Laboratory Manual

for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

A.C. POSITION CONTROL ACP-01

1. OBJECTIVE
To study the performance characteristics of an a.c. servo motor angular position
control system, also referred to as a carrier control system.

2. EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
A major portion of any first course on automatic control system invariably revolves
around the study of position control systems using either d.c or a.c. motors. Experimental
work in this area has usually been confined to analog simulated systems, e.g. through our
'Linear System Simulator' or similar other units. Although the biggest advantage of this
approach is the unlimited flexibility and near perfect operation of the simulated systems
leading to a close correlation between theoretical and experimental results, the student is
denied the feel of a physical electromechanical system. The present unit and also our ‘d.c.
position control’ have been designed with the objective of working with a physical system.
Despite the constraints like friction, dead zone, nonlinearities due to amplifier saturation and
motor current limiting, and low speed of response associated with any mechanical system, the
student has been provided with enough opportunity for experimentation on a working system.
The schematic diagram in Fig. 1 shows a typical carrier control system using a pair of
synchros as angular error detector and a 2-phase a.c. servomotor as the driver, driving the
load through a gear train.
The present system, as shown in Fig. 2, uses a pair of servo potentiometers as error
detector. Synchros are avoided in the unit due to their high cost although the behaviour of the
overall system is independent of the type of error detector used. Synchros may however be
studied in our experiments ‘Synchro Error Detector’ separately.

2.1 Signal Sources

• Angle command (continuous): obtained through a potentiometer with a calibrated
dial attached. The potentiometer is supplied with a 5 volt, 50 hz source.
• Angle command (step): available through a toggle switch. Automatic
synchronisation with waveform capture circuit is provided so that the step
response is stored properly.

2.2 Motor Unit

The position control is achieved through a good quality 2-phase a.c. gear motor. The
specifications of the motor are :
• Operating voltage : 12V rms 50 Hz per phase.
• Phase current : 1.2 amp. (approx)
• Rated speed : 90 rpm
• Torque (basic) : 750 gm-cm (approx.)
Angular position of the motor shaft is sensed by an identical 360° rotation
potentiometer attached to it, which is connected to the same 5V, 50 Hz source as that used in
the command potentiometer. A calibrated disk mounted on the potentiometer indicates its
angular position in degrees.

ACP-01 Page 2

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 STEP VS AC POSITION CONTROL INPUT
VR MODEL : ACP-01
+ V
+
FORWARD
DRIVER
- GAIN
20 30 40 -
MOTOR UNIT MODE RESET
REFERENCE

DISPLAY
0 11
CAPTURE

VO Y E X

T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee ON

Dial MOTOR UNIT

20 30 40
Servo Pot AC Servo Motor

Load
AC POSITION CONTROL
MODEL : ACP-01

T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

Side View Front View

Panel diagram of A.C. Position Control, Model ACP-01

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

REFERENCE

ERROR DETECTOR
Tx CT CONTROL
ac
REFERENCE Error
amplifier
Two-phase
servo motor
θm

Gear train Load

θR Controlled
Reference output
input

Fig. 1 Carrier control system employing synchro error detector

Command
V
Continuous θR R
Error detector
+ Control
V
S + A.C. amplifier
Forward gain KA
Step - (Driver)

Reference

2-Phase ac motor with

gear load
VO

θO
Y
CRO Wave form
Response
X capture/display

Fig. 2 System schematic

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

All the above components, viz. the motor, potentiometer, load etc. are fitted inside
the 'motor unit'. Transparent panels provide a good view of the interior. The motor unit is
connected to the rest of the system through a 9-pin D-type connector and cables.

2.3 Main Unit

The main unit houses the command circuit, the error detector and the gain control of
the forward path, the power stage and the waveform capture/display unit. Different
experiments are performed by appropriate settings of the controls as explained later.
Description of the above blocks is given next.
(a) Command: Two operating modes have been provided in the system. When a continuous
command is given by the rotation of a potentiometer through a certain angle, the closed loop
system responds by an identical rotation of the motor shaft. Alternatively, a step command
equivalent to about 150 degrees may be given by a switch. This is used for CRO studies of
the step response.
(b) Error detector: This is a 3-input 1-output block. Two of the inputs are meant for
command signals and the remaining input, having 180° phase shift, is used for position signal
feedback.
(c) Gain blocks: The forward path gain is adjustable from 1 to 11 and may be read from the
markings on the panel. This gain range is adequate to study both over damped and under
damped response.
(d) Driver: The driver is a unity gain power amplifier suitable for running the motor upto full
power in either direction. The voltage gain of this block is unity.
(e) Waveform Capture/Display unit: The time response of a mechanical system like the
present one is usually too slow for a CRO display, except on a storage oscilloscope.
Alternatively an X-Y recorder could be used to get a hard copy which may subsequently be
studied quantitatively. Both these options are quite expensive for an usual undergraduate
laboratory. The waveform capture/display unit is a microprocessor based card which can
'capture' the motor response and then 'display' the same on any ordinary X-Y oscilloscope for
a detailed study. The stored waveform is erased whenever another waveform is captured, or
the unit is reset.

2.4 Power Supply

The set-up has a number of IC regulated supplies which are permanently connected to
all the circuits. No external supply should be connected to the terminals on the panel.
Capabilities of this unit include an evaluation of the performance of the position
control system for different values of forward gains. Effect of non-linearity, so common in all
practical systems, may be readily observed by the student. In all the cases the response is
stored and can then be displayed on an ordinary measuring oscilloscope.

3. BACKGROUND SUMMARY
Second order systems are studies in great detail in any course on linear control system.
The reason for this is that a large number of higher order practical control systems may be
approximated as a second order system while neglecting less dominant modes, nonlinearities
like dead zone, saturation, hysteresis etc., assuming these to have little effect on the
performance. Also second order systems lend themselves to simple and accurate
mathematical analysis. In the following description we shall follow the above strategy. At the
end however, the imperfections due to nonlinearities shall be pointed out.

ACP-01 Page 3

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

REFERENCE
PHASE e1 (t)

θm (s )
CONTROL PHASE θm G(s) = e1(t) fixed
e2 (t) E 2 (s )

Fig. 3 Transfer function of a two phase servo motor

+ C(s)
R(s) K = Ke KA G(s)

PROPORTIONAL FEED BACK

Fig. 4 Simplified block diagram

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

3.1 Two Phase Servomotor

Referring to Fig. 3 transfer function of a 2-phase servomotor may be derived as [3]
θ m (s) Km
G m (s) = =
E 2 (s) s(sτ m + 1)
Where, Km is the motor gain constant, and
τm is the motor time constant
In view of this, a simplified block diagram of the position control system may be
drawn as shown in Fig. 4. Notice that the forward gain K in this diagram includes the
sensitivity of the error detector, Ke, as well , viz.,
error signal in volts
Ke =
angular error in radians
Thus G(s) = KGm(s)
The overall transfer function of the position control systems is then given by
C(s) G (s) KK m
= = 2 ,
R (s) 1 + G (s) (s τ m + s + KK m )
which may be expressed in the standard form by dividing numerator and denominator
by τm and redefining the notations as shown in the next section.

3.2 Position Control - a second order stem

A second order system is represented in the standard form as,

ωn 2
G (s) =
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n 2

where ζ is called the damping ratio and ωn the undamped natural frequency.
Depending upon the value of ζ, the poles of the system may be real, repeated or complex
conjugate which is reflected in the nature of its step response. Results obtained for various
cases are :
(a) Under damped case (0 < ζ < 1)
 2 
e − ζω n t  −1 (1 − ζ ) 
c( t ) = 1 − sin  ωd t + tan  (1)
(1 − ζ 2 )  ζ
 

where, ωd = ωn (1 − ζ 2 ) is termed the damped natural frequency. A sketch of the unit

step response for various values of ζ is available in the text books.

