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Estimating the waste heat recovery in the European Union Industry

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DOI: 10.1007/s40974-019-00132-7

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Energ. Ecol. Environ.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-019-00132-7

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Estimating the waste heat recovery in the European Union

Industry
Giuseppe Bianchi1 • Gregoris P. Panayiotou2 • Lazaros Aresti3 • Soteris A. Kalogirou2 •
Georgios A. Florides4 • Kostantinos Tsamos1 • Savvas A. Tassou1 • Paul Christodoulides4

1
Center for Sustainable Energy Use in Food Chains, Institute of Energy Futures, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science and Engineering, Cyprus University of Technology, 3603 Limassol, Cyprus
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Computer Engineering and Informatics, Cyprus University of Technology, 3603 Limassol, Cyprus
4
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Cyprus University of Technology, 3603 Limassol, Cyprus

Received: 18 April 2019 / Revised: 2 August 2019 / Accepted: 2 August 2019

Ó The Author(s) 2019. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract Industrial processes are currently responsible for 1 Introduction

nearly 26% of European primary energy consumptions and
are characterized by a multitude of energy losses. Among The European Union (EU), with twenty-eight (28) member
them, the ones that occur as heat streams rejected to the states, over 4 million km2 and over 512 million inhabitants,
environment in the form of exhausts or effluents take place is currently responsible for about 12% of the world final
at different temperature levels. The reduction or recovery energy consumptions (1122 Mtoe in 2017) and for about
of such types of energy flows will undoubtedly contribute 11% of the world final CO2 emissions (8.7 greenhouse gas
to the achievement of improved environmental perfor- emissions tonnes per capita in 2016) (European C 2016a, b;
mance as well as to reduce the overall manufacturing costs International Energy Agency 2016). Industry in the EU
of goods. In this scenario, the current work aims at out- accounts for about 26% of the final energy consumption
lining the prospects of potential for industrial waste heat and for about 48% of the final CO2 emissions (European C
recovery in the European Union (EU) upon identification 2016b). EU, being at the forefront of awareness and
and quantification of primary energy consumptions among involvement in global environmental issues, has con-
the major industrial sectors and their related waste streams tributed in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by
and temperature levels. The paper introduces a new about 23% compared to the ones in 1990. One of the key
approach toward estimating the waste heat recovery in the EU-related targets for 2030 is to reach a reduction of at
European Union industry, using the Carnot efficiency in least 40% with respect to the same reference year (Euro-
relation to the temperature levels of the processes involved. pean C 2016a), through energy savings and a more inten-
The assessment is carried out using EU statistical energy sive usage of renewable energy sources.
databases. The overall EU thermal energy waste is quan- To this end, recovery actions from existing energetic
tified at 920 TWh theoretical potential and 279 TWh systems can offer substantial primary energy savings with
Carnot potential. simultaneous equally important greenhouse gas emission
reductions. One such example is the industrial processes
Keywords Waste heat recovery  WHR potential that are characterized by a multitude of waste heat streams
estimation  Carnot potential  WHR Europe  Energy at different temperature levels. In this context, the process
statistics  Energy recovery  Heat to power conversion of waste heat recovery (WHR) is the capturing of heat from
such waste streams and its direct utilization, through its
upgrading into a more useful temperature and/or its con-
version into electrical power or cooling. The energy gen-
erated from heat recovery can either be used for the needs
of the same industrial site or exported to neighboring
facilities or to electrical or heat distribution networks.
Through the rising concerns over the cost of energy and
& Paul Christodoulides
paul.christodoulides@cut.ac.cy energy security as well as general environmental and

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 G. Bianchi et al.

