Nuclear Diplomacy Today: Published Bythe American Foreign Service Association M Ay 2 0 2 0

P U B L I S H E D BY T H E A M E R I CA N F O R E I G N S E R V I C E A S S O C I AT I O N
M AY 2 0 2 0
NUCLEAR DIPLOMACY TODAY
THE DIPLOMAT AND THE STATE
TEX HARRIS, LARGER THAN LIFE

– A D V E R T I S E M E N T–
FOREIGN
SERVICE May 2020 Volume 97, No. 4
Focus on Nuclear Diplomacy

BRIAN HUBBLE
26 33 37
U.S.-Russian Nuclear Arms Why Nuclear Arms Restoring Nuclear
Control Negotiations— Control Matters Diplomacy
A Short History Today Urgent action is needed to put the lid
An accomplished negotiator puts nuclear In this time of new strains on a new and costly global arms race.
arms control in perspective—what it has in great-power relations, By Joseph Cirincione
achieved, where it nuclear arms control
has failed and what it can do for agreements are an essential 41
our future security. component of national security.
From the FSJ Archive
By Rose Gottemoeller By Thomas Countryman
Arms Control Diplomacy
FS Heritage Appreciation
50 F. Allen “Tex” Harris
1938-2020
The Unlucky Consul:
Thomas Prentis and 67
the 1902 Martinique
Disaster Larger Than Life
In 1902, the worst volcanic Feature By Steven Alan Honley
disaster of the 20th century
took the lives of U.S. Consul
Thomas Prentis and his family 44 70
on a Caribbean island.
The Foreign Service Remembrances
By William Bent
Honor Roll
U.S. diplomats are on the front lines
of America’s engagement with the
world. Here is the history of AFSA’s
work to pay tribute to the many who
sacrificed their lives in the line of duty.
By John K. Naland
THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 5

FOREIGN
SERVICE
Perspectives
Departments
10 Letters
7 88 12 Letters-Plus
President’s Views Reflections
Foreign Service Duty Y2K, What Y2K? 16 Talking Points
By Eric Rubin B y L i a n vo n Wa n t o c h
77 In Memory
9 81 Books
Letter from the Editor
Nuclear Diplomacy Matters
By Shawn Dorman
22 Marketplace
Speaking Out
The Diplomat and the State
B y C h r i s t o p h e r W. S m i t h 90 83 Real Estate
Local Lens 86 Classifieds
Egypt
By Lori B. John 87 Index to Advertisers
AFSA NEWS THE OFFICIAL RECORD OF THE AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION
57 AFSA and COVID-19

58 State VP Voice—Working for You
During This Trying Time
57
59 USAID VP Voice—Achieving Transparent
Promotions by Promoting Transparency
60 Retiree VP Voice—Resilience
60 AFSA Event: Long-Term Care Insurance
Alternatives
64 Continuous Domestic Service:
61 Teaching International Affairs: Six-Year Rule Eliminated
An AFSA Networking Event
65 Book Notes: Modern Diplomacy in Practice
62 AFSA Welcomes Incoming LNA Class
65 AFSA Voter Registration Guide
63 Foreign Service Journal Chooses New Printer
65 AFSA Meets Representative Fitzpatrick
64 Outreach to Students, Professors
66 2020 Constructive Dissent Awards:
and the AFSA Community
Call for Nominations
On the Cover—Illustration by Brian Hubble.
6 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

PRESIDENT’S VIEWS
Foreign Service Duty

BY ERIC RUBIN
W
hile teleworking and Service to join one of the big federal This is who we are and what we do. It’s
social distancing for the unions alongside other federal employees. called service. The oath we took when we
past month along with so The argument that won the day joined is, I believe, sacred to us all.
many of you, I have been was that the Foreign Service is unique. Thinking again about Theodore
pulling books off my shelves. One of Its members need representation White’s book, the importance of courage
the books I opened was Theodore H. and advocacy, but that has to hap- in the face of adversity is clear. All of us
White’s In Search of History. This is the pen in a nonpolitical and nonpartisan must fight for our people, and for our
story of a great American journalist who framework. Our members could not profession and what it means. Diplo-
witnessed some of the most important adequately be represented within a huge macy is the chief alternative to war.
developments of the 20th century. politicized federal union, but also could Reflect on these sobering words
White writes passionately about what not rely on management goodwill with- from White:
happened to the United States after out someone to advocate for them. And “The ultimate impact of McCarthy on
World War II, as the Cold War became that’s where AFSA came in. American diplomacy, and thus on the
our focus and McCarthyism took hold in Almost 50 years later, we have a strong world, came many years later, in Vietnam.
our political culture. and vibrant association that represents … The purging ended with a State Depart-
White’s thesis is that the destruc- more than 80 percent of Foreign Service ment full of junior diplomats, who knew
tion of the team of Foreign Service members in six agencies, voluntarily. We their future career was pawn to political
Asia experts—who were assailed as have held true to the goal of nonpartisan, passion at home, who knew that prediction
apologists for Mao’s China and “fellow nonpolitical representation of our mem- of a Communist victory would be equated
travelers” in communism’s relentless bers, and to our dual role as the profes- with hope for a Communist victory, and
advance—left the State Department sional association of American diplomats who learned to temper their dispatches
desperately unprepared for the coming and as the legally recognized bargaining of observation in the field with what their
conflict in Southeast Asia, and con- agent for everyone in the Foreign Service. political superiors wished to hear.
tributed directly to the debacle of our I hope the past year has demonstrated “No field-grade American diplomat,
engagement in the Vietnam War. AFSA’s value and importance as a bulwark in the long period between 1964 and
AFSA is 96 years old this year. We defending our members. We have raised 1975, had the courage flatly to predict
started as the professional association of and spent tens of thousands of dollars the potential for disaster in Vietnam.
the U.S. Foreign Service, and we remain covering legal bills for members who were Many recognized that potential, but
that, fervently. But since 1973 we have subpoenaed as witnesses in the impeach- none dared say it aloud or in print until
also been the labor union and official ment hearing. And now, in the midst of the it was too late. They reported what their
bargaining agent of the Foreign Service. COVID-19 crisis, we are doing everything political masters wanted to hear.”
In 1973, some we can to support our members in Wash- May we consider those words a
said that the Foreign ington and in the field who are dealing cautionary tale as we face the challenges
Service, as an elite with excruciating challenges. that confront us now. And may we not
corps of profession- Our colleagues who have been labor- shy away from our critical role, to stay
als, did not need a ing long and hard to bring Americans true to our mission and to tell it like it
labor union. Others home in the midst of the pandemic make is, in service to our country and to our
advocated for the us proud. This is the Foreign Service. fellow citizens. n
Ambassador Eric Rubin is the president of the American Foreign Service Association.

FOREIGN
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LETTER FROM THE EDITOR
Nuclear Diplomacy Matters

B Y S H AW N D O R M A N
T
he coronavirus pandemic has local circumstances and to assist as the a high-level look at where we’ve been and
changed daily life around the demands snowballed. While the media where we need to go.
world, bringing to a halt so reported on initial slow U.S. government Countryman explains how arms
many normal activities, such as response in some places, we are now control agreements work as a national
going to the office and traveling. And yet hearing almost daily about how embas- security tool, and reminds us that Ronald
the Foreign Service is still on the job in sies have risen to this challenge. To date, Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev were
embassies and consulates in almost every the State Department has helped more correct in their 1985 declaration that “a
country. Everyone is at risk for this virus, than 50,000 Americans get home. nuclear war can never be won and must
including our embassy colleagues. This month and next, we highlight never be fought.”
During March, country after country some early stories of the Foreign Service’s Cirincione warns that the global
announced border closings, sometimes response to the new coronavirus. For the nuclear security enterprise is close to
suddenly. The State Department issued July-August edition, we are collecting your collapse and argues for restarting arms
a “reconsider travel” advisory March 12, firsthand accounts of how you and your control negotiations in the face of a new
and on the 19th bumped that up to team handled this crisis. Look for our arms race.
Level 4, “do not travel.” request for input and share your stories, All three experts assert that the New
My daughter was in Morocco for the so Americans can know how their Foreign START agreement must be renewed
semester as news of travel restrictions Service is continuing to work for them. before it expires in February 2021.
spread. She got the last seat on what While the pandemic rages on, A selection of excerpts from FSJ
was to be one of the last commercial international relations cannot stop; articles on arms control diplomacy offers
flights out of Morocco. She was in the diplomacy must continue. clues into the policy thinking from the
Casablanca airport getting ready to For this, we need professional dip- 1970s on, and links to a large collection
board when the government of Morocco lomats, which brings us to this month’s of related FSJ articles online.
announced a ban on international flights, Speaking Out, “The Diplomat and the John Naland lays out the history of
effective immediately. Luckily, her flight State.” Christopher Smith advocates a the AFSA Memorial Plaques that honor
did take off, and she’s home, finishing the professional doctrine for diplomats. Foreign Service personnel who have died
semester online. Related, a Q&A with the creators of the in the line of duty overseas.
There are so many stories like this, Twenty-Five Year Apprenticeship project And in an Appreciation, including
so many people stuck in place as borders describes the new interactive primer on remembrances by friends and colleagues,
closed around them. Thousands of becoming a successful diplomat. we celebrate the “larger-than-life” AFSA
Americans scrambling to get back home Though understandably preoccupied and Foreign Service legend Tex Harris.
turned to their embassies for assistance. with the coronavirus, we must not ignore In FS Heritage, William Bent shares the
Facing an unprecedented global another existential threat—nuclear war. little-known story of a U.S. consul serving
repatriation effort, This month’s focus explores the state of in Martinique when the worst volcanic
each U.S. mission nuclear diplomacy today. There is cause disaster of the 20th century occurred.
has had to figure out for concern, to be sure, and we need And Lian von Wantoch reflects on the
how to respond to the experts on the job. We hear from three of Y2K disaster that wasn’t.
them: Rose Gottemoeller, Tom Country- This is not the lightest of FSJ editions,
Shawn Dorman is the man and Joseph Cirincione. but these are not the lightest of times.
editor of The Foreign Gottemoeller takes us through Wishing all our readers comfort and
Service Journal. “A Short History” of nuclear arms control, good health. n

LETTERS
Professional Trenin was a stroke of edito- Afghanistan:

Integrity rial genius! Correcting the Record
I fully endorse the Nicholas A. Veliotes The latest effort to bring peace to
tenets Ambassador Alan U.S. ambassador, retired Afghanistan is unraveling with a negoti-
Larson set forth in his McLean, Virginia ated cease-fire failing and contention
excellent article, “Integ- within the Afghanistan government.
rity First” (March FSJ). Speaking Frankly This has encouraged bleak analyses
I would urge that Shortly after I retired, I was portraying Afghanistan as inherently
Foreign Service given a contract at the Foreign unstable and ungovernable.
officers continue to Service Institute to chair the three- This assessment draws on four
maintain the prin- week political tradecraft course. decades of chaos and war, which began
ciple of “integrity first” after they depart One of my innovations in the with the 1979 Soviet invasion and occu-
government service, as well, especially years that followed, and there were sev- pation of Afghanistan and U.S. support
if they enter private-sector roles as eral, was to bring in from other countries for primarily fundamentalist Islamic
advisers or consultants on foreign pairs of young diplomats, whom I encoun- resistance to the Soviets. Those fun-
policy matters. tered socially, introduce them and explain damentalist factions are the forebears
We former FSOs should be wary that I had instructed them to speak frankly of the Taliban and other elements that
of inducements or efforts to use our about how they and their colleagues have battled U.S. forces since 2001.
names, contacts and expertise in ways viewed U.S. diplomats, personally and What many analysts, and U.S. policy-
that could, wittingly or not, benefit cor- professionally. makers, ignore is that Afghanistan was a
rupt people, practices and regimes. “Not very well,” was always the united nation for several centuries and
Such behavior can damage the pro- answer. And they would gently explain defeated British colonial forces twice.
fessional integrity of the Foreign Service that they found Americans intelligent More to the point, Afghanistan enjoyed
as a whole and undermine the confi- and pleasant, and very a golden age of unity and prosperity
dence the public and the Service should interested in through much of the 20th century.
have in FSOs present and past. discussing what The Afghan king, Mohammed Zahir
Finally, as an old Russia/Ukraine they knew and Shah, set his country on a modernizing
hand, I’d like to give a big shout out to thought, but not course after World War II and, with a
my dear colleague Ambassador John really interested new constitution in 1964, established
Tefft and, indeed, to all the authors in the opinions Afghanistan as a democratic monarchy
of the pieces published in the March of other diplo- with elections and respect for human
Journal’s “Dealing with Russia and mats. rights.
Ukraine” focus. I was highly While women in conservative rural
As one who now teaches about this gratified by the areas had very limited freedoms, in
subject, I appreciate these efforts; they reactions of my urban areas Afghan women enjoyed
immensely help me and my students students, who found the presentations substantial freedoms, participating in
grapple with one of the thorniest chal- evocative and very useful. That part of the the Afghan parliament and playing a
lenges America faces today. Thanks, FSJ! program ended with my contract. prominent role in education.
George A. Krol I am both impressed by and highly Crucially, Zahir Shah balanced
U.S. ambassador, retired supportive of the Journal’s broaching the Cold War competitors, winning
Middletown, Rhode Island that approach [in the January-February significant aid programs from both, and
focus on “How They See Us”] given its remained a popular monarch from his
Kudos obvious but long-ignored utility. inauguration in 1933 to his overthrow
Congratulations! The March FSJ is a Ed Peck in a coup in 1973.
great issue. All kudos to John Tefft. And U.S. ambassador, retired In the decade-long anti-Soviet
having the companion piece by Dmitri Washington, D.C. “jihad,” the United States refused to

give significant assistance to Afghan
resistance fighters loyal to the former
king, instead acquiescing to Pakistan’s
opposition to any restoration and back-
ing radical Islamist resistance elements
subservient to the Pakistani military
and, especially, Pakistani intelligence.
Afghanistan is not, and never was,
a hopelessly failed state. Within living
memory it was a successful, prosperous,
democratizing state. Any hope of restor-
ing Afghanistan to the ranks of indepen-
dent, united democratic states depends
on preventing neighbors from utilizing
proxies to divide the country. n
Edmund McWilliams
FSO, retired & former Special Envoy
to Afghanistan (1988-1989)
White Oaks, New Mexico
Share your
thoughts about
this month’s issue.
Submit letters
to the editor:
journal@afsa.org

LETTERS-PLUS
RESPONSE TO FSJ FOCUS ON CAREER MANAGEMENT
Twenty-Five Year Apprenticeship:

A Digital Forum
W
e recently learned about a from many of our diplomatic “legends”
unique project developed can be useful for any profession.
to support career growth
for professional diplo- Why 25 years instead of,
mats, “Twenty-Five Year Apprenticeship” say, 10, 20 or 30?
(25yearapprenticeship.com). Compiled It takes about 25 years for Foreign
and curated by a group of FSOs and future Service officers to “graduate” into the
FSOs, the online forum offers advice and Senior Foreign Service, when they might
guidance from leaders and mentors on serve for the first time as an ambassador, Your tag line is “A path to diplomatic
how to become a successful diplomat. deputy chief of mission, office director or success.” That’s ambitious. Can you tell
Following on the April Journal’s focus on in any other top position of the profes- us more about this path, and how 25YA
managing an FS career, this Q&A with sion. can help?
several of the founders of the site (who Ambition is an asset, in our minds—
wish to remain anonymous) offers an How and why did you start this project? every diplomat should wake up with the
inside look at what this group is trying to A few of us reflected on the magnitude ambition to advance U.S. interests, to
do for the profession. of the lessons we learned while support- shape the views of our interlocutors and
—Shawn Dorman, Editor ing great leaders, especially those who chart a better future. We hope this project
aimed to accomplish extraordinary things encourages everyone to strive to succeed
and spur teams to achieve more than they and make an impact. We hope they find
What is the “Twenty-Five Year believed possible to advance U.S. interests. nuggets of inspiration that help them take
Apprenticeship”? We want to share insights from these a more ambitious approach to their job
The project is a collective effort to experiences with current and future col- and career.
offer both a practical manual for dynamic leagues who may not have had the oppor-
diplomacy and a forum for folks to ask tunity to work directly for a “legend” of Who runs 25YA?
for advice and mentorship, as well as a the Service. Currently, about 40 State Department
space to offer ideas and best practices. It We also noticed that many books employees and a dozen former career
is founded on the premise that all of us in written by and about diplomatic lead- ambassadors participate in a continuous
the State Department could and should ers fail to offer clues as to how these conversation to develop ideas and con-
strive to develop our professional exper- leaders arrived at the top of the profes- tent for the site. We have also had more
tise throughout our career. sion. We were encouraged by Bill Burns’ than 10 students from various universities
Since it’s all public, it’s also meant to recent book, The Back Channel, where he and grad schools help with interviews,
be useful for aspiring diplomats or any- highlights the fact that there is no manual content and ideas. Thanks to their input,
one else who may be interested in diplo- for diplomacy and notes that this is a we have tried to offer advice and mentor-
matic tradecraft. We find that the advice shortfall (p. 83). ship on what it takes to become an FSO.

We think it’s better that those of We have a dedicated community of
us who manage the site (conduct the
interviews, curate and post the articles)
impressive and inspiring former U.S.
remain anonymous. This is not about us. diplomats who are more than willing
We aim to be “wiki-esque,” open to all to to support the next generation of State
contribute and participate.
Department leaders, share their wisdom
Fair enough. Can you share the names and offer mentorship.
of some of the ambassadors who have
contributed to the site so far?
Ambassador James Jeffrey gets credit First, we have a dedicated community into what it takes to succeed diplomati-
for the site’s title, because he exhorts his of impressive and inspiring former U.S. cally from various perspectives.
charges to learn from him and treat each diplomats who are more than willing We are committed to developing a site
experience as part of a process of learn- to support the next generation of State to pass on wisdom from the “legends”
ing, or an “apprenticeship.” Department leaders, share their wisdom of diplomacy. We hope that many more
Ambassadors Victoria Nuland and and offer mentorship. And, second, all of current and former State employees and
Richard Boucher have advised us the contributing ambassadors encour- diplomatic practitioners will reach out
throughout the process and provided aged us to keep learning. to us to offer their ideas, expertise and
suggestions, content and support. advice, as well as help manage the site.
Ambassadors Ronald Neumann, Alex- Tell us about the letter of support from All the content on the site that does
ander Vershbow and Deborah McCarthy diplomatic leaders. How did you garner not have a byline was written by a current
have been extremely generous with their all that support? State Department employee, but we hope
time and ideas. We have been pleasantly surprised to offer more content from a diverse set
And Ambassadors Nicholas Burns that everyone we have reached out to and of contributors. There are no fixed rules
and Kristie Kenney recently contributed spoken with has applauded our effort for who can contribute or what content
timely articles on leadership and crisis and encouraged us to develop the site makes sense; any content that offers prac-
management. further. More than 50 ambassadors have tical tips, wisdom or insights into how to
signed on to the letter of support, and advance American diplomacy is welcome.
How do the “legends” contribute? most of them have offered content to the
The two most common ways they site, as well as advice and guidance. It Do you have support from the State
contribute are, first, through filling out seems that everyone agrees we need a Department for this initiative?
the “Apprentice’s Questionnaire” that we diplomacy guide. The Director General’s office, the
modeled on Vanity Fair’s quick-response counselor’s office, the Foreign Service
interview style, and that offers personal The letter suggests you also solicit input Institute, AFSA and others have all
and professional insights; and, second, from military leaders, Capitol Hill and expressed support for our project. Any-
via interviews. We have interviewed more elsewhere. How do you decide who gets one who checks out the site can see we
than 20 ambassadors, and each conver- to be a “leader” contributor? are 100 percent nonpartisan and commit-
sation has been fascinating—really, the We would very much like to include ted to supporting the State Department
best part of the project has been these input from across the federal govern- and our government.
exchanges. ment, including the Defense Department
and Capitol Hill, and from think-tanks, What is your goal for the 25YA site?
What have you learned from speaking about what it takes to advance U.S. inter- Our goal is that the site becomes self-
to these ambassadors? ests and craft dynamic foreign policy. sustaining as more contributors pitch in
In addition to incredible lessons and The State Department plays a leadership to the project; eventually, we would love
interesting stories, the two most impor- role in policy formulation, but we are not for someone(s) to build on the site content
tant things we have learned are these: alone; so we hope we can offer insights and publish a manual based on the lessons

learned and tips we have started to elu- at another agency, the National Security to current State folks, and from all of us to
cidate. We hope that the project can help Council or otherwise. potential future State employees.
connect current employees with former We hope the site can help educate the
ones for advice and mentorship. From what you have learned doing this general population and inspire future
project, what are the top five essential State employees.
Can you share some of the best advice skills for successful diplomats?
that you’ve received working on this I’d point you to the checklist published How can FSJ readers get involved and
project? on the site that answers this question: support the initiative?
There have been so many excellent www.25yearapprenticeship.com/become/ Send the apprentices your ideas, your
insights that it’s hard to choose. A few what-it-takes-to-succeed-at-state. questions and your input. Let’s work
that stand out: take time to enjoy the together to lay out a path toward becom-
career, the experiences; keep learning; be What areas of growth do you see for this ing the best experts, professionals, “jour-
humble; listen; excellence is worth striving initiative in the near future? ney-people” diplomats we can be. The
for and can be achieved only by getting We hope to continue to generate and project will be most successful when more
everyone on board; invest time in relation- develop content; find ways to encourage people are contributing, so please write to
ships, both with foreign counterparts and a more interactive site; and expand the us at 25yearapprentice@gmail.com, follow
throughout the U.S. government; work mentoring component of the project, from us on Twitter at @25yrapprentice, and join
outside the State Department, whether 25YA participants to peers, from “legends” the conversation. n

TALKING POINTS
The Foreign Service the volume of work State is handling,
Responds to the the March 30 Politico reported that in
Coronavirus Pandemic the nine days since March 21, State
U .S. embassies and Foreign Service

personnel and their families across
the globe have been struggling to man-
had received 15,000 calls regarding the
pandemic.
Diplomats were reminded, too, that
age and adjust to the massive disrup- they are not immune to the dangers of
U.S. EMBASSY QUITO
tions caused by the novel coronavirus COVID-19. On March 24, Steven Dick, 37,
pandemic, while continuing the vital the deputy head of the British embassy in
work of diplomacy and serving Ameri- Budapest, died after contracting the coro-
A March 29 photo shows U.S. Mission
can citizens overseas. navirus. The New York Times reported
Ecuador staff, including Ambassador
In March, many countries began to Michael Fitzpatrick (front left), at on April 4 that three State Department
close their borders and airlines can- Mariscal Sucre International Airport, employees—all locally engaged staff—
celed countless international flights as where they are assisting U.S. citizens had died from the coronavirus. By April
trying to return to the United States.
the coronavirus spread, and country 4, 154 State Department employees had
after country began seeing a spike in presence, according to an April 1 Wall tested positive for the virus, and more
COVID-19 cases. Hardest hit initially Street Journal report. than 3,500 were symptomatic and in self-
were Italy, Spain and the United States. Embassies dealt with the departures isolation, the Times reported.
Lawmakers postponed congressional of many of their personnel amid what a In South Africa, according to a March
visits overseas. March 20 CNN broadcast called unclear 20 Washington Post report, U.S. diplo-
In mid-March, the State Department operational guidance from Washington. mats were concerned about their own
authorized voluntary, no-fault curtail- Meanwhile, embassy staff were manag- possible exposure to the coronavirus
ment for employees in any country ing evacuations of thousands of Ameri- when Ambassador Lana Marks—who
considered to present a high risk of cans who found themselves stranded in had attended a dinner at President
exposure to COVID-19. It also autho- countries that abruptly closed borders and Trump’s Mar-a-Lago Club in Florida with
rized voluntary no-fault curtailment cut off international travel options. Brazilian officials who later tested posi-
from any country or region for those at On April 6, the State Department tive for COVID-19—returned to work at
higher risk of a poor outcome if exposed said it had coordinated the repatriation the embassy.
to the coronavirus. of 44,569 Americans from 78 countries After a town hall meeting in which
Numerous FSOs and their families since Jan. 29. For another indication of diplomats raised their concerns, and
have been, and continue to be, faced
with the decision of whether to scramble
to return to the United States—which Contemporary Quote
surpassed China for the most reported
I think it’s fair to say that the corona crisis hasn’t had the same
cases of COVID-19 by late March—or
sort of rapid coordinated international response that, say, we saw
stay at post in countries that might offer
in the 2008 financial crisis. But that said, the American government for
inadequate medical care.
G7 and the Saudi Arabian government for G20 have managed to bring
Complicating their decision-making
leaders and health ministers, finance ministers, foreign ministers together
was the fact that lodging in the Washing-
to work on a coordinated set of actions, all to keep the global economy
ton, D.C., area is hard to find, as many
going; to step up work on vaccines; to help the U.N., and particularly
places closed their doors due to health
the World Health Organization, get detailed help where it needs to go;
concerns and the shuttering economy.
and then also to work on repatriation.
The State Department on April 1 said
it had evacuated 6,000 U.S. diplomats —U.K. Ambassador to the United States Dame Karen Pierce, responding to a
and family members since the start of question, about global leadership on NPR’s “All Things Considered,” March 31.
the outbreak, about half its overseas

a press report about those concerns,
Marks undertook a period of self-quar-
ages here) or if it would be smarter to
shelter in place at post. HEARD ON THE HILL
antine. On social media, family members
In many countries, diplomats were were offering to buy groceries for anyone
asked to follow social distancing prac- who was required to self-quarantine after
tices imposed by host governments and returning from overseas. Another offered
work from home. In Washington, many to pick people up at Dulles International
diplomats did the same. Airport and get them settled. Others
The American Foreign Service chimed in with similar offers.
Association moved to telework status on
March 12, and canceled public events Coronavirus Relief
until at least April 30 (as of press time). and the International
On March 18, for the first time in its his- Affairs Budget
tory, the AFSA Governing Board held its
monthly meeting via teleconference.
The State Department indefinitely
T he nearly $2 trillion Coronavirus
Aid, Relief, and Economic Security
(CARES) Act, signed into law on March
JOSH
postponed the intake of new Foreign 27, provides $1.12 billion for the interna-
Service officers, Foreign Policy magazine tional affairs budget.
We know there are still many
reported March 26. Two incoming classes The following funding additions
Americans currently trapped
totaling 175 people—one for officers, one relate to the foreign affairs agencies:
overseas, but I can assure you
for specialists—were put on hold. • $324 million for State Department
the State Department and
In another unprecedented move, for diplomatic programs to maintain con-
Secretary Pompeo are working
the first time in its nearly 60-year history, sular operations around the world, cover around the clock to bring them
the Peace Corps temporarily suspended the costs of evacuating personnel and home as quickly as possible.
its operations on March 15. The agency dependents, and provide for emergency —House Foreign Affairs
ordered all of its more than 7,000 Volun- preparedness needs. Committee ranking member
teers to evacuate their host countries and • $95 million for USAID operating Michael McCaul (R-Texas),
return to the United States, where they expenses to support the evacuation of in a statement reported
joined the ranks of the unemployed. U.S. citizens and surge support, and to March 25 by Politico.
Hundreds of USAID employees and increase technical support.
family members took part in USAID Staff • $258 million for international disas- I do want to salute not only our
Care webinars on “Resilience in the Time ter assistance so USAID can continue to troops, but our men and women
of COVID-19.” Many reported feeling support disaster response capabilities in the State Department, our
substantial stress levels because of the in developing countries affected by the Foreign Service officers at USAID
pandemic. pandemic. and State, for representing our
Social media became a refuge for • $55 million for APHIS employee country and the hard work that
many diplomats and their families. D.C.- salaries and expenses to prevent, they do every day.
area members of the popular Trailing prepare for and respond to COVID-19, —Rep. Ami Bera (D-Calif.),
Houses Facebook group for active U.S. including necessary expenses for salary at the House Foreign Affairs Asia,
diplomats and family members offered to costs associated with the Agriculture the Pacific, and Nonproliferation
Subcommittee hearing, “Pros-
help people returning to Washington find Quarantine and Inspection Program.
pects for Peace: The Way Forward
places to stay. • $4 million for Foreign Agricultural
for Afghanistan,” March 10.
Members also debated whether Service employee salaries and expenses
people should return to the United States to respond to COVID-19 and relocate
(and recommended that they pack toilet personnel and their dependents back
paper and other essentials due to short- from overseas posts.

