GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE,

HEALTH, AND POLITICS

LESSON OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• identify issues on genetically modified organisms (GMOs);
• discuss different implications and impact of GMOs; and
• create a research paper on the impact of GMOs in the
Philippine context.

INTRODUCTION
In 2001, Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in
Singapore turned farmer, attended the Integrated Pest Management
- Farmers Field School and was introduced to Bt Corn, a genetically
modified corn that is resistant to the destructive Asian corn borer. Ms.
Ellasus volunteered for demo-testing in her field. Bt Corn yielded 7.2
tons per acre as compared to a regular yield of 4.2 tons per hectare.
No insecticide spraying was needed. This is one of the success stories
of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (Ongkiko, 2016).
Genetic engineering has been with the human society since
ctive breeding was introduced to humankind and when animals were
domesticated. Yet, the process of genetic alteration is all but natural.
It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack
Williamson, author of the science fiction novel Dragon's Island
(Stableford 2004). This was years before actual research findings on
the DNA's role in heredity and its structure, the double-helix of Watson
and Crick, were published. Through continuous search for
development, genetic longer stayed in science fiction novel. It
became a reality in science laboratories. The general process of
genetic engineering is the deliberate manipulation of the organism's
genes, where it may involve transfer of genes from other organism.
An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To date,
there are ongoing researches on GMOs such as using genetically
modified male mosquitoes as pest control over female mosquito
carriers of Zika virus.
However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for
problems and opening doors for innovations, genetic engineering
faces much opposition. Opponents raise ethical, social, and
environmental issues related to genetic engineering and its GMOs.
This lesson will present the existence of genetic engineering,
specifically GMOs in the different areas of life, the impact to
humankind, and the controversies that surround them.
Genetically Modified Organism
Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an
organism created through genetic engineering. The World Health
Organization (WHO, 2014) defines GMO as an "organism, either plant,
animal, or microorganism, in which the genetic material (DNA) has
been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating or
natural recombination.” Below is a diagram of how bacterial gene is
introduced through genetic engineering to plant cells and tissues to
develop and breed a genetically modified plant.

Figure 8. The Genetic Engineering Process on a Plant

 The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the
advancement of technology for the benefit of humans in different
industries like agriculture and medicine.

GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH,
2013) identified the following roles of GMOs in the food and
agricultural industries:
1. Pest resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain
pests.
An example is Bt Corn. The DNA (genome) of the Bt
Corn has been modified with the gene of Bacillus
thuringiensis, a soil bacterium that produces proteins which
is toxic to corn borers (worms).

2. Virus resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain

viruses.
An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The
papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is known to be detrimental to
papaya plants. The protein of PRSV was introduced to the
papaya plant through plant tissue which turned out to be
resistant to the virus itself. The effect was like the vaccines
humans have against measles or influenza virus.
3. Herbicide tolerance - genetically modified plants to tolerate
herbicide.
An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate.
an herbicide for weeds, was introduced to soybeans
making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can
spray the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.

4. Fortification - genetically modified plants fortified with certain

minerals.
An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a
precursor of vitamin A, was introduced through biosynthesis
genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with
vitamin A.

5. Cosmetic preservation - genetically modified plants resist

natural discoloration.
An example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was
genetically modified to suppress the browning of apple
due to superficial damage.
 6. Increase growth rate - a genetically modified organism that
has higher yield in growth than normal species.
An example is AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from
an ocean pout, an eel-like fish was introduced to Pacific
Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its
normal rate.

GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and
some microorganisms involve the following:
1. Flower production - GMOS in lower production are seen in
modified color and extended vase life of flowers.
Examples are Blue Roses. The so-called "blue" roses, which
are, in reality, lilac or purple, contained cyanidin 3,5-
diglucoside together with large amounts of flavonols. The
introduction of the flavonoid 31, 51-hydroxylase gene into
pelargonidin- or cyanidinproducing rose cultivars diverts the
anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway toward the production of
delphinidin glucosides and the flower color to blue (Elomaa &
Holton, 1994).
2. Paper production - modified characteristics of trees for higher
yield of
paper production.
Examples are poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in
trees that is removed from wood to make paper through kraft
 process, through inserting genes that code for ferulic acid in
young poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified, making
lignin easier to breakdown (Veniza, 2014).