sustainability considerations, there is nowadays increased grid and its larger capacity. Furthermore, the nobler nature of
global interest in the development and application of WHR electric energy implies greater economic and emission sav-
systems, motivated even by government regulatory ings. For instance, if the recovery occurred via thermal form
requirements on emissions reduction targets. The Global as if it was resulting from a combustion of natural gas, 1
WHR market is expected to surpass $65 billion by the end MWh of thermal energy recovered would avoid 0.202 tons of
of 2021 with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of CO2 emitted in the atmosphere, while the same energy
6.9% (Markets 2018). Newer report suggests a compound recovery but in electrical form would have an emission factor
annual growth rate of 4.8% by the end of 2025 (QYRe- of 0.460 tCO2/MWhe (Markets 2018). On the other hand,
search G 2018). Europe leads the market related to WHR conversion efficiencies of heat to power approaches are
equipment with a 38% share of the global market as of lower than the ones that characterize heat recovery devices.
2012 (Markets 2018). The reference cycles for these energy recovery technologies
The Asia–Pacific region has been experiencing the have been extensively investigated by the scientific and
highest growth rate in the last few years, of about 10% per industrial communities. In particular, plenty of research has
annum, with China and India accounting for the highest been performed on organic Rankine cycles (ORC) using pure
number of installations of heat recovery units. For these fluids or zeotropic mixtures as well as different machinery
figures to insist and expand in the future, however, and for and heat transfer equipments (Liu et al. 2004; Wei et al. 2007;
the European manufacturing and user industry to benefit Li et al. 2014).
from these developments, technological improvements and A comprehensive review of the convectional WHR
innovations should take place aimed at improving the technologies was introduced by Jouhara et al. (2018),
energy efficiency of heat recovery equipment and reducing where various technologies were discussed, such as recu-
installed costs [see, for example, Agathokleous et al. perators, regenerators, furnace regenerators and rotary
(2019) and Jouhara et al.(2018)]. regenerators or heat wheels, passive air preheaters, regen-
Depending on their nature, waste heat streams may be erative and recuperative burners, plate heat exchangers,
valued through different approaches. For instance, high- economizers, as well as units of waste heat boilers and run-
pressure effluents are suitable for direct expansion, while around coil (RAC). Among the available technologies,
low-temperature flue gases can be exploited through con- thermal energy storage (TES) (in particular when using
densing economizers that aim at recovering the latent heat phase change materials) offers the possibility of solving the
of the water vapors. Other WHR techniques include the problem of matching the discontinuous waste heat supply
mechanical or thermal recompression of vapors as well as with the heat demand and achieving a better capacity factor
the usage of industrial heat pumps (Ommen et al. 2015). (Miró et al. 2016; Elias and Stathopoulos 2019). In addition
Some energy systems, for example the internal combustion to the convectional WHR approaches, new technologies
engines for road transportation or power generation, are have been proposed by Agathokleous et al. (2019),
suitable for novel technologies such as the six-stroke including trilateral flash cycle, Joule-Brayton cycle work-
internal combustion engine cycle or the thermoelectric ing with supercritical carbon dioxide, flat heat pipes and
generators that perform a conversion of heat into direct condensing economizer for acidic effluents.
current electricity without involving any additional equip- The main aim of the current paper is to present the
ment (Yang et al. 2019; Merienne et al. 2019). industrial WHR potential available in the member states of
In industrial scenarios, the most common WHR approa- the European Union. In Sect. 2, the calculation methodology
ches are the ones based on sensible preheating as well as the is introduced. It is based on the use of the Carnot efficiency
waste heat to power generation via bottoming thermody- through the identification of the WHR processes in different
namic cycles. In the first case, heat exchangers and heat temperature levels. An assessment of the WHR potential in
transfer fluids are employed to recover the energy from the EU industry is given in Sect. 3, where results are detailed by
waste heat source and either to import it back to the same temperature levels, country and industrial sectors. We con-
industrial process or to export it over the fence, i.e., in near clude in Sect. 4 with suggestions for future work.
industrial sites or in residential areas for domestic heating. In
the latter, the working fluid that performs an enthalpy gain
during the heat recovery process undergoes a series of ther- 2 Methodology
modynamic transformations that produce a net positive
power output. Unlike heat recovery, which requires a heat Several studies have addressed the estimation of waste heat
demand in the industrial site or in the nearby ones, an elec- potential as well as the environmental effect. For example,
trical energy recovery is undoubtedly more favorable in Papapetrou et al. (2018) have proposed a new methodology
terms of energy management since the surplus of electricity on estimating the WHR potential, presenting results as per
due to the recovery process can interact with the electrical temperature level and per industrial sector for the EU