(b) Critically damped case (ζ = 1)

c(t) = 1 − e − ω n t (1 + ω n t ) (2)

ACP-01 Page 4

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

C(t)

ess
1

td

C(tp) C(∞ )
0.5

t
tr

tp

Fig. 5 (a) Unit step response of a normalized second order transfer function (Under Damped)

VO(t)
ess
DEAD
VS
ZONE

V PEAK
V0 ( ∞)

t
tr
tp

Fig. 5 (b) Typical step response of the position control system

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(c) Over damped case (ζ > 1)

ωn  e − s1 t e − s 2 t 
c( t ) = 1 −  −  (3)
2  s1 s 
2 (1 − ζ )  2 

where s1 = (ζ + (ζ 2 − 1) )ωn and s2 = (ζ - (ζ 2 − 1) )ωn

Unit step response similar to equations (1), (2) or (3), depending upon the value of KA
may thus be expected in the position control system. Thus the response of the position control
system can be altered by varying the amplifier gain KA, and a 'satisfactory' performance may
usually be obtained. This leads to the concept of performance characteristics as defined on the
step response of an underdamped second order system in Fig. 5(a) and explained in brief here.
(i) Delay time, td, is defined as the time needed for the response to reach 50% of the final
value.
(ii) Rise time, tr, is the time taken for the response to reach 100% of the final value for the
first time. This is given by
2
π −β −1 (1 − ζ )
tr = , where β = tan
ωd ζ
(iii) Peak time, tp, is the time taken for the response to reach the first peak of the overshoot
and is given by
π
tp =
ω n (1 − ζ 2 )

(iv) Maximum overshoot, Mp, is defined by

c( t p ) − c ( ∞ )
Mp = × 100%
c( ∞ )
(v) Settling time, ts, is the time required by the system response to reach and stay within a
prescribed tolerance band which is usually taken as ±2% or ±5%. An approximate
calculation based on the envelops of the response for a low damping ratio system yields
ts (±5% tolerance band) = 3/ζωn
ts (±2% tolerance band) = 4/ζωn
(vi) Steady State Error Another important characteristic of a closed loop system is the
steady state error, ess. For unity feedback systems ess is defined as
e ss = lim e( t ) = lim{r ( t ) − c( t )}
t →∞ t →∞

A simpler way to calculate steady state error without actually computing the time
response is available in the complex frequency domain. Application of the final value
theorem of Laplace Transform to unity feedback system gives,
sR (s)
e ss = lim e( t ) = lim sE(s) = lim = 0,
t →∞ s→ 0 s→ 0 1 + G ( s)
1 KK m
for R(s) = and G (s) =
s s(sτ m + 1)

ACP-01 Page 5

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Steady state error may be obtained for various inputs (step, ramp, parabolic) and
systems of various type numbers (number of poles of G(s) at origin). A summary of the
results of the above calculations may be seen in [1]. To facilitate the calculations, error
coefficients are defined as
Position error coefficient, Kp = lim G (s)
s→0
Velocity error coefficient, Kv = lim sG (s)
s→0

Acceleration error coefficient, Ka = lim s 2 G (s)

s→0

• The position control system has a second order transfer function in the standard form.
(normalized form)
• The system should not have any steady state error for step input.
• The transient response of the system is affected by the value of KA. A higher value of
KA should result in larger overshoot.

3.3 System Imperfections

All practical systems are imperfect to some extent. As a result of this, the actual
system response differs from the ideal response of Fig. 5 (a), which is valid for a second order
linear system. Some of the contributing factors relevant to the present set-up are :
(a) Saturation of magnetic field – the motor speed can not increase indefinitely with
increasing control phase voltage. For large control phase voltages, therefore the motor
shaft speed tends to saturate.
(b) Amplifier saturation - this implies limiting the maximum control effort for large errors
leading to an upper limit of the shaft angular velocity.
(c) Dead zone - caused by a minimum voltage below which the motor would not start due to
the friction of the bearings. As a result of this the steady state error may be larger than
expected.
(d) Nonlinear motor characteristics - due to the inherent nonlinear torque-speed
characteristics of an induction motor.
(e) System order - may be actually more than two, due to load characteristics, delays and
filters used.

An accurate analysis taking into account the above mentioned imperfections would
certainly prove to be exceedingly complex. The experiments which follow therefore
consider the system as it is and study its performance. A qualitative comparison of the
result of experiment with the theoretical predictions for a second order linear system
should be of great interest.

ACP-01 Page 6

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The experiments suggested below enable the reader to study the performance of the
closed loop system. Idea of dead zone and its effect on steady state error is also introduced. A
special provision has been made in the set-up to store and display a response of the system - a
need which occurs quite frequently. The operation of this waveform capture/display provision
is described first.

4.1 Waveform Capture/Display

This card is designed to automatically store the response of the system in a RAM
whenever a step input is given. The stored response is then displayed on the CRO. Steps for
its operation are as given below :
(a) Power ON the system and/or press the RESET switch - unit goes into DISPLAY, drawing
the axes and shows the RAM contents (zero at present).
(b) Press the MODE switch - the unit becomes ready to capture the step response.
(c) Applying step input now starts the storage. At the end of the capture cycle, the mode
automatically shifts to DISPLAY and the response waveform is seen on the CRO.
(d) Storage of a new response or pressing the RESET switch erases the current waveform.

(e) The time scale of the display may be calibrated by feeding the X-output (sawtooth) of the
unit to the Y-input of the CRO and determining its time period and amplitude.

4.2 Closed loop study (Also see the Note at end, on page 9)
(a) Position control through CONTINUOUS command
• Ensure that the step command switch is OFF
• Starting from one end, move the COMMAND potentiometer in small steps and
observe the rotation of the response potentiometer.
• Record and plot θR, VR, θ0 and V0 for a few values of KA.
• Calculate ∆θR and ∆θ0 (taking initial readings as nominal values) and plot. Also
calculate the errors (∆θR-∆θ0), (∆VR-∆V0) at each step. Justify the presence of errors
and their variation with KA.

(b) Position control through STEP command

• Adjust the reference potentiometer to get VR = 0 (around 10°)
• Set KA to 2.
• Connect the CRO, calibrate the time scale, sec. 4.1(e), and switch to CAPTURE
mode.
• Apply STEP input. Wait till storage is complete and the response is displayed. Trace
the waveform from CRO.
• Compute Mp, ζ, tp, tr and the steady state error.
• Repeat for KA = 3,4,....

ACP-01 Page 7

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

• Tabulate the results as shown in the next section and discuss :

o Variation of maximum overshoot, rise time and steady state error with
forward gain.
o Effect of dead zone and saturation on step response.

5. TYPICAL RESULTS
Typical results obtained on a similar unit are next given for guidance.
(a) Manual operation of the position control
KA = 5

S. No. θR ∆θR θ0 ∆θ0 ∆θR-∆θ0 VR V0 ∆VR-∆V0

deg deg deg deg deg volt volt volt
1. 20° -- 20° -- -- 0.35 V 0.32 V 0.03 V
2. 50° 30° 53° 33° 3° 0.76 V 0.76 V 0.00 V
3. 80° 60° 85° 63° 3° 1.18 V 1.21 V -0.03 V
4. 110° 90° 112° 92° 2° 1.57 V 1.59 V -0.02 V
.
.
.
(b) Calibration of X-output
In the DISPLAY mode with X-output connected to the Y-input of CRO, a sawtooth
waveform is seen. On measurement,
Amplitude of sawtooth = 5.6 volts.
Time duration of the main linear part = 39 msec.
X-output scale factor is thus 6.96 msec/volt
The X-output waveform above consists of axis display part and waveform display
part. The latter is identified by a much longer time duration which has been measured above.
(c) Step response of the position control
S. No. KA Mp tp tr ζ Vs ess ωn
% msec msec volt volt Rad/sec
1. 2 -- -- -- -- 2.50 0.20 --
2. 4 18 16.10 12.52 0.479 2.50 0.25 222
3. 6 22 13.92 9.74 0.434 2.50 0.20 250
.
.
.