3. Pharmaceutical productions – modified plants to produce

pharmaceutical products.
Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were
added to the periwinkle plant to enhance the production
of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for
cancer treatments like Hodgkin's lymphoma (Runguphan,
2010).

4. Bioremediation - use of modified plants that can assist in the

bioremediation of polluted sites.
An example is shrub tobacco. Nicotiana glauca, or
shrub tobacco genetically modified with phytochelatin
TaPCSI1, is used for bioremediation. It shows high level
accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron
and produces high biomass.
 Nicotiana glauca

5. Enzyme and drug production - use of modified

microorganisms that can produce enzymes for food
processing and medicines.
One example of this is CGTase. Cyclomaltodextrin
glycosyltransferase (CGTase), an enzyme used for food flavor
enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by bacterium Bacillus
which was genetically modified with the gene of a thermophilic
anaerobe, Thermoanaerobacter, carrying CGTase (Pedersen &
Jorgensen, 1995).

Thermoanaerobacter
 Another example is artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a
compound used for anti-malarial drug extracted from sweet
wordwood plant. Through genetic engineering, it can be
synthetically produced by yeast and bacteria with sweet
wordwood plant gene (Zimmer, 2006).

6. GMOs in the medical field - genetic engineering is playing a

significant role from diagnosis to treatment of human-
dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene
therapy, and laboratory researches.
One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin
used by Type 1 diabetes patients who are insulin-dependent. In the
past, insulin is extracted from the pancreases of pigs and cows that
have caused allergic reactions to some diabetics using it. In 1978,
researchers from the City of Hope National Medical Center and
Genentech Biotechnology Company were able to produce human
insulin. The gene for insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able
to produce almost exactly the same human insulin. This was a
breakthrough in the mass production of human insulin. In 1996,
modified human insulin was approved, called the Humalog.

Humulin, a sample of genetically engineered insulin.

Benefits of GMOs
Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:
• Higher efficiency in farming - with the use of
pesticideresistant/herbicide-tolerant GMO crops, there will
be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for
labor and cultivation.
• Increase in harvest - GMO crops resistant to pests and
diseases means increase in potential growth and harvest.
• Control in fertility - controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds
(GMO seeds) ensures higher yields.
• Increase in food processing - altered characteristics of
GMO crops help ease food processing.
• Improvement of desirable characteristics - GMOs offer
longer shelf life, enhanced color and taste, enhanced
production or reduction of enzymes, and other modified
characteristics of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
• Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement - GMO
crops like maize fortified with lysine and Golden Rice
fortified with vitamin A and iron. There are now edible
vaccines for viral and diarrheal diseases.
• Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides
There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the
world. The top five countries that operate GMO farmlands are the
United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada. Some of the GMO
agricultural crops that have been approved for public consumption
and are already in the market include: alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya
bean, sugar beets, and squash. Most of these GMO crops were made
to be resistant to pests. Some examples of common food with GMOs
are Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Quaker Chewy Granola Bars, Ultra Slim Fast,
Quaker Yellow Corn Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food.
In the animal industries, there are ongoing researches like studies
on Pacific salmon that grows twice faster than the native salmon and
chicken resistant to H5N1 bird flu viruses. However, these GMO animals
are all in research laboratory and not yet approved for public
consumption.