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Estimating the waste heat recovery in the European Union Industry

region. The authors have exploited results from 425 UK In the present work, going a step further, the technical
industrial sites in the years 2000–2003 to calculate the potential is separated into technical potential (theoretical)
waste heat fractions, where they then adjusted the waste and technical potential (applicable). These are distin-
heat fraction for the EU countries and consequently alter- guishable through the fact that the former can be calculated
nating for the year 2015. The estimation of the technical using a theoretical/generic process-related analysis, while
WHR potential in the UK industry was also described by the latter can be calculated using onsite data with all plant
Hammond and Norman (2014). Emphasis has been given specific parameters taken into consideration (see proposed
on that the savings estimation with technical potential will Fig. 1b). Accordingly, the feasibility of the technology
be lower than the maximum theoretical potential, but also considered can be eventually analyzed by means of eco-
higher than the economic potential. Forman et al. (2016) nomic criteria.
have presented a novel—at the time—approach for the In the current study, the theoretical WHR potential
estimation of the global WHR potential through the cal- (simply referred to as theoretical potential from this point
culation of the Carnot potential. The approach above was onward) has been estimated through the methodology
used to estimate the waste heat emissions from the power proposed by Forman et al. (2016), applied to the energy
generation industry, transport industry and construction statistics (reference year 2014) for the European Union.
industry on a global scale. The authors have gone a step According to the classification made by Brueckner et al.
further to investigate the environmental impact with (2014), on what concerns the data collection and the
potential savings on the emissions by using the WHR application of input parameters, Forman’s methodology is
theoretical potential. a top-down approach, while on what concerns the usage of
When different technologies are considered for using the literature data, coefficients and estimation, the calculation
industrial energy yielding within the WHR potential, it is method used is of medium accuracy.
essential to distinguish which type of potential is consid- Figure 2 shows a given energy system (industrial sector
ered (Brueckner et al. 2014), namely the theoretical (or as well as a specific site) being characterized by primary
physical) potential (IPCC 2007), the technical potential or energy consumptions that result from a mixture of several
the economic feasible potential (Roth et al. 1996) (Fig. 1a). primary energy sources (solid, liquid and gaseous fuels, as
The theoretical potential considers physical constraints well as electricity and heat). Each of these energy inputs is
only, such as the heat having to be above ambient tem- not entirely converted into useful energy for the system but
perature, bound in a medium and so on. Note that, in this presents some loss terms that depend on the type of pro-
frame, it is not considered if it is possible to extract the heat cess. Moreover, not all the energy losses are accounted for
from the carrier fluid, or whether it is possible to use it. the WHR potential estimation but only the ones related to
The constraints above establish the technical potential,
which naturally depends on the technologies considered.
An important technical constraint is the required minimum
temperature. The technical potential to use waste heat is
ruled by two key constraints: the boundary conditions of
the technology itself and a heating or cooling demand that
is necessary.

Fig. 1 Types of WHR potential: a graph adapted from Forman et al.

(2016), Brueckner et al. (2014) and IPCC (2007) b proposed modified
graph Fig. 2 Calculation methodology for WHR potential estimation

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 G. Bianchi et al.