COPING WITH SOCIAL DISTANCING
HOW TO BUILD RESILIENCE

In the face of the coronavirus pandemic, Foreign Service families
HELPING KIDS PASS THE TIME
around the world are facing difficult situations and choices, and The following educational websites are excerpted from a list by
high stress levels. We turned to resilience expert Beth Payne for an anonymous educator that is making the rounds on social
advice. She is a retired FSO and a former chair of the FSJ Edito- media during the coronavirus pandemic. This abbreviated list
rial Board. She was the director of FSI’s Center of Excellence offers plenty of great ideas to keep your kids and other family
in Foreign Affairs Resilience from 2016 to 2019, and now runs members busy during social distancing.
Payne Resilience Training & Consulting (payneresilience.com).
The following is from a recent blog posting, in which she n GeoGuesser—GeoGuesser n si.edu/kids—No need
shares suggestions for ways to build and maintain resilience tests kids’ geography skills. to travel to one of the Smith-
during this challenging time. Using images from Google’s sonian’s zoos or museums.
S
Street View, it plops players Smithsonian: Fun Stuff for
ince resilience affects our immune system, build- down in the middle of the Kids brings your child every-
ing and maintaining high resilience can help street and asks them to figure thing from live video of the
your body defend against viruses and bacteria. out where they are. National Zoo to the Smith-
Resilience will also help you better manage if you n whatwasthere.com— sonian Learning Lab right
or a loved one is infected. It will help you adapt WhatWasThere allows stu- to their screen.
if there are closures or significant changes in your daily life. dents to type in any city, state n coolkidfacts.com—
And you’ll be more likely to bounce back quickly and fully or country to view an archive Cool Kid Facts gives your
(and possibly bounce forward) from any negative impact of historical photographs and child access to educational
this crisis may have on you. other documents. It’s a unique videos, pictures, quizzes,
Here are ways you can build and maintain your resilience: way to help them learn about downloadable worksheets
Focus on What You Can Control. The coronavirus is history. and infographics to learn
unsettling because so much is out of our control. Ruminating n artsology.com—Artsology about geography, history,
about things you cannot control will erode your resilience. helps kids learn to appreciate science, animals and the
Instead, focus on what you can do. Review the latest CDC the arts by providing them human body.
information and guidelines and prepare your emergency with the opportunity to play n bensguide.gpo.gov—
plan. Seek news and updates only from reliable sources. games, conduct investigations Ben’s Guide, an interactive
Take Care of Yourself. Prioritize getting enough sleep, eat- and explore different forms website hosted by the U.S.
ing well, exercising and making time to recover. Use a potential of art. Government Publishing
coronavirus outbreak as an opportunity to review your regular n highlightskids.com—Find Office, allows your child to
routines and make changes if needed for better self-care. on Highlights Kids fun games, see the ins and outs of the
Help Others. Research shows that helping other people recipes, crafts and activities. U.S. government by taking a
will build your resilience. Reach out to your community to n seussville.com—Read, series of learning adventures
see if there are ways you can help with preparations. Donate play games and hang out with with none other than Benja-
funds to organizations that support communities hit by the Dr. Seuss on Seussville. min Franklin.
virus. Donate blood to prevent shortages during an outbreak. n virtualmusicalinstru n climatekids.nasa.gov
Seek Out Social Support. While it may be tempting to ments.com—On Virtual —A NASA initiative, Climate
isolate yourself to prevent infection, it is essential that you Music Instruments kids can Kids covers a wide range of
maintain your social support. Make sure you can communi- play instruments, including topics including weather,
cate with friends and family virtually if necessary. guitar, piano, pan flute, drum climate, atmosphere, water,
Laugh. Maintaining a positive outlook is a key resilience and bongos, online. energy, plants and animals.
factor. If you’re binging on Netflix, watch comedies. Seek out
friends and family who make you laugh. Watch funny videos
on social media.

Site of the Month
WELLNESS IN A CRISIS Radio Garden (www.radio.garden)
From the National Wellness Insti-
D
tute, here is a list of questions to ask uring this time of social dis-
yourself daily: tancing, listening to radio from
1. What am I grateful for today? around the world is one fun way to
2. Who am I checking in on or stay connected.
connecting with today?
From its beginning, radio signals
3. What expectations of “normal”
have crossed borders. Radio makers the dot, and a pop-up shows radio
am I letting go of today?
and listeners have imagined connect- stations from that city and starts to
4. How am I getting outside today?
5. How am I moving my body today? ing with distant cultures, as well as re- play a local station.
6. What beauty am I either creating, connecting with people from “home” You can add radio stations to your
cultivating or inviting in today? from thousands of miles away. favorites list or choose from Radio
Visit Radio Garden, and you can Garden’s recommendations.
spin the globe and listen to any of Founded in 2015 in Amsterdam,
ACCESS MUSIC & CULTURE thousands of live radio stations

from around the world. Each green
Radio Garden launched mobile
apps for iOS and Android platforms
Here are a few ideas for getting to dot represents a city or town. Tap in 2018.
museums, going to the opera and sym-
phony, and even learning to play guitar,
all virtually. The CARES Act also permits addi- “The United States is disappointed in
Virtual Museum Collections: tional paid leave for State and USAID them and what their conduct means for
The Museum Computer Network, employees experiencing hardship due to Afghanistan and our shared interests,”
which supports professionals who COVID-19. It includes provisions allow- Secretary Pompeo said. “We have made
seek to transform the way their muse- ing State to provide medical services to clear to the leadership that we will not back
ums reach, engage, and educate their private U.S. citizens, and permits State security operations that are politically moti-
audiences using digital technologies, and USAID oaths of office required by vated, nor support political leaders who
offers an extensive directory of virtual law to be administered remotely. order such operations or those who advo-
museum resources, e-learning and cate for or support parallel government.”
online collections at mcn.edu/a-guide- U.S. Suspends Afghan Afghans “fear the decision could push
to-virtual-museum-resources. Aid to Force Peace Deal the country, almost entirely dependent on
Metropolitan Opera: The Metropol-
itan Opera of New York City has been
streaming a different performance,
T he United States is suspending $1
billion in aid until Afghan politi-
cal factions form a government that can
foreign aid, past the tipping point,” accord-
ing to a March 24 New York Times report.
The United States has been provid-
from its Met’s Live in HD series, every implement a U.S.-brokered peace deal ing about $4 billion in security aid and
night at metopera.org. with the Taliban, according to a March 23 nearly $500 million in civilian aid to
Seattle Symphony: The Seattle Politico report. Afghanistan per year, according to The
Symphony has been offering free Secretary of State Mike Pompeo New York Times. The newspaper adds
performances several times a week at announced the decision on March 23 that roughly 75 percent of Afghanistan’s
seattlesymphony.org/live. after meeting in Kabul with Afghan Presi- annual public expenditures are depen-
Fender Play: Fender Musical Instru- dent Ashraf Ghani and former Afghan dent on international donations.
ments Corp. is offering three months Chief Executive Abdullah Abdullah. On Feb. 29, the United States reached
of free online guitar, bass and ukulele The two Afghan leaders were continu- a peace deal with the Taliban, marking
lessons to the first 500,000 new sub- ing to contest the results of Afghanistan’s the potential end of America’s longest
scribers to its Fender Play Service at try. September 2019 election, and progress war. The agreement, which did not
fender.com/play/playthrough. on talks with the Taliban was stalled. include the government of Afghanistan,

50 Years Ago
Forgery in International Affairs
“M isinformation”—or “dez-
informatsiya” to use the
Russian term—has long been known
viewpoint. But misinforma-
tion appears under the guise
of objective truth and masks
even Europe. Much ink
was also spilled over
the so-called “Zinoviev
in military doctrine. It now applies in the origin of the message by a letter” that still remains
international politics. The Moscow false source. in the public eye. Neither of these
Politicheskii Slovar (Political Diction- The channels circulating misin- forged documents has ever been
ary) (Gospolitizdat, 1958), edited by formation vary, depending on the thoroughly researched or analyzed.
B. N. Ponomarev, defines the word: target and objective of the initiator. Political forgeries take the form
“dezinformatsiya is the intentional Misinformation appears even in of official acts, circulars, instruc-
presentation of inaccurate informa- scholarly studies. tions, minutes of meetings, memo-
tion with the aim of leading someone Forged political documents randa or letters exchanged between
astray.” Experts on our side of the occupy a place of honor among officials. Among them are resolu-
Iron Curtain see “dezinformatsiya” as channels of misinformation, but tions of the Politburo of the Central
false, incomplete or misleading infor- serious analysts have given them Committee of the Communist Party
mation passed, fed or confirmed to a little attention. ... The Memorial of the Soviet Union, as well as clas-
targeted individual, group or country. allegedly submitted to the Japanese sified State Department directives,
Misinformation should not be Throne in 1927 by General Giichi secret cables to Washington sent by
confused with propaganda, which Tanaka, Premier of Japan, awakened ambassadors and Moscow commu-
is biased information circulated interest in political literature since nications to agents abroad.
by an identified source. A slanted it contained what was purported to —Natalie Grant, a former FSO,
TASS communique is labeled TASS. be Japan’s plan to crush the United excerpted from her article of the
All know that it mirrors the Soviet States, conquer India, Asia Minor and same title in the May 1970 FSJ.
set out a 14-month timetable for an intra- presidential candidate Joe Biden for enemies abroad has been chaotic and
Afghan cease-fire, negotiations between president. unprincipled,” it continues. “Our credibil-
the Taliban and Afghan government, and “To be clear, those of us signing this ity as a nation has been lessened. And,
the final withdrawal of U.S. troops from letter do not agree on everything, or even perhaps most importantly, our place in
the country. most things, concerning foreign policy, the world as a source of moral leadership
defense or homeland security,” the has nearly been lost. As a country, we are
National Security authors of the letter, published on March increasingly less secure and less safe.
Veterans Break with 18, write. “Our policy views cover most of “We are not, of course, giving up
Tradition the spectrum, and many of us have often our views and approaches to national
M ore than 150 national security,

intelligence and homeland
security veterans, most of whom have
been in opposition, sometimes bitterly,
with each other. But we have always been
bound by profound patriotism, and a
security. Should Vice President Biden be
elected president, many of us will take up
the honorable position of ‘loyal opposi-
served in both Democratic and Repub- deep belief in our American democracy.” tion,’ and will fight as we have before for
lican administrations, have broken with “Our nation’s foreign affairs are in the policies we think best.” n
the strong tradition of not endorsing disarray; our alliances frayed and our
particular political candidates and signed national prestige declining,” the letter This edition of Talking Points was
an open letter under the heading “The states. compiled by Cameron Woodworth,
Steady State,” endorsing Democratic “Our approach to both friends and Kim Greenplate and Shawn Dorman.

SPEAKING OUT
The Diplomat and the State full spectrum of U.S national power—
“soft” power, by representing and defend-
ing our democratic and humanitarian
B Y C H R I S T O P H E R W. S M I T H
values abroad, or managing exchange pro-
grams for future foreign leaders; “sharp”
power, by making the case for sanctions
against states and individuals that violate
D
iplomacy is as old as the profes- course, and the modern Foreign Ser- U.S. and international laws; “smart” power,
sion of arms, but not as well vice officer corps is a professional body. by supporting counterparts in foreign
understood in the United States. Applying Huntington’s characterization of countries seeking to reform their political
The sheer size of the U.S. mili- what defines a profession to the Depart- and economic institutions and fight cor-
tary, when compared to the Department of ment of State’s Foreign Service officer ruption in line with Western best practices;
State’s Foreign Service officer corps, num- corps, I will make recommendations on and “hard” power, in working with the
bering just 8,000 officers, helps explain how the U.S. diplomatic profession can military and the interagency community
why Americans are more familiar with the better define itself, bolster its institutional to deter and, if necessary, defeat threats to
armed forces than the U.S. Foreign Service. strength at a transformative period in the United States, its allies and partners.
It is also true that military officers have international affairs, and improve key The unifying thread across these and
been more active and effective in defining audiences’ understanding of the vital, many other potential examples, is the
to the public who they are and what they unique role diplomats play in achieving management of U.S. national power in
represent than their diplomatic counter- U.S. national security objectives. the conduct of the nation’s foreign affairs,
parts. In particular, publications by and which is the primary function of Foreign
about military personnel have helped What Is the Profession Service officers.
articulate and communicate their profes- of Diplomacy?
sion’s values, meaning and code of ethics In his book, Huntington asserts that Acquiring Expertise
to their fellow Americans. “the distinguishing characteristics of a
A classic example of this type of writing profession as a special type of vocation are The professional is an expert with
is Samuel Huntington’s seminal work, The its expertise, responsibility and corporate- specialized knowledge and skill in a
Soldier and the State. Published in 1957, ness.” To apply these characteristics to the significant field of human endeavor.
the book is a foundational text in the U.S. profession of diplomacy, we must first (Their) expertise is acquired only by
professional military education system for define its essential function. If we accept prolonged education and experience.
the study of civil-military relations. Hun- Huntington’s contention that the “central —Samuel Huntington
tington’s central point is that the “modern skill of the military officer is best summed
military officer corps is a professional up in Harold Laswell’s phrase ‘the man- Diplomacy requires expertise,
body, and the modern military officer is agement of violence,’” then what is the subtlety in application, and the refined
a professional.” To prove this, Huntington central skill of the U.S. diplomat? ability to assess the interests and influ-
examines military officership as a profes- The essential skill of U.S. diplomats is ence the decisions of foreign states and
sion: “a peculiar type of functional group the management of power to achieve for- the individuals through whom diplomats
with highly specialized characteristics.” eign policy and national security objectives. work to accomplish U.S. objectives.
Diplomacy is also a profession, of Toward this end, diplomats manage the Unfortunately, there is a persistent
Christopher W. Smith joined the Foreign Service in 2005 and is currently deputy chief of mission in Yerevan. Prior to that, he
served in Tbilisi, Istanbul, Kabul (with the International Security Assistance Force), Nicosia and Kyiv. He received the Warren
Christopher Award for Outstanding Achievement in Civilian Security for his work in Ukraine. Domestically, Mr. Smith has
been a special assistant to the assistant secretary for arms control, and in 2019 earned a master’s degree (with highest distinc-
tion) in national security and strategic studies at the U.S. Naval War College. His research there contributed to this article. The
views expressed in this article are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of State.

impression that anyone can do foreign Expanding professional education and abroad. By comparison, the U.S. Army’s
policy, while according to Huntington, research opportunities at the Foreign Ser- basic infantry officer training course at
military officership is seen as “an extraor- vice Institute goes hand-in-hand with the Fort Benning lasts 17 weeks. FSI offers a
dinarily complex intellectual skill requir- need to develop official doctrine regarding range of other optional courses on political
ing comprehensive study and training.” the conduct of diplomacy. and other issues, but given demands on
Novices need not apply. Simultaneously The U.S. military model boasts a their schedules, most officers can manage
recognizing and contributing to this per- formalized system of professional military only the three weeks of required training
ception, the military requests from Con- education (PME) encompassing multiple before heading off to their assignments.
gress a tremendous amount of resources service academies and officer candidate FSI should be transformed into a
to educate and train its officers. programs to train incoming officers, as College of Diplomacy with the in-house
Military officers also apply significant well as the Command and Staff Colleges expertise to study (and teach) the profes-
time, energy and rigor in defining the and War Colleges that train intermediate sion of diplomacy, while examining
tenets and application of their craft to and senior officers, conduct research on current and future foreign policy chal-
themselves and key external audiences. military campaigns and study the profes- lenges through a “war game” center. This
This is an area where the Foreign Service sion of military officership. unit could be directed by the Secretary,
could replicate the military’s approach to In sharp contrast, the State Depart- the policy planning staff (S/P) and other
great effect, first and foremost by dedicat- ment has only the Foreign Service senior department figures to game out
ing greater research and scholarship Institute. While FSI devotes considerable strategies and events, with a particular
by FSOs to the study of diplomacy as a resources to language training, offering focus on great-power competition with
profession. courses lasting up to two years for certain Russia and China.
Some steps have been taken, includ- hard languages, and has been working on This approach will not only greatly
ing the 2017 establishment of the State expanding leadership training, tradecraft improve the opportunities for FSOs and
Department’s Center for the Study of the training is limited; and, overall, profes- visiting academics to study the history
Conduct of Diplomacy. This new office’s sional education is limited by comparison and modern conduct of diplomacy; it will
mission to analyze recent diplomatic ini- to the PME system. also uncover options for the resolution of
tiatives and events to create case studies Former Secretary of State Colin Powell existing and future diplomatic challenges,
for tradecraft training is a good start. To mandated leadership training for FSOs at in order to develop long-term strategies to
reach its full potential, however, we must all ranks, an important first step that has meet them.
move beyond case studies into the realm improved leadership competency in the
of professional education and profes- ranks. Creating Standardized
sional doctrine to guide and instruct our Still, newly promoted FSOs at the Doctrine
officers in the conduct of their missions. FS-3 level receive just a week’s train- To move from training to professional
ing at FSI to prepare them for this new education, we need a system for creating
Expanding Training level of leadership, typically in classes standardized doctrine in the essential
and Research taught by contractors with no experience areas of focus for FSOs. What functional
in the Foreign Service. Their military training FSOs do receive at FSI, which
The liberal education of the profes- equivalents can expect to spend a year more senior officers impart, lacks this key
sional is normally handled by the in training for their new position in an component. Political officers, for example,
general educational institutions of equivalent rank (major), where they are have no official handbook on conducting
society devoted to this purpose. The instructed by active-duty, subject matter multilateral diplomacy, or operating effec-
technical or second phase of profes- experts from their service. tively in conflict and transition countries,
sional education is given in special Functional skill training also needs or even carrying out the basics of contact
institutions operated by or affiliated to be expanded. Political officers, for work and drafting reports.
with the profession itself. example, receive just three weeks of In complement to the departmentwide
—Samuel Huntington required training (split between political “Professional Ethos,” the Foreign Service
and economic tradecraft) before deploying officer corps should begin developing

more detailed (and officially endorsed) What is needed: the principles, concepts and
doctrine for FSOs on our core values, informed professional guidance that make up
code of professional ethics and tradecraft.
This is an essential element highlighted
true doctrine.
by Huntington of most, if not all, profes-
sions—from the military officer corps to and prevents us from further developing a tive of gaining unique knowledge and
medical doctors. professional education system. expertise.
Some may contend that the Depart- Focusing on developing the level of
ment of State’s Foreign Affairs Manual Professionals Are Experts, expertise achieved by Kennan and many
fills that role as the “single, comprehen- Not Generalists other predecessors would increase our rel-
sive and authoritative source for the To help advance training and research, evance and influence in the bureaucratic
department’s organization structures, and to develop professional doctrine, politics of the interagency community.
policies and procedures.” But while FSOs should work with State to define Without professional, regional and linguis-
the FAM provides administrative and ourselves as experts instead of generalists. tic mastery and a network of long-term
regulatory guidance, it does not cover A “generalist” in the Foreign Service foreign contacts, a “generalist” misses out
what is needed: the principles, concepts prioritizes knowledge of multiple coun- on what should be an FSO’s singular com-
and informed professional guidance that tries and regions of the world along with parative advantage in the policy debate.
make up true doctrine. a proficient understanding of bilateral,
By comparison, officially endorsed regional, multilateral and global issues, Join the Public Foreign
doctrine not only guides military officers rather than developing true expertise on Policy Discourse
in the conduct of their missions, it a particular region, country or functional To play a role in shaping policy, FSOs
ensures that the professional military issue. need to join the academic and public
education they receive is derived from A look back at the contributions of discourse on U.S. foreign policy priorities,
the experiences and wisdom of the offi- some of America’s greatest diplomats, particularly in this new era of great-power
cer corps itself. In the words of a military however, emphasizes the value of competition with China and Russia.
scholar at West Point: “Army doctrine is expertise. George Kennan, for example, Published research and writing by military
defined as the fundamental principles wrote the “Sources of Soviet Conduct” officers exploded during the wars in
by which the military forces or elements (better known as the “X” article) in 1947. Afghanistan and Iraq, and helped reorient
thereof guide their actions in support This transformative analysis of Russian Washington toward more effective coun-
of national objectives. … It is a body of motivations, which built the intellectual terinsurgency strategies.
thought … and a statement of how the foundations of the containment strategy Diplomats played, and still play,
Army intends to fight.” that saw the United States through the important roles in those counterinsurgen-
The Foreign Service officer corps has Cold War, was based on Kennan’s deep cies on the ground, yet our voices went
no codified, official doctrine. Instead, understanding of Russia, its language, comparatively unheard in the public
FSOs rely on oral traditions to pass val- culture and people—expertise derived analysis that examined what worked and
ues, lessons learned and tradecraft from through repeated tours in the region and what didn’t in the midst of those cam-
senior officers to those they supervise career-long study. paigns. Contributions to our Foreign Ser-
and mentor. This practice, which benefits In its generalist approach, the U.S. For- vice Journal are vital to this dialogue, but
those who are lucky enough to serve eign Service is an outlier in the world of many other periodicals and blogs would
good leaders (and disadvantages those diplomacy, particularly when compared welcome greater input from FSOs.
who aren’t), is not sufficient for a mod- to our great power competitors. Chinese Besides participating in public
ern, professional Foreign Service. and Russian diplomats can expect to policy discussions, FSOs need to better
This lack of professional doctrine, spend their entire careers working on a communicate their under-recognized
which should be developed by the profes- single country, or a small group of related commitment and patriotism, and the
sional diplomatic corps itself, leaves our countries united by language or shared responsibility they take for their work that
officers poorly prepared for their missions regional history, with the specific objec- helps define diplomats as professionals.

We need to better inform Americans of articulating the unique principles and
Speaking Out is the Journal’s opinion
the risks diplomats voluntarily undertake tradecraft that underpin our profession. forum, a place for lively discussion of
to serve our country. Like their military issues affecting the U.S. Foreign Service
counterparts, U.S. diplomats must be Professionalizing for and American diplomacy. The views
expressed are those of the author; their
deployable worldwide, including in Great Power Competition publication here does not imply endorse-
conflict zones. As we gear up for what will likely be a ment by the American Foreign Service
All of the positions in Iraq, Afghani- decades-long competition with Rus- Association. Responses are welcome;
send them to journal@afsa.org.
stan, Pakistan, Libya and other conflict sia and China, FSOs must be at the top
zones have been filled by FSOs who of their professional game. Convincing
chose to serve there, despite the fact that Congress and the American people to offers FSOs an excellent model.
these embassies are some of the largest provide funds to strengthen the U.S. For- What Samuel Huntington said in 1957
and most dangerous in the world. The eign Service will require us to define what of the military officer corps is equally
American Foreign Service Association’s we bring to the field of battle. true of today’s U.S. Foreign Service: “[It]
memorial plaques at State Department We can begin this process by invest- is strongest and most effective when it
headquarters list the honored names of ing more in defining our profession, closely approaches the professional ideal;
those killed in the line of duty in war zones enhancing our professional education it is weakest and most defective when it
and regular service across the globe. and inserting ourselves into the national falls short of that ideal.” The proposals
Congress and other audiences would foreign policy debate. U.S. military offi- in this article are offered in the spirit of
likely appreciate the opportunity to cers’ approach to their own profession getting us there. n
better understand the challenges our
diplomats and their families face and the
kind of work we do on a daily basis. The
State Department could do much more
to highlight the impact FSOs are mak-
ing in war zones and across the globe in
achieving U.S. foreign policy and national
security objectives.
A formal department program to
encourage FSOs to write about their
successes and challenges for publication
is one suggestion. Another would be to
invite congressional leaders and policy-
makers and opinionmakers to the Depart-
ment of State’s annual award ceremony,
and AFSA’s, to see FSOs recognized for
their extraordinary achievements, often
obtained in harrowing circumstances.
The State Department should encour-
age diplomats to write and publish as
widely as possible (with the obvious
disclaimer that their views are their own).
Admittedly, the Foreign Service values
discretion by nature, so this will take
some cultural change. But such initiatives
are essential to defining and commu-
nicating who we are as diplomats, and

FOCUS ON NUCLEAR DIPLOMACY
U.S.-Russian A Short
Nuclear Arms History
Control Negotiations
An accomplished negotiator puts nuclear arms control
in perspective—what it has achieved, where it has failed
and what it can do for our future security.
n BY R O S E G OT T E M O E L L E R
I
n my line of work, you have to have a long memory. during his speech in Prague in April 2009, the first major foreign
Periods of success in negotiations are followed by policy speech of his presidency.
droughts, because of politics, military upheaval, That international obligation is important, but still we must
arms buildups—yes, sometimes the weapons have consider first and foremost our own national security interest. I
to be built before they can be reduced—or a sense of think about that interest as follows: Nuclear arms control is the
complacency: “We have arms control treaties in place; only way that we can attain stable and predictable deployments of
let’s just focus on implementing them.” In those cases, these most fearsome weapons, and it is the only way that we can
new thinking and new negotiations may slow or even assure that we won’t be bankrupted by nuclear arms racing. These
stop. Yet, the national security interest of the United points are especially important now, as we contemplate a world
States continues to drive the necessity for nuclear arms control. where China has more nuclear weapons and more missiles with
The calculation of our own national security interest must which to deliver them.
always be front and center when we consider a nuclear negotia- China now has many fewer nuclear weapons than the United
tion. Sometimes arms control is touted as an absolute good, one States and Russia, and it has not yet shown an interest in coming
that should be pursued for its own sake. We do have interna- to the table to negotiate constraints on them. It is constrained by
tional obligations in this realm, most prominently the commit- its doctrine, which has held that China will not strike first with
ment under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty to reduce nuclear weapons and will only maintain enough secure nuclear
and eliminate nuclear weapons until we reach zero. This com- weapons to ensure a second strike can take place if another coun-
mitment is shared by the other NPT nuclear weapon states— try strikes China first. In the Chinese view, this doctrinal approach
France, the U.K., Russia and China; and sometimes it gets a forges a kind of insurance policy for the international commu-
boost, as it did when President Barack Obama strongly reiter- nity. However, since China has now started to build more kinds
ated U.S. intent to proceed on the path to zero nuclear weapons of nuclear delivery systems, including long-range submarine-

BRIAN HUBBLE
launched ballistic missiles, there is real concern that its doctrine joined with David Lilienthal, chairman of the Tennessee Valley
may be changing. Authority (responsible for fissile material production), and four
So all of us need to think about the long arc of nuclear arms other prominent figures to prepare what became the Acheson-Lil-
control—what it has accomplished, where it has failed and what it ienthal Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy. Its
can do for our future security. In looking at the history, this article goal was to ensure that the United Nations would control nuclear
pulls the different strands from one period into the next, but does resources and ensure that they were only used for peaceful pur-
not delve into the details of any particular agreement. Nuclear poses. Those countries acquiring nuclear weapons technology
arms control experts may take exception to this surface skimming, would give it up; and once U.N. controls over their programs were
but I think it makes sense as food for thought: to remind us all in place, the United States would relinquish its arsenal.
how we determined the value of nuclear arms control in the first Bernard Baruch was the U.S. negotiator who presented this
place, and how we have sustained it over time. Now we have to proposal to the U.N. Security Council in January 1946. It was
consider what makes sense for the future. already evident that the Soviet Union was unlikely to cooperate,
so Baruch modified the plan in several ways, importantly seek-
From Hiroshima to the Cuban Missile Crisis ing to prevent the UNSC veto from being used in this setting. The
The early history of nuclear arms control was wedded to the Soviets presented their own competing Gromyko Plan, which
closing days of World War II: Hiroshima and Nagasaki had taken called for the immediate prohibition of nuclear weapons and
place; the United States had won the race to acquire nuclear would have caused the United States to give up its arsenal imme-
weapons. To its credit, U.S. leadership immediately grasped diately. These competing plans were debated until December
that efforts should be made to control this new weapon of mass 1946, when the Baruch Plan was put to a vote before the Security
destruction and, if possible, share the benefits of the atom— Council. Ten of the 12 members voted in favor, but the USSR
nuclear energy—internationally. Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Poland abstained. The measure was not passed, so the first

major international effort at nuclear arms control failed. and signed: the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. As an aside, it
As the 1950s unfolded, both the United States and Soviet is interesting that there was an environmental impetus to these
Union continued to test more and more powerful weapons, negotiations that made them popular both among the U.S. pub-
racing to acquire the hydrogen bomb. The first Soviet test was at lic and internationally. People were realizing that strontium-90
Semipalatinsk in 1955, and the first U.S. test was at Bikini Atoll in from atmospheric testing was getting into the food supply—most
1956. Both continued to build nuclear warheads, so that by the crucially, into children’s milk.
mid-1960s, the United States had an arsenal of approximately
32,000 warheads, and the Soviets, according to the account of NATO and the NPT
former Minister of Atomic Energy Viktor Mikhailov in the Sept. Now fast-forward to the mid-1960s, when a lot was going on.
26, 1993 New York Times, had more than 40,000. First, beginning in 1965, the Non-Proliferation Treaty was under
Thus, the stage was set for a major nuclear crisis in the negotiation. This involved tough bargaining about the behavior
Cold War years, when the United States and Soviet Union were of those states that had already tested nuclear weapons; they
constantly confronting each other: whether on the diplomatic turned out, eventually, to be the five permanent members of
front in the United Nations, on the borders between NATO and the U.N. Security Council: the United States, USSR, China, U.K.
the Warsaw Pact, in Berlin, or in regional wars and insurgencies and France. The rest of the states also drove a hard bargain,
across Eurasia and into Africa and Latin America. The fulcrum eventually ending up with a three-pillared construction for the
for communist revolution in Latin America, of course, was treaty: all would work to prevent nuclear proliferation; all would
Cuba. I am not going to recount the details of the October 1962 cooperate to share the benefits of the peaceful atom; and all
Cuban Missile Crisis here; Graham Allison’s Essence of Decision would pursue nuclear disarmament. The disarmament pillar was
is still the classic analysis (see 2nd ed., Longman, 1999). New particularly directed at the nuclear weapons states: they would
analyses were also undertaken once the old Soviet archives work steadily to eliminate nuclear weapons while the other
opened up and Russian participants started interacting with countries would eschew them. It was the grand bargain of the
their U.S. counterparts at the time of the 40th anniversary. A NPT inscribed in its Article VI.
very good wrap-up of this work appears on the National Secu- Among those who had tested nuclear weapons, the bargaining
rity Archive website (see nsarchive2.gwu.edu). Suffice it to say, was particularly sharp between the United States and the Soviet
we came close to nuclear war. Union, because they had tested the most and had deployed by far
The Cuban Missile Crisis deeply shook the leaders on both the biggest arsenals, which is still the case today. It also brought
sides, and so it provided the first impetus to pursue true nuclear in the NATO Alliance, which had been suffering its own version
arms control. President John F. Kennedy’s American University of an existential threat. In 1967 France withdrew from the military
commencement speech in June 1963 was a U.S. watershed: He command structure of NATO and threw its headquarters—civilian
declared an immediate moratorium on U.S. nuclear tests in the and military—out of Paris. This, in my view, is the most difficult
atmosphere, to be maintained as long as others did not test, and crisis that the Alliance has weathered, and it led to some deep
announced an agreement with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev soul-searching on the part of the allies, led by Belgian Foreign
and British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan to begin negotia- Minister Pierre Harmel. He produced a short and succinct report
tion of a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. By August 1963, a mere that called for détente with the Soviets while continuing to pursue
two months later, an atmospheric test ban had been negotiated firm deterrence measures. This basic conclusion of the Harmel
Rose Gottemoeller is the Frank E. and Arthur W. Payne Distinguished Lecturer at the Freeman Spogli Institute for
International Studies and Center for Security and Cooperation at Stanford University.
Before joining Stanford, Gottemoeller was the Deputy Secretary General of NATO from 2016 to 2019. Prior to NATO,
she served for nearly five years as the under secretary for arms control and international security at the U.S. Department
of State. While assistant secretary of State for arms control, verification and compliance in 2009 and 2010, she was the chief
U.S. negotiator of the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START) with the Russian Federation.
Prior to government service, she was a senior associate with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, with joint appointments to
the nonproliferation and Russia programs. She served as the director of the Carnegie Moscow Center from 2006 to 2008, and is currently
a nonresident fellow in Carnegie’s Nuclear Policy Program. She is also a research fellow at the Hoover Institution.