Potential Risks of GMOs

Despite the promising claims of GMOs, the opponents of GMOs
claim otherwise. For example, there are studies that show a link in the
adaption of pesticide-resistant GMO crops to the significant growth of
super weeds that became pesticide-resistant, too. This caused
additional problem to more than 12 million acres of farms in the United
States.
Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:
1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science
there are inadequate studies on the effects of GMOs to humans and
the environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which
the long-term effect is still unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following
effects:
• More allergic reactions - GMO food may trigger more
allergic reactions, more so create new ones, as side effect
of the gene alteration.
• Gene mutation - GMO food may develop abnormalities
and mutation, more than the desired product of the gene
alteration.
• Antibiotic resistance - GMO food contains
antibioticresistant genes; this may cause disease-causing
bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-resistant too,
increasing the possibility of widespread of the disease.
• Nutritional value - GMO food may have change in their
nutritional value.
Potential Environmental Risks Caused By GMOs
Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental
risks caused by GMOs. The identified major risks are the following:
1. Risk in gene flow - there is a potential risk of the modified gene
to be transferred from the GMO crop to its wild relative or
organism in the soil and human intestine (when ingested). For
example, a decaying GMO plant could possibly transfer the
modified genes to the bacteria and fungi in the soil. Bacteria
and fungi are capable of using a genetic material from their
surroundings. There are no studies yet on the effects of the
absorbed modified gene to the other organisms.
2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and
weed problems - GMO crops resistant to certain pesticides may
trigger new form of pest resistance while GMO herbicidetolerant
crops may lead to the over use of the herbicides which may
trigger new form of weed resistance.
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New
Pathogens - the modified gene can be transferred and
integrated in the viral or bacterial genes which may lead to viral
or bacterial gene modification or mutation. This living modified
virus and bacteria may then cause new disease that may affect
other organisms including human beings.
Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs
(Molfino & Zucco, 2008):
1. Direct environmental risks are:
• introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may
cause disruption of the natural communities through
competition or interference;
• the possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the
environment if it escapes its intended use and may post
threats or become pest;
• may cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs
interfere with the natural biochemical cycles; and
 • the persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may
cause negative impacts to the consumer of GMO
products.
2. Indirect environmental risks are:
• alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative
impacts of GMOs to the environment such as evolution of
insects, pests, and weeds that became resistant to GMO
crops;
• may have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration
in agricultural practices; and
• may have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs
interaction and release in the natural environment.

Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs

A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its
effect on human beings, primarily on human health. Some potential
human health risks are identified (Akhter, 2001), such as:
• consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is
not naturally or organically produced;
• consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing
microorganisms in the human digestive system;
• production of toxins may be detrimental to human health;
and
• production of allergens may have adverse effects on
humans.

Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO

food consumption. They encourage people to boycott GMO
products and to be vigilant in checking if the food they buy has GMO
ingredients. In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the
use of Bt eggplant, another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko,
2016).
 Other potential risks that raise major concern are:
• Human Genome Project (HGP) - Mapping of human genes to
provide framework for research and studies in the field of
medicine. It was feared that the ability to produce human
genetic information would create biases and give much
power to people holding the information and to the
disadvantage of those who do not have the genetic
information.
• Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms -
Genetically modified bacteria and viruses may mutate to
become more resistant or virulent that may cause more
dreadful diseases for human beings.
• Cloning - The asexual reproduction of an organism using
parent cell through genetic engineering. In February 24, 1997,
the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from Scotland, was born
through cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of
human cloning. It emerged the ethical issue of man "playing
God."

Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to

search for ways to preserve lives. Genetic engineering is perceived to
be one of the keys to this venture. Gene therapy and gene alteration
are promising ways to improve human health conditions.

On the other hand, great fears loom in the process of this quest,
There are many things to be considered before a certain medical
process using genetic engineering be accepted.
These concerns were affirmed by the reports, of the World Health
Organization. WHO reported three major issues on GMOs that are in
international public debates. These are the potential risks of allergic
reactions, gene transfer/flow, and outcrossing (WHO, 2014).
The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate is its
unnatural production or what is termed to be a violation of nature.
The creation of new organisms, like GMOs, posts moral issues on
defiance to natural laws. Another concern is the potential risks to the
environment and human health, to which so much is unknown yet.