exhausts (flue gas, vapor) and effluents (cooling water or The use of WHRP in Eq. (2) in Eq. (3) improves the
air), which are concentrated waste heat streams and can be accuracy of the calculations, giving more reliable values
directly transferred. Other losses, such as radiation, elec- for both the theoretical WHRP and the Carnot WHRP, as
trical transmission and friction, are not taken into consid- these are presented in Sect. 3 below.
eration due to, in general, low availability (Forman et al.
2016). 2.1 Identification of the processes with WHR
Within these assumptions, the theoretical WHR poten- potential in each industrial sector
tial can be calculated according to the following equation,
X
N X
M Identification of the WHR processes is the key parameter to
WHRP ¼ kij Eij ð1Þ evaluate the potential of WHR based on the methodology
i¼1 j¼1
described above. A previous research on the available
where Eij represents the primary energy consumptions of a processes and temperatures has been presented by
given source of the process and kij the percentage of pri- Panayiotou et al. (2017). Therein, information of the
mary energy that is converted into accountable waste heat available processes that implicate waste heat in the process
losses (exhausts and effluents), with subscripts i, j being is outlined by industry. There are 18 industries where WHR
explained in Fig. 2. can be achieved, namely (1) the iron and steel industry, (2)
A further breakdown of the WHR potential can be the large combustion plants, (3) large volume inorganic
performed with reference to the temperature levels that are chemicals: ammonia, acids and fertilizers, (4) large volume
commonly categorized into (Forman et al. 2016): low inorganic chemicals: solids and others industry, (5) food
temperatures (LT): \ 100 °C, medium temperatures (MT): and tobacco, (6) production of glass, (7) production of
100–300 °C, high temperatures (HT): [ 300 °C. This way, organic fine chemicals, (8) production of nonferrous met-
Eq. (1) above can be detailed into the following equation, als, (9) production of cement, lime and magnesium oxide,
X
N X
M X
3 (10) production of polymers, (11) ferrous metals process-
WHRP ¼ rijk kij Eij ð2Þ ing, (12) production of pulp, paper and board, (13) surface
i¼1 j¼1 k¼1 treatment using organic solvents, (14) tanning of hides and
skins, (15) textiles industry, (16) waste incineration, (17)
incorporating weights rijk with sum equal to 1 and k-sub-
waste treatment and (18) wood-based panel production.
script refers to the temperature levels (1 for LT, 2 for MT
The main processes and their temperature levels (im-
and 3 for HT).
portant for coefficient rijk in Eq. (2) above) that implicate
The database for the primary energy consumptions can
waste heat in each of the industries above are summarized
be found in Panayiotou et al. (2017), while both loss and
in Table 1 of the ‘‘Appendix.’’
temperature-level coefficients can be found in Brueckner
Although identification of the processes for WHR exists
et al. (2014). Note that, when multiple loss coefficients
in the literature, it is not straightforward within the man-
were listed for the same primary energy source, the
ufacturing facilities to isolate the most suitable waste heat
parameter used in the estimations was the weighted aver-
sources and processes. To overcome this issue and stan-
age of the listed ones.
dardize the procedure, Simeone et al. (2016) have pre-
In the context of thermodynamics, energy can be defined
sented a decision support tool for the WHR options based
as the sum of exergy and anergy, where exergy stands for
on a framework (Woolley et al. 2018) that consists of four
the energy that can be totally turned into technical work,
stages: waste heat survey, waste heat assessment, tech-
while anergy is the destroyed exergy. Thus, the exergy
nology selection and decision support.
content of waste/rejected heat can be calculated by the
Carnot’s theorem, which states that the maximum effi-
ciency of a heat engine is determined by the two available
3 Calculation of the waste heat recovery potential
heat reservoirs. Applying the Carnot efficiency, gC, to the
waste heat amounts and their corresponding waste heat
Based on the methodology described in Sect. 2, the cal-
temperatures (Tc = 298.15 K of the cold reservoir and Th
culations of the WHR potential per EU member state and
of the hot reservoir) gives the respective, more realistic,
per industrial sector are performed.
technical WHR potential further indicated as Carnot
potential:
 
Tc
CWHRP ¼ WHRP  gC ¼ WHRP  1  ð3Þ
Th

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Estimating the waste heat recovery in the European Union Industry