Report set the stage for NATO to participate fully in arms control
policymaking and negotiations with the USSR.
As the 1950s unfolded, both the
Where the NPT was concerned, the Soviets were trying to United States and Soviet Union
destroy a bête noire that had preoccupied them since World War continued to test more and more
II—the specter of a German nuclear weapons program. It is easy
to forget, but when the NPT was being negotiated, a number of
powerful weapons, racing to
European states were pursuing their own nuclear weapons—not acquire the hydrogen bomb.
only Germany, but countries as diverse as Sweden and Swit-
zerland. The Soviets were intent on ensuring that the Germans
never got their own nuclear arsenal. They therefore agreed to time that the Communist Party leadership had ever heard anything
the notion that certain NATO countries in Europe would have in detail about the nuclear offense-defense relationship.
nuclear weapons on their territories, but those weapons would But by the time President Richard Nixon met in Moscow with
remain in full control of the United States. For the Soviets, the General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev in May 1972, the Soviets
NPT, which was opened for signature in 1968, was the instru- were convinced of the need to limit defensive as well as offensive
ment by which Germany would remain a non-nuclear weapon systems. Nixon and Brezhnev signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile
state, and for that reason Moscow accepted U.S. nuclear weap- Treaty, which limited each side to 100 defensive launchers in
ons on the territory of some NATO countries. two sites each; they also signed the Strategic Arms Limitation
I note this because for the past few years the Russians have Treaty (SALT I), which was called an interim treaty because it
been complaining that the United States is “violating” the NPT by simply froze the number of launchers then deployed. This is
deploying nuclear weapons under its control on NATO allied terri- significant because the same theme comes up again and again
tory. However, the NPT negotiating record clearly shows that their in the history of U.S.-Russian arms control policy: namely, the
Soviet predecessors agreed to these arrangements. It was worth it delicacy of the offense-defense balance and the importance of
to them to keep nuclear weapons out of the hands of the Germans. its maintenance to strategic stability.
Fast-forward now to 1979 and the completion of SALT II,
Glassboro: Toward the First Détente the first treaty to seek to limit strategic offensive arms. It never
The Glassboro Summit is an important but little-remembered entered into force because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
moment in arms control history that took place June 23-25, 1967, in December of that year—but President Jimmy Carter was
at Glassboro State College in New Jersey. Now called Rowan Uni- already facing an uphill battle in getting the advice and consent
versity, the site was chosen because of its proximity to New York of the Senate to its ratification. The reason? U.S. hawks and skep-
City, where Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin was addressing the tics were sharply criticizing what they called the Soviet breakout
United Nations over the Middle East crisis—the Six-Day War had potential—the advent of MIRV technology. MIRV stands for
occurred just a few weeks earlier. Tensions were also high over multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, which allow
the Vietnam War. Kosygin wrote to President Lyndon Johnson, a country to deploy multiple warheads on top of individual mis-
and the two agreed to meet. siles. Because the Soviets were deploying heavy missiles—the
It was the first time that the United States presented to Soviet SS-18 and SS-19 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)—
leaders the proposition that it is important to limit strategic ballistic they had more capability to carry warheads and deliver them.
missile defenses as well as strategic nuclear offensive weapon This was the famous “throw-weight” debate of the 1970s and
systems. It is a simple argument: If strategic strike offensive mis- 1980s. It was feared that they had enormous potential to deploy
siles are limited and ballistic missile defense systems continue to and deliver many more warheads than the United States could,
improve technologically and expand operationally, then over time, thus upsetting the strategic balance.
the defense systems will begin to undermine the strategic offensive Of course, two can play at this game; and within a short time
deterrent of one party or the other. The Soviet leaders were baffled: the United States was also deploying very capable MIRVs on its
How could limiting defenses ever be a good thing? Kosygin and ground-based systems, the ICBMs, but more so on its subma-
his colleagues were no doubt confounded because Soviet military rine-based systems, the sea-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
doctrine and strategy, including nuclear doctrine, were strictly the The United States maintained much quieter submarines in that
purview of the Soviet military leadership. It was doubtless the first era, and was able to deliver more accurate strikes from sea-

such as the Pershing-2 in Europe, and to push the USSR to begin
A treaty that is being hollowed to negotiate. This is the most significant period during which we
out from the inside is no longer in built up weapons in order to bring the other side to the negotiat-
the U.S. national security interest, ing table. The decision was very controversial, although it was in
which must be the litmus test for line with the Harmel approach—to be firm on deterrence and
defense but also ready to negotiate. In the end, it brought many
any nuclear arms control treaty. Europeans out into the streets to protest; but it also worked.
The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) signed
by President Ronald Reagan and USSR General Secretary
based platforms than the Soviets. The Soviets thus had cause to Mikhail Gorbachev in 1987 was a global ban on such missiles
consider what would happen should the United States choose to in the hands of either the Americans or the Soviets. The treaty
deploy an unlimited number of highly accurate warheads at sea, worked because the Soviets came to realize that, once the
where they could not be easily tracked and targeted. Pershing-2 and ground-launched cruise missiles (GLCMs) were
MIRV technology, in my view, became the real impetus for deployed in NATO Europe, they faced the threat of a no-warning
the two sides to agree in the 1980s to Strategic Arms Reduction strike on critical command and control targets in Moscow. The
Talks. It had proved futile to try to limit strategic systems; they decapitation threat had come home to them. It also worked
had to be reduced, and reduced in such a way that each side because the United States insisted, and the Soviet Union finally
could be certain that the other side was not able to out-deploy it agreed, that on-site inspections and other detailed verification
in warhead numbers. measures were needed to ensure compliance with the treaty.
This was a long-sought breakthrough in nuclear arms control.
Destabilizing Developments and the INF Treaty The treaty enshrining this great arms control victory
The other potentially destabilizing development in the late remained in place for more than three decades, until the Donald
1970s and early 1980s was the advent of ground-launched Trump administration withdrew from it in August 2019. It is
intermediate-range missiles, both ballistic and cruise missiles. worth noting, however, that per the treaty’s provisions the on-
(Intermediate range is considered to be between 500 and 5,500 site inspection regime had ended in May 2001, 10 years after all
kilometers.) These missiles were destabilizing because they of the INF missiles had been eliminated. As verification expert
either had a fast flight time to target (the ballistic systems), or John Russell noted at the time, “The treaty has now come of age
were stealthy flyers (the cruise systems, which were able to fly and must survive the rest of its indefinite duration without the
below radar coverage). In both cases, they did not give leaders security of regular on-site inspections” (VERTIC Briefing Paper
time to make nuclear launch decisions. Thus, in theory they 01/02, August 2001). That proved to be a tall order: With no on-
could be used for a “decapitating” first strike, destroying the site inspections, the treaty was vulnerable to violation.
command and control potential of the other country and leaving We became aware after 2010 that the Russians were develop-
it helpless to launch a response strike. ing a ground-launched intermediate-range missile in violation
When the Soviets began to deploy their SS-20 missiles in of the INF Treaty, the 9M-729 (SSC-8 in NATO parlance). I raised
1976, it got everybody’s attention not only in Washington, but it more than 20 times with my Russian counterparts during the
among the NATO allies in Europe: Could the Soviet Union now period between 2013 and 2016, when I left the State Department;
attack and destroy Berlin or Paris or London without warn- but the Russians always failed to acknowledge the existence of the
ing? Would this threat alone “decouple” NATO Europe from the missile. When the Trump administration engaged with them, they
United States—i.e., would the United States ever be willing to acknowledged the missile, but said it was not a ground-launched
respond to such an attack on a NATO country by launching its intermediate-range system. However, we were able to prove not
intercontinental systems and bringing down a response strike on only to ourselves, but also to our allies, that the missile is indeed
U.S. territory? Would it not be more likely to let NATO go? in violation of the INF Treaty, and so all NATO allies and the U.S.
These are the debates that raged at NATO and among NATO allies in Asia joined the United States in calling the Russians out.
capitals during the late 1970s and early 1980s. They led to one of The United States determined Russia to be in material breach of
the most significant decisions ever taken at NATO—the dual-track the treaty, which means that Russia is violating the treaty in a way
decision to deploy intermediate-range ground-launched missiles that defeats its object and purpose.

My bottom line regarding this difficult decision is that the the use of unhampered national technical means of verification
United States had good reason to withdraw from the INF Treaty, (e.g., national satellites, radar), exchanges of data and telemetry
and it had the support of U.S. allies. A treaty that is being hol- information, notifications, and demonstrations and exhibitions,
lowed out from the inside is no longer in the U.S. national secu- which help when compliance problems arise. This is Ronald Rea-
rity interest, which must be the litmus test for any nuclear arms gan’s “trust but verify” adage in action.
control treaty. START, which entered into force in 1994, brought the number
of deployed warheads down from 12,000 to 6,000 on each side.
On Strategic Arms Reduction SORT, which entered into force in 2003 and was implemented
Finally, it is important to get some perspective on strategic arms while START continued in force, brought the numbers of
reduction—the first Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), deployed warheads down to approximately 2,200. New START,
the Moscow Treaty (the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty, or which entered into force in 2015, brought the numbers down to
SORT) and the New START Treaty. I worked on both START and 1,550 on each side. So there has been real strategic nuclear arms
New START, in 1990 and 1991 as a lowly State Department repre- reduction through this series of treaties.
sentative and in 2009 and 2010 as chief negotiator. The basic recipe Note, however, that these treaties focus on the elimination of
for the success of both treaties has been that both sides have used delivery vehicles (e.g., missiles) and launchers (e.g., submarine
them to reduce and eliminate strategic nuclear delivery vehicles tubes) because they can easily be seen by national technical
and launchers, and to take warheads out of deployment. We have means and counted as they are destroyed. Once the warheads
been certain of that because of the monitoring and verification are off the delivery vehicles they go into storage and so become
provisions of both treaties—the on-site inspections, yes, but also “non-deployed,” no longer counted under treaty limits. The holy

1972. We are now, as I described above, getting to the point when
The need of the hour is to we can begin to control and limit warheads, because we can imag-
reflect on what the long arc of ine how to inspect the process. We need to think through how we
our experience has taught us in would develop new warhead verification regimes.
Second, national technical means (NTM), the satellites
the nuclear arms control arena, and radars that are controlled by governments, have gained in
and think about better treaties sophistication and coverage over time. That they should not be
for the future. interfered with during treaty implementation is a well-accepted
principle of arms control practice. How NTM should be devel-
oped and used in future treaties is now ripe for consideration.
grail for future nuclear arms treaties is to figure out how to elimi- We should consider how the new tools on offer, such as the com-
nate warheads and verify that process, since neither the United mercial satellite networks, can be fitted into the processes and
States nor Russia so far has been willing to have foreign inspec- procedures that we have honed over 50 years of experience with
tors poke around in sensitive nuclear warhead facilities. nuclear arms limitation and reduction.
I do think we are now on the cusp of grasping that holy grail, Third, we understand now how to structure treaties to ensure
and I want to make a plea for continued innovation in the arms that they actually achieve limitations on and elimination of
control arena. We decided to innovate in the New START Treaty nuclear weapons systems—missiles, bombers, submarines. Our
by not pursuing the counting rule approach that had been used procedures for conversion or elimination of these systems are well
in START. We had determined those counting rules on the basis understood; we know what worked and what did not work in the
of the maximum number of warheads with which a given missile past. Can some of that experience be adjusted to the elimination of
had been tested. The heavy Russian SS-18 ICBMs, for example, nuclear warheads, or do we have to think completely outside the
were designated under the counting rule to carry 10 warheads box? Luckily, there has been a wealth of good work at our national
each. In New START we went beyond the counting rule approach laboratories and in the nongovernmental community on this topic.
to actually confirm the number of objects declared to be on the I am not at all pessimistic about this future, despite the
front end of a missile—both nuclear warheads and non-nuclear challenges it holds. Certain tensions, such as over the offense-
objects (e.g., missile defense decoys). We do this through on-site defense relationship, are not going to go away and will have to
inspections that are focused on the missile reentry vehicles— be dealt with. Likewise, when more countries, first of all China,
their front ends—where we actually determine which are objects become invited to the arms control table, the negotiations
that are non-nuclear. Therefore, we have a better picture of how become more complicated. To begin with, Beijing will have to be
many nuclear warheads the Russians are actually deploying. convinced that its interests are served by joining in the negotia-
This is the kind of innovation that will help us to begin to tions. Finally, the debate within the U.S. political system as to
reduce and eliminate nuclear warheads, and we need to con- whether or not arms control negotiations serve our national
tinue to develop these kinds of tools so that we can grasp this security interest will always be a factor.
holy grail in the not-too-distant future. It is precisely where the That calculation, in my view, must be made in every treaty
Trump administration wants to go in its efforts to seek limits on setting and throughout a treaty’s lifetime. When the Russians
nonstrategic nuclear warheads, which are usually held in stor- violated the INF Treaty to the point that it was being hollowed
age and not operationally deployed on a day-to-day basis. I am out, it was time for the United States to leave. While New START
convinced we can do it. provides us with predictability about the Russian strategic force
structure and prevents Moscow from building up its nuclear
The Way Ahead weapons, it is clearly in our interest to stay. We must be clear-
The need of the hour is to reflect on what the long arc of our eyed when nuclear arms control is serving us well, but not shy
experience has taught us in the nuclear arms control arena, and away from admitting when it fails us.
think about better treaties for the future. I will end where I began: Nuclear arms control is the only way
First, we have learned how to do verification better over time. that we can attain stable and predictable deployments of these
The on-site inspection regimes of today could not have been most fearsome weapons, and it is the only way that we can ensure
imagined when Nixon and Brezhnev signed the SALT I Treaty in we won’t be bankrupted by nuclear arms racing. n

Why Nuclear Arms

Control Matters Today
In this time of new strains in
great-power relations, nuclear
arms control agreements
are an essential component
of national security.
n BY THOMAS COUNTRYMAN
B
efore 2017, every U.S.
president dating back
to John F. Kennedy
proposed and pur-
sued negotiations with
Moscow as a means to
regulate destabilizing
nuclear arms competi-
tion and reduce the risk
of the United States and its allies being destroyed
in a nuclear war. With their diplomatic and mili-
tary advisers, they sought and concluded a series
of treaties, most with strong bipartisan support,
that have made the United States and the world
much safer, and reduced U.S. and Russian arse-
nals by 85 percent from Cold War peaks.
The current administration, however, is veer-
ing off course from the approach to nuclear risk
reduction and arms control pursued by previous
Republican and Democratic administrations.
Worse, President Donald Trump’s team has not
BRIAN HUBBLE
presented a coherent alternative road map to

reduce the threats posed by nuclear weapons.

while still allowing the freedom of action that is necessary to
The United States today has defend U.S. interests and those of our close allies. In other
no proposals on the table for words, arms control agreements are not a concession made by
new agreements that would the United States, nor a favor done for another nation; they are
an essential component of, and contributor to, our national
reduce the risk of nuclear war, security.
other than a vague and passive The history of the nuclear age also shows that the United
call for trilateral negotiations States, as the world’s first and most sophisticated nuclear weap-
with Beijing and Moscow. ons power, must play an active role as a global leader on nuclear
security matters, both bilaterally and multilaterally. Negotiating
to end the arms race, achieve reductions of nuclear stockpiles
and, eventually, eliminate all nuclear weapons is not only a
This departure from proven and effective nuclear risk reduc- moral obligation, but a legal obligation under Article VI of the
tion and arms control strategies is a matter of urgent concern, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons since its
because, among other things, we face a higher risk of a U.S.-Rus- approval by the U.S. Senate in 1969. These goals can and must be
sian nuclear war than at any time since the end of the Cold War. pursued, regardless of the ups and downs of great-power rela-
tions.
Proven Rules of the Road Most U.S. presidents have come to recognize that the pursuit
Previous U.S. presidents understood that talking to an adver- of these goals is not an option, but a priority. Mutual assured
sary is not a sign of weakness, but a hardheaded and realistic destruction is not a theory or a philosophy; it is a reality. Once
means to reduce an existential threat posed to the United States. the Soviet Union achieved reliable intercontinental ballistic
They came to realize that well-crafted arms control and nonpro- missiles in the 1960s, neither the United States nor Russia could
liferation treaties provide rules of the road that enable the United launch a nuclear attack on the other’s homeland without the
States to more effectively pursue its economic and security near-certain destruction of its own homeland.
interests.
As Thomas Schelling and Morton Halperin argued in their New Road, No Rules
seminal 1961 study, Strategy and Arms Control, nuclear weapons In a departure from this history, the Trump administration
limitation agreements with adversaries can help achieve three has abandoned U.S. leadership in the arms control field and
critical foreign policy objectives: “the avoidance of war that seems guided by a contrary set of assertions that have gained
neither side wants, minimizing the costs and risks of the arms salience on the hawkish side of the Republican party, namely:
competition, and curtailing the scope and violence of war in the • The United States should not discuss vital national security
event it occurs.” issues, or consider compromise, with adversaries such as
Throughout the nuclear age, U.S. policymakers—from Iran until they have fully met U.S. demands in all fields.
William Foster, Henry Kissinger, George Shultz and Brent • Arms control agreements grant unwarranted concessions to
Scowcroft to John Kerry and Rose Gottemoeller—have pursued opponents, and they constrain the United States’ freedom of
arms control agreements because they are a vital tool that can action. (This has been the guiding principle for John Bolton,
constrain other nations’ ability to act against our interests, former national security adviser and a serial assassin of
arms control agreements.)
Thomas Countryman is chairman of the Board of • Arms control agreements serve little value if they do not
Directors of the Arms Control Association. He served solve every problem between the parties. This all-or-nothing
as the acting under secretary of State for arms control approach is exemplified by the U.S. decision to withdraw
and international security from 2016 to 2017 and as from the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.
assistant secretary of State for international security •W e must be prepared and willing to wage, and prevail in,
and nonproliferation from 2011 to 2017. He retired from the U.S. a “limited” nuclear war, which can remain “limited.” This
Foreign Service with the rank of Minister Counselor in January 2017 mirrors an increased Russian interest in the same topic and
after serving for 35 years. is exemplified in the renewed U.S. program for construction

of nonstrategic (so-called “low-yield”) warheads and delivery
systems.
In both Moscow and Washington,
• The United States can achieve a numerical or technical military and strategic thinkers
advantage over our nuclear-armed adversaries by con- are again talking about the
stantly pursuing improvements and new nuclear weapons
capabilities. (The administration’s 2018 Nuclear Posture
plausibility of “limited
Review makes several references to the U.S. “technical nuclear war.”
edge,” which is of little relevance in an all-out nuclear
conflict.)
Sadly, no U.S. official today is allowed to repeat the obvious treaty and options for bringing Russia back into compliance,
fact that motivated President Ronald Reagan and General Secre- none of which were perfect. But the United States’ exit from INF,
tary Mikhail Gorbachev to jointly declare in November 1985: “A even if justified by Russia’s violation, was not the only possible
nuclear war can never be won and must never be fought.” (The course of action, nor even a smart thing to do.
White House is reportedly concerned that repeating this declara- Ford may be right, as he argued in his speech, that the cred-
tion would send the wrong message to Pyongyang.) ibility of agreements requires a readiness to abandon agree-
ments that are being violated. But that does not explain the
Ignoring Core Arguments Trump administration’s violation of the 2015 Joint Comprehen-
In a Feb. 11 speech in London originally titled “The Psycho- sive Program of Action, with which Iran was in compliance, or
politics of Arms Control,” Assistant Secretary of State for Inter- its reluctance to extend the 2010 New Strategic Arms Reduction
national Security and Nonproliferation Chris Ford laid out the Treaty (New START), which both Russia and the United States
administration’s critique of arms control advocates. In seeking to are implementing in full, but which is due to expire in less than a
take down several straw-man arguments, which he termed the year unless extended by mutual agreement.
“pathologies” of those who advocate for “outdated” approaches
to arms control, Ford attributed to unnamed advocates words A Dangerous Void
they never said, while ignoring their core arguments. He falsely Ford’s claim that the United States is pursuing new forms of
accused arms control practitioners, presumably going back arms control has the same credibility as most White House pro-
through the decades, of being unconcerned about national and nouncements these days. What is most embarrassing for those of
international security and of using support for arms reduction us who took pride in seven decades of America’s global leader-
as “absolutist performative moralism,” “ideological identity poli- ship in arms control, always setting the global security and risk
tics” and a means of “virtue signaling.” reduction agenda, is that the United States today has no propos-
Such accusations do great disservice to the many dedicated als on the table for new agreements that would reduce the risk
national security professionals who work in this field, both of nuclear war, other than a vague and passive call for trilateral
inside and outside government. There is a genuine disagreement negotiations with Beijing and Moscow on nuclear arms control.
whether, as Ford argued in the same speech, a favorable interna- Worse, a year after floating the idea, the administration has not
tional security environment is a precondition for disarmament even bothered to sketch out any possible incentive for China
or, instead (as I believe history demonstrates), disarmament (whose nuclear arsenal is one-twentieth the size of the Russian
helps to foster international security. But Ford is wrong to say and U.S. arsenals) to join in such a negotiation.
that those who may be critical of this administration’s approach At the same time, President Trump implausibly pledges to
on nuclear weapons policy matters are blind to the actual secu- make the United States “invulnerable to missile attack,” and his
rity conditions that shape our foreign policy and arms control officials have refused to engage in negotiations on the topic of
goals. ballistic missile defense, the U.S. program that stokes Russian
Ford also erroneously charged that the arms control com- paranoia and that Vladimir Putin uses to justify his own pursuit
munity ignored Russia’s violation of the 1987 Intermediate- of new and more dangerous weapons systems.
Range Nuclear Forces Treaty and suggested there should be In both Moscow and Washington, military and strategic
no response other than the United States remaining in the INF thinkers are again talking about the plausibility of “limited
Treaty. There were alternatives to the United States leaving the nuclear war” and are building the delivery systems and

both Democrats and Republicans as much as an extension of
In the longer term, it is important New START. This could also kick-start a more intensive U.S.-
to rebuild the capacity of Russian strategic stability dialogue, one that thoroughly explores
our diplomatic and military the legitimate security concerns of both sides, with no topics
excluded. (The three sessions of this dialogue held since 2017
community to deal with these have been brief, desultory encounters and have apparently
issues in a hardheaded way. not even agreed on an agenda for future work.) A New START
extension would do far more than the administration’s current
rhetoric in making it possible to advance the praiseworthy goals
warheads that make first use of nuclear weapons (by either side) the president has advocated but done nothing to move forward:
more credible and thus more likely. There are more potential addressing both new strategic weapons and nonstrategic nuclear
flash points between NATO and Russian forces in Europe—and weapons, and bringing China more fully into the nuclear risk
more provocative Russian behavior—that could cause an acci- reduction process.
dent to escalate into an incident that becomes a conventional Beyond that, the Department of State has initiated a mul-
war that escalates to a nuclear war. ticountry dialogue on “Creating the Environment for Nuclear
In an environment of aggressive cyber warfare by powers Disarmament” (CEND). This is a dialogue worth having, even
large and small, there is also a higher risk of a false alarm trigger- if it is only a less-formal talk shop than the Geneva-based U.N.
ing a nuclear response, an outcome we escaped with minutes to Conference on Disarmament, which is an organization that
spare at several points during the Cold War. And in surveying the makes your local Department of Motor Vehicles office seem
personality and politics of the nine men who have their fingers dynamic. But the United States also has to address the skepti-
on nuclear buttons, there is good reason to be concerned that cism of most CEND participants that this is intended as a means
any of them might put their personal ambitions ahead of the to lessen international pressure for progress on nuclear arms
planet’s security. control action while the United States modernizes and expands
So what do we do? its nuclear arsenal. Washington must also be willing to listen to
its allies, who unanimously support New START extension, and
Urgent Tasks most of whom believe it is possible to respond to the demise of
The most urgent task is renewal of the New START agreement the INF Treaty by means other than reprising the Euromissile
before it expires on Feb. 5, 2021. This does not require a return to crisis of the 1980s.
the treaty graveyard of the U.S. Senate, but only the signature of In the longer term, it is important to rebuild the capacity of
two presidents, which Putin has declared he is ready for without our diplomatic and military community to deal with these issues
conditions. If no action is taken, we will have no numerical lim- in a hardheaded way. With no genuine arms control negotiations
its on U.S. and Russian deployed nuclear weapons for the first for nearly 10 years, since conclusion of the New START treaty
time in 50 years. We will also lose the notification and inspection in 2010, we have few experts who have actually dealt with the
provisions that give us insight into Russia’s nuclear capabilities. Russians, particularly in the deliberately emaciated Department
And we will touch off—gradually at first, and then rapidly— of State. Beyond the next round of negotiations, it is important
an open-ended nuclear arms race that will exceed in risk and that the U.S. educational system (with the support of the govern-
expense what we experienced during the Cold War. It would be ment) produce a new generation of experts in nuclear, Russian
a race without winners, and unaffordable, as it would greatly and Chinese affairs.
increase the $1.7 trillion already scheduled to be spent on Discarding a 60-year history of agreements that have
rebuilding and expanding the U.S. nuclear arsenal over the next improved America’s national security, saved us trillions of
30 years. (By the way, the president’s budget proposal for Fiscal dollars, made it possible to invest in more effective means of
Year 2021 allocates more money to the nuclear weapons enter- defense and reduced a literally existential risk to the human race
prise than to the entire diplomacy and development budget.) is a dangerous act of deliberate ideological blindness. In the
In an election year, it is to be hoped that the president will current environment of great-power competition, there will have
recognize that there is no other foreign policy step he can take to be new approaches to arms control. They will not be found by
(particularly regarding Russia) that would be welcomed by rebranding “re-armament” as “arms control.” n

Restoring Nuclear
Diplomacy
Urgent action is needed to
put the lid on a new and
costly global arms race.
n BY JOSEPH CIRINCIONE
T
he Cold War is over,
but the weapons
remain. After decades
of progress in reducing
nuclear arsenals and
nuclear threats, the
global nuclear security
enterprise is close to
collapse. Urgent action
is needed to save it, including building support
for nuclear restraint among both government
officials and the American public.
The threat is clear: a new arms race has begun.
Each of the nine nuclear-armed nations is build-
ing new weapons. Some are replacing older
weapons with new generations of missiles, bomb-
ers, submarines and warheads. Several (India,
Pakistan, China and North Korea) are increasing
their stockpiles. Some (the United States, Russia
BRIAN HUBBLE
and China) are developing new types of attack

systems, including “more usable” weapons.