ACP-01 Page 8

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

The values of time in the above table relates to the display time as calculated in
(b) above. The physical system response is much slower. The two may be roughly
correlated using a stop watch.
NOTE: Due to various non-linearities in the system, viz., saturation of the amplifier, friction
and backlash in gear, and most important the non-linear torque-speed characteristics of the
motor, the usual behaviour expected in a linear position system may not be observed in all
cases above. Specifically, with increasing values of gain KA, the value of MP may not
increase or the values of δ and ess may not decrease in all the readings tabulated above.
Referring to Fig. 5,
ess = Vs - V0 (∞)
VPEAK − V0 (∞)
MP = × 100%
V0 (∞)

π (ln M p )2
ωn = = 222 rad / sec ζ= = 0.479
tp 1− ζ2 π 2 + (1nM p )2

tp, tr may be obtained from CRO

ζ may be calculated from Mp using the standard relation
Mp = exp (-πζ/ (1 − ζ 2 ) )

ωn is calculated from the expression of tp {= π/ωn (1 − ζ 2 ) }

The closed loop and open loop transfer functions of the system may now be written as,
ωn 2 4.9 ×10 4
Closed loop : =
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n 2 s 2 + 2.12 × 10 2 s + 4.9 ×10 4

1 ωn 2 1 4.9 ×10 4
open loop (excluding KA) : = ×
(
K A s(s + 2ζω n s) 4 s s + 2.12 ×10 2 s )
• The open loop transfer function (excluding KA) comes out to be different for different
readings - the system is not actually a second order function.
• The peaks of the response curves are flattened - the motor has dead zone.
• The peak overshoot does not increase significantly with KA - motor current saturates.

NOTE: Under certain operating conditions, the motor may start continuous uncontrolled rotation,
this is not system oscillation. The basic cause is the small gap (approx. 5°) in the response
potentiometer winding which is easily overshot by the motor, due to its inertia. In such a situation
normal operation may be restored by decreasing the gain or by changing the position of the
command potentiometer.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Control System Engineering - I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
[2] Modern Control Engineering - K. Ogata, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
[3] Automatic Control Systems - B.C. Kuo, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

STUDY OF AC SERVOMOTOR ACS-01

1. OBJECTIVE
To study the characteristics of a small a.c. servomotor and determine its transfer
function.

2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The unit in a self contained system for conducting the experiment except a measuring
CRO which should be available in the laboratory. The different components of the unit are
explained below.
(a) AC Servomotor – a 15W servomotor with identical reference and control phases
operating at 12V/ 50Hz. Necessary phase shifting capacitor is pre-wired to the
reference phase.
(b) Electrical load – in the form of a coupled dc generator and the required resistive
load is provided.
(c) Time Constant – a special circuit to display the time-constant directly in milli-
second.
(d) Metering – of all ac and dc voltage/currents is through built-in digital panel
meters.
(e) Power supply – for conducting all experiments are available in the unit, which
operates from a 220V/ 50Hz mains.

3. BACKGROUND SUMMARY
A.C. Servo Motors are basically two-phase, reversible, induction motors modified for
servo operation. A schematic diagram of the motor is shown in Fig.1. The two windings,
reference and control, may or may not have identical ratings. In the present unit both are rated
at 12 volts r.m.s. at 50Hz. A phase shifting capacitor of appropriate value must be connected
in series with one of the windings to produce a 90 degree phase shift.
These servo motors are used in applications requiring rapid and accurate response
characteristics. A typical torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor is shown in fig.2
for two values of rotor resistance. A servomotor however must have negative slope in its
torque-speed characteristics in order to ensure stable operation. To meet the above
requirements, these ac servo motors have small diameter, light weight, low inertia and high
resistance rotors. The motor’s small diameter provides low inertia for fast starts, stops, and
reversals. High resistance provides nearly linear torque-speed characteristics. A common
structure is a drag-cup rotor. The a.c. servomotors have distinct advantages over d.c.
servomotors. The commutator and brush assembly of a d.c. servomotor has limited
maintenance free life. These are absent in the a.c.servomotor.
An induction motor designed for servo use is wound with two phases physically at
right angles or in space quadrature . A fixed or reference winding is excited by a fixed voltage
source, while the control winding is exited by an adjustable or variable control voltage,
usually from a servo-amplifier. The servo motor windings are often designed with the same
voltage/turns ratio, so that power inputs at maximum fixed phases excitation, and at
maximum control phase signal, are in balance. In the present unit the input to the control
winding is adjustable (3-steps) and the motor can be switched ‘ON’ through a switch.

ACS - 01 Page 2

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 AC SERVOMOTOR STUDY, MODEL : ACS- 01

V
V
INPUT INPUT
AC VOLTS TIME CONSTANT DC VOLTS
MOTOR UNIT

s
Eo

ce
m
Ec ON CONTROL

X1 X10
2 MOTOR
1 3

Es SET REF. RESET

REFERENCE
MOTOR POWER READY

ON
T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

AC MOTOR STUDY, ACS-01

PR
M

MOTOR UNIT

2
1 3

IL

LOAD STEP

T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

Panel drawing AC Servomotor Study, ACS - 01

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

12V
50Hz

PHASE SHIFTING
CAPACITOR
MOTOR
REFERENCE
ON

OFF
4-12V ROTOR
50Hz

CONTROL

Fig 1 : 2-Phase A.C. Servomotor

TORQUE

SMALL ROTOR RESISTANCE

(INDUCTION MOTOR)

LARGE ROTOR RESISTANCE

(SERVOMOTOR)

Ns speed

Fig 2 : Torque-speed characteristics of induction motors

TL(s)

- ω (s ) θ (s )
Ec(s)
1 1
K1
+ Js + B s
-

K2

Fig 3 : Block diagram of an a.c.motorsystem

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

The block diagram of an a.c. servomotor system is presented in Fig.3 This is a highly
simplified and linearized version of the actual behaviour of the motor and is valid at low
speed of operation only. Detailed description of the working and derivation of the block
diagram may be seen in any of the text books listed at the end of this document. Here Ec is
the voltage applied at the control phase which results in a proportional torque which however
is reduced by a factor related to the motor torque efficiency to generate the actual motor
torque as
Tm (s) = K1 Ec(s) - K2 ω(s), where ω is the shaft speed .
This torque, further reduced by the mechanical load torque, TL, drives the inertia, J
and the friction, B of the motor to result in the speed, ω and subsequently the angular
position, θ of the motor shaft.
From the block diagram of Fig.3 the transfer function of the motor may be written as
θ(s) Km
= for TL(s) ≡ 0 (1)
E c (s) s(τms + 1)
K1 J
where, Km = , and τm = ,
B + K2 B + K2
are the motor gain constant and the motor time constant respectively. As students of control
system, our interest is to evaluate the transfer function and the parameters of the ac
servomotor.
Again for Ec(s) ≡ 0 ,
1
θ(s) B + K2 Kn 1
=− =− , where K n =
TL (s) s(τms + 1) τ ms + 1 B + K2

Combining the above two transfer functions (under assumption of linearity),

Km Kn
sθ(s) = ω(s) = E c (s) − T (s)
(τms +1) (τms +1) L
The computation of Km and Kn can be done by using the final value theorem, i.e.,
Steady state speed, ωss = lim sω(s) = Km Ec – Kn TL (2)
s →0
where
Ec = Constant voltage applied to the control winding
TL = Constant Load torque
Ec is measured by the a.c. voltmeter on the panel and TL is calculated from the loading of the
coupled d.c. generator as ,
Electrical Power drawn from the generator in watts
TL =
Angular velocity of the shaft in radians / sec
The calculation assumes that the generator mechanical parameters are negligible
compared to that of the servomotor.

ACS - 01 Page 3

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Reference Voltage
(= 63.2% of Eo ) set manually

LOAD STEP
ER
1 DVM Input
Eo PANEL
2
DIGITAL
3 VOLTMETER
IL
COUPLED
GENERATOR

1Ω 15Ω

ω
1Ω

DVM input to be externally connected to terminal

Eo To measure generator output voltage
ER To measure 63.2% of Eo for Time-constant measurement
IL To measure load current as the drop across 1Ω resistance

Fig : 4 Loading circuit arrangement

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

All the above results are strictly valid if the system is perfectly linear. This is true to a
great extent, especially at low speeds, and will form the basis of conducting the present
experiment. Another option, though cumbersome, is to determine experimentally the torque-
speed and torque-control phase voltage characteristics and then to linearize these graphically
to evaluate the motor parameters, K1 and K2, and then to calculate Km, τm, J and B.

4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The a.c. motor study is divided into groups (a) steady state – to determine Km and Kn,
and (b) transient – to determine τm. From these the transfer function and other constants are
calculated.