a b

c d

Fig. 3 Theoretical and Carnot WHR potentials in EU industry

detailed by temperature levels
Fig. 4 Shares of WHR potential in the EU Industry by member state
(total value: 920 TWh; theoretical: 279 TWh—Carnot)
3.1 Aggregated waste heat recovery potentials
and EU member states
‘‘Appendix’’ (Tables 2, 3) report a breakdown of current
The theoretical and Carnot potentials in the EU industry energy consumptions as well as absolute values for theo-
detailed by temperature levels are illustrated in Fig. 3. retical and Carnot potentials in the EU industry divided by
Industry accounts for almost the 26% of the overall pri- member state and industrial sector (see sequel).
mary energy consumptions (Fig. 3a). Nearly half of this
energy is not spent on energy services (e.g., motion, heat, 3.2 Detailed waste heat recovery potentials
cooling, light and sound) but dissipated to the environ- per industrial sector
ment (Fig. 3b). Specifically, the waste energy through
effluents or exhaust is the 29% of the industrial con- Recent statistics reported in Fig. 5 show that the industrial
sumptions and it is equal to nearly 920 TWh. Other losses sectors that mostly contribute to the overall primary energy
refer to energy waste that is not accountable for the cur- consumptions are the chemical and petrochemical (C&P)
rent methodology. As reported in Fig. 3c, the greatest as well as the iron and steel (I&S) (Panayiotou et al. 2017).
share of the energy waste occurs at LTs, i.e., temperatures In these areas, the heat losses, as exhausts and effluents,
lower than 100 °C. Nevertheless, waste heat at LT level assume maximum values in absolute as well as relative
has a significantly smaller share within the Carnot terms. In particular (Fig. 6a), the theoretical WHR poten-
potential (23% rather than 51%) (Fig. 3d). Thus, the tial in C&P has been calculated to account for 25.9% of
Carnot potential can offer a more specific indication on primary energy consumptions as opposed to 25.0% in I&S.
whether waste heat could still be used for technical work On the other hand, WHR potential in sectors like mining
or, preferably, for heat transfer. and quarrying as well as textile and leather is only 1.9%
In overall terms in EU, industrial theoretical WHR and 3.0%, respectively. Except for nonferrous metals (e.g.,
potential accounts for nearly 920 TWh, while the Carnot aluminum industry) and nonmetallic minerals (which
WHR potential has been estimated at 279 TWh. As shown includes the cement industry), most of the theoretical WHR
in Fig. 4, Germany owns more than 20% of the overall potential occurs at low temperature, as shown in Fig. 6b.
potential, while Italy, France and UK are the second most When the Carnot efficiency is introduced to refine the
relevant countries with a share for each close to 10%. actual potentials of the different sectors, several differences
Scandinavian or small member states as well as developing can be noticed in Fig. 7. The most significant one is the
economies play a secondary role in the contribution to the distribution of the useable temperature levels between the
whole WHR potential. Supplementary data in the theoretical and the Carnot potential. This, being a very

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 G. Bianchi et al.

Fig. 5 Primary energy

consumptions in EU industry
(total value 12,350 TWh)
(EuroStat 2018)

Fig. 6 a Theoretical WHR potential and relevance on primary energy consumptions for the EU industry, b breakdown of the theoretical WHR
potential in the EU industry with respect to temperature levels

important novel ingredient of the current methodology, being accountable. These results, based on the newly pre-
affects the calculation of the Carnot potential as the WHR sented Eq. (2) above, constitute a significant improvement
technologies’ coefficient of performance (COP) depends on on the accuracy of calculations, compared to previous
temperature levels. Specifically, since most of the available studies [see, e.g., Forman et al. (2016) and Panayiotou et al.
heat in C&P occurs at LT and MT levels, the actual (2017)].
potential in this sector leaves the leading position toward
the I&S, whose potential accounts for 54.3 TWh. Other
promising industrial sectors are the nonmetallic minerals as 4 Conclusions
well as the food and tobacco ones, where the Carnot WHR
potential is equal to 43.8 TWh and 35.1 TWh, respectively. In the current study, the WHR potential of the EU industry
The results above indicate the difference of the theo- has been ‘‘revisited’’ through a more elegant methodology
retical and the Carnot potential, with the temperature levels that takes into consideration the temperature levels of the

123
Estimating the waste heat recovery in the European Union Industry

Fig. 7 a Carnot WHR potential and relevance on primary energy consumptions for the EU industry, b breakdown of the Carnot WHR potential
in the EU industry with respect to temperature levels

process. Both the theoretical potential and the Carnot Acknowledgements The research presented in this paper has
potential have been addressed. Results have been given for received funding from: (1) the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation program under Grant agreement No. 680599,
EU countries as well as EU industries. These verify that the (2) Innovate UK (Project No. 61995-431253, (3) Engineering and
potential is high, of the order of 300 TWh/year, even for Physical Sciences Research Council UK (EPSRC), Grant No. EP/
the conservative estimation used here (as opposed to the P510294/1; (4) Research Councils UK (RCUK), Grant No. EP/
less accurate (Panayiotou et al. 2017), less detailed (For- K011820/1. The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
support from these organizations as well as contributions from
man et al. 2016) or less conservative methods (Papapetrou industry partners: Spirax Sarco Engineering PLC, Howden Com-
et al. 2018) used). pressors Ltd, Tata Steel, Arctic Circle Ltd, Cooper Tires Ltd and
With insight information into the different processes, Industrial Power Units Ltd.
together with their temperature ranges, used in all indus-
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
trial sectors in the EU having been identified [see Agath- Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://crea
okleous et al. (2019), Jouhara et al. (2018), Papapetrou tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
et al. (2018) and Panayiotou et al. (2017)], the next step is distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give
to assess the potential market of the most intensive appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a
link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were
industrial sectors in relation to old and ‘‘new’’ technologies made.
and their COPs and how to improve recovery techniques
(Agathokleous et al. 2019). It is also important to obtain
further knowledge on barriers (e.g., financial, technologi- Appendix
cal, legislative) to the adoption of WHR technologies and
see how these can be overcome. See Tables 1, 2 and 3.