Saving the Regime
The collapse of disarmament The collapse of disarmament efforts has provoked strong
efforts has provoked strong international reaction. Many non-nuclear nations have issued
international reaction. pleas for the few nuclear-armed states to reconsider their pro-
grams and strategies. Other, more assertive actions include the
construction of an alternative nuclear security architecture, one
organized around a global ban on nuclear weapons, similar to
All nuclear reductions have stopped. Nor are there any new the international bans on biological and chemical weapons and
negotiations for future reduction agreements. At best, we have landmines.
vague talks about talks, or discussions of what conditions might On July 7, 2017, 122 nations voted at the United Nations to
be required before any nation could even consider reducing approve a Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Popu-
their nuclear stockpiles. larly known as the Ban Treaty, this agreement has since been
Worse, the security architecture constructed by many ratified by 35 nations as of the end of February. When it enjoys
nations—and in the United States by both Republicans and ratification by 50 nations, likely before or in 2021, the agreement
Democrats—is being systematically destroyed. The United will become international law.
States and Russia have abandoned the 1987 Intermediate-Range The treaty is controversial. None of the nuclear-armed states
Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) negotiated by President Ronald have signed it, and several have come out in strong opposition.
Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev—the Some arms control advocates fear that it would undermine the
treaty that began three decades of disarmament that reduced bargain struck 50 years ago by the Treaty on the Non-Prolifera-
the global supply of nuclear weapons from more than 66,000 to tion of Nuclear Weapons (NPT): namely, that those with nuclear
under 13,500 today. weapons would negotiate reductions, and those without these
The last remaining reduction treaty, the 2010 New START weapons would promise never to build them.
agreement negotiated by Presidents Barack Obama and Dmitry In truth, we need both the vision and practical next steps.
Medvedev, will expire in February 2021. The Trump administra- When the “Ban Treaty” enters into force, it will provide a noble
tion shows little interest in extending the accord. If New START goal, but not all the steps for achieving that goal. More will be
dies, nuclear arsenals will be unconstrained for the first time in needed to restore nuclear diplomacy.
50 years.
The First Step
It is still possible that President Donald J. Trump could bring
Joseph Cirincione is president of Ploughshares Fund, America back to the business of reducing the nuclear threat,
a foundation dedicated to eliminating the threat even though he ended reductions and led the U.S. withdrawal
of nuclear weapons, and the author of Nuclear from the INF Treaty and the nuclear accord with Iran. After all,
Nightmares: Securing the World Before It Is Too Ronald Reagan turned from the massive nuclear buildup of his
Late (2013), Bomb Scare: The History and Future of first term to a second term where his INF Treaty broke the back
Nuclear Weapons (2007) and Deadly Arsenals: Nuclear, Biological of the nuclear arms race and began the 30 years of reductions
and Chemical Threats (2005). we have enjoyed until the present moment.
He has worked on nuclear weapons policy in Washington for President Trump will have a chance to execute such a shift
more than 35 years, serving previously as vice president for national when the five permanent members of the United Nations
security at the Center for American Progress, director for nonpro- Security Council meet at the United Nations in September in
liferation at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and a meeting convened by Russia and announced at the end of
senior associate at the Stimson Center. February. This meeting could allow the administration to claim
He also worked for nine years as professional staff on the U.S. progress in involving China in reduction talks and, thus, finally
House of Representatives Armed Services and Government Opera- agree to extending the New START Treaty. Trump officials have
tions Committees. He is a member of the Council on Foreign Rela- maintained that the existing treaty is so flawed that it is only
tions. He also teaches at Georgetown University’s Walsh School of worth extending if China becomes a party to the pact and it is
Foreign Service. extended to including nonstrategic weapons, as well. Although

the administration has not done much to advance either of
these goals (perhaps because they are not practically achiev-
able), the September meeting could combine with domestic
political pressures to convince Trump to extend the treaty.
That would be a critical and popular first step.
The treaty enjoys the support of U.S. military leadership
because it limits Russian strategic nuclear forces and ensures
compliance through robust inspections. General John Hyten,
then commander of the U.S. Strategic Command, testified to
Congress in March 2017 that he was “a big supporter” of the
New START Treaty, and that “bilateral, verifiable arms control
agreements are essential” in providing an effective deterrence
structure. Admiral Charles Richards, who now leads the Stra-
tegic Command, testified on Feb. 27 that he, too, supports the
treaty.
Global leaders would welcome the move. “Russia has indi-
cated, at the highest levels, its willingness to do so,” explained
former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and former
Russian Foreign Minister Igor Ivanov in a rare joint New York
Times op-ed. “The United States and Russia can avoid a sense-
less and dangerous return to nuclear brinksmanship if they
act soon. There is no reason to wait, and extending the treaty,
known as New START, is the place to begin.” They were sup-
ported by a concurrent joint statement from 29 former foreign
ministers who warned of a “rapidly deteriorating nuclear land-
scape and the increasing possibility of nuclear weapons being
used either deliberately or through an unintended escalation.”
Stopping the Arms Race

The second step, either by Trump or the next U.S. president,
is more difficult, though no less important: We must contain the
massive new nuclear weapons programs now underway before
they lock in another 40 years of nuclear brinksmanship. In the
United States, these programs are the legacy of the Obama
administration, which agreed to an $88 billion “nuclear mod-
ernization” program to secure Republican backing of the New
START Treaty in 2010.
There was then, and remains still, bipartisan support for the
reasonable updating of older weapons and infrastructure. Presi-
dent Obama himself articulated this point when he declared in
Prague in 2009 that “as long as these weapons exist, the United
States will maintain a safe, secure and effective arsenal.”
However, there is no bipartisan consensus for an indefinite
arms race. It was assumed that reasonable modernization
programs would go hand-in-hand with continued arms control.
Obama and Medvedev saw New START as a quick fix to preserve

On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New
Nuclear diplomacy cannot York City’s Central Park, protesting the Cold War arms race. It
be restored by traditional was the largest political demonstration in American history;
means alone. There must be and, coupled with a nuclear freeze movement, it challenged the
U.S. and Soviet leadership to reverse their nuclear buildups.
a nonpartisan counter to the Although President Reagan resisted the anti-nuclear move-
allure of defense contracts. ment fiercely—at one time claiming it was the work of “foreign
agents”—he soon understood that the political ground had
shifted. It may have also allowed him to get in touch with his
own deeply held feelings about abolishing nuclear weapons. He
verification mechanisms and implement some small reductions began declaring publicly that “a nuclear war cannot be won and
while they negotiated a new treaty for truly deep cuts in the must never be fought,” and pressed his Cabinet to find diplo-
arsenals. Thus, steady reductions would allow them to maintain matic openings with Moscow.
nuclear forces at safer and less expensive levels than before. “If things get hotter and hotter, and arms control remains
That bargain has been broken. A combination of Republican an issue,” Reagan told his secretary of State, George Shultz, in
political opposition, Russian recalcitrance and stiff resistance late 1983, “maybe I should go see [Soviet leader Yuri] Andropov
from inside the nuclear-industrial complex blocked further cuts. and propose eliminating all nuclear weapons.” Two years later,
Arms control stopped, yet the contracts continued. he found a partner in Mikhail Gorbachev and by the end of the
“Experts are suddenly talking less about the means for decade had powerfully reversed the nuclear arms race.
deterring nuclear conflict than about developing weapons that We cannot expect to replicate the 20th-century nuclear
could be used for offensive purposes,” warn Albright and Ivanov. freeze movement. Instead, the challenge will be to fold this
“Some have even embraced the folly that a nuclear war can be issue into the new, vibrant mass movements of the current era.
won.” The Russian deployment of shorter-range nuclear-capable It may be possible for arms control and disarmament advocates
missiles in Europe and U.S. deployment on strategic submarines to partner with movements on climate action or health care,
of new “low-yield” nuclear warheads are cases in point. for example. These social changes will need massive govern-
The resources devoted to this new nuclear buildup are ment funding for new programs. The nuclear budget is one
staggering. Nuclear-armed states will spend more than major source for those funds. And, as important as these other
$1 trillion this decade on nuclear weapons. The United States causes are, they cannot achieve their goals if nuclear catas-
will spend the most, more than all the other nations combined. trophe occurs. If these movements can connect and reinforce
The Trump administration’s budget for Fiscal Year 2021 allo- each other, awareness of how the issues intersect will grow, and
cates more than $50 billion for new weapons, more than at any Washington may again be convinced that effective diplomacy
time since the end of the Cold War. This is a small part of the will pay domestic political dividends.
$2 trillion these weapons will cost American taxpayers over It may be that the COVID-19 pandemic will reorient national
the next 25 years. priorities, alerting us to the danger of ignoring growing cata-
If these programs are not reined in soon, they may become strophic threats. There may be a new opening to restore nuclear
unstoppable. Once contractors start “bending metal,” as my col- diplomacy, to think anew and to offer clear, practical steps to
league William Hartung said recently, these programs become prevent the worst from happening—before it is too late. n
much harder to cancel. Defense contractors spread production
across the country, creating political support for programs in
the Pentagon and Congress.
Reorienting National Priorities

That is why the third step may be the most consequential.
Nuclear diplomacy cannot be restored by traditional means
alone. There must be a nonpartisan counter to the allure of
defense contracts.

Arms Control Diplomacy

From the FSJ Archive
The Man Who Made Arms Control The Prevention of Nuclear War
‘Respectable’: An Interview with in a World of Uncertainty
William G. Foster Let us admit that we are dealing in this
William G. Foster was named in 1961 by Presi- field with arguments based on only plausi-
dent Kennedy to be the first Director of what is bility, not experience. Many of these argu-
still the world’s only governmental agency of ments can be constructed just as convinc-
its kind, the U.S. Arms Control and Disarma- ingly in their logical opposites. And since
ment Agency. … In this interview by a member nuclear policy cannot possibly be based on
of his former staff in ACDA, Ambassador Foster takes a wide-ranging actual experience—let us hope and pray it never can—it tends to
look at the past, the present, and the future of arms control. feed on itself. It gets no feedback from the real world, no empiri-
… As it turned out, the business of arms control not only cal evidence of the incontrovertible kind that buttresses the
became respected, but respectable as well, thanks to the fore- physical and even the social sciences.
sight and the courage of President John F. Kennedy. Mr. Ken- In this sense we are a ship sailing through the night guided
nedy was not only deeply interested in the subject but was an only by the light at the prow. Because nuclear strategy cannot
enthusiastic supporter of the idea. With this kind of backing offer positive proof, I think it is more like a theology than a sci-
we managed to put together a team of practical men who were ence. Hence, we run the risk that our “theologies,” ours and the
surely anything but dreamers. Russians’, may not be in harmony. Sudden incompatibilities can
Pretty soon, what had seemed to most people to be a sort of develop in military thinking and could lead to catastrophe.
pastime began to attract the very real interest of the Department All the more reason, then, for us to keep our minds open and
of Defense, the Atomic Energy Commission, and of course that of not plan the future by listening only to the echo of our old ideas.
our landlord, the State Department. Some of the brightest minds —Fred Ikle, May 1974
in the fields of foreign affairs, defense, and science joined us.
But most important of all, we had a law—the Arms Control and The Essence of the Debate
Disarmament Act of 1961—to help us get things done. And we over SALT II
had some difficult work to do, not only externally but I might say One of the most striking gaps in the analy-
internally as well. … sis of those opposed to the [SALT II] treaty
Now, people say the Soviets never live up to their agreements. is any really systematic discussion of how
But if you get agreements down in black and white, and if you the United States will in fact be better off if
have complete understanding of the nature of the problem and the treaty is rejected. Even if one accepts,
the method of dealing with it, mutuality of interest in preserving for the sake of argument, that a tougher
such agreements becomes almost automatic. bargain might have been struck with the Russians—a generally
It has been my experience that where you do have that kind dubious proposition in itself—simply rejecting SALT as “inade-
of understanding and have it directly committed, agreements quate,” or attaching major substantive amendments to the treaty
do stand up. This has been true of the Antarctic Treaty, it is true that Moscow is bound to reject, would be virtually irrelevant to
of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, and it is true of the Outer Space the “redressing” of the Soviet-American nuclear balance. The
Treaty. You must remember also, of course, that U.S. arms con- issue more specifically is how, without SALT II, that nuclear bal-
trol policy requires that there be means for adequately verifying ance will be more advantageous to us by the end of 1985 when
compliance with agreements. SALT II is scheduled to expire.
—Nicholas Ruggieri, February 1971 —Stephen Garrett, October 1979

Restarting START come up with a realistic defense. And perhaps the most danger-
Contrary to [President Ronald] Reagan’s ously unrealistic thing it can do is to concoct new conventional
assertions, more nuclear weapons are panaceas to calm down the increasing political discontent over
not needed to serve as bargaining chips an alliance that now seems headed for oblivion. If the West seri-
in START. More weapons would make ously wishes to defend itself, it will have to resolve its nuclear
it harder, not easier, to achieve mutual dilemma rather than displaying new conventional looks that
reductions. Soviet leader Yuri Andropov’s ignore nuclear realities.
call for renewal of detente in his hard-line —Sam Cohen (inventor of the neutron bomb), September 1983
speech immediately following Leonid Brezhnev’s death made it
clear that the Soviet Union would respond to a U.S. arms build- ACDA’s Impact on Arms Control
up with a build-up of its own. Thus, the funding and deployment and Its Role in the Future
of more American weapon systems, such as the MX, Trident II, Kenneth L. Adelman: The success of
or ground- and sea-launched cruise missiles, will result in more arms control itself depends on the main-
Soviet arms. And, in an ever-spiraling process, more Soviet arms tenance of American strength. Twenty-
will in turn result in more U.S. arms. five years after the founding of ACDA [the
Today, the United States already has thousands of nuclear Arms Control and Disarmament Agency],
weapons it could trade away without jeopardizing its security. arms control is a far larger and more
And both sides could gain some bargaining leverage from the complicated enterprise than it was in those early years, and in
new and more deadly weapons still under development—a some ways a more difficult one. … But 25 years after ACDA’s
Soviet mobile ICBM, for example, or a U.S. sea-launched cruise start, the effort to achieve a real reduction in the nuclear dan-
missile—providing that leverage is used in negotiations before ger has really just begun, and all of us are conscious that we
the weapons are deployed. It is only then that the U.S. or Soviet have a long way to go.
negotiator could offer to delay or cancel deployment or outline George M. Seignious: To prosper in the bureaucratic fray and
what conditions would lead to deployment. to keep the support of its constituency behind it, ACDA must seek
The issue of nuclear weapons is at the center of the U.S.-Soviet to maintain momentum in the search for realistic arms-control
relationship, and an agreement resulting in substantial reductions solutions while protecting its flanks against charges that it is “soft.”
would have far reaching political effects. The Reagan administra- In a similar vein, ACDA, in cooperation with other parts of
tion should therefore introduce a new proposal on START. government, should devote even greater effort to improving
—David Linebaugh and Alexander Peters, January 1983 our verification capabilities. Greater confidence in compliance
will strengthen ACDA’s constituency and increase the viability
Accepting Nuclear Weapons of the arms-control process. In this regard, we should not only
Is there any reason to believe that the Sovi- pursue aggressively refinements in our national means of veri-
ets would not capitalize on the enormous fication but also put the Soviets to the test on their new-found
military advantage that goes with first interest in on-site inspection.
nuclear use?… —Comments from ACDA directors, September 1986
NATO’S central military problem is that
it has opted out of the Nuclear Age, while Lowering the Nuclear Threshold:
the Soviets have unhesitatingly accepted it. The Specter of North Korea
Neither Americans nor Europeans have been willing to contem- If the United States and other concerned
plate nuclear weapons seriously as warfighting instruments. The governments conclude that North Korea
Soviets always have. This fundamental doctrinal disparity has is attempting to evade its commitments
placed the alliance in an untenable position regarding realisti- under the NPT or its pledges to South Korea
cally defending itself. The West’s dilemma is that it will have to not to acquire either nuclear weapons or
change its views and accept nuclear weapons to survive, but it reprocessing facilities, a decision will con-
believes it cannot survive by accepting them. front the world community more daunting by far than last year’s
So long as this quandary persists, there is no way for NATO to decision to drive Iraq out of Kuwait. For to employ conventional

air strikes to preempt North Korean nuclear facilities—assuming Yet each American president decided against preventive war.
most are known—will risk triggering another full-blown Korean Diplomacy, and time, eventually became the preferred tools
War, one potentially far more destructive than in the early 1950s, of Washington policymakers from both parties in the effort to
when 4 million soldiers and civilians lost their lives. control proliferation.
Some military experts believe high-tech conventional —James Goodby, July-August 2007 Focus
weapons, rushed to the scene, would be sufficient to turn back
an armored assault. But if South Korea appeared in danger A Nuclear Reductions Primer
of being overrun, would the United States resort to tactical The significance of the START Follow-
nuclear weapons? That is hardly the vision of a New World on Treaty extends beyond the bilateral
Order that President [George H.W.] Bush had in mind in the military relationship between the United
afterglow of Desert Storm. But that is a real-world specter, States and Russia. The deep reductions
which must be confronted and thought through. that it envisions and the concomi-
—William Beecher, June 1992 tant commitment to seek even deeper
reductions in the future also respond to
Almost a Success Story international calls for demonstrated progress toward nuclear
The transition from authoritarian to disarmament. That achievement is expected to enable the
democratic structures, while having an United States to lobby the international community more
important positive political impact, also credibly and effectively to strengthen nonproliferation norms
has entailed a deterioration of control over and hold violators of those norms accountable.
nuclear material. … Reflecting on a half —Sally K. Horn, December 2009 Focus
century of living with nuclear weapons,
it is remarkable that despite the broad What the Iran Nuclear Deal
access to nuclear technology, there exist today only five Says about Making
declared nuclear weapon states, three nuclear-capable states Foreign Policy Today
and a few others whose nuclear intentions remain uncertain. Whether driven by ideology, money or
Much of this can be explained by existence of a nuclear non- both, the debate over the Iran nuclear
proliferation regime anchored on the NPT, leading states to issue marked a new low in relations
conclude that their security interests are best served by abjur- between the Republican majorities in
ing nuclear weapons. Congress and the Obama administration.
—Lawrence Scheinman, February 1998 It also prompted a remarkable, perhaps unprecedented, level
of involvement by groups outside of government. Think-tanks,
Needed: A New Nuclear Contract political advocacy organizations, pro-Israel and religious
From the beginning of the nuclear era, groups, nonprofit associations, veterans’ groups, media
the U.S. government recognized that outlets, arms control organizations and others weighed in
in the arena of nuclear weapons, it has on both sides of the debate. It was a foreign affairs food fight,
no permanent friends, only permanent with positions both for and against the agreement argued with
interests. The United States opposed both great passion and intensity.
British and French acquisition of nuclear —Dennis Jett, October 2017 n
weapons. Eisenhower had to deal with the
seductive logic of preventive war because it was clear that the
Soviet Union, when it reached “atomic plenty,” would be able
to inflict massive damage on the United States. Launching an
attack on Chinese nuclear facilities, possibly in cahoots with
the Soviet Union, was seriously discussed during the Kennedy
and Johnson administrations. The Clinton administration
gave thought to an attack on North Korean nuclear facilities.

FEATURE
The Foreign Service

Honor Roll U.S. diplomats are on the front lines of America’s engagement
with the world. Here is the history of AFSA’s work to pay tribute
to the many who sacrificed their lives in the line of duty.
BY JOHN K. NALAND
B
ehind each of the 250 names inscribed In January 1929, members of the young organization read
on the AFSA Memorial Plaques in in the American Foreign Service Journal (as this magazine was
the Department of State’s diplomatic named until 1951) that the AFSA Executive Committee (the
entrance is the story of a colleague who governing board of the day) had received a proposal to create
made the ultimate sacrifice for our an honor roll to be displayed at the Department of State. This
nation. This article does not recount would memorialize all American consular and diplomatic offi-
those heroic, tragic or other inspira- cers who had died under tragic or heroic circumstances since
tional stories; rather, it tells the story of the founding of the republic. The proponent, whose name was
the plaques themselves—their origin not given, listed 17 names for inscription. The Executive Com-
nearly a century ago, and the controversies in succeeding mittee did not explicitly endorse the proposal, but did invite
decades about who should be honored on them. members to suggest additions or corrections.
Letters came rolling in, and four months later the Journal
Origins published 29 more names. It also issued an invitation for
The U.S. Foreign Service was created on July 1, 1924, when additional submissions, and in February 1932 published an
the Rogers Act of May 24, 1924, took effect, merging the previ- updated and consolidated list containing 53 names.
ously separate consular and diplomatic services. AFSA was Meanwhile, the Executive Committee took until March 1930
founded one month later when the six-year-old American to appoint a committee to move forward on what they called
Consular Association disbanded, and its members joined with the Memorial Tablet project. Its members were Journal Editor
their diplomatic colleagues to form AFSA. Augustus E. Ingram, Foreign Service Officer Pierre de Lagarde
Boal and retired Consul General Horace Lee Washington.
John K. Naland, a retired FSO, is in his second Completion took another three years. First, AFSA had
term as AFSA retiree vice president and is a to obtain approval from Secretary of State Henry L. Stim-
member of the Awards and Plaques Committee. son. Then Congress had to pass a joint resolution, signed
He has also served as AFSA president (two terms) by President Herbert Hoover, authorizing placement of the
and AFSA State vice president. AFSA-owned memorial on government property. Next, AFSA

had to raise donations to cover the $1,738.89 construction cost
(around $34,000 in today’s dollars). Finally, after noted archi-
tect Waddy B. Wood designed a tablet of Virginia greenstone
mounted in a framework of white Alabama marble, the U.S.
Commission on Fine Arts approved the design.
As work progressed, the Executive Committee grappled
with a question that would arise again and again: Whom,
exactly, should the tablet honor? The committee discarded a
proposal to honor all diplomatic and consular officers dying
abroad, which would have included those whose deaths (such
as by heart attack or during a pandemic like the 1918-1920
Spanish flu) were not due to the distinctive risks of overseas
service. Instead, the committee settled on honoring those dip-
lomatic and consular officers who died on active duty overseas
“under heroic or tragic circumstances.”
That standard was vague, but the U.S. House of Representa-
tives report that recommended placing the memorial on gov-
ernment property explained that it would honor those dying in
natural disasters, from tropical diseases, during official travel
AFSA/FSJ SUPPLEMENT NOVEMBER 1936
and due to violence. Those criteria are apparent in the first

65 names inscribed on the plaque. Forty-two died of conta-
gious diseases encountered overseas, such as yellow fever and
malaria. Seven were lost at sea traveling to or from their post
of assignment (the first listed name, William Palfrey, elected
by the Continental Congress as consul in France, died in 1780,
lost at sea en route to his post). Six died in natural disasters, The AFSA Memorial Tablet was unveiled on March 3, 1933,
such as earthquakes and hurricanes at post. Four died while with Secretary of State Henry Stimson presiding. This photo
of the tablet appeared in the November 1936 photographic
attempting to save a life. Three were murdered—in Bogotá, in supplement of the American Foreign Service Journal.
Tehran and in Andixcole (now Andasibe), Madagascar—while
two died of “exhaustion.” Another, Joel Barlow, was caught up
in the maelstrom of Napoleon’s 1812 retreat from Moscow, Service—the successors of the men whose names are recorded
and died of pneumonia in the bitter cold of a Polish winter. here—of that same spirit of devotion and sacrifice which those
The Memorial Tablet’s unveiling took place on March 3, men evidenced.”
1933, in the north entrance of the State, War and Navy Build- Before the ceremony ended with a Navy bugler sounding
ing (known today as the Eisenhower Executive Office Building) “Taps,” Secretary Stimson noted that there were undoubtedly
next to the White House. Secretary Stimson, who had donated other American diplomats and consular officers who had died
the American flags and their brass bases that flanked the tablet, in the performance of their duties in distant lands. But the
presided as 10 senators and congressmen looked on. facts of their deaths “have not survived the thickening veil of
The tablet, said the Secretary, “should serve as a means of time.” Indeed, later research has revealed many more such
bringing home to the people of this country the fact that we cases (see sidebar, p. 46).
have a Service in our Government devoted to peaceful inter-
course between the nations and the assistance of our peaceful Second Thoughts
commerce which, nevertheless, may occasionally exact from As the 1930s progressed, new AFSA leaders interpreted
its servants a sacrifice the same as that which we expect from the criteria for inscription differently. In 1938, the Executive
our soldiers and our sailors.” The memorial’s second pur- Committee declined to add the name of a vice consul who
pose, he said, is to “serve in the development in our present had died of malaria in Colombia. In August of that year,