4.1 Steady State Operation

4.1.1 Determination of Generator Constant
The generator constant, KG, in volts/rpm, may be computed from the no load
generator voltage data at various speeds. This would enable one to calculate the generated
voltage under loaded condition, which is needed for torque computation in the next section.
The readings for the present experiment may be tabulated as below:
TABLE – 1

INPUT MOTOR SPEED, Nr, LOAD STEP-1 (No GENERATOR

STEP RPM Load) Voltage, Volts CONSTANT, KG,
Volts/rpm
1. 1255 rpm 2.63 volt 0.00209 Volts/rpm

2. 1869 rpm 3.84 volt 0.00205 Volts/rpm

3. 1928 rpm 3.99 volt 0.00207 Volts/rpm

Average Generator Constant, KG = 2.07 x 10-3 Volts/rpm

4.1.2 Determination of Motor Parameters
The motor is operated at various combination of control phase voltage, Ec, and
external loading, TL, and the data is recorded as in Table-2. Ec is measured with the help of
the a.c. voltmeter on the panel in three steps while no load generator voltage, E0 and load
currents, IL are measured by a switchable d.c. panel meter provided. The loading circuit is
shown in Fig. 4
Operating at no load (load step-1), ie., TL = 0, using equation (2) the motor gain
constant may be calculated as
ω Nπ
K M = ss =
E C 30 E C
An average value for Km may be obtained from the three input voltage steps provided.
Km1=54.31 rad/ volt-sec
Km2=27.53 rad/ volt-sec
Km3=18.77 rad/ volt-sec

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

TABLE – 2

INPUT LOAD STEP –1 (no load) LOAD STEP -2 LOAD STEP-3

STEP Ec, E0, IL, N, T L= IL N (30K GIL ) IL N TL

rms V Volts amp rpm (30.E0.IL/N.π) T L=
π

1 3.80 2.66 0 1447 0 0.51 667 0.0010 0.067 470 0.0013

2 7.50 3.84 0 1911 0 0.94 1254 0.0018 0.135 894 0.0026

3 11.00 4.00 0 1972 0 0.11 1488 0.0021 0.168 1139 0.0033

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

K + K m 2 + K m3
K m = m1 = 33.53 rad volt − sec
3
An average value for Km may be obtained from the three input voltage steps provided
although the three values of Km obtained are very different from each other due to the motor
non-linearity.
Similarly, operating at a constant Ec and two different load steps, one gets

ωss1 = K m E c − K n TL1

ωss 2 = K m E c − K n TL 2

From these, Kn may be obtained as,

ωss1 − ωss 2
Kn =
TL 2 − TL1
or, the effective friction as
TL 2 − TL1
B + K2 =
ωss1 − ωss 2
The inertia, J, may further be calculated from
J = τm. (B+K2), after τm is computed as outlined in sec, 4.2

4.2 Transient Operation

The time constant, τm is the time taken by the motor to reach 63.2% of the steady state
speed when a step voltage is switched on the control winding while the reference winding is
already excited at the rated voltage. In the present unit this is achieved through a special
circuit which displays the time constant in milli-seconds. The steps for operating this circuit
are given below:-
Step. 1. Switch the motor ‘ON’ at input step.3 (rated voltage). A constant speed will be
indicated almost immediately.
Step .2. Read V0 at Load step-1. Set ‘REFERENCE’ potentiometer in the TIME
CONSTANT SECTION to 63.2% of the E0 value read above. Use the d.c. voltmeter
in the SET REF position.
Step. 3. Switch the motor ‘OFF’, wait for 30 seconds and then switch it to ‘ON’ position.
The time constant will be displayed in msec.
The time constant obtained above may have error due to non-linear friction present. It
is therefore desirable to conduct the experiment a number of times and average the result.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results given below taken from a sample unit for input-3 and may differ from the
unit supplied to you. This is because of the variation in the characteristics of the motor,
generator and to some extent on the experimental errors.
(a) Reference winding input, Ec = 12.0 V, rms
Motor speed, N = 1928 rpm
Generator coefficient, KG = 2.07x10-3 volts/ rpm

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(b) Reference winding input, Ec = 12.0 V, rms

Motor speed, N = 1972 rpm
Motor gain constant,
Nπ
Km = ra d v - sec = 18.77 ra d v - sec
30 E c
(c) Reference winding input, Ec = 12.0 V, rms
Motor time constant, τm = 110 msec
(d) Transfer Function of the motor
Km 18.77
G(s) = =
s(sτm + 1) s(0.11s + 1)
The typical results shown above are all based on averaged set of data. These are
primarily aimed at showing the method. The students are expected to complete the
experiment in detail.
Further, the above experiment computes the motor transfer function only, which is
probably the most significant result. In addition to this, the students may compute inertia J
and effective friction (B + K2) as well, as outlined in section 4.12
The most important assumption in this experiment is that of considering the system to
be linear. Strictly speaking the a.c.servomotor and the d.c. generator are both non-linear.
Further, there are non-linear friction components which have been totally neglected. All these
contribute to errors in the result although the transfer function derived represents the actual
behaviour of the motor pretty well, at least at low speeds

6. REFERENCE
[1] M. Gopal, “Control Systems – Principle and Design”, Second Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., pp.168-174.

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 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

COMPENSATION DESIGN CD-02

1. OBJECTIVE
To design, implement and study the effects of different cascade compensation
networks for a given system.

2. EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
The unit has been designed with the objective of exposing the students to the problem
of control system compensation. A simulated system of ‘unknown dynamics’ is available
which may be studied both in the time and frequency domains. In addition, the forward gain
is variable, thus the system dynamics is adjustable in a wide range as well. The closed-loop
system presents an ‘unsatisfactory’ performance. A set of performance specifications is to be
prescribed by the teacher, and the student would design a suitable compensator. Necessary
theoretical background and design steps are explained in section 3, covering the s-plane and ω
-plane designs of both lag and lead networks. Compensation network so designed may be
easily implemented in the unit, and its effect on the performance may be evaluated. All
necessary facilities are built-in in the system. Only a measuring CRO and a few passive
components are needed for conducting the experiment. Referring to the block diagram of Fig.
1, the various sections of the unit are described below in some detail.

2.1 Signal Sources

There are three built-in sources in the unit having the following specifications :
(a) Sine wave: Smoothly adjustable frequency from 25 Hz to 800 Hz in a single range.
Amplitude: 0-1 Volt p-p (variable)
(b) Square wave: Smoothly adjustable frequency from 25 Hz to 800 Hz in a single range.
Amplitude 0-1 Volt p-p (variable)
(c) Trigger: At the frequencies set above.
The frequency is displayed on a 4-digit frequency meter on the panel
All the above sources are derived from the same basic circuit and are therefore
synchronized. They are calibrated in frequency but uncalibrated in amplitude, are zero
balanced, and have a common ground.

2.2 Uncompensated System

A simulated system of ‘unknown dynamics’ forms the uncompensated system. The
circuits are pre-wired except for terminals in the open loop where a compensation network
may be inserted. The two sections of this system are :

(a) Plant: It is an active network simulation of a second order dynamic system. Its transfer
function is given by
K1
(sT + 1) 2
The values of K1 and T are not explicitly given but are determined through experimentation.

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 COMPENSATION DESIGN MODEL CD-02
ERROR COMPENSATION
Hz GAIN PLANT
+ -

LEVEL
5 7 AMPLIFIER

3 9
FREQ 5 7
1 11
3 9
NETWORK ON

1 11
T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

Panel Drawing of Compensation Design, Model CD-02

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

R COMPENSATION C
GAIN PLANT
+
-

SIGNAL
COMPENSATION
SOURCE

Fig.1. System Block Diagram

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(b) Error detector-cum-gain: This block has two inputs (e1,e2) and an output (eo) related by
the expression, eo = K (e1+e2), where K is a variable gain. The value of K may be varied from
1 to 11 and may be read on the dial.

2.3 Compensation Circuit

This circuit consists of a pre-wired variable gain amplifier where-in the gain may be
varied from 1 to 11 and read on a dial. The circuit has provision for connecting a few passive
components in accordance with the design of compensator.

2.4 Power Supply

The set up has an internal ±12V IC regulated supply which is permanently connected
to all the circuits. A separate internal 5 Volt supply powers the frequency meter. The power
supply and all circuits are short circuit protected and will not get damaged even if wrongly
connected. No external DC supply should, however, be connected to the unit.
The above set up can be used to study the improvements caused by a variety of
compensation networks. Constraints on time available would however limit such study to
only one network in a normal laboratory period of 3 hours.