Biosafety on GMOs
There are initiatives for the protection of the general human
population regarding the issues and concerns about GMOs.
International organizations developed principles and treaties that
somehow ensure biosafety on GMOs. Some of these initiatives are as
follows:
• The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). The Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO) together with the World Health
Organization (WHO) created The Codex Alimentarius
Commission (Codex). Codex is an intergovernmental body that
develops the Codex Alimentarius, know us the International
Food Code. Codex is responsible for the development of
standards, codes of practices, guidelines, and
recommendations on food safety. With the pressing issues and
concerns on GMOs, in 2003, Codex has developed principles for
the human health risk analysis of genetically modified (GM) food
products. The principles include pre-market assessments of GM
food products and its evaluation of direct and indirect effects.
However, the Codex principles has no binding effect on national
legislation but through the sanitary and phytosanitary measures
of the World Trade Organization, national legislators are
encouraged to complement their national standards with the
Codex Principles (WHO, 2014).
 • Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Established in 2013,
Cartagena Protocol is an international environmental treaty that
regulates transboundary movements of Living Modified
Organisms (LMOs). The Cartagena Protocol requires exporters to
seek consent from the importers before its first shipment of LMOS
(WHO, 2014).
• International Trade Agreement on labeling of GM food and food
products. The agreement requires exporters of GM food and
food products to label their products and give rights to importing
parties to reject or accept the GM products. The premise of this
policy is that consumers have the right to know and the freedom
to choose GM or non-GM products (Whitman, 2000).

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM

products that are available in the international market have passed
safety assessment by national authorities. The safety assessments
basically look at the environmental and health risk factors and food
safety usually follows the Codex Food Code.

GMOs in Philippine Context

Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and
controversies similar to other countries with GMOs. There are, of
course, proponents and opponents of these issues.
The GMO concern started in the 1990s with the creation of the
National Committee on Biosafety of the Philippines (NCBP) through
Executive Order No. 430 of 1990. The NCBP developed the guidelines
on the planned release of genetically manipulated organisms (GMOs)
and potentially harmful exotic species in 1998. In 2002, the
Department of Agriculture released Administrative Order No. 8, the
guideline for the importation and release into the environment of GM
plants and plant products. On that same year, the entry of GMO
importation started (Baumuller, 2003). The Philippines was marked to
be the first country in Asia to approved commercial cultivation of
GMOs when GM corn was approved in 2002 (Serapio & Dela Cruz,
2016).
From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications
approved by the Department of Agriculture for the release to the
environment, 62 GMOs of which are approved for food feed and
processing and the remaining 8 were approved for propagation
(Aruelo, 2016).
In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for
acquisition of agri-biotech applications as one of the fourteen
biotechmega countries which grow 50,000 hectares or more of GMO
crops annually (James, 2004). In that same year, Senator Juan Flavier
authored a bill on the mandatory labeling of food and food products
with GMOs. The Senate did not pass the bill.
In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol
on Biosafety. In the same year, Executive Order No. 514 was issued to
address the biosafety requirements of the Cartagena Protocol and
the establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (NBF).
In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging
organic agriculture than GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this act,
there are several provinces like Negros Occidental and Negros
Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture. There was the
establishment of the Negros Organic Island through a memorandum
of agreement (MOA) between the two provinces in 2005. With this
MOA, the two provinces were able to ban the entry of GMOs and
living GMOs to their provinces through provincial ordinance. Similar to
this case, Davao City passed the Organic Agriculture Ordinance in
2010. This city ordinance helps the prevention of field testing of GM Bt
eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus (Aruelo, 2016).
In 2012, Representative Teddy Casiño, together with other
congressmen, filed a bill pushing for the mandatory labeling of GM
food and food products. To date, there is no Philippine biosafety law,
only biosafety regulations formed under NBF.
A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded
that the existing regulation is weak, which can be fixed through
legislation such as a republic act (Richmond, 2006).
 In December 2015. the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to
the field testing of GMO Bt eggplant and declared Administrative
Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of Agriculture as null and
void. This means that any actions or procedures related to GMO
importations and propagation is temporarily put to stop until a new
administrative order is issued in accordance with the law.
In March 7 2016, five government agencies namely, the
Department of Science and Technology, Department of Agriculture,
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of
Health, and Department of the Interior and Local Government,
passed a Joint Department Circular No. 1, series of 2016 on rules and
regulations for the research and development, handling and use,
transboundary movement, release in the environment, and
management of the genetically modified plant and plant products
derived from the use of modern biotechnology. This joint department
circular paves way to issuance of new permits for planting and
importing GM crops in the country.