Parting the “Veil of Time” As work progressed, the
–Historical Names– Executive Committee grappled
with a question that would arise
In 2007, Jason Vorderstrasse was an entry-level FSO
serving in Hong Kong. When a colleague mentioned again and again: Whom, exactly,
visiting a local cemetery where he had seen the grave should the tablet honor?
of a U.S. diplomat whose name was not inscribed
on the AFSA Memorial Plaques, Vorderstrasse was
intrigued. He visited the cemetery, found the grave-
stone and conducted internet and archival research
In 1946 the Executive Committee sought advice from
that established that Consul F. Russell Engdahl had
AFSA’s membership on two proposed changes to the crite-
died in 1942 while a prisoner of the Japanese military.
Additional research identified two U.S. envoys who had ria. The first would expand eligibility beyond Foreign Service
died of disease in Macau in 1844. Vorderstrasse nomi- officers to include Foreign Service staff members (today’s
nated all three for inscription on the plaques. Their Foreign Service specialists). This was prompted by passage of
names were added on Foreign Service Day 2009. the Foreign Service Act of 1946, which accorded Americans
Vorderstrasse continued his research. In a March working overseas in clerical and administrative positions full
2014 Journal essay, he reported documenting an professional status as members of the U.S. Foreign Service.
additional 32 names of earlier diplomats and consular The second would explicitly exclude those who died abroad of
officers who died overseas due to tropical diseases, tropical diseases (with exceptions in extraordinary cases) or of
violence or accidents while in official transit.
other causes that did not constitute “peculiarly heroic circum-
By December 2019, the number of names Vorder-
stances in the performance of acts abroad beyond and above
strasse documented had risen to 39, with nine addi-
the accepted high standard of duty in the Foreign Service.”
tional historical names documented by other AFSA
AFSA’s annual general meeting in 1948 “revealed consider-
members. The AFSA Governing Board voted to add
those 48 names “if and when funding is available” to able divergence of opinion,” the July 1948 American Foreign
install and inscribe additional marble plaques. For now, Service Journal reported, but adopted the two changes. In a
the names are memorialized on a virtual plaque on the 1949 report to members, AFSA noted that it had approved the
AFSA website at afsa.org/memorial-plaques. inscription of only one of 15 names of Foreign Service mem-
—J.K.N. bers who had died abroad under tragic circumstances since
1942. After the State Department moved to new headquarters
at 21st Street and Virginia Avenue NW in 1947, the plaque fol-
the Journal printed a full-page statement from Secretary of State lowed in 1954. Only six additional names had been inscribed
Cordell Hull, who appeared to criticize that decision. Taking since 1933. One was the first Foreign Service specialist on the
note of the tablet as “an appropriate and impressive reminder of plaque: Robert Lee Mikels, who died trying to save colleagues
what the work of the Service involves,” Hull said that the consul’s during a fire at Embassy Pusan in 1951. In 1961 the plaque
death “in the performance of his duties as a member of the For- was moved to its current location in the west end of the C
eign Service ... deserves more notice than it has received.” Street lobby when the New State Extension completed today’s
Despite the Secretary’s appeal and the original congressional Harry S Truman Building. Open space remained for additional
intent in authorizing the memorial, AFSA Executive Committees inscriptions.
in the late 1930s and early 1940s continued to reject candidates The names of 39 colleagues killed in Vietnam, Laos and
for inscription who died from tropical diseases and during Cambodia between 1965 and 1975 filled that open space, but
official travel. They added only two names (one murdered and only after a mysterious delay. Even as the death toll mounted
the other killed in an earthquake), reasoning that honoring those in Southeast Asia, no inscriptions were made between 1963
whose deaths were not “peculiarly” heroic or tragic “might tend and 1972. “The extended delay,” as the late David T. Jones
to diminish the profound significance” of the memorial. During recalled in the October 1999 FSJ, “engendered suspicions
the 1940s AFSA began using the term “Memorial Plaque.” among FSOs that the department was attempting to con-

ceal the extent of its losses from a rank and file (and a larger
public) increasingly skeptical of the purpose and value of the
The new plaque responded to
war effort.” It is also true, however, that AFSA had had to go the scourge of war, but it was the
through the steps required to erect a second plaque to hold all scourge of terror that filled it.
the names.
AFSA put up the second plaque in 1972 at the east end of
the C Street lobby, and took that opportunity to revise the cri-
teria to require “heroic or other inspirational circumstances” Changing Criteria
in place of “heroic or tragic circumstances.” The exchange of Before 1982, eligibility for inscription was limited to For-
one set of vague criteria for another had little practical impact eign Service members, Marine security guards, U.S. military
on subsequent inscriptions. personnel assigned to the U.S. Agency for International
The new plaque responded to the scourge of war, but it was Development in Vietnam and employees of the Central Intel-
the scourge of terror that filled it. The addition in March 1973 of ligence Agency under State Department cover at the time of
the names of two FSOs assassinated by terrorists in Sudan drew death (see the sidebar, this page). But after terrorists murdered
President Richard Nixon to become the first, and so far only, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Ray, assistant army attaché at
president to speak at the plaques. The next year, AFSA President U.S. Embassy Paris, the AFSA Governing Board expanded the
Thomas Boyatt held the first of what would become annual plaque criteria to include all Americans serving under chief-
memorial ceremonies at the plaque on Foreign Service Day. of-mission authority.
After 1975, terrorism accounted for the deaths of most of In making that change, it is unclear if the Governing Board
those whose names were added to the plaque. By 1983, follow- considered the fact that, since World War II, American citizen
ing the addition of 13 killed in the bombing of U.S. Embassy staffing at U.S. embassies had shifted from being mostly
Beirut, the 11-year-old second plaque was nearly three-quar- Foreign Service to being mostly employees of other agencies.
ters filled. Thus, only 16 of the 43 names added to the AFSA plaques dur-
ing the remainder of the 1980s were members of the Foreign
Service. Those 43 names filled the remaining spaces on the
second plaque in 1988, and the roll of honor spilled over to
CIA Employees on the four side panels installed in 1985.
AFSA Memorial Plaques During the 1990s, victims of terrorism continued to account
for most additions to the plaque. Eight names were inscribed
Of the 133 employees honored with stars on the in 1998 following the bombing of U.S. Embassy Nairobi.
Memorial Wall at CIA headquarters, the names of 93 In 1996 many AFSA members objected to adding political
have been publicly acknowledged, but often only years appointee Ronald Brown’s name after his death on an over-
after their deaths. In more than 20 cases, persons seas trip, but the AFSA Governing Board did so judging that as
later recognized by the agency as CIA employees were secretary of the Department of Commerce, Brown qualified as
working under State Department cover at the time of the head of a Foreign Service agency.
their deaths and were inscribed (as State Department
As the new millennium began, AFSA had accumulated
employees) on AFSA’s Memorial Plaques.
numerous plaque nominations for Foreign Service members
They include: Douglas Mackiernan (the first CIA
who had died in the line of duty overseas. These nominations
officer killed in the line of duty, 1950); Barbara Rob-
ins (a CIA officer, and the first woman whose name would have met the original 1933 criteria for inscription, but
was inscribed on the AFSA plaques, 1965); eight CIA did not meet the criteria adopted in 1948. Pressure built from
officers killed in the 1984 bombing of Embassy Beirut; former colleagues to honor them nonetheless, and in 2001 the
and Tyrone Woods and Glen Doherty, who were killed Governing Board restored authorization for personnel who
during the 2012 attack on U.S. government facilities in died overseas “in the line of duty.” AFSA invited members to
Benghazi. suggest qualifying cases, and that resulted in the addition of
—J.K.N. 29 names in three years, all State Department or USAID
employees with dates of death ranging from 1959 to 2000.

Iraq and Afghanistan
Other Memorials The next major change in plaque criteria took place in 2006.
The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan had dramatically increased
The AFSA Memorial Plaques are not the only memo-
the number of American civilian employees in harm’s way
rials displayed at the State Department. In the C
overseas. In war-zone Iraq, for example, FSOs led dozens of
Street lobby there are also individual plaques honor-
ing: Foreign Service Nationals killed in the line of duty; Provincial Reconstruction Teams on which Foreign Service
Foreign Service family members who died overseas; members were a small minority. The AFSA Governing Board
U.S. Information Agency employees killed between became concerned that members of the Foreign Service could,
1950 and 1998, before the agency dissolved in 1999; in time, become a small minority of those honored on the
federal employees who died in an airplane crash during plaques. Were that to happen, it would undermine the two
a Department of Commerce trade mission in Croatia in purposes articulated by Secretary Stimson in 1933: to increase
1996; employees and family members killed in the 1998 public appreciation for the sacrifices of the Foreign Service,
attacks on Embassies Nairobi and Dar es Salaam; dip- and to inspire a spirit of sacrifice in future generations of
lomatic couriers; and military service members killed in
Foreign Service members.
the 1980 Iran hostage rescue attempt.
The Governing Board also noted that many agencies
And State’s 21st Street lobby has a memorial to
or employee groups representing other federal employees
Americans and foreign nationals who died supporting
who work at embas-
the department’s criminal justice
sies—including defense
BOB BURGESS
and rule of law assistance pro-

grams overseas. attachés, Marine security
Elsewhere, at USAID head-
quarters in the Reagan Building
(Inset) At the May
in Washington, D.C., the agency’s
2, 2014, Memorial
Memorial Wall contains the names Ceremony, AFSA
of Foreign Service officers and honors those who
other employees who died over- lost their lives while
seas in the line of duty. on active duty.
—J.K.N.
AFSA President
Barbara Stephenson
(at podium), with
Secretary of State
Mike Pompeo
(far left), addresses
Foreign Service
colleagues and
family members
of the deceased
at the ceremony
on May 4, 2018.
AFSA/JOAQUIN SOSA

guards, Drug Enforcement Administration agents and Federal added to the plaques from Iraq in this period were not Foreign
Bureau of Investigation agents—have their own memorial Service members. In 2011 the Governing Board limited
walls. Indeed, within sight of the AFSA Memorial Plaques in inscription to members of the Foreign Service, with other
the C Street lobby are nearly a dozen other memorials (see employees considered only in “exceptional or heroic circum-
sidebar, opposite page). stances.” In 2014, the Governing Board eliminated all excep-
So the Governing Board reversed the 1982 criteria and tions.
limited inscription to “members of the Foreign Service and
to U.S. citizen direct-hire employees of the five foreign affairs Today and Tomorrow
agencies serving the government abroad.” Exceptions could be As of this writing, the AFSA Memorial Plaques contain
made only in “compelling circumstances.” 250 names. Forty-eight additional “historical” names have
But world events soon prompted yet another revision. In been approved for inscription. The two original plaques and
2007, civilians in a variety of employment categories from the three side panels are full, and space remains on the fourth
foreign affairs agencies surged into Iraq, with staffing peak- side panel for just eight names. While we can hope that no
ing in 2010. And between 2009 and 2012, civilian employees new names will need to be inscribed for many years, history
surged into Afghanistan, many of them temporary hires on suggests otherwise. AFSA is currently coordinating with the
non–Foreign Service appointments. The Governing Board Department of State’s Bureau of Administration with the goal
became concerned such individuals might come to domi- of adding additional plaque space in time for the annual AFSA
nate plaque inscriptions; and, in fact, five of the seven names Memorial Plaque ceremony in May 2021. n

FS HERITAGE
THE UNLUCKY CONSUL

Thomas Prentis
and the
1902 Martinique
Disaster
O
INTERNET ARCHIVE BOOK IMAGES
In 1902, the worst volcanic disaster n May 8, 1902, on the Caribbean

of the 20th century (and so far, island of Martinique, Mt. Pelée
erupted, killing more than 30,000
the 21st) took the lives of
people in the city of St. Pierre
U.S. Consul Thomas Prentis and within minutes. It was a devastat-
his family on a Caribbean island. ing event, notable as the worst
BY WILLIAM BENT volcanic disaster of the 20th cen-
tury (and so far, the 21st).
When one thinks of volcanoes,
images of smoke and oozing molten lava come to mind. But
what doomed the city of St. Pierre was something unfamiliar
to scientists at that time: pyroclastic flow. A pyroclastic flow,
composed of hot gases, ash and rock, erupts from the volcano
with tremendous power and speed, flattening and burning
everything in its path. When the end finally came, it must have
been an agonizing, horrific death for those in the flow’s destruc-
tive path.
William “Bill” Bent is a Senior Foreign Service officer The warning signs—fumes, smoke, rockslides, lava—were
currently serving as the deputy consular chief in San there for weeks. In April, Clara “Louisa” Prentis, wife of U.S.
Salvador. Previously, he was consul general to Barba- Consul Thomas Prentis, wrote a letter to her sister in Mas-
dos and the Eastern Caribbean. Other overseas tours sachusetts, describing how the whole population of the city
include Kabul, Santo Domingo, Kingston and Prague. was on alert, fearing that Mt. Pelée “had taken into its heart to
He is a graduate of the National War College, Class of 2015. burst forth and destroy the whole island.” Mrs. Prentis had a

Here is where U.S. Consulate
St. Pierre was located before
its destruction in the 1902
eruption.
(Inset) Plaques in memory

SDR. SEBASTIEN PERROT-MINNOT, UNIVERSITY OF WEST INDIES, MARTINQUE
of Consul Thomas Prentis

(top) and his family
and Vice Consul Amédée
Testart (bottom) on the
exterior wall of Mémorial
de la Catastrophe de 1902
– Musée Frank A. Perret,
the volcanological museum
in St. Pierre.
SDR. SEBASTIEN PERROT-MINNOT, UNIVERSITY OF WEST INDIES, MARTINQUE
close-up view of the events unfolding, as the rear windows of and civic connections
her residence faced Mt. Pelée, looming just four miles away. he forged as a hotel
Unfortunately, the location of the U.S. consulate and the failure manager, he earned
to evacuate in time would doom the entire family—Consul the support of Sena-
and Mrs. Prentis, and their young daughters, Louise Lydia and tor George Edmunds
Christiana Hazel—as well as Vice Consul Amédée Testart. (R-Vt.), who helped
Given the magnitude of the event, it is interesting that most him secure his first
people outside Martinique have never heard of the erup- appointment as consul,
tion of Mt. Pelée and the destruction of St. Pierre. Indeed, it in December 1871,
was a somewhat random Google search—I was looking for to Mahé in the Sey-
“consuls in the Caribbean” as part of my interest in consular chelle Islands. Prentis
history—that led me to Thomas Prentis and, thus, the eruption remained in the Sey-
of the volcano. At the time, I was serving as consul general to chelles for nine years,
Barbados, and the island of Martinique was within my area of marrying Louisa Frye, the daughter of an American sea captain,
responsibility. My interest thus piqued, I set out to learn more there. Prentis was later transferred to Port Louis, Mauritius,
about Prentis, his life and his fate. where he served for 14 years.
Thomas Prentis was no stranger to bad luck, if two inci-
No Stranger to Bad Luck dents befalling him during two separate home leaves are any
Thomas Prentis was born in 1844 in Michigan, but his fam- indication. The first occurred in August 1877. On leave from
ily soon relocated to Vermont where Thomas lived the simple his position in the Seychelles, Prentis traveled with his family
life of a farm boy. Later, after the Civil War, he was engaged in to Waitsfield, Vermont, to visit his father. Their arrival caused
the hotel business. At some point, possibly due to the business quite a scene, because they brought with them a servant and

Mrs. Prentis had a close-up view
of the events unfolding, as the
rear windows of her residence
faced Mt. Pelée, looming just
four miles away.
COMPLETE STORY OF THE MARTINIQUE AND ST. VINCENT HORRORS, 1902

a considerable amount of treasure acquired during their travels.
According to the Aug. 22, 1877, edition of the Argus & Patriot,
“their costly goods and baggage fairly surprised the neighbors …
as they were unloaded in front of his father’s residence from
the extra wagon that brought them into the valley.
Among the goods were 100 silk parasols, a large
number of silk dress patterns, 200 canes cut from
different kinds of wood that grew upon the Island,
[and] also numerous curiosities of various kinds.” The U.S. consulate in Martinique in
During their stay, the consul and his wife about 1900.
attended church and “outshone all in elegance
and style of dress.” According to the now-defunct
Vermont newspaper, Mr. Prentis explained that Prentis paying the aggrieved widow
his wealth derived from his wife, the “daughter of $1,000; but another, in the Argus &
a millionaire, who had given them $8,000 to make Patriot of Dec. 12, 1877, disputes this,
their trip.” It is possible that Louisa’s father, the ship stating that although Prentis called on
captain, had amassed such wealth from commer- Mrs. Thayer, the discontinuance of the
cial dealings in the Seychelles. suit “was entirely voluntary upon the
In retrospect, perhaps Prentis should have for- part of Mrs. Thayer,” and no money
Consul Thomas Prentis, his
gone the ostentatious displays, however, and kept a was paid. The official court record
wife and their two daughters all
lower profile. Instead, his presence in Vermont drew perished in the 1902 eruption of indicates that the suit was “discontin-
the attention of one Mrs. Sarah Thayer, a widow of Mt. Pelée. ued, without cost.”
about 35 years of age, whom the papers described The other incident occurred in
as of small means, who worked for a living and who was highly December 1884, while Prentis was on leave from his assignment
esteemed in the community and of fine appearance. She also, in Port Louis, Mauritius. During a visit to New York City, he
apparently, had a long memory and held a grudge. engaged in a pub crawl and, according to The New York Times,
It seems that prior to departing in 1871 for his assignment eventually ended up in a dive bar on Front Street. After downing
in the Seychelles, Prentis had made certain promises to Mrs. several drinks, he met four young men who regaled him with
Thayer; or, at the least, Mrs. Thayer had an understanding that tales of the city and offered to show him around the metropo-
there was an arrangement. In any event, Mrs. Thayer filed suit, lis. As the evening wore on, the hapless consul became quite
claiming $5,000 in damages for breach of promise. Prentis was inebriated, and his new friends took advantage of his condition,
arrested; and when his father refused to bail him out, he turned relieving Prentis of a gold watch and chain, $67 in cash and a
to his brother and two friends for the money. solitaire pin. There is no honor among thieves, however, and a
No doubt anxious to settle the matter so that he could quarrel ensued over the plunder, resulting in the death by stab-
resume his consular duties, he eventually came to an agreement bing of one of them. Some of the stolen property was later found
with Mrs. Thayer, and the suit was dismissed. One account has on one Thomas Tobin, a newsboy.

The Posting to Martinique
Mr. Prentis’ posting to Martinique was borne out of a
bureaucratic muddle within the context of the old patronage
system that governed consular appointments. In 1900 Pren-
tis was serving in Rouen, France, when, for reasons that are
unclear, he began to seek another assignment, this time in a
tropical setting. It is possible that health reasons were a factor.
Prentis had a heart condition, which he had developed while in
active military service in the Union Army during the Civil War.
He had served as a sharpshooter with the 2nd Regiment out of
Vermont. Although the exact nature of his heart condition is
lost to history, its effects were enough to merit his discharge,
on health grounds, from the U.S. Army in September 1864.
In any event, Prentis was seeking a change, and had a
powerful ally in Massachusetts Republican Senator Henry
Cabot Lodge, who began actively lobbying Secretary of State
John Hay on his constituent’s behalf. What followed was an
interesting correspondence—documented in the September
1954 issue of The New England Quarterly—between Lodge and
Hay as the latter diligently tried to secure a posting for Prentis.
Hay first offered Iquique; but when he subsequently informed
Lodge that the city was in faraway Chile (and not in Mexico, as
the senator first believed), and that the “fees are so very little
better than Rouen that the increase would, I should think, not
compensate for the expenses of the journey and the remote-
ness of the place,” Lodge advised Prentis against pursuing the
assignment.
On May 1, 1900, Hay informed Lodge that the president
would nominate Prentis for Batavia, Java, instead. After a brief
respite in America, Prentis departed for Batavia on August
14, 1900, via France, where he reportedly attended the Paris
Exposition. At some point in the journey, he was joined by an
adult son, also named Thomas, who would accompany him to
Batavia and take a position there with the Standard Oil Com-
pany. But there was a mix-up: Secretary Hay was not aware of it,
but President McKinley had already appointed another man—a
Mr. Rairden—as consul to Batavia.
On learning of this, the Secretary transferred Prentis to
Martinique, without seeing fit to alert Senator Lodge. Lodge
was understandably upset when he eventually learned of the
turn of events, but Secretary Hay assured him that Martinique
“is a much better place than Batavia in all respects, and I
did not dream it would be objectionable to Mr. Prentis or his
friends … and certainly see no hardship in giving Mr. Prentis
the promotion, whether you call it a promotion from Batavia
with a salary of $1,000, or a promotion from Rouen with no

In the weeks preceding the ultimate cataclysmic eruption,
Mr. Prentis’ posting to Martinique Mt. Pelée had issued warning signs. Why didn’t the Prentis
was borne out of a bureaucratic family depart when they could? They surely were aware that the
muddle within the context of volcano posed a danger. On May 3, Mrs. Prentis wrote again to
her sister, describing the smell of sulphur in the air, the fire and
the old patronage system that lava emitting from the volcano. “Everybody is afraid,” she wrote,
governed consular appointments. but later on in the letter reveals that her husband assured her
there was no immediate danger and that a ship was in the har-
bor that could whisk them
salary at all. It was so clearly to safety should the situa-
to his advantage that I did tion deteriorate further.
not see the necessity of refer- It is probable that Prentis
ring the matter to you.” thought they would have
Senator Lodge’s con- time in such a scenario
cerns over the hardship because, like others, he was
caused Mr. Prentis were unfamiliar with the rapid,
eventually assuaged when devastating effects of a
Hay agreed to cover the pyroclastic surge. In another
consul’s travel expenses excellent book about the

from Batavia to Martinique. tragedy, La Catastrophe:
And thus a bureaucratic The Eruption of Mount Pelée,
snafu changed the destiny the Worst Volcanic Disaster
of our star-crossed consul, of the 20th Century (Oxford
placing him in the path of University Press, 2002),
volcanic destruction. Alwyn Scarth reveals how
the population of St. Pierre
Disaster Strikes had a vague memory of
Martinique had been previous “puny eruptions”
one of the first places where that had resulted in minimal
the young United States The ruins of the U.S. consulate following the 1902 eruption. damage. These eruptions,
established a consular writes Scarth, “induced
presence. On June 4, 1790, a false sense of security
President George Washington named Fulwar Skipwith as in the minds of the people of Martinique.”
consul to the island. More than a century later, at the time of According to contemporary newspaper reports, the United
Prentis’ appointment, the French island was still an important States dispatched two ships, the cruiser Cincinnati and the naval
commercial hub in the Caribbean, and the city of St. Pierre was tug Potomac, to assist with relief efforts. And on May 20, 1902,
considered “the Paris of the Antilles.” Ernest Zebrowski, who crews from the two U.S. warships along with personnel from the
wrote one of the definitive accounts of the Martinique disaster British cruiser Indefatigable, came ashore to recover the remains
in his book, The Last Days of St. Pierre: The Volcanic Disaster of Prentis, which had been discovered in the ruins of the U.S. con-
That Claimed Thirty Thousand Lives (Rutgers University Press, sulate. Unfortunately, the remains of his wife and daughters were
2002), describes the city as the “gem of the West Indies” and not found, or were so badly burned as to be beyond recognition.
discusses the significant American financial interest in the Bearing silver coffins, the crews also were in search of the body of
various commercial enterprises in the city, which included, of James Japp, the British consul.
course, rum and sugar. (The United States closed its consulate Ernest Zebrowski Jr. offers a vivid account of the rescue mis-
in Martinique in 1993, establishing instead a consular agency sion, which was conducted as Mt. Pelée continued to belch out
whose consular agent reports to Bridgetown, Barbados.) smoke and ash to such an extent that it imperiled the brave

rescuers. Both bodies were recovered, but in a mad scramble It is possible that the rescue mission and recovery of Prentis’
back to the ships as loud booms and fire emanated from the remains never happened. Recently, colleagues working on
volcano, Japp’s body was “unceremoniously” dropped, never to the Consular Affairs History Project put me in contact with
be recovered. The crews managed to get Prentis’ coffin aboard Dr. Sébastien Perrot-Minnot, a professor at the University of
the Potomac, which then made haste to escape the smoke and the French West Indies in Martinique, who has researched the
ash. According to contemporary newspaper reports, Thomas disaster and written about the history of the U.S. diplomatic
Prentis’ body was transported to Fort-de-France where, on and consular presence on the island. He brought to my atten-
May 22, a funeral took place, with the commander of the tion this message that Louis H. Aymé, U.S. consul in Guade-
Cincinnati officiating. He was buried “under an acacia tree” loupe and acting U.S. consul in Martinique in May and June
in a cemetery located “back of Fort-de-France.” 1902, sent to the Department of State, on July 21, 1902: “It is a
I had the opportunity during my tour in the Eastern Carib- matter of deep regret to me that I could not succeed in rescu-
bean to go to Martinique, and during two visits there I made ing the remains of our late consul nor any of the archives of the
inquiries into the whereabouts of Consul Prentis’ grave. Our consulate. All were buried under many feet of volcanic mud
consular agent, Leah McGaw, and I searched the main cem- and ejecta.”
etery in the capital and submitted requests to the French gov- And so, it seems, ends the quest for our unlucky colleague,
ernment seeking information, all to no avail. I also contacted Consul Thomas Prentis. His name is engraved, along with his
some of Prentis’ ancestors via Ancestry.com, none of whom vice consul, Amédée Testart, on the AFSA Memorial Plaques
knew where exactly he was buried. in the State Department lobby. n

AFSA NEWS AFSA NEWS
THE OFFICIAL RECORD OF THE AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE ASSOCIATION
AFSA and COVID-19 CALENDAR

In these extremely challeng-
ing times, AFSA wants to Due to the COVID-19
convey to all our members pandemic, the AFSA
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION

how proud we are of the work headquarters building
is closed and all in-person
you are doing at your posts
events have been canceled,
and missions worldwide to postponed or moved to
cope with the effects of the an online forum until
coronavirus pandemic. further notice. As the
We will do all that we can situation continues
to evolve, please check
to make certain our mem-
www.afsa.org for the most
bers, both domestic and up-to-date information.
overseas, get the best infor-
mation on what to do in this March 16, with laptops needs to care for children, May 1
AFSA Memorial Ceremony
trying time. You can visit afsa. and voice communication elderly loved ones and them-
POSTPONED UNTIL
org/coronavirus for govern- forwarding capability, which selves while also engaging FURTHER NOTICE
ment and media resources ensures that those who in their communities to help
about COVID-19. need to contact AFSA staff those in need. May 15
The presence of Foreign can do so with no break in AFSA has called on the Deadline: Nomination
for AFSA Dissent and
Service members around the service. You can always reach leadership of the foreign
Performance Awards
world increases knowledge us at member@afsa.org or affairs agencies to fully EXTENDED TO JUNE 1
of host-country conditions, check www.afsa.org/staff to support their staff at this
enables greater coordination contact each staff member unprecedented time and to May 20
12-2 p.m.
and stands as a symbol of directly. clearly and unambiguously
AFSA Governing
America’s commitment to require all supervisors to Board Meeting
global engagement. Work-Life Balance provide members of the U.S.
AFSA leadership has met We are all facing the con- Foreign Service with the
with State MED and bureau sequences of the outbreak of administrative leave neces-
front offices to get a better the new coronavirus. sary to fulfill their personal AFSA and let us know your
read on plans for addressing Many posts are on autho- needs and professional concerns and suggestions.
disruptions caused by the rized or ordered departure. duties. We will take them to the
virus and for disseminating Task forces have been stood The group Balancing Act, leadership of our agencies.
information on a timely basis. up across the government, with support from AFSA Your service matters, to our
AFSA raised concerns and our colleagues at our and others, submitted a country and to the world.
from our members on a respective agencies are letter requesting adjust- If you cannot get the
number of issues, ranging working hard to balance ments to leave eligibility attention of senior leaders on
from tripwires for evacuation achievement of mission with due to the burden of manag- an urgent question or issue,
and telework rules to help for the safety and security of ing full-time work hours in contact AFSA President Eric
evacuees in finding suitable our staff. conjunction with childcare. Rubin or the appropriate
work and assurance that the In the District of Colum- On April 2, the State Depart- AFSA agency vice presidents,
latest information and best bia, Maryland and Virginia ment authorized 20 hours of and we will add our voices.
practices are available. AFSA region and much of the coun- admin leave per pay period, For those of you who
continues to urge State man- try, as well as at most posts, retroactive from February 16, have less critical questions
agement to provide guidance schools are closed for the for childcare, elder depen- that you can’t get answered,
and up-to-date information rest of the school year. Our dent care and local shelter- contact AFSA Labor Manage-
to employees. members have been strug- in-place needed as a result ment staff at afsa@state.gov.
AFSA initiated a telework gling to balance professional of the pandemic. We will run interference.
strategy for staff starting obligations with personal Please reach out to That is why we are here. n

STAT E V P VO I CE | BY TO M YA Z D G ERDI AFSA NEWS
Contact: YazdgerdiTK@state.gov | (202) 647-8160
Working for You During This Trying Time

In this unsettling time of social MED and can get answers. new hires—both incoming these members might have
distancing, AFSA has been Child Care, Elder Care officers and specialists—who to stay put for a number of
proud to help our members, and Telework. Many mem- have been told that orienta- months and consequently
both overseas and domestic, bers have been concerned tion classes scheduled to start will continue to be out-of-
cope with the unprecedented about balancing teleworking soon have been postponed, pocket in high-cost lodging.
demands made on all of us by with having to use annual but nothing has been said to They could probably move,
the new coronavirus disease, leave, or go on leave without them about their paychecks, but in this unprecedented
COVID-19. pay, to take care of children health care or other benefits. environment, does that
I want to share with you or elderly relatives. This Many of these future make sense?
some of the requests for help is especially true because Foreign Service (and AFSA) We have asked depart-
that we have received and the schools have been closed members have moved ment leadership to find a way
actions we have taken. and day care/nannies are spouses, children and belong- to help these members stay
As of this writing (in late largely unavailable. ings across the country or where they are without having
March), some of these issues At the urging of AFSA from overseas to begin their to dip into their savings.
have already been resolved, and others, the department new careers. We have engaged EER Season Flexibility.
while new ones are arising. rolled out a policy to make with the Bureau of Global Tal- At State, we all know that
As always, we will continue work hours more flexible for ent Management and senior GEMS, the system designed
to represent the interests of working parents. You can department leadership to to move your Employee
our members to department find the policy at afsa.org/ argue that these new employ- Evaluation Report through the
leadership and be responsive coronavirus-covid-19. ees must be paid. various stages of the process,
to you. This has helped, but as We have also suggested is not user-friendly in the best
Medical/Safety Con- we made clear in an AFSAnet that perhaps orientation of circumstances.
cerns. Our crack Labor-Man- message (bit.ly/afsa-wlb), too classes can be done by Combine that with trying
agement team has assisted many of our colleagues were distance learning or some to access GEMS through
members with a myriad of facing untenable choices: other creative approach that the various remote access
medical/safety issues, such caring for loved ones; using does not shut down the intake variants of the department’s
as concerns about adequate leave (often scant for parents process completely. Global OpenNet (GO) system,
protective supplies (e.g., face of newborns and junior staff) The department has and it really makes things
masks, gloves, hand sanitizer) or borrowing leave from oth- recognized this problem and tough.
for members who deal with ers; or simply not working—a has taken some action—such In response, and again at
the public, especially visa particularly worrisome option as offering to send letters our urging, the department
officers; which office safety in these times. to previous employers—and has extended the EER dead-
procedures must be followed We were thus very happy to that’s a step in the right direc- line by two weeks, to May 29.
in the event an employee see the department officially tion. However, the money has We will continue to push
shows flu-like symptoms; and adopt on April 2 a policy to already been budgeted, and the department to surge its
getting approval for use of provide 20 hours of admin- the right thing to do is to pay IT staff so that as the busy
local clinics abroad to test for istrative leave per pay period these people from the start. EER season gets underway,
COVID-19. to employees for dependent Help for Those in Long- solutions to remote access
Of course, your first move care, retroactive to February Term Training. We have heard questions can be provided in a
should be to check with your 16. We hope that all of AFSA’s from members who are at the timely fashion.
medical practitioner at post member agencies, including end of their long-term training Please continue to let us
or your bureau’s EX office. But the Foreign Commercial Ser- and are ready to deploy over- know how we can help at
if your problem or concern is vice and the Foreign Agricul- seas, but are at the 25-per- member@afsa.org or (202)
not resolved, we are always tural Service, will follow suit. cent tail end of the lodging per 647-8160. No question or
here to help, in a confidential New Hires Need to Be diem allowance. concern is too big or too small
manner, if need be. AFSA has Paid. We have received anx- Now that normal trans- for us to handle.
an excellent relationship with ious requests for help from fers have been disrupted, Stay safe and healthy! n