3. BACKGROUND SUMMARY
Practical control systems use a range of mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, thermal and
other type of components for their operation. Examples include motors, gears, amplifiers,
control valves, heat exchangers etc. The design of these components is usually based upon
requirements other than those which might be prescribed by the control engineer - for
example a specified transfer function. As a result, the control engineer is constrained to make
the best possible choice out of the components offered by the manufacturer. The system so
constructed may not be entirely satisfactory. Compensation network is designed at this stage
to modify the system characteristics and to force it to meet the specifications. Although
compensation elements are used at the output (load compensation) and in the feedback path
(feedback compensation), the most common form of compensation is the cascade
compensation where the compensation acts on the error signal. The principal advantage of
this configuration is that the signal level of the error is very low and the error is more
commonly electrical in nature. Thus the compensation network needs to be a low power
electrical network which is very easy to implement. Basic theory of compensation is
discussed in the following pages. However, a thorough understanding of control system
analysis is a prerequisite for this experiment.

3.1 Performance Specifications

Before taking up the design of a compensation network, it is necessary to evaluate the
performance of existing uncompensated system. This is done in terms of a number of
performance criterion which provide quantitative idea of the system performance. The design
of compensation network may be carried out either in the s-plane, through root locus diagram,
or in the frequency domain, using the Bode plot, Nyquist diagram and Nichol's chart. The
usual performance criterion applicable to the two approaches are given below.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

TOLERANCE
Mp BAND
OUTPUT STEADY
C (t) STATE
1.0
ERROR

0.5

td tr tp ts
TIME t

Fig. 2 Time Domain Performance Criterion

ωg
0db
GAIN
ω
MARGIN

G PHASE
MARGIN
-180º
ωp ω

(a) Open Loop Bode Plot

C (S)
R (S) 1
CUTOFF
0.707 BW RATE

Mr

ωr ω

(b) Closed Loop Frequency Response

Fig. 3. Frequency Domain Performance Sriterion

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(a) Time-domain performance criterion: These are indicative of the performance of the
close-loop system in terms of its time response, most commonly the unit step response. Since
a control system is almost always required to function in real time, time-domain performance
criterion is a direct way of evaluating the system. Due to one-to-one correlation between s-
plane pole location and the resulting step response, the time-domain performance criterion
finds application in the root locus method of analysis and design. Referring to the unit step
response shown in Fig. 2, the various time domain performance criterion are :

(i) Delay time td, defined as the time needed for the response to reach 50% of the final value
(ii) Rise time tr, the time needed for the response to reach 100% of the final value for the first
time
(iii) Peak time tp, the time taken for the response to reach the first peak of the overshoot
(iv) Maximum Overshoot MP, given by

M P = c(t P ) − c(∞) ×100%

c(∞)
(Its value indicates the relative stability of the system)
(v) Settling time ts, the time required by the system step response to reach and stay within a
specified tolerance band which is usually taken as ± 2% or ± 5%
(vi) Steady state error ess defined as
e ss = lim [r ( t ) − c( t )]
t →∞
The above performance criterion are very general and are valid for systems of any
order, however, their mathematical expression in terms of system parameters are available
only for a second order system. Root locus design therefore essentially relies on the
assumption that the system in question is of second order or approximately second order.
It may further be pointed out that all the above specifications may not be satisfied in a
given problem unless these are consistent. Usually one steady state specification and one
transient specification is required to be met by the system.

(b) Frequency-domain performance criterion: These are specifications indicated on the open
loop frequency response curves of the system i.e. Bode plot, Nyquist diagram or Gain
magnitude - phase shift plot or the closed loop frequency response of the system. Unlike the
time-domain specification, a number of the frequency-domain criterion are defined on the
closed loop characteristics. Frequency-domain approach to design is easily applicable to
systems with unknown dynamics by experimentally determining the frequency response.
However, the correlation between time and frequency response is not direct.
Referring to Fig. 3(a) (open loop Bode plot) and Fig. 3(b) (closed-loop frequency
response), the various performance criterion in the frequency-domain are given below:
(i) Gain Margin, is the amount by which the open loop gain may be increased at the phase
cross over frequency, ωP, to bring it to 0 dB.
(ii) Phase Margin, is the amount by which the phase of the open loop transfer function at the
gain cross over frequency, ωg, may be increased in the negative direction to bring it to -
180°.
(iii) Mr, Peak value of closed loop frequency response.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

R1

INTPUT C OUTPUT
ei eo

R2

(a) Network Structure

jω

X σ
1 1
− −
T βT

(b) Pole-Zero Configuration

1 1
Gc
βT T
0db
20 Log β ω

Gc
0db
ω

(c) Bode Diagram

Fig. 4 Lag Network Characteristics

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(iv) ωr, Frequency at which the peak occurs.

(v) Bandwidth of the closed loop frequency response.
(vi) Cut-off rate of the closed loop frequency response at the high frequency end.
All the above specifications may not be satisfied in a given problem unless these are
consistent. Usually the steady state error along with phase margin specifications is required to
be satisfied.

3.2 Design Philosophy

In a control system, the forward path gain K is frequently adjustable. In general,
therefore, the gain may be chosen such that the system either satisfies the steady state
specification or the transient specification, but not both. The design of the compensation
network must then ensure that the other specification is now met without disturbing the first.
The most common form of compensation network is an R-C passive network having a pole
and a zero. This gives rise to 'lag' and 'lead' network depending upon the relative locations of
the pole and the zero. The characteristics of these networks are described below in some
detail.

Lag network: The lag network is shown in Fig. 4(a). Its transfer function may be expressed as
R 2 Cs + 1
G c (s) =
(R 1 + R 2 )Cs + 1
Substituting R2C = T, and (R1+R2)/R2 = β (>1), Gc(s) may be written in two alternative forms :
Ts + 1
G c (s) = …Form I
βTs + 1
1 (s + 1/T)
= . …Form II
β (s + 1/βT)
Form I is directly suitable for frequency-domain design while Form II with the 1/β factor
cancelled by an amplifier, is suitable for root locus design. Pole zero configuration and the
Bode diagram of the lag network are shown in Fig. 4(b) and (c) respectively. It may be noted
that the network exhibits a low pass character and introduces a negative phase angle.

Lead network: The lead network is shown in Fig. 5(a). Its transfer function may be expressed as
R2 R 1Cs + 1
G c (s) = .
R 1 + R 2 R 1R 2 Cs
+1
R1 + R 2
Substituting R1C = T, and R2/(R1+R2) = α (<1), Gc(s) may be written in two alternative forms:
α (sT + 1)
G c (s) = …Form I
(sαT + 1)
s + 1/T
= …Form II
s + 1/αT