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 G. Bianchi et al.

Table 1 Main processes and their temperature levels per industrial sector
Industry/temperature level of process LT MT HT

Iron and steel – – Blast furnace/basic oxygen

furnace route
Direct melting of scrap (electric
arc furnace)
Direct reduction
Smelting reduction
Large combustion plants Cogeneration/combined heat Steam generation Combined cycle plants
and power Gasification/liquefaction
General fuel heat conversion
Steam generation
Large volume inorganic chemicals: – – Conventional steam reforming
ammonia, acids and fertilizers Sulfuric acid process
Large volume inorganic chemicals: solids – Sulfur burning Sodium silicate plant
and others Tank furnace process
Food and tobacco Crude vegetable oil production Solubilization/alkalizing High-temperature frying
from oilseeds Utility processes
Heat recovery from cooling
systems
Glass – – Heating the furnaces primary
melting
Organic fine chemicals Processes of energy supply – Co-incineration of liquid waste
Thermal oxidation of VOCs
Nonferrous metals – Primary lead and secondary Smelting
lead production Zinc sulfide (sphalerite)
Cement, lime and magnesium oxide – – Clinker burning
Kiln firing
Polymers Thermal treatment of waste – –
water
Ferrous metals processing – – Hot rolling mill
Pulp, paper and board Chemical pulping Chemical pulping Chemical pulping
Mechanical and chemi- Mechanical and chemi-
mechanical pulping mechanical pulping
Papermaking and related
processes
Surface treatment using organic solvents Manufacturing of abrasives Coil coating Drying and curing
Manufacturing of abrasives
Printing
Waste gas treatment from
enameling
Tanning of hides and skins Drying – –
Textiles industry Dyeing Drying Dirt removal
Optimization of cotton warp Optimization of cotton warp Oxidation
yarn yarn
Waste incineration – Drying and degassing Combustion
Pyrolysis Gasification
Oxidation
Pyrolysis

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Estimating the waste heat recovery in the European Union Industry

Table 1 continued
Industry/temperature level of process LT MT HT

Waste treatment Drying Catalytic combustion Catalytic combustion

Dyeing of wood particles Dyeing of wood particles
Incineration regeneration of carbon thermal treatment
Wood-based panel production – Drying of wood fibers –
Lamination
Pressing

Table 2 Breakdown of theoretical waste heat potential divided by member state and industrial sector [TWh]
I&S NFM C&P NMM M&Q F&T T&L PPP TE M W&WP C NS Total