USA ID V P VO I CE | BY JASON SIN G ER AFSA NEWS
Contact: jsinger@usaid.gov | (202) 712-5267
Achieving Transparent Promotions

by Promoting Transparency
Each USAID Foreign Service Making program data Accessible, usable and robust promotion
officer has unique stories, publicly available is criti- data would help agency leadership,
experiences and accom- cal, because as the agency
staff and the taxpayer better understand
plishments—these are part notes in its development data
of what makes our career fact sheet, open data fuels
the history and structure of USAID’s
choice extremely rewarding. entrepreneurship, innova- Foreign Service, including demographics
But throughout our varied tion, scientific discovery and trends.
careers and postings, we and enhanced development
all undergo the excitement outcomes.
and stress that comes with Open data contributes to
promotion season. improved design and imple-
Fortunately, FSOs are mentation of development I’m glad you asked. time in the different USAID
becoming more comfort- programs, while reducing Data alone may not FS career paths?
able with USAID’s still-new expensive and duplicative produce definitive answers • What does the data sug-
promotion system. USAID’s data collection efforts. I to questions by itself, but gest about promotions and
Office of Human Capital and believe the agency and the robust data (always protect- location? Everyone says it’s
Talent Management has public would reap similar ing personally identifiable hard to get promoted from
continued to roll out training benefits from promotion data information) can provide Washington. Is that really the
sessions and hold webi- transparency. entry points allowing all case? Are Critical Priority
nars, and has built a helpful “Like what?” stakeholders to ask tough Countries better for promo-
intranet website with myriad I’m glad you asked. questions and engage with tions?
resources. Accessible, usable and one another in a transparent The agency must have the
One critical area where robust promotion data would and well-informed manner on commitment and capacity to
the agency must do more is help agency leadership, staff issues such as these: produce, publish and respect
in providing information—to and the taxpayer better • How do different back- data. We need to integrate
the public and to FSOs—on understand the history and stops fare in the promotion agency-internal data into
promotion data. structure of USAID’s Foreign process? Are there trends how we operate—how we
“Why?” Service, including demo- that suggest advantages or recruit, achieve equity,
I’m glad you asked. graphics and trends. concerns? maintain career paths, offer
USAID is a trailblazer in A common and accessible • How do promotions professional development
program data transparency data set would also provide break out by diversity at opportunities, retain staff
and has been a leader in the basis for informed dis- varying levels—is there some and shore up morale.
making its program data cussions critical to effective inherent bias in the promo- We promote transpar-
sets, assessments, evalua- operations at any modern tion system? ency in our efforts to help
tions and budget informa- institution. • Do presidential/Admin- countries progress along the
tion accessible, discoverable The agency’s ongoing istrator initiatives in certain journey to self-reliance. Let’s
and usable. efforts toward strategic work- technical areas have an model good behavior with
Well-known data sites force planning would benefit impact on promotions? our promotion data. n
include the Foreign Aid from accessible promotion • What is the average
Explorer (https://explorer. data, helping forecast future time-in-class by backstop
usaid.gov), the Development promotion opportunities and this year? Last year? Over
Experience Clearinghouse recruitment needs. But there the past five years?
(https://dec.usaid.gov/dec/ are countless other applica- • I’m interested in joining
home/Default.aspx) and tions and uses, as well. the Foreign Service: What
www.foreignassistance.gov. “Such as?” do promotions look like over

RE T IR E E V P VO I CE | BY J OHN K . N AL AN D AFSA NEWS
Contact: naland@afsa.org
Resilience
When I was a young U.S. regard to tasks at hand,” Suggestions include focus- Additional resilience skills
Army cavalry officer 40 good or bad morale affects ing only on what is under include maintaining relation-
years ago, my squadron our productivity, accom- your control, putting minor ships with people whom you
commander told me that plishments and happiness. disappointments in perspec- can trust and rely on, avoid-
“enlisted men have morale, The capacity to maintain, tive, understanding that ing negativity, maintaining
but officers don’t—we suck or regain, good morale in you control your reaction to realistic optimism, focusing
it up and deal with it.” the face of difficulties or events, asking for help when on core values that motivate
Later, in the Foreign disappointments is called needed and knowing when and guide you, and finding
Service, I encountered a resilience. In recent years, to walk away or try Plan B. activities that give meaning
similar fiction during hard- the Foreign Service Institute Another group of resil- and purpose to your life.
ship assignments, where a has inserted suggestions ience skills comes under So if you encounter dif-
common refrain was “what into numerous courses on the heading of taking care ficulties or disappointments,
doesn’t kill you, makes you how to be more resilient. We of yourself. Suggestions you might try some of these
stronger.” retirees could benefit from include improving your sleep resilience strategies.
Those assertions are those insights if we encoun- routine, exercising to reduce And keep in mind the
wrong, of course. Everyone ter health, financial or other stress, being mindful of your words of Nelson Mandela:
has morale. Defined by the setbacks as time passes. feelings, resting your brain “Do not judge me by my
dictionary as the “mental One group of resilience when needed and taking successes, judge me by how
and emotional condition of skills falls in the category time out to regain perspec- many times I fell down and
an individual or group with of active problem-solving. tive. got back up.” n
AFSA Event: Long-Term Care Insurance Alternatives

On Feb. 26, AFSA hosted a presentation
by Greg Klingler, director of wealth man-
agement at the Government Employees’
Benefit Association, about long-term care
insurance alternatives.
Long-term care insurance may be one
of the most poorly understood pillars in
retirement planning. It is also evolving.
Mr. Klingler’s presentation covered vari-
ous options for long-term care to help
identify which may be the best for you.
The presentation focused on little-known
alternatives outside of the Federal Long
Term Care Insurance Program.
Originally founded by National Secu-
AFSA/CAMERON WOODWORTH
rity Agency employees in 1957, GEBA is

a nonprofit employee benefit associa-
tion serving federal employees and their
families.
AFSA members may view a video of Greg Klingler, director of wealth management at the Government Employees’ Benefit Association,
the event at afsa.org/video. n speaks with AFSA members on Feb. 26 about long-term care insurance alternatives.

AFSA NEWS
Teaching International Affairs: AFSA Networking Event

On Feb. 27, AFSA hosted
a networking happy hour
centered on a favorite post–
Foreign Service profes-
sion—teaching. We brought
together Foreign Service
personnel who have transi-
tioned from their government
careers to teaching interna-
tional affairs and the art of
diplomacy to compare best
practices.
The event also provided
an opportunity for aspir-
ing teachers among AFSA’s
Ambassador (ret.) Barbara Bodine, director of the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy at Georgetown University,
membership to meet and discusses teaching options for Foreign Service personnel.
learn from FSOs who have
already made a successful Barbara Bodine addressed can be a heavy lift to design Dolores Brown at brown@
transition, as well as other with specificity and humor curricula from scratch. This afsa.org with submissions.
professors from area univer- drawing on her considerable networking event gave space Also, visit www.afsa.org/
sities. experience at Georgetown for the Foreign Service’s con- teaching-diplomacy-today to
It can be quite challeng- University as director of the siderable brain trust to make read the January-February
ing to enter academia as a Institute for the Study of connections to exchange 2020 Foreign Service Journal
diplomatic practitioner, espe- Diplomacy. ideas, tips and advice and cover story, “Teaching Diplo-
cially without a Ph.D. That’s AFSA member-teachers to answer questions from macy Today: Post-Foreign
a subject Ambassador (ret.) have also reported that it the next generation of FSO Service Opportunities in
teachers. Academia.”
For further information AFSA considers this
about teaching as a former initiative not only a valuable
(or current) Foreign Service service to members, but also
member, see AFSA’s webpage a significant step in build-
“Sharing Wisdom (And Cur- ing broad understanding of
ricula!) About Teaching Diplo- diplomacy and its importance
macy, International Affairs, to the security and prosperity
and Other Associated Topics” of the United States, a critical
at www.afsa.org/teaching- part of AFSA’s mission.
diplomacy. A post–Foreign Service
This webpage contains career in education is one
a wealth of information, way to expand understand-
including sample syllabi and ing of the role diplomats play
other helpful documents and in advancing U.S. strategic
resources. interests and assisting U.S.

AFSA welcomes additions citizens and companies
from our teacher-members around the world. It is also a
and the opportunity to post wonderful way to help inspire
your syllabi or other resource the next generation of the
Participants mingle at the Teaching International Affairs networking event. documents. Please contact Foreign Service. n

A FSA NEWS
AFSA Welcomes Incoming LNA Class

highest peak in the United
Kingdom.
• Flying across the Atlantic
twice in the same day,
on the same plane.
• Learning Catalan by listen-
ing to soccer matches on
the radio.
• Flying airplanes as a teen-
ager.
• Spending a total of three
AFSA Director of Professional Policy Issues Julie Nutter AFSA State Vice President Tom Yazdgerdi (back right) years living on the ocean.
(back right) speaks with members of the 20th LNA talks with members of the 20th LNA class on March 10 AFSA State Vice President
class. at AFSA headquarters in Washington, D.C.
Tom Yazdgerdi hosted the
luncheon. Former Assistant
On March 10, AFSA wel- for their language skills, Con- Individual class members Secretary of State for Con-
comed 34 members of the sular Affairs–Appointment can boast of many accom- sular Affairs Janice Jacobs,
20th LNA (limited noncareer Eligible Family Members and plishments, including: AFSA Director of Professional
appointees) class to its head- Civil Service Limited Nonca- • Playing one year of base- Policy Issues Julie Nutter and
quarters in Washington, D.C., reer Appointees. ball in the Peruvian major AFSA Coordinator of Member
for a luncheon and overview Members of the class leagues. Relations and Events Ashley
of AFSA’s role in support- include former members of • Hiking a remote section of Baine were table hosts.
ing members of the Foreign the U.S. Armed Forces, for- the Great Wall of China. Twenty members of the
Service. mer Peace Corps Volunteers • Sailing across the Pacific class chose to join AFSA.
The class represents and former employees of and Atlantic oceans. Welcome to the Foreign
Consular Fellows recruited various government agencies. • Climbing Ben Nevis, the Service! n
AFSA Governing Board Meeting, March 18, 2020
Because of the COVID-19 pandemic and social-distancing recommendation to support the appointment of two
recommendations, the AFSA Governing Board on March (non-FS) Foreign Service Grievance Board members. The
18 met via teleconference, for the first time in its history. board approved the retiree vice president’s recommenda-
The board made the following decisions, which will tion regarding supporting the appointment of two Foreign
need to be ratified in person at the next possible Govern- Service annuitants to the FSGB.
ing Board meeting, according to AFSA bylaws. Awards and Plaques Committee: The board adopted
Recognizing Impeachment Witnesses: The board the Awards and Plaques Committee recommendation for
approved the retiree vice president’s proposal to autho- the 2020 Lifetime Contributions to American Diplomacy
rize $5,000 for a luncheon to recognize State Department Award recipient.
witnesses in the impeachment hearings. Legal Defense Fund: The board approved the Legal
Foreign Service Grievance Board: The board authorized Defense Fund Committee recommendation regarding final
supporting reappointment of Frank Almaguer, Charles Car- payment of $36,000 to a Foreign Service member’s attor-
ron, David Clark and Lino Gutierrez to the FSGB. neys for legal services in 2019 related to impeachment
The board also approved the retiree vice president’s proceedings. n

AFSA NEWS
Foreign Service Journal Chooses New Printer

The Foreign Service Journal was purchased by Sheridan
has joined forces with a new Group.
printer, Sheridan. Over its long history, Sheri-
On Feb. 25, FSJ Editor-in- dan has expanded its scope
Chief Shawn Dorman and from college publications to
Managing Editor Kathryn short- to medium-run maga-
Owens traveled to Hanover, zines such as the Journal.
N.H., to tour one of the “A publication like ours is
company’s three plant loca- Sheridan’s sweet spot, and
tions—Sheridan New Hamp- with its fine reputation for
shire—where FSJ issues will quality printing and customer
now print. service, Sheridan seems like
AFSA President Eric an excellent fit for what we
Rubin, in New Hampshire for do,” Ms. Owens said.
speaking events at Dart- Sheridan Sales Repre-
AFSA/KATHRYN OWENS
mouth College, was able sentative Emily Fullerton
to join them for the tour of agrees: “We are so proud
the plant and meeting with to print such an important
printer representatives. and prestigious publication
AFSA President Eric Rubin and FSJ Editor-in-Chief Shawn Dorman with
Begun in 1793 as part for the American Foreign AFSA News pages at the Sheridan plant during production of the March
of Dartmouth College, the Service Association. We look Journal.
printer became a separate forward to working with The
entity known as Dartmouth Foreign Service Journal well
Press in 1843 and then into the future.”
became Dartmouth Printing Sheridan employees
Company in 1938. In 1998 it working at each location in
the plant walked the group
through the complete pro-
duction process, starting in
prepress where, among other
things, the printing plates are
custom-made.
Winding through the large
(and loud) warehouse full of
various types of machinery,
the group ended at the bind-
ery, where the loose pages
are bound together into the
finished product—and where
SHERIDAN/KATHY LOWELL
it was exciting to see stacks

of AFSA News pages ready for
SHERIDAN/KATHY LOWELL
this last stage.

We were able to leave
FSJ Managing Editor Kathryn the plant with bound and
Owens (left), Editor-in-Chief Shawn ready-to-mail copies of the
Dorman (right) and Sheridan Sales
Representative Emily Fullerton in March Journal, hot off the FSJ Editor-in-Chief Shawn Dorman (left), Managing Editor Kathryn Owens
the press department at the plant. presses. n and Sheridan Account Manager Dale Ricker, surrounded by rolls of paper.

A FSA NEWS
Outreach to Students, Professors

and the AFSA Community
On Feb. 24 and 25, AFSA Pres- across the United States and
ident Eric Rubin appeared at the world. The webinar format
Dartmouth College’s John is intended to offer a virtual
Sloan Dickey Center for Inter- town hall for the AFSA presi-
national Understanding for a dent to share the work AFSA
packed schedule of visits with is doing in support of our
students, faculty, staff and membership and the Foreign
the local community. Service as a whole.
Ambassador Rubin met Amb. Rubin provided an
with postdoctoral fellows update on AFSA’s advocacy
and undergraduate students work on Capitol Hill and with
LARS BLACKMORE
in international relations our member agency leader-
courses. He also spoke with ship, upcoming outreach ini-
the student editorial board of tiatives and AFSA’s response
AFSA President Eric Rubin speaks on Feb. 24 to a class of Dartmouth
World Outlook, Dartmouth’s to current events affecting
College students.
undergraduate journal of members.
international affairs, which Participants were invited
publishes two editions a year to ask questions. AFSA aims
and maintains a blog and pod- to schedule webinars with
cast for discussion of current Amb. Rubin quarterly and
international issues. invites all retired members to
Amb. Rubin was also join the conversation.
interviewed for “The Outlook,” Also in March, Amb. Rubin
the podcast produced by the spoke at the U.S. Air Force
World Outlook student staff, Academy in Colorado Springs,
about the role of the Foreign Colo. The event provided
Service and careers in foreign an opportunity for AFSA to
LARS BLACKMORE
affairs. engage with students and fac-
In addition to classroom ulty on the role of the Foreign
visits and conversations Service as the platform for AFSA President Eric Rubin participates in a roundtable with Dartmouth
with students and faculty, U.S. global engagement. n College students.
Amb. Rubin gave a talk on
“The Future of American
NEWS BRIEF
Diplomacy” to an audience of CONTINUOUS DOMESTIC SERVICE:

students and members of the S I X -Y E A R R U L E E L I M I N AT E D
community, including several
Foreign Service retirees. He AFSA was pleased to see the recent change in the assignment rules that did away
was introduced by Director with the six-year limit on service in the United States.
of the Dickey Center Daniel This will provide more flexibility for those who, for example, may need to take care of
Benjamin, who joined Amb. elderly parents, or who want to see their children through high school.
Rubin for the Q&A following The eight-year limit remains in place because it is enshrined in Section 504 of the
the talk. Foreign Service Act of 1980, which also encourages the assignment of a member of the
On March 5, in Wash- Foreign Service to duty in the United States at least once every 15 years.
ington, Amb. Rubin hosted Please see 20 STATE 27828 for more information on this welcome change. n
his first webinar with AFSA
retiree members settled

AFSA NEWS
BOOK NOTES:
Modern Diplomacy in Practice
services. It surveys how Bra- included service as chairman
zil, China, France, Germany, of the National Intelligence
India, Japan, Russia, Turkey, Council, director for Europe
the United Kingdom and the with the National Security
United States conduct their Council and special adviser
diplomacy through a profes- to the Secretary of State,
sional career Foreign Service, with the rank of ambassador.
drawing out best practices. He is the author and editor of
Chapters cover the six books.
distinctive histories and Jeremi Suri holds the
cultures of each of the coun- Mack Brown Distinguished

tries’ diplomatic services, Chair for Leadership in
their changing role in the Global Affairs at the Univer-
making of foreign policy and sity of Texas at Austin, where
Jeremi Suri (left) and Robert Hutchings discuss their new book, Modern their preparations for the he is professor in the Depart-
Diplomacy in Practice, on Feb. 21 at AFSA headquarters. new challenges of the 21st ment of History and the
century. Lyndon B. Johnson School
On Feb. 21, AFSA welcomed AFSA Director of Profes- Robert Hutchings is of Public Affairs. Professor
professors Robert Hutchings sional Policy Issues Julie professor and former dean Suri is the author and editor
and Jeremi Suri of the Uni- Nutter moderated the con- of the Lyndon B. Johnson of nine books on history,
versity of Texas at Austin for a versation. School of Public Affairs at international relations and
discussion of their new book, The book lays out, by the University of Texas at political leadership, and he
Modern Diplomacy in Practice. country, a study of the Austin. His combined aca- hosts a weekly podcast,
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2020). world’s 10 largest diplomatic demic and diplomatic career “This Is Democracy.” n
AFSA Meets with AFSA Voter

Representative Fitzpatrick Registration Guide
AFSA President
Eric Rubin (left),
AFSA State Vice
President Tom
Yazdgerdi (third
from left) and AFSA
USAID Vice President
Jason Singer (right)
meet with Rep. Brian
Tuesday, November 3, 2020 is the next federal Election Day.
Fitzpatrick (R-Pa.)
on Feb. 28 in the Visit AFSA’s website at afsa.org/afsa-voter-registration-guide
Longworth House for a voter registration guide that makes it easier for you
Office Building in
and your family to register to vote.
Washington, D.C., to
discuss Fiscal Year The guide includes voter registration deadlines for all
2021 appropriations. 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories,
as well as information on requesting absentee ballots.
If you would like to check on your registration status,
visit vote411.org or nationalvoterregistrationday.org. n

AFSA NEWS
2020 CONSTRUCTIVE
ANNOUNCEMENT
D I S S E N T AWA R D S :
C A L L F O R N O M I N AT I O N S
Nominations are now being accepted for the

2020 constructive dissent awards. The AFSA
awards ceremony will take place in October; nom-
inations will be accepted until June 1. If you are
not sure about what qualifies as dissent, please
read AFSA’s guidance at www.afsa.org/dissent.
We welcome nominations for the four
constructive dissent awards:
• The W. Averell Harriman Award for entry-level
Foreign Service officers.
• The William R. Rivkin Award for mid-level
• The Christian A. Herter Award for Senior
• The F. Allen ‘Tex’ Harris Award for Foreign
Service specialists.
Neither nominators nor nominees need be
members of AFSA. Any member of the Foreign
Service at any agency (State, USAID, FCS, FAS,
APHIS or USAGM) is eligible.
The Foreign Service adds tremendous value
every time we advise with precision about what
will work and what won’t work—in the local con-
text at our posts, as well as in our institution more
broadly. Indeed, dissent is part of the precepts for
tenure and promotion in the Foreign Service.
Whether it’s a senior officer disagreeing with
immigration policy, an entry-level officer suggest-
ing policy alternatives on free trade or a Foreign
Service specialist diligently fighting to protect
medical shipment via the pouch, these awards
single out the best of us for a deserved moment
in the spotlight.
We all know colleagues who have stepped up
and made us proud by offering alternatives or
new thinking. These are the individuals we want
to honor for their courage and creativity.
We need your help: Please take the time to
nominate these deserving friends and colleagues.
For additional information and nomination
forms, please visit www.afsa.org/dissent or
contact AFSA Awards and Scholarships Manager
Theo Horn at horn@afsa.org or (202) 719-9705. n

APPRECIATION
LARGER
THAN LIFE
F. Allen “Tex” Harris
1938-2020
O
ne would not expect a 6’7” for- a real hero, especially at this particularly troubled time abroad
mer basketball player to fit the for American democracy and leadership.
stereotype of a mild-mannered Tex Harris was still engaged in that lifelong mission on
diplomat, and “Tex” (as Frank- multiple fronts when he died on Feb. 23 at a hospital in Fairfax
lyn Allen Harris was universally County, Virginia. He was 81. Survivors include his wife of 53
known) most assuredly did not. years, the former Jeanie Roeder, of McLean, Va.; three children,
Although he was a firm believer Scott Harris of McLean, Julie Harris of Falls Church, Va., and
in the power of persuasion, Clark Harris of Los Angeles, Calif.; and two grandsons.
throughout his 35-year Foreign
Service career Tex stood ready to use his impressive intellect, Fighting the Good Fight
imposing bulk and booming voice to defend the oppressed and Franklyn Allen Harris was born on May 13, 1938, in Glen-
speak truth to power. dale, California, and grew up in Dallas, where he was an all-
“Today a nation is judged by how it treats its own citizens, state basketball player in high school. His father was a busi-
establishing a new norm in modern diplomacy,” Tex Harris nessman, and his mother had been a model and sales clerk.
declared in 2013, as he received an award from the United After graduating from Princeton University in 1960, Mr. Har-
Nations Association for “the use of diplomacy to advance ris used funds intended for a car purchase to travel around the
human rights.” An unforgettable mentor as well as a role model world for almost three years, meeting a number of diplomats in
for many of those who fought to make President Jimmy Carter’s his journeys. After graduating from law school at the University
human rights revolution a reality, Harris will be remembered as of Texas, he joined the Foreign Service in 1965.
Tex first served in Caracas, then spent most of the next
Steven Alan Honley, a State Department Foreign decade in Washington, D.C., in various positions. But the most
Service officer from 1985 to 1997, and editor-in-chief famous example of his legendary tenacity came in Argentina, at
of The Foreign Service Journal from 2001 to 2014, is the height of that country’s “dirty war.”
a regular contributor to the Journal. He is the author A group of military leaders had seized control of the
of Future Forward: FSI at 70—A History of the For- government in 1976 after the chaotic two-year presidency of
eign Service Institute (Arlington Hall Press, 2017). Isabel Perón. President Gerald Ford’s administration initially

were thousands of people who disappeared
without a trace, without a murmur, just a picture
on their mother’s dresser.”
Within a few weeks, scores of Argentines
were flooding into the embassy daily to report
missing loved ones. Tex singlehandedly docu-
mented the disappearances of 15,000 people,
even as the United States was still character-
izing the phenomenon as a mysterious by-
product of the right-wing militias’ struggle with
left-wing terrorists. In truth, as the stacks of
notecards Tex compiled would prove, Argenti-
na’s military leaders had what he called “a clear
intention to exterminate” anyone who opposed
them. Even children and babies were seized
from parents deemed to be dissidents.
At first, U.S. Ambassador Raul Castro and the
entire embassy staff applauded Tex’s detailed
AFSA/JOAQUIN SOSA
reporting. And President Jimmy Carter’s admin-

istration began signaling its growing disapproval
of the junta—one of the first cases of a U.S. presi-
AFSA President Eric Rubin (left) presents F. Allen “Tex” Harris with the AFSA dent basing critical diplomatic decisions on how
Achievement and Contributions to the Association Award at the AFSA Awards a foreign government treated its own citizens.
Ceremony on Oct. 16, 2019. But as bilateral relations chilled, Tex came under
applauded the junta for the anticommunist stability it pur- increasing pressure, both from the front office and the Argentine
ported to represent, but the embassy soon learned of wide- government, to stop dwelling on the thousands of victims and put
spread, systematic efforts to stifle dissent through kidnappings, a positive spin on developments.
torture and killings. Instead, he went public, regularly appearing with the Mothers
In October 1977, shortly after Tex arrived in Buenos Aires, the of the Plaza de Mayo at their demonstrations against the regime.
political counselor asked him to pursue what was then a brand- When the embassy stopped transmitting his cables, Tex used
new facet of diplomatic tradecraft: human rights reporting. airgrams, memoranda of conversation and formal-informal let-
Tex readily agreed—on the condition that the embassy relax its ters—none of which required front office clearance—to convey
long-standing restrictions on entry by private Argentines, so that his findings and recommendations to State via classified pouch.
he could interview anyone who wanted to discuss the disappear- One of his reports resulted in the cancellation of a U.S.
ance (and presumed death) of a relative, friend or colleague. government loan guarantee worth hundreds of millions of
Tex then printed up business cards and went to Buenos dollars to an American corporation that was to supply turbine
Aires’ central square to hand them out. He worked closely with manufacturing technology to a front corporation owned by the
the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, the renowned advocates for Argentine Navy—which was carrying out much of the torture
“los desaparecidos,” and invited its members to visit him at the and killing. (Embassy Buenos Aires had not previously reported
embassy. that affiliation to Washington.)
“What I did in Argentina was to open the doors and, for the His courageous role during that period has been profiled on
first time, to talk to the people,” Tex told Bill Moyers in a 1984 TV, in print, online and in AFSA’s 2003 edition of Inside a U.S.
“Frontline” interview on PBS. As he explained, “This was not an Embassy, and has been cited by AFSA and others as a prime
ad hoc, spur-of-the-moment vigilante group, but a concerted example of what professional diplomacy can accomplish in the
program of the military government to eliminate entire groups of face of internal opposition.
people that they deemed to be subversives in their society. There Tex knew that his performance evaluations would suffer as

a result of what his supervisors regarded as insubordination,
but he was sanguine about never becoming an ambassador. He Tex Harris, one of the most
was identified for selection-out based on a claim that he was not consequential individuals in
producing enough reporting—even as the embassy refused to AFSA’s history, showed what
disseminate his cables—but an independent review overturned
that finding.
professional diplomacy can
In 1984, AFSA presented Tex with the William R. Rivkin accomplish in the face of internal
Award for Constructive Dissent by a Mid-Level Officer for the and external opposition.
“courage, strength of character and dedication to the Foreign
Service” he demonstrated in Buenos Aires. The award specified
that Harris displayed not only “physical courage” in the face of
credible threats to his and his family’s lives, but “bureaucratic and negotiating the core labor-management agreements in the
courage to stand up for what was right despite unnecessary foreign affairs agencies, and was one of the four drafters of the
obstacles placed in his way.” 1976 legislation that led to the Foreign Service grievance system.
And in 1993, with the benefit of 15 years of historical hind- He served two terms as AFSA president, from 1993 to 1997,
sight, the State Department conferred the Distinguished Honor fighting against reductions in force at USAID, government
Award on Tex for his reporting from Argentina. The damage was shutdowns, the appointment of unqualified political ambas-
done, however. Although his Foreign Service career would last sadors and major management abuses (such as classifying dip-
another 20 years after Buenos Aires, it was effectively stalled. lomatic security protective detail agents as “managers” to avoid
His commitment to truth-telling continued during a detail payment of millions of dollars of overtime). He succeeded in
to the Environmental Protection Agency in the early 1980s. Tex gaining significant benefit increases for service overseas.
was the first person Anne Gorsuch, President Ronald Reagan’s After retiring from the Foreign Service in 1999, Tex contin-
Environmental Protection Agency administrator, fired for his ued his close involvement with AFSA. In 2000, he was instru-
efforts as head of the International Activities Office to ban chlo- mental in the creation of the F. Allen “Tex” Harris Award for
rofluorocarbons, which were destroying atmospheric ozone. Constructive Dissent by a Foreign Service Specialist, to bring
Overseas, he served in Durban and Melbourne, his final the same recognition to specialists for their intellectual cour-
posting, where he was consul general. He retired from the For- age as the association had been giving Foreign Service officers
eign Service in 1999. for more than three decades. The criteria for the Harris Award
are phrased in a way that define his life and legacy: “To take an
From Young Turk to “Mr. AFSA” unpopular stand, to go out on a limb, or to stick his/her neck out
In announcing his passing, AFSA rightly hailed Tex Harris as in a way that involves some risk.”
“one of the most consequential individuals in the history of the The AFSA membership elected Tex to multiple terms in the
association, and a man who defined the term ‘larger than life.’” 2000s and 2010s as secretary and as a retiree representative—
Over the past 50 years, Tex made enormous contributions enabling him to continue contributing to setting AFSA’s agenda
to AFSA and the Foreign Service. In 1969 he joined with fellow and policies.
“Young Turks” Lannon Walker, Charles Bray, Herman “Hank”
Cohen and others to ensure that American diplomats had a Continuing to Make a Difference
clear voice in establishing the standards for their profession, For many years, Tex ran a one-man listserv, “AFSATEX,” and
and that AFSA was an institution that would defend both the was active in several of AFSA’s sister organizations that work to
Service and its members. advance the interests of the Foreign Service. He served several
As an attorney, Tex was AFSA’s in-house counsel in the early terms on the board of directors of the Association for Diplo-
to mid-1970s. He went on to serve as vice president for the State matic Studies and Training, and produced the ADST video/
Department constituency on the Governing Board from 1973 podcast series Tales of American Diplomacy, which screened its
to 1976, during which time he worked with William Harrop and first “TAD Talk” episode on C-Span in November 2019. Tex was
Thomas Boyatt to turn AFSA into an effective union representing also the host of the Foreign Affairs Retirees of Maryland and
all Foreign Service employees. He was instrumental in drafting D.C. until his death.