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

R1

OUTPUT
INPUT ei eo
R2

(a) Network Structure

jω

X
0
1 1
−
αT T

(b) Pole-Zero Configuration

Gc-WITH AMPLIFIER

Gc
-20 Log α
0db
1 ω
1
T −
αT

(c) Bode Diagram

Gc

φm
0
ω

Fig. 5 Lead Network Characteristics

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Form I with the factor α cancelled by an amplifier is suitable for frequency domain design,
while Form II is directly suitable for root locus design. Pole zero configuration and the Bode
diagram of the lead network are shown in Fig. 5(b) and (c) respectively. It may be noted that
the lead network exhibits a high pass character and has a positive phase angle. It may be
further shown that the maximum lead angle φm produced by this network is given by
1- α 1
sin φ m = , and is at the frequency, ωm =
1+ α αT
Using these networks, the design may be carried out either in the frequency domain or in the
s-plane as described below :
(a) Design in the frequency domain: The design here begins with the Bode diagram of the
open loop system where the forward path gain has been adjusted so as to satisfy steady-state
requirements in terms of ess or error coefficients. Transient specification, usually given in
terms of the phase margin, is now checked. An improvement in the phase margin can be
attempted by one of the following methods :
(i) If required phase margin is likely to be obtained at a lower frequency, the gain cross-over
frequency may be brought down by using the high frequency attenuation of the lag
network.
Note that the lag network does not disturb the low frequency gain set earlier. Care needs to be
exercised to ensure that the negative phase angle of the lag network does not affect the phase
margin substantially.
(ii) A positive phase angle may be added by inserting a phase lead network so that the phase
margin improves. This requires a phase lead network with amplifier so that the low
frequency gain of the system remains unaltered. Also, due to the high pass character of
this network, the gain cross-over frequency has a tendency to shift to higher frequencies
causing a lowering of the phase margin. This fact too needs to be taken care of in the
design.
(b) Design in the s-plane: The s-plane design starts with a root locus sketch of the system.
Thus the transfer function of the system must either be available or it should be computed
from the experimental frequency response data. For this design, specifications may include
steady-state error ess or error coefficients and a transient response specification in terms of
peak overshoot/damping ratio/settling time. Based on the transient response specifications,
the desired closed loop pole location in the s-plane is marked. Following two possibilities
now exist :
(i) If the root locus passes through the desired location determined above then the value of K
is selected so as to place the closed loop poles at the proper location. Next the factor by
which Kv, the velocity error coefficient, (or Kp, Ka etc. depending on the type number)
needs to be multiplied for steady state specifications to be met, is calculated. This
multiplication of Kv (by β) is effected by the lag compensator transfer function of Form II
when the 1/β factor is cancelled by an amplifier of gain β. The value of T is chosen so
that a very small shifting of the root locus diagram is caused by the negative phase angle
of the lag compensator.
(ii) If the root locus diagram does not pass through the desired location then a positive phase
angle must be added to force the root locus diagram to pass through it. This is achieved by
a lead network with appropriately chosen poles and zero. Finally the value of steady-state
error is evaluated and minor adjustment in the compensator pole/zero is made as
necessary.
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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
All the four compensation design problems outlined above may be attempted on the
present setup unless the performance specification chosen are outside the physical limitations
of the system. A substantial amount of experimentation and graphical design is involved in
each, which is rather time consuming. It is therefore recommended that only one network may
be designed and tested in a usual laboratory class. In the following pages experimental
procedure for frequency domain design is presented. A reader having adequate knowledge of
s-plane methods may however undertake root locus design as well.

4.1 Bode Plot of the Plant

As a first step the magnitude-frequency and phase-frequency plots are to be sketched
from experimental data.
• Disconnect the COMPENSATION terminals and apply an input, say 1 V p-p, to the plant
from the built in sine wave source. Vary the frequency in steps and calculate plant gain in
dB and phase angle in degrees at each frequency. Sketch the Bode diagram on a semilog
graph paper.
• From the low frequency end of the magnitude plot, obtain the error coefficient and the
steady state error.
• Calculate the forward path gain K necessary to meet the steady state error specifications.
• Set the above value of K, short the COMPENSATION terminals and observe the step
response of the closed loop system. Compute the time-domain performance specifications,
namely, MP, tP, ess and ζ.
• Shift the magnitude by 20 log10 (K), and obtain the value of phase margin. Compare with
the given specifications of phase margin.

4.2 Lag Network Design

• From the Bode plot, find a frequency where PMactual = PMspecified + a safety margin (5°-
10°). This is new gain cross-over frequency ωg,new.
• Measure gain at ωg,new. This must equal the high frequency attenuation of the lag
network, i.e. 20 log β. Compute β.
• Choose Zc=1/T, at approx. 0.1 ωg,new and Pc=1/βT accordingly.
• Write the transfer function Gc(s) and calculate R1, R2 and C.
• Implement Gc(s) with the help of a few passive components and the amplifier provided for
this purpose. The gain of the amplifier must be set at unity.
• Insert the compensator and determine experimentally the phase margin of the plant.
• Observe the step response of the compensated system. Obtain the values of MP, tP, ess and ζ.

4.3 Lead Network Design

• From the Bode diagram obtained in section 4.1, calculate the required phase lead as
Phase lead needed (φm) = PMspecified - PMavailable + safety margin (5° to 10°)
• Calculate α for the lead network from
1 − sin φ m
α=
1 + sin φ m

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

B
Y0

X0 A X

Fig. 6 Phase and Gain Measurement on CRO

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

• Calculate new gain cross-over frequency ωg,new such that

Gω = 10 log α
g ,new

This step ensures that maximum phase lead shall be added at the new gain cross-over
frequency.
• The corner frequencies are now calculated from 1/T= α ωm and 1/αT=ωm/ α

• Implement Gc(s) with the help of a few passive components and the amplifier provided for
this purpose. The gain of the amplifier is to be set equal to 1/α.
• Insert the compensator and determine experimentally the phase margin of the plant with
compensator.
• Observe the step response of the compensated system. Obtain the values of MP, tP, ess and ζ.
In addition to the above experiments, the measurement of frequency response of
closed loop system, both before and after compensation, would provide further insight.

5. TYPICAL RESULTS
Following are the results obtained on a typical unit.
(a) Frequency response measurements :
Input = 1 Volt p-p, sine wave; CRO in x-y mode
All measurements are in volts p-p
fHz A B xo yo Gain dB Phase in
degrees
16 0.5 2.2 0.1 0.4 12.86 - 10.4
31 0.5 2.0 0.2 0.8 12.04 - 23.58
40 0.5 1.65 0.4 1.35 10.37 - 54.9
80 0.5 0.5 0.48 0.90 5.57 - 71.3
100 0.5 0.72 0.46 0.68 3.17 - 109.2
200 0.5 0.25 0.3 0.16 - 6.02 - 140.2
300 0.5 0.12 0.22 0.05 - 12.4 - 155.4
400 0.5 0.07 0.16 0.024 - 17.07 - 160.0
800 0.5 0.017 0.08 0.035 - 29.37 - 168.1
These measurements are carried out by the ellipse method (or by a double trace CRO).
If the input and output of a system, given as input x = Acos(ωt), and output y = Bcos(ωt-θ),
are fed to the x and y plates of the CRO respectively, the resulting trace is an ellipse (Fig. 6)
given by
y2 + (B2/A2)x2 - 2(B/A)xy cosθ = B2 sin2θ
Measurements of intercepts on x and y axes and peak values in these directions yield
Gain = B/A = yo/xo; or 20 log (B/A) dB, and
Phase θ = - sin-1(xo/A) = -sin-1(yo/B)

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30

26

22

18 G(jω) with gain Required High Frequency

increased by 14 dB Attenuation, 20 log β = 10dB
14
13 dB
10

G (jω) with K=1

6
1
Gain dB

-2 1 10 100 1000
90 Hz
-6
Frequency (Hz)

-10

-14
9
-18

-22

-26

-30

Frequency (Hz)
0
1 10 100 1000
Phase (degrees)

330 Hz
G(jω) 175 Hz

-90

45° 24°
-180

Fig. 7 Lag Compensator Design Example

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

It is easy to see that for 90°<θ<180°, the major axis of the ellipse of Fig. 6 has a
negative slope and the phase angle is computed as θ = -180 + sin-1(xo/A).
(b) Bode plot: For the readings obtained above, the Bode plot is shown in Fig. 7. From it, the
approximate transfer function of the open loop system is obtained by drawing the low and
high frequency asymptotes and observing the values of low-frequency gain and corner
frequency. In the present set-up,
1
Corner frequency, f = 90 Hz, which gives T = = 0.00176
2π.90
1
 13 
and gain at low frequency = 13db, which gives K1= antilog   = 4.466
 20 
Thus, Plant Transfer Function is obtained as,
4.466
(1 + 0.001768s) 2
9
(c) Design: (Lag network)
Let the design requirement be
ess = 0.05 (5%)
Phase margin = 40°
Required value of error coefficient KP to meet ess specification is 19. Thus gain K needs to be
increased by 19/4.466 = 5(say), i.e. by 20 log(5) = 14 dB (approx.). With this value of open
loop gain, step response of closed loop system {Fig. I(a) of Appemdix-I} gives
MP = 50 %
tp = 1.6 m sec.
ess = 4 %
The gain setting of 5 must not be changed throughout this experiment.
The magnitude plot is redrawn by shifting up by +14 dB. From this plot
Gain cross over frequency ωg = 2π (330)
Phase Margin = 24°
Now, phase margin needed = 40° + 5° (safety margin) = 45°
This is available naturally at ω = 2π(175) which may be chosen as ωg,new.
High frequency attenuation needed = 10dB = 20log β, so that the value of β is 3.16.
Compensation network is thus chosen as
*ωg,new = ωg/10 = 2π(175)/10 = 1/T
Zc = 1/T = 2π(17.5), Pc = 1/βT = 2π(17.5)/3.16
T = R2C = 0.009094; β = (R1+R2)/R2 = 3.16
Component values for implementation
R1 = 19.64 kΩ ≈ 20 kΩ
R2 = 9.09 kΩ ≈ 9.1 kΩ
C = 1µF