AU 7.3 0.8 2.7 1.9 0.6 2.2 0.3 6.1 0.5 2.5 2.4 2.1 0.8 30.3
BE 6.8 0.8 12.3 3.4 0.1 5.4 0.7 2.5 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.7 2.0 37.4
BG 0.3 0.4 2.6 1.4 0.3 1.0 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.6 8.6
CR 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.2 3.8
CY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7
CZ 5.9 0.3 3.1 2.7 0.3 2.3 0.5 2.1 1.6 2.8 0.8 0.7 2.3 25.4
DK 0.2 0.0 0.7 1.2 0.2 2.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.4 7.3
EE 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1 2.0
FI 3.4 0.4 3.4 0.7 0.7 1.6 0.2 20.9 0.2 1.3 2.0 1.8 0.8 37.5
FR 17.5 2.5 12.5 9.2 0.8 17.8 1.1 8.8 3.6 6.3 2.7 4.5 2.9 90.2
DE 39.3 6.0 41.6 16.1 1.3 20.2 1.9 21.7 11.7 23.2 6.4 0.0 9.3 198.8
GR 0.4 3.0 0.5 2.1 0.4 2.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.9 11.0
HU 1.4 0.6 3.7 1.1 0.1 2.3 0.2 0.7 0.8 1.6 0.2 0.9 0.9 14.4
IE 0.0 2.9 0.7 1.0 0.5 1.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.7 9.2
IT 14.2 3.0 11.7 11.8 0.5 11.2 4.6 8.8 1.5 13.5 1.4 1.4 5.2 88.9
LV 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.5 0.2 0.0 2.7
LT 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.5 0.0 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 3.4
LU 0.7 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.8
MT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2
NL 7.1 0.4 22.0 1.4 0.4 8.0 0.4 2.3 0.4 2.0 0.2 2.7 1.3 48.7
PL 7.6 1.6 7.2 7.0 1.4 7.2 0.5 5.5 1.6 2.9 2.9 0.7 2.5 48.6
PT 0.4 0.1 1.1 3.1 0.4 1.8 1.2 4.6 0.2 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.2 14.7
RO 4.7 0.0 4.5 2.1 0.2 2.3 0.7 0.4 0.8 1.6 1.0 1.6 0.5 20.5
SK 6.8 0.3 0.8 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.2 1.6 0.8 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.5 13.7
SI 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.3 3.9
ES 7.6 1.4 9.4 8.6 2.0 9.4 1.3 6.8 1.9 3.4 1.6 5.3 4.2 62.9
SE 4.5 0.5 1.9 0.7 0.7 1.5 0.1 13.4 0.8 1.5 1.8 0.4 9.7 37.3
GB 11.8 1.2 9.2 6.7 0.0 10.6 2.9 6.0 4.0 7.1 0.0 2.6 31.4 93.5
EU28 148.5 26.5 154.0 86.9 11.4 114.4 17.9 114.9 32.1 75.8 28.1 28.9 78.1 917.6

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 G. Bianchi et al.

Table 3 Breakdown of Carnot waste heat potential divided by member state and industrial sector [TWh]
I&S NFM C&P NMM M&Q F&T T&L PPP TE M W&WP C NS Total

AU 2.7 0.4 0.6 1.0 0.2 0.7 0.1 1.6 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.2 9.2
BE 2.5 0.4 3.1 1.8 0.0 1.7 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.6 11.8
BG 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 2.4
CR 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 1.3
CY 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
CZ 2.1 0.1 0.6 1.4 0.1 0.7 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.7 7.8
DK 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.1 2.2
EE 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.6
FI 1.2 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.2 8.0
FR 6.5 1.4 2.8 4.6 0.2 5.5 0.3 2.6 1.1 1.8 0.5 1.5 0.9 29.7
DE 14.4 3.2 8.9 8.7 0.4 6.5 0.6 6.0 2.7 5.6 1.1 0.0 2.3 60.6
GR 0.1 1.6 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 4.0
HU 0.5 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.0 0.3 0.2 4.4
IE 0.0 1.5 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.2 3.3
IT 5.1 1.6 2.4 5.6 0.1 3.2 1.4 2.1 0.2 3.8 0.2 0.5 0.8 27.1
LV 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.7
LT 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.9
LU 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6
MT 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NL 2.6 0.2 5.1 0.8 0.1 2.8 0.1 0.7 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.9 0.3 14.5
PL 2.7 0.8 1.5 3.8 0.3 2.3 0.1 1.2 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.6 15.1
PT 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.4 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 4.0
RO 1.7 0.0 1.1 0.9 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.1 6.5
SK 2.5 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 4.6
SI 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.2
ES 2.8 0.8 2.6 3.8 0.7 2.6 0.4 2.2 0.5 0.9 0.3 2.0 1.5 21.0
SE 1.7 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.0 2.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 1.5 7.5
GB 4.4 0.7 1.8 3.6 0.0 3.6 1.0 1.7 1.2 1.8 0.0 1.0 9.1 29.8
EU28 54.2 14.1 34.1 43.6 3.3 35.1 5.5 27.1 7.9 19.7 4.8 9.6 19.9 278.9

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