Service. During the ceremony he gave a typically rousing speech,
In 1993, with the benefit of which had the audience cheering him loudly. It was Tex at his best,
15 years of historical hindsight, and the honor was well deserved.
the State Department conferred In recent years, Tex had turned his focus to climate change and
climate diplomacy, arguing that the Foreign Service has a critical
the Distinguished Honor Award role in combating global warming under the voluntary National
on Tex for his reporting from Determined Commitments regime established in the Paris
Argentina. Accords.
“The U.S. Foreign Service will be called on to meet its
greatest challenge since the Cold War in convincing elites and
Widely referred to as “Mr. AFSA,” Tex also remained in general publics in more than 200 nations to ‘ratchet up’ their
contact with scores of retired Foreign Service colleagues from national voluntary cuts in fossil fuel usage to save the planet
the last 50 years—sharing information and connecting them with from further overheating,” he said. “We have probably already
other colleagues to discuss major issues facing today’s Foreign lost the coral reefs, much of the Arctic ice and low-lying areas
Service. He was also an active member of the group of former AFSA of Alexandria, Miami Beach and Lower Manhattan to global
presidents who advise AFSA and other Foreign Service groups. warming. American diplomacy must lead the way to protect
In October 2019, AFSA presented Tex with its Award for the planet from major damage.”
Achievement and Contributions to the Association, celebrating Never one to shy away from big ideas and actions to match,
his half-century of tireless support of AFSA and the career Foreign Tex Harris remained true to himself until the very end. n
Remembrances
Integrity, Compassion, Loyalty
Tex was my oldest, best Foreign Service friend. Almost 52 years ago
I was temporarily detailed from within the Economic Bureau to the
front office to serve as a staff assistant with Tex. We worked hand
in glove and quickly bonded, a bond that grew every time we were
both in Washington and became even tighter after we retired. Our
career experiences were sufficiently similar—serving mostly in the
developing world, with the exception being Australia for both of us.
I even had a brief time on the AFSA Governing Board when he was
president.
When I reflect on why our friendship prospered, I also ask
myself what made him an iconic figure in our professional diplo-
COURTESY OF CLYDE TAYLOR
macy, touching and earning the respect of hundreds. His uncom-

mon values and virtues stand out: integrity, loyalty, intellectual
curiosity, compassion and genuine love of people. What for others
might have been despairing frustration with bureaucracy or incur-
able indifference was for Tex a challenge to persuade and co-opt. During Orvis fishing trip on the Shenandoah River with Clyde
Whether in difficult places or in leadership of AFSA, Tex was Taylor, April 2000.

AFSA campaign along with Bill Harrop, Tom Boyatt and Hank
Cohen, among others. Winning the representation election by
a solid margin, they had recast AFSA. Tex later served as AFSA
COURTESY OF CLYDE TAYLOR
president and held other positions over the years, coming to

epitomize the organization for many of its members.
Retirement brought no slowdown in his activism. He con-
tinued to work for AFSA, undertook speaking engagements, ran
Tex with daughter Julie, and Clyde and Ginny Taylor, at a Redskins a D.C.-area foreign policy forum, continued his advocacy for
game, October 2000.
human rights (most notably with Jimmy Carter), and supported
the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, establishing
exemplary in dominating an issue, identifying options and muster- its video program. But his true love, apart from dear Jeanie and
ing support for success. I never knew him to walk away from a the kids, was his computer “nest” from which he directed infor-
problem or be first to leave the negotiating table. mation (and occasional action) and internet threads on topical
Tex loved to recall actions of our colleagues, the more outra- issues, national and international. He was tireless and irrepress-
geous the better, which made for memorable lunches. And he ible. AFSATEX1 is now silent, but he will not be forgotten.
was fun. Once, we went fishing at Great Falls, at least that was —Jack Binns
the goal. As we headed for the riverbank, I constantly “lost”
Tex as he “met a new friend” on the trail, exchanging busi-
ness cards, of course. I had landed a nice bass when he caught Serving AFSA
up, and heard him out about a new friend who had a factory
making pressed wood, which he would later visit. I was about I first met Tex in person in 2008 to talk about my running for
to release my fish when Tex grabbed it for dinner, despite my AFSA president. We connected initially over our common love
warning that it had enough mercury to show temperature. of the Foreign Service and professional diplomacy, and over the
The other fishing story is from the Orvis Fly-Fishing School in years, his love of AFSA, which I came to share. His sincerity and
Luray. I prize a picture of Tex, in waders, his Texas hat and whatever deep AFSA experience made him a persuasive advocate and
else came out of his amazing wardrobe, coming toward the guides played a role in my decision to run back then. His energetic sup-
and me. They just stared at him in disbelief before joining my port was key to my election.
uncontrollable laughter. Yes, he was a nice version of the abomi- You could count on Tex to speak his mind, even when—or
nable snowman, all 6’7’’ of him. I already miss him so very much. especially when—he knew what he had to say would probably
—Clyde D. Taylor not be welcomed. That’s one of the reasons his participation on
any team was so valuable.
Over the next decade we shared many conversations and
The Advocate many hours at meetings, meals and events. We became friends,
allies and comrades in the context of the Foreign Service, AFSA,
We miss him already. dissent, and later, ADST and capturing the legacy of American
F. Allen “Tex” Harris had presence, was a giant intellectually, post–World War II diplomacy through the oral histories of its
as well as physically, and possessed crystalline integrity. He was frontline practitioners. Recently, Tex partnered with ADST on
a good-humored, relentless and effective advocate for human his “Tales of American Diplomacy” project—one that brought
rights, the environment and the Foreign Service. His efforts together his love of new technology and of the Foreign Service.
invariably made a difference. He was also an outstanding human It’s a project we are determined to carry on in his honor.
being and colleague, and a true friend. Tex’s moral courage, integrity and ubiquitous advocacy for
We first met in 1971, just as AFSA was gearing up to become just causes, never for himself, inspire us all and earned him
the bargaining agent for FS employees, pursuant to President widespread recognition as a diplomat who made a difference in
Nixon’s E. O. 11491, which established a new framework for many lives. He was a true champion. He will be deeply missed
government labor relations. and long remembered.
It was an exciting time. Tex had been a leading figure in the —Susan Johnson

Tex, in his capacity as an AFSA officer, became that champion.
He was personally offended by the injustice done to Charles
Thomas and his family, and equally offended by the system that
enabled such treatment. He was determined to remedy the indi-
vidual and institutional situations.
For seven years, beginning in 1969, Tex fought for the legisla-
COURTESY OF IAN HOUSTON
tive enactment of a grievance system for the Foreign Service.

As a passionate leader, he conceived how such a system would
function, helped draft the details and built a coalition headed by
Indiana Senator Birch Bayh (Charles Thomas was a constituent).
Tex was relentless and maintained his optimism while treating
Tom Boyatt and Tex Harris pose for a snapshot while working
Capitol Hill. his opponents without any personal malice.
Finally, in 1976 it all came together. Cynthia Thomas prevailed
in her lawsuit against the State Department and herself became
The Happy Warrior an FSO. The department, reacting to the sunshine on its record
created by Tex and others, admitted that due to “clerical error,”
It is very hard for me to visualize a world without Tex. For 50 the personnel folder on the wrong Charles Thomas had been sent
years we battled together to secure an AFSA victory in union to the Selection Board that ended Thomas’ career. The Bayh bill
elections to represent all Foreign Service personnel; to structure creating a grievance system for the Foreign Service was passed by
an employee–management system enabling us to negotiate both houses, signed by President Gerald Ford and subsequently
“personnel policies and procedures” with the foreign affairs incorporated into the Foreign Service Act of 1980 as Chapter 11.
agencies; and to establish an independent grievance system Later in the very good year of 1976, White House Chief of
to provide for individual challenges to administrative decisions Staff Don Rumsfeld arranged for President Ford to send a letter
before an impartial judge. to Cynthia apologizing for what the system had done to her hus-
Tex Harris was a huge (physically and operationally) pres- band and the family, and expressing the hope that an improved
ence in all of these struggles, but in achieving a grievance system system would prevent such things in the future. Charles Thomas
enshrined in statute his heroic efforts became legendary. was posthumously reinstated in the Foreign Service at the rank
This is a Foreign Service tale that needs he previously held, and his family received
to be retold every generation. It also serves the appropriate survivor annuity. (Kudos to
as a metaphor for all of those qualities that John Naland for discovering this lovely story
made Tex the unique tribune of the people while researching presidential libraries.)
that he was. So let us think for a moment about how
The drive for a grievance system was this vignette illustrates what we have lost with
sparked by an individual case. In the late the passing of Tex. Gone is an implacable foe
1960s Charles Thomas, a rising star in the of all forms of injustice, a happy warrior who
Foreign Service, was suddenly selected out fought for his beliefs without malice toward
without an annuity. No one would explain to opponents, a constant friend, a passionate
him, or later to his widow, Cynthia, how this Foreign Service leader who loved the Service
could have happened. The total opacity of the and every member thereof, a 6’7”, 350-pound
AFSA/FSJ AUGUST 1993
Foreign Service rating and promotion system Texan who was all heart.
was fiercely defended by State management. Our consolation is that Tex’s achieve-
Distraught over his treatment and his ments will live on in our hearts and in the
inability to support his family, Charles clan memories of the Foreign Service of
In 1993, Tex Harris was elected for
Thomas took his own life. His widow, with the United States. We shall not see his like
his first term as president of AFSA,
two small children to support, was in a des- heading the new Governing Board again soon.
perate situation. She needed a champion. that took office on July 15. —Thomas D. Boyatt

Everything about Tex was outsized. His energy and enthusi-
asm; his outlook and optimism; his spirit and voice; his vision
and influence; his interests and engagement; his height and
The End of Apartheid girth; and his heart (hard to believe that gave out); even his
walker was Texas-sized. And his passing means that the hole in
Tex and I first met in 1972 when I was the all of our lives will be equally outsized.
Congo desk officer in the Bureau of African —Thomas “Ted” E. McNamara
Affairs, and he was on the board of AFSA work-
ing to make the association eligible to become
the Foreign Service’s collective bargaining
unit. Since I had both training and experience
COURTESY OF IAN HOUSTON

as a labor attaché, he asked me to organize a
“Members’ Interests Committee,” which I did.
Our work was essentially to field incoming
correspondence from AFSA members who
requested help with problems related to work- Tex Harris, back center, with Senator Richard Lugar (R-Ind.), chairman of the Senate
ing conditions abroad. As a result, we were Foreign Relations Committee, following a meeting with the senator on Capitol Hill
in 2007. From left: AFSA USAID VP Francisco Zamora, AFSA Executive Director Ian
able to help quite a few members and estab-
Houston, Harris, Lugar, and Ambassadors (ret.) Thomas Boyatt and Willard “Bill”
lish a list of areas requiring reform through DePree.
eventual negotiations with management. For
example, we were able to persuade manage-
ment to include kindergarten in the overseas educational allow- at his dinner table for frank discussions. I fully believe that Tex
ance. We also arranged for an increase in international personal played an important role in bringing the younger generation of
effects weight allowance for secretarial and communications white South Africans to understand that the apartheid system
personnel. was doomed to fail economically, and that it had to end for the
Tex was vigorous in support of these improvements in work- greater good of the nation.
ing conditions in his dialogue with management. In the whites-only election of 1989, the new president,
Later, when I was senior director for Africa on the National F.W. de Klerk, made the momentous decision to begin negotia-
Security Council staff (1986-1987), Tex was the U.S. consul gen- tions to transition from apartheid to democratic majority rule.
eral in Durban, South Africa. The minority-rule apartheid system De Klerk told me in confidence he was planning to do this in
was still in force, with full racial segregation and discrimination Durban after Tex brought us together.
24/7. During my visits to Durban, I saw the unique Tex Harris style Our final collaboration took place from 1989 to 1993 when I
that drew intellectuals from all of the races to come together was assistant secretary of State for Africa. Tex was my director
for regional affairs, a job that took him into a variety of sectors.
After we decided to start promoting democracy in Africa, I asked
USAID/Africa if it could plan to finance relevant programs in
selected African countries. The USAID office replied that it did
economic development, not democracy. Tex did some investi-
gating and found that USAID had been doing major democracy
promotion projects in Latin America since the 1930s. As a result,
USAID agreed to do similar projects in sub-Saharan Africa.
Tex had two qualities that made him an invaluable colleague.
He was always determined to do what was right and morally
justified, and he had the courage to stand up for his principles.
AFSA/FSJ JUNE 1974
Secondly, he never gave up. He kept pushing until he achieved

the objective. And he did all that serious work while maintaining
a fabulous sense of humor.
Tex Harris, Tom Boyatt, Lois Roth and Hank Cohen testify at the And on Saturdays, we played touch football.
Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearings, March 12, 1974. —Herman J. “Hank” Cohen

Help Honor Tex Harris
P lease help AFSA perpetuate one of the signature

legacies of this giant of our profession by donating to
permanently endow the Tex Harris Award for Constructive
Nelson B. Delavan Foundation, thanks to Ambassador (ret.)
William Harrop and Mrs. Ann Delavan Harrop, AFSA hopes
to raise an additional $50,000 so that this important award
Dissent by a Foreign Service Specialist. can be funded in perpetuity. Toward that goal, the Foreign
Tex championed the creation of this award in 1999 at Affairs Retirees of Northern Virginia have pledged $1,000
a time when AFSA dissent awards honored only Foreign and the Foreign Affairs Retirees of Maryland and Washing-
Service officers. Since then, 14 specialists have been rec- ton, D.C., pledged $500.
ognized. Funding for the $4,000 cash award is currently We hope AFSA members and retiree groups will join us to
taken from the general AFSA budget; but in memory of support a fitting living memorial to our friend Tex.
Tex, AFSA seeks to raise funds to permanently endow the To donate, please go to www.afsa.org/donate or send a
award. check (“Tex Harris Award” on memo line) to AFSA, c/o Tex
With a generous seed donation of $10,000 from the Harris Award, 2101 E Street NW, Washington DC 20037.
Larger Than Life Tex: “There is not a substantive bone

in that great body.” He meant that
His many friends would say, “Tex is big- Tex was concerned with the welfare,
ger than life,” thinking of his ebullience, family support, fair treatment, career
good nature and unselfish consider- ladder and effectiveness of America’s
ation for others more than of his great, professional diplomats more than the
prepossessing physical stature. He cared foreign policy they conducted. That, in
deeply about people, most particularly, of fact, is AFSA’s mandate, although the
course, the people of the Foreign Service, rest of us were more involved in policy
but really all people. This identification issues aside from our AFSA responsi-
with humanity led to his now-celebrated bilities.
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
achievements in Buenos Aires—a perfor- Tex wanted all points of view to be

mance bold and career-threatening at the heard on every question. He wanted
time, but later appreciated as a vindica- everyone to be informed and engaged,
tion of Jimmy Carter’s vision of American to have a say. First of all a communi-
F. Allen “Tex” Harris, State Department, in
responsibility for global human rights. cator, he maintained an active email
the 1980s.
Tex was an activist for human rights listserv with scores of recipients. Once
throughout his life, as well as for the Foreign Service. in a while his admirable support of comprehensive democracy
He was a competent lawyer and a passionate, persuasive could prove awkward for negotiations or decision-making, and
advocate. These were significant assets as AFSA struggled to his colleagues on the AFSA Governing Board would worry about
shape the executive order that would determine the relation- including Tex in the gestation of a sensitive issue not yet ripe for
ship of the Department of State to its Foreign Service employees. general debate. Anything Tex knew was soon available to the
Once, as chairman of AFSA, I was meeting with Under Secretary world.
for Management Bill Macomber to hash out a critical issue. The most loyal, patient and thoughtful friend imaginable
Finally, Macomber said, “OK, I’ll agree with your position—but throughout his too-short life, optimistic, considerate, warm-
on condition you not send Tex Harris over here again to argue hearted. If you were interested in gossip or bad-mouthing of
with us. It is too exhausting.” others, of anyone, Tex was not your man.
Lannon Walker, leader of the “Young Turk” reform movement I loved Tex Harris and am not reconciled to losing him.
that changed AFSA and the Foreign Service forever, once said of —William Harrop

AFSA/FSJ SEPTEMBER 1996
A Constant Inspiring Presence
Tex was a Foreign Service guardian. Ever-present, he was AFSA,
and AFSA was Tex. I remember well sitting in the tiny closet of
During his second term as AFSA president, in August 1996,
a classified reading room at Embassy Bishkek in 1993, reading Tex Harris (at left) led a demonstration outside USAID
cables and finding the missives from AFSA President Tex Harris Administrator Brian Atwood’s office to demand “better
to be most enjoyable. I don’t remember what he said, but his management” at the agency, where reductions-in-force (RIFs)
were decimating Foreign Service ranks. AFSA USAID VP Frank
messages made me feel like I was part of something bigger than
Miller is at right.
myself, bigger than my post.
Later, throughout my time with The Foreign Service Journal,
Tex was there too, as a cheerleader for the Service and for the Joining the Bray Board
Journal, always concerned about some new injustice and always
advocating for the members of the Foreign Service. He appreci- I was shocked to hear that Tex Harris died less than two weeks
ated and valued the magazine in a way few others have. I am after enjoying an email exchange with him that called up
forever grateful for his support and understanding. memories of our work together in 1970, when I recruited him to
When I last spoke with him, in the middle of the October an open spot on Charlie Bray’s AFSA Governing Board so that
2019 reception after he’d received AFSA’s Award for Achieve- he could help us win the Foreign Service vote turning AFSA into
ment and Contributions to the Association, we had a great a union to protect our rights.
talk about the Speaking Out column he was going to write on Tex went to work wholeheartedly, a firm support for AFSA
climate change for an upcoming issue of the Journal. Although over all this time, including his presidency. Although we had
he won’t be writing that article, the spirit of his commitment to been out of touch for years, we picked up a couple of weeks
making the world a better and more equitable place will live on ago, before I wrote this remembrance, where we had left off.
in the Journal, in AFSA and all who knew him. I recalled his characteristic gushing warmth as he described
—Shawn Dorman his continuing contact and friendship with our mutual AFSA
Onward friends. We discovered that we were both alumni of Princeton,
and he said he would meet me there at the 70th reunion of my
Tex sent me at least 1,000 emails over the 21 years since I first class in 2022. Although he has gone, his memory will long be
joined the AFSA Governing Board. The last was sent at 9:16 a.m. cherished.
on the day of his sudden illness and death. Typically, it was not —George Lambrakis
an action request for me, but rather an information copy about a
Foreign Service issue that he wanted others to be aware of. That
was vintage Tex. He was always working to share information and Australia Days
bring people together toward a common goal.
As the first two-term AFSA president (1993-1997), Tex sent I was a second-tour officer when Tex Harris arrived in Melbourne
almost weekly reports to the field via State Department telegram to as our new consul general. “I’m an ideas guy,” he told us. “Most of
keep members informed about AFSA’s advocacy on their behalf. His my ideas will be bad but a few will be good, and it’s your job to tell
messages often revealed some ill-conceived personnel policy being me the difference.”
considered by State or USAID. If agency management persisted in I took him up on his offer and was tasked straightaway with
pursuing that policy, they could be assured of reading about it a few raising our public diplomacy game. Tex was fond of U.S. Navy
days later in the Washington Post’s “In the Loop” government gossip ship visits—we put Australia’s top leaders on aircraft carriers and
column. Everyone knew where the Post got that information. American sailors to work on neighborhood projects.
I was honored to serve with Tex on several AFSA Governing His enthusiasm was infectious. I remember writing a cable
Boards. He cared deeply about diplomacy and the career Foreign on Australia’s rural-urban divide; it was probably noticed by one
Service. It is fitting that the last words of his last email to me were bored desk officer and an analyst or two in INR, but Tex heaped so
“Onward, Tex.” much praise on it I felt like George Kennan. When I screwed up, he
—John Naland didn’t hesitate to tell me that either, and I was always better for it.

CEDOC
Tex and his wife, Jeanie, in 1982 in Washington, D.C.
In a way, Tex was too big for little Melbourne—too big for
anywhere maybe—but the Australians couldn’t get enough of
him. And neither, I think, could the rest of the world. Everything
about Tex was big—his handshake, his laugh, his ideas and his
heart. He was the opposite of typical, as American as they come,
and truly one of a kind.
—Jim DeHart
Remembering Tex in South America

Memories about Tex Harris surfaced often during a cruise I just
completed around South America.
There was the square in Buenos Aires where women still com-
memorate each Thursday those family members who disappeared
under the Argentine junta. Fearlessly, Tex took the physical and
bureaucratic risks needed to expose these atrocities.
In Lima, memories of Tex were heightened with the news
that former U.N. Secretary General Pérez de Cuéllar had died.
To cope with war and famine in Africa’s Greater Horn, 1984-85,
State Refugee Bureau leadership intervened with de Cuéllar
to launch the U.N. Organization for Emergency Operations in
Africa, described later as “The U.N.’s Finest Hour.” But it took Tex
Harris, head of the bureau’s emergency unit, tirelessly mentoring
and facilitating from alongside the U.N. field effort, to enable it to
clinch that extraordinary title.
That was vintage Tex, bigger than life, typically in the toughest
humanitarian arenas, and forever now in our hearts.
—Arthur E. “Gene” Dewey
Outsized Loss
What a loss!
Everything about Tex was outsized. His energy and enthusi-
asm; his outlook and optimism; his spirit and voice; his vision
and influence; his interests and engagement; his height and
girth; and his heart (hard to believe that gave out); even his
walker was Texas-sized. And his passing means that the hole in
all of our lives will be equally outsized. n
—Thomas “Ted” E. McNamara

IN MEMORY
Editor’s note: The January-February from 1962 to 1965 (St. Lucia and South hegan, Maine. He served in the Navy
FSJ included an obituary for Mr. War- Korea) and from 1979 to 1986 (Somalia in Asmara, Eritrea, and then joined the
ren Carl Putman with his name spelled and Washington, D.C.). Foreign Service in the 1960s as a com-
incorrectly. We regret the error and are During his overseas career, he also municator. He worked overseas for 30
republishing the corrected obituary here. worked for several USAID contractors. years, in London, Djakarta (now Jakarta),
He took time off twice to run his own Moscow, Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh
n Warren Carl Putman, 93, a retired businesses, including Ramier Estate in City), Bangui, Niamey, Bonn, Abidjan,
Foreign Service officer with USAID, St. Lucia where he raised tropical flowers, Kinshasa and Pretoria.
passed away on July 21 of cardiac failure vegetables, tree crops, forage and sheep. Mr. Hagopian contributed to training
at his farm, Hawk’s Ridge, in West Vir- He continued consulting after retire- a new generation of information manage-
ginia. ment. In 1995, he moved to a farm in ment specialists, first as instructor and
Mr. Putman was born in Woodhaven, rural West Virginia where he bred and then as branch chief, at the Warrenton
N.Y., on Dec. 24, 1925. He went to high sold Boykin spaniels. Training Center in Virginia. He retired out
school in Lambertville, N.J. At 17, he Mr. Putman was an avid hunter, deep of Asmara, returning full circle to where
joined the Navy to become a pilot but sea fisherman, skier and sailor. Friends he had started overseas in the Navy.
was told there were enough pilots in say he was a great storyteller. Some of his After retiring, Mr. Hagopian contin-
the program. Instead, he was sent to tales can be found in his self-published ued for another 15 years in the Foreign
Williams College in Massachusetts to book, Put’s Tales. Service accompanying his wife, Patti
become an officer. One of Mr. Putman’s more memo- Hagopian, on her tours in Mbabane,
Impatient to join World War II, he rable experiences was a 10-day trek on Asunción, Lilongwe, Tokyo, Tashkent,
decided to get himself expelled by break- foot across northern Tanzania when Ouagadougou and Yaoundé.
ing windows. The Navy then sent him he helped a Maasai pal move a herd of At these posts, Mr. Hagopian served
to submarine school in New London, cattle. He traveled with only water, a variously as a community liaison officer,
Conn. About to board a train to begin local “thimbo” and a rifle. general services assistant, facilities
his deployment to the Pacific, he and Mr. Putman’s wife of 42 years, Patri- maintenance assistant, security escort
a couple other mates were selected to cia, who accompanied him on all his and information management assistant.
spend the rest of the war selling war long-term assignments, died in 1994. He was an avid softball, tennis, dart
bonds on the recently captured German Since 1995 he has been with Dorothy and card player. He played in numer-
submarine, the U505. Carlson, who survives him. ous international softball tournaments
He received an honorable discharge He is also survived by a son, Duncan and while retired in Florida spent four
from the Navy Submarine Service in (and his wife Jeanette Dickerson-Put- mornings a week playing softball. He
1946. Mr. Putman’s memorabilia from man) of Keuka Park, N.Y.; two daughters: especially enjoyed pitching. In Florida
his time on the U505 were donated to Diana, an FSO with USAID (and her hus- leagues, he was often “designated run-
the Museum of Science and Industry in band Adam Messer) of Carlisle, Pa., and ner,” and his speed gave him the nick-
Chicago, where the submarine is housed. Alexandra of Poughkeepsie, N.Y.; three name “Hurricane Floyd.”
Returning to civilian life, Mr. Putman granddaughters: Kristen Corl, Bridget Friends remember Mr. Hagopian for
earned a bachelor’s degree in agricul- Laubacker and Clarissa Messer; and one his easygoing manner and great sense of
ture and animal husbandry at Rutgers great-granddaughter, Claire Corl. humor.
University in 1950. Following graduation, He is survived by his wife, Patti, their
he used his GI Bill benefits to attend the n Floyd Hagopian, 75, a retired two daughters, and his brother and sister.
Sorbonne in Paris for a year and to travel information management officer and
extensively around Europe. In Europe, the spouse of retired Office Management n Samuel Charles Keiter, 88,
he observed the Marshall Plan in action, Specialist Patti Hagopian, died on Jan. 1 a retired Foreign Service officer, died
fueling his interest in international in Sebastian, Fla., after a relatively brief on Jan. 8 at Buckingham’s Choice, a retire-
development. battle with aggressive lymphoma. ment community in Adamstown, Md.,
Mr. Putman served with USAID twice, Mr. Hagopian was born in Skow- where he had lived for the past 20 years.