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* Note: The corner frequencies of the network are placed sufficiently lower than the desired
cross-over frequency, so that the phase lag contribution of the network at this cross over
frequency is made small. Usually the upper corner frequency of the network is placed 1/8 or
1/10 lower than the cross over frequency of the compensated system.
With the compensator inserted and compensator amplifier gain set to unity, step response Fig.
I(b) of Appendix-I gives
MP = 25 %
tp = 3 m sec.
ess = 3 %
It may be observed that compensation network has decreased the overshoot (smaller MP) of
the system while closely satisfying the ess requirements. Actual measurement of the phase
margin would confirm that compensation has brought it to 40° (approx.).
(d) Design: (Lead network)
Continuing with the same design requirement as before, viz.
ess = 0.05 (5%)
Phase margin = 40°

We now proceed with the lead network design. To satisfy the steady state specifications, the
open loop gain will need to be set to 5 as in the lag network example, leading to MP = 48 %,
ess = 5 %.
The gain setting of 5 must not be changed throughout this experiment.
The Phase Margin from Fig. 7 is read as 24°. Following the steps outlined in sec. 4.3,
Phase lead needed (φm) = 40° - 24° + 10° = 26°
1 − sin 26 1
α= = 0.39, = 2.56
1 + sin 26 α
10 log α = - 4.08 dB
ωm ( from Fig. 7) = 2π420 rad/sec = 2638.93 rad/sec
1 1 ω
= α ω m = 1648.0, and = m = 4225.6
T αT α
Time Constant T = R1 C
Choosing C = 0.01 µF, the resistances are computed as
T
R1 = = 60.67 kΩ ≈ 62 kΩ
C
α R1
R2 = = 38.78 kΩ ≈ 39 kΩ
(1 − α)
With the compensator inserted and its gain set to 1/α = 2.5, the response of the closed loop
system {Fig. I(c) of Appendix-I} yields:
MP = 25 %
tp = 1.3 m sec
ess = 3 %

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

An improved performance of the compensated system is obvious. Further, determination of

the closed loop frequency response would show a phase margin of approximately 40°.
Note: All the measurements in this experiment are carried out on a CRO and therefore these
may be accurate within a tolerance of about ± 5%. Further errors are caused by the non zero
bias current requirement of the operational amplifiers used. For better results it is suggested
that the gain settings of the system and compensation amplifier be actually measured. It is
also recommended that R1 and R2 may not exceed 100 kΩ approximately and only polyester
capacitors be used for C in the compensation network.
• The traces shown in Fig. I(a-c) in Appendix-I are obtained with a Tektronics Digital
Storage Oscilloscope, Type TDS 210

6. REFERENCES
[1] K. Ogata, ‘Modern Control Engineering’, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
[2] B.C. Kuo, ‘Automatic Control Systems’ Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
[3] Nagrath, I.J. and M. Gopal, ‘Control System Engineering’, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1975

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

APPENDIX – I

Fig. I. (a). Uncompensated System

Fig. I. (b) Lag Network

Fig. I. (c) Lead Network

CD - 02 Page 12

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 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

D.C. SPEED CONTROL DCS-01

1. OBJECT
To study the performance characteristics of a d.c. motor speed control system.

2. EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
Speed control is a very common requirement in many industrial applications such as
rolling mills, spinning mills, paper factories etc. The present unit is a low power d.c. motor
speed control system designed as a laboratory experiment. The various components and
subsystems have been carefully integrated, and the experiments are designed to illustrate the
important performance characteristics in a simple way. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the
system, different blocks and parts of which are described below :
(a) D.C. Motor : The 12 volt permanent magnet d.c. motor used in the system has the
following specifications :
Rated voltage : 12 volt d.c.
Rated current : 200 mA at no load, 290 mA at full load
Torque : 50 gm-cm
Maximum speed : 3000 rpm
A slotted aluminium disk is mounted on the motor shaft which generates signals for
speed measurement. Also, an adjustable eddy current brake is provided to enable the study of
the effects of external disturbance on the system performance.
(b) Speed measurement : The slotted disk attached to the motor shaft generates 12 pulses for
every revolution of the shaft through optical interruptions. After passing through signal
conditioning and frequency scaling circuits, these pulses are then fed to a built-in frequency
counter to display the shaft speed directly in rpm.
(c) Tachogenerator : A d.c. signal proportional to the shaft speed is obtained from an
'electronic tachogenerator' - a frequency to voltage converter circuit. The signal is brought to a
suitable level by signal conditioning to yield a tacho constant of about 0.5 V/1000 rpm.
(d) Error Detector and Forward Gain : The speed signal obtained from the tachogenerator is
compared with the reference (corresponding to a set speed) to obtain an error signal. The error
is amplified by a calibrated variable gain amplifier (0-100) and then fed to the driver circuit.
(e) Driver Circuit : The driver circuit is designed to deliver the necessary power to operate
the motor. It is a unity gain power amplifier and has all the necessary protection circuits
(f) Power and Signal Sources : A number of IC regulated supplies feed the electronic
circuits, reference potentiometer, DVM, speed displays and the motor. Also, a square wave
oscillator of 1 Hz (approx.) is included for time constant studies.
(g) DVM : A 19.99 Volt full-scale-deflection DVM mounted on the panel is available for the
measurement of various signals. One terminal of the DVM is internally connected to ground.

DCS-01 Page 2

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 VS
DC SPEED CONTROL, MODEL : DCS- 01

V
P
R
M
VR +
+ ERROR
DRIVER DC MOTOR
AMPLIFIER
- BRAKE
REF GAIN

VF VT
0 10 0 10 TACHO
GENERATOR
O
TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee
FEEDBACK N
T

Slotted Disk DC Motor

Eddy Brake MOTOR UNIT
DC SPEED CONTROL 1 0
2
3
4
5
BRAKE
Optical
Sensor
T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

Side View Front View

Panel drawing DC Speed Control, Model DCS-01

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 VS
SQUARE
WAVE kA
MOTOR UNIT
+
VM
VR + VARIABLE GAIN UNITY GAIN EDDY
ERROR AMLIFIER DRIVER PERMANENT CURRENT
VARIABLE MAGNET BRAKE
REFERENCE DC MOTOR
-
SLOTTED
DISK

VF
OPTO-
INTERRUPTER

KT

FEED BACK ELECTRONIC

VT
SINGAL
TACHO-
PROCESSOR
GENERATOR

4-DIGIT SPEED
DISPLAY

Fig.1 System schematic

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

3. BACKGROUND SUMMARY
A basic block diagram of the d.c. motor speed control system is shown in Fig. 2. In
order to evaluate the system performance, it is necessary to compute the overall transfer
function in terms of the transfer functions of the different blocks. To start with, the transfer
function of an armature controlled d.c. motor of Fig. 3 may be derived as [1, page nos. 30-
32],
θ(s) KM
=
V (s) s(sT + 1)
where KM is motor gain constant, and T is the mechanical time constant. Note that a
permanent magnet d.c. motor should behave similar to a shunt motor with constant field
excitation. Considering motor speed ω rad/sec (=dθ/dt) as the output variable, the forward
path transfer function may be written as,
ω(s) KM
G (s) = = KA. (1)
VE (s) (sT + 1)
where KA is the gain of amplifier. Again, the tachogenerator transfer function (or gain) may
be written as,
VT (s)
H (s) = = KT
ω(s)
This yields the closed loop transfer function of the complete system as
KAKM
ω(s) KAKM KAKMKT +1
= = (2)
VR (s) sT + K A K M K T + 1  T 
s  +1
 K A K M K T + 1
In Eq. 2, the transfer function of the closed loop system is seen to be a first order type-0
function. Its transient and steady state response to step input may be easily studied as
described below.

