoan.wordpress.com/