Mr. Keiter was born in March 1931, at dicted, the Eastern province (Cyrenaican) Mr. Keiter won trophies in both. He loved
the hospital of the University of Chicago, tribes did not rise up to protect King Idris, to sing. His children remember that he
where his father, an ordained Lutheran who went into exile in Egypt. sang them a song every night at bedtime
minister, was completing his Ph.D. in After three years in the Office of when they were small, and he resumed
education. Southern African Affairs in Washing- singing in barbershop quartets and other
In 1936 the family moved to Oneonta, ton, Mr. Keiter was assigned to Burundi groups in retirement.
N.Y., where his father had become a as deputy chief of mission. He arrived In addition to his wife, Dolores, Mr.
professor at Hartwick College. Mr. Keiter shortly after a massacre of the majority, Keiter leaves three children, Deborah
attended Oneonta High School, graduat- but less powerful, Hutu by Tutsis. Fol- Keiter Moore (and husband Chris),
ing in 1948 as valedictorian. lowing the massacre, the United States Timothy S. Keiter (and wife Kay) and
Mr. Keiter graduated from Carleton provided food aid in Burundi, particu- Christopher F. Keiter (and wife Betsy),
College in Minnesota in 1952 with a larly for mother/child clinics. all of Maine; seven grandchildren; one
degree in government and international Catholic Relief Services, responsible great-grandson; sisters Margaret Wales,
relations. He then spent a year in Den- for distribution of the food aid, sent Mary McCarty and Miriam Solloway
mark as a Fulbright scholar. He earned nurse Dolores Deveau to Burundi to visit (and husband Fred); and many nieces
a master’s degree in Middle East studies the clinics and make sure the food was and nephews.
at the School of Advanced International being used appropriately. She and Mr.
Studies in Washington, D.C. Keiter married in April 1975. n Richard Chris Lundberg, 74,
As a Ford Foundation Fellow based in That year, he was assigned to the State a retired Foreign Service officer, died
Cairo from 1955 to 1956, he traveled from Department’s Office of Aviation. From on Jan. 9 in Vienna, Va.
Tehran to Casablanca, making stops in 1977 to 1981 he was the U.S. civil aviation Born on Oct. 12, 1945, Mr. Lundberg
Israel and Sudan. A high point was two attaché in London. graduated from Queens College in New
weeks spent with an Egyptian family in a After a year at what was then the York with a bachelor’s degree in history
village near Luxor. Industrial College of the Armed Forces, and a master’s degree in education.
In 1957 Mr. Keiter became a Foreign he returned to the Office of Aviation, He became a junior high and middle
Service officer with the State Depart- becoming chief of the Aviation Negotia- school teacher in New York City in
ment. He was also drafted into the U.S. tions Division. He headed several nego- 1968. After nine years, his desire to help
Army, where he served for two years in tiation teams, including one to Moscow make a difference in the world, plus
the Carolinas and Georgia as an eco- that reestablished direct flights between his love of travel and languages, drove
nomic specialist before taking up his the United States and the Soviet Union. him to change careers. He joined the
position with the State Department. In 1986 Mr. Keiter retired from the U.S. Foreign Service with the United
His Foreign Service career was Foreign Service and joined Kurth and States Information Agency and, later, the
divided almost evenly between Wash- Co., an aviation consulting company Department of State.
ington and overseas posts. He spent four that focused on economic issues. While Mr. Lundberg’s overseas career took
years as an economic officer in Tunisia, the company tackled many issues, its him to five countries. He began as a
and three years as principal officer of the primary focus was helping U.S. airports junior officer in Warsaw in 1978 and next
U.S. consulate in Bayda, Libya—near the attract more air service. served as the branch public affairs officer
Greek ruins at Cyrene—where King Idris Mr. Keiter retired from Kurth and Co. in Poznan.
was building a new capital. in 1999, and the couple moved to Buck- For a history major, Poznan was
Mr. Keiter served as the embassy’s ingham’s Choice retirement community a memorable assignment because it
contact with the foreign ministry and near Frederick, Md., in 2000. There encompassed the time of traditional
interpreter for the U.S. ambassador’s Mr. Keiter was active in the residents’ communist rule, the rise of Solidarity,
meetings with the king, who avoided association for 14 years. He was also the threat of Soviet invasion and the
Tripoli, the existing capital. Shortly before active in the Maryland Continuing Care imposition of martial law.
Col. Gaddafi seized power in September Residents Association. His next assignments were also excit-
1969, Mr. Keiter left Libya. As he had pre- An avid player of bridge and tennis, ing and challenging in their own way.

Mr. Lundberg went on to Helsinki as an Mrs. Lundy was born in Atlanta, Ga., In January 1961 Mr. Podol’s first
assistant cultural affairs officer, and then on July 11, 1938, and grew up mostly in assignment with USAID took him
to post-Ceausescu Bucharest as infor- Athens, Ga. She moved to the Washing- to Ankara, where he met his future
mation officer. He also served as public ton, D.C., area in 1955 and graduated wife, Betty, who was also employed
affairs officer in Reykjavík and Tallinn. from American University, cum laude, in by USAID. The couple was married in
Mr. Lundberg’s overseas postings were 1959 with a major in history. Ankara in 1962, and their two children
interspersed with Washington assign- In April 1960 she married FSO Walter were born there.
ments. Those included program officer A. Lundy and was employed by the CIA During his 29-year diplomatic career,
for the U.S. Speakers Program in Eastern for a year and a half until departing for Mr. Podol served in Turkey, Nepal, India,
Europe, office director of the U.S. Society her husband’s first overseas assignment Bangladesh and Tanzania, and was
and Values Office and, in the immediate in Colombo, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). mission director in Zaire and Uganda.
aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, the Bureau Early in 1965, she and her two small He retired from USAID in 1989 with the
of International Information Programs. children were evacuated with other Senior Foreign Service rank of Minister
He also served as a Congressional dependents from Saigon (now Ho Chi Counselor.
(Pearson) Fellow with the Bureau of Minh City), the Lundys’ second assign- After retirement, he and his wife lived
Human Resources and, later, as a career ment. Subsequently, the family served for four months in Prague, teaching
development officer. He retired in 2005. overseas in New Delhi, Tehran and English to Czech military officers.
Mr. Lundberg’s talent for learning Seoul. Mr. and Mrs. Podol both had a love
the language of each country enabled Mrs. Lundy taught English as a sec- of travel. They considered themselves
him to have close personal relationships ond language to Korean college stu- fortunate to have visited all 50 U.S. states,
with all his contacts. His ability as a dents in Seoul. In Washington, she also almost 130 countries and the seven
writer also earned him many accolades taught ESL, worked in the admissions continents.
throughout his career. office at Marymount University and was A lifelong Chicago Cubs fan, Mr.
Friends and family remember him for employed by USAID for several years as Podol and his wife watched all three
his kindness, sense of humor, loving per- an analyst. She was a resident of Arling- World Series games at Wrigley Field in
sonality, honesty, intellect and integrity. ton, Va., until moving to Goodwin House 2016. He coached Little League wherever
In lieu of flowers, donations may be in early 2017. he lived and took two of his teams to
made to the Salvation Army and the Mrs. Lundy is survived by her hus- their European World Series.
World Wildlife Fund in Mr. Lundberg’s band; three children, Lois Leinkram, After retirement, he delighted in play-
memory. Condolence messages may Charles Lundy and Susan Kampschror, ing softball with the Northern Virginia
be sent to Angelina Lundberg, 2434 all of whom live in the Northern Virginia Senior Softball League for 13 years.
McClintic Ct., Vienna VA 22180. suburbs; and eight grandchildren. At the Mr. Podol is survived by his wife of
Mr. Lundberg is survived by his wife time of her death, two great-grandchil- 57 years, Betty; daughter Beth in El Paso,
of almost 50 years, Ann. He had many dren were on the way. Texas; and son Edward, wife Claudia
relatives living in Fredonia, Jamestown and grandchildren Emma and Eric in
and Buffalo, N.Y. More loved ones are n Richard Lee Podol, 91, a retired Scottsdale, Ariz.
scattered across the United States—in Senior Foreign Service officer with
California, Delaware, Florida, Maryland, USAID, died peacefully on Feb. 19 at his n Patricia Anne Saunders Sills, 92,
Minnesota, New Jersey, New Mexico, home in Herndon, Va., after a long ill- a Foreign Service secretary to six
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas and Virginia. ness complicated by Parkinson’s disease. ambassadors, died on March 13. She
Mr. Podol was born on July 10, 1928, lived in Heritage Park in Sacramento,
n Mary Ann Lundy, 81, a Foreign in Chicago, Ill. He received his bachelor’s Calif.
Service spouse for 34 years, died of a and master’s degrees and a Ph.D. from Ms. Saunders was born in Rochester,
massive stroke on Jan. 8 at Goodwin the University of Iowa. In 1950 he was N.Y., on Jan. 2, 1927, the third of three
House Bailey’s Crossroads, in Falls drafted into the U.S. Army and served in children by Charles and Catherine Mur-
Church, Va. Korea during the war. ray Saunders. She attended Our Lady of

Mercy High School and then Bryant and Minister Counselor, he continued to con- with the Bureau of Personnel in Wash-
Stratton College. sult and provide his diplomatic services ington, D.C. During her tours, she took
In 1951 she joined the Foreign Service for an additional 20 years. up horseback riding and ikebana, the
and served as personal secretary to six Mr. Twohie served his country with Japanese art of flower arrangement.
ambassadors, with postings in Egypt, postings to Belgium, Libya, Iran, Turkey, Family members recall that they
Mexico, France, Belgium, Portugal and Cameroon, Nepal, Vietnam, Malaysia, loved to visit her, and that she was the
Washington, D.C. Germany and France, as well as Wash- consummate hostess. She entertained
When she retired in 1977, Ms. Saun- ington, D.C. them with stories of astronauts, diplo-
ders returned to Rochester and cared for Friends remember that his great- mats and other people she had met. She
her parents until their deaths in 1986. est joy was his family, on whom he introduced family and friends to many
She became a close friend of Rochelle bestowed unconditional love, guidance, foods and cultures.
Kashtan, who owned a small shop in laughter, kindness, adventure and travel. Ms. White also loved coming home
Rochester where Ms. Saunders worked Mr. Twohie is survived by his wife of to Tucson. After one of her early tours,
for several years. 62 years, Sandra DePaoli Twohie; daugh- she said that she simply had to visit Dis-
In 1989 she relocated to Sacramento ters Alexa Twohie O’Flynn, Andrea D. neyland and the Grand Canyon before
to be near her brother, Murray A. Twohie (Ron Franks) and Anne-Marie D. she saw any more of the world. On a
Saunders, and his wife, Doris. There, she Twohie; grandchildren Shane, Makenzy, whim, the family decided to join her.
worked for the law firm of Jean McEvoy. Declan, Luca, Silvio and Alessandra; and When she retired from the Foreign
In 2004 she retired and married wid- a great-grandson, Avram. Service in 1985, she moved to Tucson to
ower Thomas Allen Sills, and they lived be near her sister and brother-in-law,
in the North Natomas community of n Katherine Marguerite White, 93, Fran and Del Mickey. There, she pur-
Heritage Park. Mr. Sills died in 2010. a retired Foreign Service officer, died chased her first home, played golf and
Ms. Sills is survived by her stepfam- in Phoenix, Ariz., on March 12, from bridge with friends, watched opera and
ily: Ed and Wynette Sills; Catherine Sills; natural causes. spent time with family.
Rosemarie and Pike Oliver; Sara and Jim Ms. White, who was born in Hert- Ms. White was preceded in death by
Kersting; Katelyn, Jessica and Andrew ford, N.C., in 1926, was the middle child her sister, Frances, and brother-in-law,
Sills; Blake and Paul Oliver; Thomas of Irvin and Katherine Winslow White. Delbert Mickey, and a nephew, Dr. J.
Oliver; as well as nieces Barbara (Kate After her parents’ early deaths, she lived Randolph White.
Tucker) Laney, Sharon (Rick) Schnell with her grandfather and an aunt until She is survived by her brother, Dr. Irvin
and Debra (Marshall) Brown; and she graduated from Perquimans County L. White (Dr. Mary Hamilton) of Omaha,
nephew Mark (Ann) Saunders and sev- High School. Neb.; nephew David (Diane) White of
eral great-nieces and great-nephews. She studied commerce and math- Tulsa, Okla.; nieces Katherine (James)
In lieu of flowers, donations may be ematics at East Carolina University in Tune of Seattle, Wash.; Debra (James)
made to the Sacramento Food Bank or a Greenville, N.C., and began her career Larson of Phoenix, Ariz.; and many
charity of your choice. with Continental Life Insurance in grandnieces and grandnephews. n
Richmond, Va. Later, she moved to
n George Twohie, 86, a retired Pittsburgh, Pa., to join Gulf Oil, and If you would like us to
include an obituary
Senior Foreign Service officer of Reston, then to Tucson, Ariz., where she worked
in In Memory, please
Va., died on Dec. 3, 2019. at Valley National Bank (now Chase). send text to journal@
Born in New York City on March 4, Ms. White joined the Foreign Service afsa.org.
1932, he was the son of the late George in 1962 as a personnel assistant and
Be sure to include the date, place
Edward Twohie and Evelyn Rose Twohie later as a personnel officer. She was and cause of death, as well as details
and stepmother Caroline Twohie. posted to Tegucigalpa, Tokyo, Mon- of the individual’s Foreign Service
A veteran of the U.S. Army, Mr. Twohie tevideo, Quito, Mexico City, Madrid, career. Please place the name of the
enjoyed a 36-year career as a Foreign Ser- Kingston and Brasilia. AFSA member to be memorialized
in the subject line of your email.
vice officer. After retiring with the rank of She also had several tours of duty

BOOKS
Axis Diplomats exclusive resorts was descend the gangplanks of Swedish ocean
Held in Style favored over incarcera- liners onto neutral wharves in Lisbon and
tion in military prisons Lourenço Marques. Then their Axis coun-
Such Splendid Prisons: for the “Japs and Nazi terparts boarded the same ships, trading
Diplomatic Detainment in thugs” who became luxurious living in America for uncertainty
America during World War II hated enemies over- in their war-ravaged countries.
Harvey Solomon, Potomac Books/ night. As with many fine histories, Such
University of Nebraska Press, 2020, This detain- Splendid Prisons often reads like a
$34.95/hardcover, eBook available, ment, however, good novel with unexpected twists and
360 pages. represented a brave, turns, and a diverse cast of characters
brazen attempt to highlight the collective experience of
Reviewed by Peter F. Spalding by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to hundreds of Axis detainees.
improve the lot of our own diplomats There is, for instance, the suave, movie-
It is not every day that a significant piece and their families suddenly stranded in star-handsome acting German Ambas-
of neglected World War II diplomacy countries with whom we were at war. sador Hans Thomsen (his father was
comes to light, but it has done so in Such While managing this detainment, federal born in Norway, which accounts for his
Splendid Prisons. officials were also undertaking delicate Scandinavian last name) and his beautiful,
Through prodigious research, engag- negotiations with neutral countries such eccentric wife, Bébé, whose love of pets
ing, at times humorous, prose, and as Switzerland, Spain and Sweden to went so far as importing from Germany
unique photographs, Harvey Solomon repatriate U.S. diplomats trapped abroad. a squirrel that she’d have perched on her
brings to life the fascinating—but largely Another reason for the president’s shoulder during social functions.
forgotten—history of the detainment quick decision: British Prime Minister Others were sophisticated Japanese
of hundreds of Axis diplomats in the Winston Churchill was on his way across journalist Masuo Kato, a graduate of the
immediate aftermath of the Dec. 7, 1941, the U-boat infested North Atlantic aboard University of Chicago and suspected spy,
bombing of Pearl Harbor. the HMS Duke of York for an unannounced and an interracial couple who had been
Scores of Japanese, German, Italian White House parley, and FDR wanted longtime targets of the FBI: the Tennessean
and other Axis country diplomats, along the Axis diplomats out of their embassies Gwen Terasaki and Japanese diplomat
with their wives, children, mission staff before he arrived. Hidenari Terasaki who, unbeknownst to
and personal servants, were rounded up One particular by-product of this his wife, was the head of Japanese intel-
and summarily dispatched under guard on undertaking was a new practice that’s ligence in the United States.
trains from Union Station in Washington, still in effect today. On the night of Dec. The youngest detainee profiled is
D.C., to the poshest of resorts, including 7, 1941, shortly after the bombing, a State lively college coed Hildegard “Hildy”
the Greenbrier Hotel in West Virginia, Department official requested that a von Boetticher, daughter of German Mil-
the Homestead Hotel in Virginia and the security agent be assigned to accompany itary Attaché Friedrich von Boetticher. A
Grove Park Inn in North Carolina. Secretary Cordell Hull to the emergency graduate of the Sidwell Friends School,
Later in the war, there would be two Cabinet meeting at the White House. Hildy was a college senior in Virginia at
more stages. After Operation Torch in “The agent meets him at his resi- the time of Pearl Harbor.
November 1942, the Vichy French would dence, the Wardman Park Hotel, and Her older brother, institutionalized near
be sent to Hotel Hershey; and Japanese Hull acquiesces,” writes Solomon. “The Baltimore for treatment of schizophrenia,
diplomats captured in Germany in May next morning the agent again accom- could have been shot or hanged in accor-
1945 would be brought to the Bedford panies Hull to his office, marking the dance with Nazi purity laws had he been
Springs Hotel in Pennsylvania, safely beginning of the Secretary of State’s forced to return to Germany. His father
ensconced when the atomic bombs fell on protective detail that exists to this day.” asked Attorney General Francis Biddle to
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. The final act of the first stage of this intervene, and in the end, FDR allowed the
Not surprisingly, most Americans drama saw the American diplomats boy to remain in the United States under
couldn’t comprehend why detainment in detained in Germany, Japan and Italy the proviso that all costs for his treatment

FS Side Notes
R eviewer Peter Spalding tells us

that his maternal grandfather,
Edgar Prochnik, was the Austrian sive collection of memos and memorabilia
minister to the United States at overseen by the on-staff historian, Dr.
the time of the Anschluss and Robert Conte, the colorful descriptions of
declined the invitation of the the detainees’ lives rely on materials from
German ambassador to return to the National Archives, Library of Congress
Nazi-occupied Austria. and other repositories in the United States,
Prochnik later taught a seminar Germany and Japan.
on European diplomatic history at One tantalizing tidbit concerned Japa-
Georgetown University. Spalding nese Ambassador Kichisaburo Nomura,
once asked a student how he liked who ordered his staff to request only
the seminar. The student replied, minimal meals in the dining room to show
“Oh, we love it. Instead of an exam, camaraderie with their countrymen at
Prochnik gives a cocktail party!” It home suffering from wartime food short-
was a different time. ages. Meanwhile, he was having extrava-
s gant meals delivered by room service to his
Another retired FSO, Marc E. deluxe suite.
Nicholson, shared thoughts on Some detainees didn’t acknowledge
Such Splendid Prisons after attend- the decadence at all. In an especially
ing a talk on the book at Politics humorous incident, two German detain-
and Prose in Washington, D.C. He ees once appeared for dinner wearing
currently resides in the district, two sweaters. Reminded of Greenbrier’s strict
blocks from the former home of jacket-and-tie dress code by an elderly
Nazi Germany’s military attaché in headwaiter, one detainee said, “What the
Washington, who figures promi- hell are you talking about? This is just a
nently in the book. concentration camp anyway.”
Nicholson reports that author The headwaiter replied, “Maybe a con-
Harvey Solomon said he found the centration camp, all right—but deluxe.”
online archives of past FSJ editions Readers of Such Splendid Prisons get
from the 1930s and 1940s very an intriguing view of how FDR, the State
helpful to his research. The FSJ is Department, FBI, Immigration and Natu-
cited at various points in the book. ralization Service, and intelligence agencies
worked in unison and under tremendous
pressure to bring our diplomats safely
and stay be borne by a trust fund set up by home from wartorn countries while con-
the Boetticher family. currently having former allies turned war-
Solomon provides a vivid picture of time enemies returned to their countries.
life at the Greenbrier, in particular, where All in all, it’s a fascinating lesson in how
prime activities included gourmet dining diplomacy is meant to function and should
at ritzy restaurants (food included, alcohol enthrall American history buffs, current
extra), shopping in its high-end stores and and retired U.S. diplomats, and employees
even ordering from mail-order catalogues of the FBI and CIA whose predecessors
since the detainees continued to be paid played such crucial roles in this daring
their salaries. The Swiss liaison once operation. n
brought a suitcase containing $35,000 (the
equivalent of $545,000 today) to distribute. Peter F. Spalding is a retired Senior Foreign
In addition to the Greenbrier’s exten- Service officer.

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REFLECTIONS
Y2K, What Y2K?

B Y L I A N V O N WA N T O C H
L
ast year, when driving my mother’s tunity to participate in
2000 Volkswagen New Beetle, I all our preparations for
remembered we used to refer to Armageddon.
it affectionately as the Y2K Bug. I In the consular sec-
had not thought about Y2K itself for, well, tion, we alerted travelers
almost 20 years. to bring extra prescrip-
The other Y2K bug was a huge issue tions and cash (or trav-
in 1999. Would we be catapulted back to eler’s checks) while also
1900 because computers that had been reporting to Washington
LIAN VON WANTOCH

programmed to read dates as two digits that we expected the
rather than four switched from 99 to 00? usual influx of visitors at
Would the arteries of commerce and Christmastime. We had
communications seize up? Would there demonstrated during A carnival sound truck approaches the U.S. embassy. All
be another Chernobyl nuclear meltdown, the 1990 coup attempt Saints Anglican Church, adjacent to the embassy, is on the
or would embassy staff freeze to death in that our warden system right.
cold postings? could work without tele- and steam turbines, the newest of which
As a first-tour officer in Port of Spain, phones. After all, Trinidad is only 30 miles dated from 1985. Police and fire services
Trinidad and Tobago—and post’s Y2K wide at its center and about 50 miles long. had only just acquired computers.
coordinator—I found that all those risks Meanwhile, visa applicants took In contrast, the private sector, espe-
of the end of the world seemed pretty advantage of the Y2K preoccupation. cially banking, was well prepared. They
far away. What was the worst that could Instead of saying they had no demon- chivied the national telecom company to
happen? That we would be stuck on a strable savings to fund their purported test its equipment.
tropical island? vacation because they found the air condi- One of my most iconic Y2K memories
We assessed there would be no more tioning in banks unhealthy or were partic- was of overseeing the delivery of fuel
than the usual water and power outages. ipating in the sou-sou, a popular informal drums to supplement our embassy tank,
Civil unrest also seemed unlikely in a saving scheme, they now claimed it was which at full capacity would only keep the
country that was so straitlaced that it still owing to fears their money would be lost generator running for a fraction of the 30
had a law on its books forbidding swear- during Y2K if they kept it in a bank. days the State Department mandated.
ing on the stage (as our American Citizen In the political section, it was a bit of an The battered truck entered the com-
Services officer learned when an Ameri- uphill battle to get the government to take pound. Without fanfare, the driver and his
can rapper was arrested partway through the Y2K issue seriously. Critical infrastruc- assistant unhooked the side of the truck,
his performance and deported). ture in Trinidad and Tobago was gener- threw a couple old tires under the open-
But because I was on a consular/ ally not dependent on computers. Water, ing, and proceeded to roll the drums off
political rotation, with a six-week stint as when it flowed at all, did so by gravity. the end to bounce on the tires and tumble
general services officer, I had the oppor- Power generation was from low-tech gas to the curb, where our GSO employees
fetched them.
Lian von Wantoch joined the Foreign Service in 1998. In addition to Port of Flabbergasted, I grabbed the GSO
Spain, she has served in Washington, D.C, and in St. Petersburg, London, digital camera to record the delivery—and
Sarajevo, Kabul and Wellington. She is currently an inspector at the Office of document it in case of damage. These
Inspector General. The views expressed in this article are the author’s, and not were the first digital photos I ever took,
necessarily those of the U.S. government. and the camera was the size of a paper-

The Drop (a),
The Bounce (b)
and The Roll (c)—
the fuel delivery
process in Port of
Spain as the U.S.
a b c
LIAN VON WANTOCH
embassy prepared
for Y2K in August
1999.
back book and at least twice as heavy. of mission’s office onto the embassy roof Then it took the communicator three
Finally, the last day of the millennium to await the end of the world. tries to get the cable system to read the
arrived: 12/31/1999. I needed to be at Midnight came and went. Nothing response accurately once I had printed
the embassy, together with a driver to happened. Fireworks blossomed across it out in ALL CAPS OCR FONT,
make sure I got there; a communicator to the city, and we could hear the strains of which always transmogrified number 1s
transmit our post-apocalypse status; and, a hymn through the open doors of the into letter Ls despite our best efforts.
of course, on Post One the Marine security church next door. Though Y2K was anticlimactic, two
guard who had drawn the short straw. Inside the embassy, the only incorrect months later, at the height of carnival,
I left a boisterous “old year’s night” date was the one on the program we were the power did go out—all across Port
fete and arrived at the embassy in supposed to use to confirm that we were of Spain. Darkness descended, but the
my purple ball gown with 20 minutes still there. I called the ambassador at his music played on unabated from gener-
to spare. The Marine and I climbed party to report that “all was well”—and get ator-driven sound trucks. All was well in
through the window in the deputy chief his clearance for our terse cable response. Trinidad and Tobago. n

LOCAL LENS
BY LO R I B . J O H N n EGY PT
D
uring a Nile River cruise in March 2019, I had the opportunity to get a bird’s-eye view of Please submit your favorite, recent
the ancient wonders of Luxor, Egypt. Before dawn, after tea and cakes and a safety briefing photograph to be considered for
Local Lens. Images must be high
aboard the felucca that ferried us across to the west bank of the Nile, we got into Captain resolution (at least 300 dpi at 8”
Bob’s hot air balloon and ascended just as it was starting to get light. As the sun continued x 10”, or 1 MB or larger) and must
to rise, we floated over the temples and burial grounds of pharaohs, drifting with the wind over the not be in print elsewhere. Include
a short description of the scene/
Valleys of the Kings and Queens, the mortuary temples of Ramesses II and Ramesses III, the Karnak
event, as well as your name, brief
temple complex, the temple of Queen Hatshepsut and the mighty Nile River. n biodata and the type of camera
used. Send to locallens@afsa.org.
Lori B. John is an office management specialist in Dublin. She joined the Foreign Service in 2017 and
has served previously in Pretoria and Baghdad. She took this photo with a Google Pixel phone.

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P U B L I S H E D BY T H E A M E R I CA N F O R E I G N S E R V I C E A S S O C I AT I O N

NUCLEAR DIPLOMACY TODAY

THE DIPLOMAT AND THE STATE

TEX HARRIS, LARGER THAN LIFE

Focus on Nuclear Diplomacy

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 5

57 AFSA and COVID-19

On the Cover—Illustration by Brian Hubble.

6 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

Foreign Service Duty

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 7

8 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

Nuclear Diplomacy Matters

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 9

Professional Trenin was a stroke of edito- Afghanistan:

10 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 11

Twenty-Five Year Apprenticeship:

12 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

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14 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

U .S. embassies and Foreign Service

16 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 17

HOW TO BUILD RESILIENCE

18 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

ACCESS MUSIC & CULTURE thousands of live radio stations

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 19

Forgery in International Affairs

M ore than 150 national security,

20 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

22 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 23

24 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 25

Nuclear Arms History

26 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 27

28 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 29

30 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

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32 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

Why Nuclear Arms

presented a coherent alternative road map to

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 33

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THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 35

36 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

and China) are developing new types of attack

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 37

38 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

Stopping the Arms Race

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 39

Reorienting National Priorities

40 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

Arms Control Diplomacy

THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL | MAY 2020 41

42 MAY 2020 | THE FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL

57 AFSA and COVID-19