3.1 Steady State Error

Defining 'positional error coefficient', Kp as,
Kp = lim G(s).H(s) = KA.KM.KT,
s →0

the steady state error, ess , to step input R u(t), is given by,
R R
lim (VR − VT ) = lim (VR − VF ) = e ss = = (3)
s →∞ s →∞ 1+ K P 1+ K A K M K T

♦ The steady state error may be determined from a measurement of VR and VF, and
♦ The steady state error is expected to decrease as KA is increased.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

G (S)

~ 600 mV ERROR ωD
1Hz VS
AMPLIFIER MOTOR
+ +
VR VE VM KM SPEED,ω
REF KA +
0 TO 2V + 0 TO 10 sT + 1
-
VF H (s)

TACHO

VT
KT

Fig.2 Block diagram

Ra La If (CONSTANT)

For La → 0
E θ (s) KM
=
V (s) S (sτ + 1)
θ

Fig. 3 Armature controlled DC motor

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

3.2 Transient Response

For a step input VR (s) = R/s, Eq. 2 yields
R KAKM / T
ω(s) = .
s s + (K A K M K T + 1) / T
Taking inverse Laplace transform
 K K K +1 
R.K A K M  − A M T .t 
ω( t ) = 1 − e T  (4)
KAKMKT +1  

 
where effective time constant Teff may be defined as,
Teff = T/(KAKMKT+1) (5)

The transient response has an exponential character similar to a capacitor charging

through a resistor. Further, the effective time constant Teff decreases with increasing
KA making the motor response faster.

The effective time constant may be determined from a recording of the step response
using either a pen recorder or a storage CRO. The step response for various values of KA
obtained through a storage oscilloscope, Tektronics, Model: TDS-210 is shown in Fig. 4 (a).
It may further be observed that for large gains (≥60) the speed of response becomes constant
due to saturation of amplifier and/or motor. The initial portion of the response is therefore a
straight line. Time constant may also be computed using an ordinary CRO as explained next.
Consider a general first order, type-0 transfer function of the form
C(s) K
=
R (s) sτ + 1
which may represent both open loop and closed loop speed control systems defined by Eqs.
(1) and (2). Its response to a step input, R u(t) may be seen to be
c(t) = R.K.(1-exp(-t/τ))
For a square wave of p-p value of R as input, refering to Fig. 4 (b) it is easy to see that
1 1
τ= ⋅ (6)
2f  C( p − p ) 1 
ln 1 − ⋅ 
 R ( p − p) K 
where f is the frequency of the squarewave. The above equation suggests a method for
computing the motor time constant T.
In the present electromechanical system, however, it is the shaft speed ω which will
go through a triangular wave type of variation in response to a square wave excitation, i.e.
C=ω(p-p). Since we are measuring the shaft speed using tachogenerator, ω(p-p), given by
VT(p-p)/KT, and VM(p-p), the motor input, the time constant may be found from the equation,

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Open Loop

Closed Loop - High Gain Closed Loop - Very High Gain

Closed Loop - High Gain Closed Loop - Very High Gain

Fig 4 (a) Step Response Recording

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

1 1 1
T= . . , for open loop system 7 (a)
2f  VT (p − p)  K M K T
1n 1 − 
 VM (p − p) 
Where VM (p-p) = KA-VS (p-p)
and
1 1
T= ⋅ , for closed loop system 7 (b)
2f  VT (p − p) 1 
1 − ⋅ 
 VM (p − p) K M K T 
where K includes only KMKT product from Eq. (1).

3.3 Disturbance Rejection

One of the important features of a feedback control system is its ability to reduce the
effect of external disturbances. From Fig. 2, the disturbance transfer function for VR=0, may
be written as
ω(s) 1 sT + 1
= =
ω D (s) 1 + G (s)H(s) sT + 1 + K A K M K T
For a unit step disturbance, ωD(s)=ΩD/s, the steady state output speed is given by
ΩD
ωss = (8)
KAKMKT +1

Thus, the steady state speed change caused by an external disturbance should reduce
as the gain KA is increased. Also, the performance should be much superior to the
open loop case, i.e. with feedback disconnected (KT=0)

In the experimental unit, the external disturbance is created by an eddy current brake.
The pole pieces of a permanent magnet are inserted to varying depths into the rotating
aluminium disk. The eddy currents induced in the disk result in power loss and thereby load
the motor.

4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The experiments suggested in this section start with a study of the open loop system
and its subsystems. This is followed by the performance evaluation of the closed loop system
for various operating conditions like forward path gain and disturbance.

4.1 Subsystem Performance

Various subsystem blocks are shown in Fig. 1 and 2. The characteristics of motor,
tachogenerator and square wave source are determined first. The FEEDBACK terminals are
left open during this experiment. Note that KA may be varied from 0 to 100 using a 10-
turn potentiometer. Thus one turn of the potentiometer corresponds to gain variation
from 0 to 10.

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1/2f

R(p-p)
C(p-p) t

Fig 4(b) Input-output waveform with square wave excitation

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(a) Signal and reference

♦ Set KA=0. Connect DVM to measure the range of variation of reference voltage
V R.
♦ Switch ON the square wave signal VS and measure its amplitude and frequency
using a calibrated CRO. The frequency of this signal is about 1Hz., which makes
the CRO display very inconvenient for measurements. It is suggested that the
amplitude may be measured with time-base switched OFF, and for frequency,
simply count the number of pulses (as seen on CRO screen), in say 60 seconds,
using a watch.
(b) Motor and Tachogenerator
♦ Set VR=1 Volt and KA=3. The motor may be running at a low speed. Record
speed N in rpm, and the Tachogenerator output VT.
♦ Repeat with VR=1 and KA=4, 5, ..., 10, and tabulate measured motor voltage VM
(=VRKA), steady state motor speed N in rpm (or ωss=Nx2π/60 in radians/sec.) and
tachogenerator output VT..
♦ Plot N vs. VM, and VT vs. N. Obtain KM and KT from the linear region of the
curves (see Fig. 5).
shaft speed in rad/ sec, ωss
Motor gain constant, KM = , and
Motor voltage, VM
VT volt - sec
Tachogenerator gain, KT =
ωss rad
♦ To calculate motor time constant, with square wave signal VS ON, set VR and KA
so that the peak-to-peak variation of VM lies between 3-8V. This would ensure a
reasonably linear operation of the motor. Use Eq.(7) to calculate the motor time
constant T.
(Caution: The CRO must be kept in 'dc-input' mode for this measurement.)
♦ Obtain the motor transfer function using
KM
G (s) =
sT + 1
(c) Disturbance
♦ Set KA=5 and adjust the reference VR to get a speed reading close to 1200 rpm.
The brake setting should be at 0 i.e. no braking.
♦ Record and tabulate the motor speed variation for different settings of the eddy
current brake.
♦ Calculate percentage decrease in speed at each setting of the brake, starting from
no braking.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

4.2 Closed Loop Performance

Performance of the closed loop system is evaluated in terms of steady state error and
disturbance rejection as functions of forward gain. The FEEDBACK terminals are connected
together for this experiment.
(a) Steady state error
♦ Set VR=1 volt and KA=5. The motor may be running at a low speed. Measure and
record speed N in rpm, tachogenerator voltage VT, and the steady state error
ess (=VR-VT).
♦ Repeat above for KA = 5, 10, 15, 20, …….100
♦ Compare in each case the value of steady state error computed from Eq. (3) i.e.
1
e ss =
1+ K AK MKT
♦ Comment on the results.
(b) Transient Performance
♦ Set VR=0.5 Volt and KA=5. Switch ON the square wave signal and measure peak-
to-peak amplitudes of VS and VT. Use Eq. (7) to calculate system time constant
Teff with R=VS(p-p) and C=VT(p-p). The value of K may be obtained from (2) as
KAKM
K=
K A K M K T +1
(Note: Although the method suggested above is theoretically valid, in the
experimental unit the results are likely to be erroneous. As the closed loop system
encounters a step input, the motor is driven harder (increased input) so as to force
it to respond faster. The current limitation and saturation in the amplifier does not
permit this in a linear fashion. However for small values of K, say less than 5, the
results are reasonable.)
(c) Disturbance Rejection
♦ With KA=5, FEEDBACK terminals shorted and the brake setting at 0, adjust
reference VR to get a speed close to 1200 rpm.
♦ Record and tabulate the variation in speed for different settings of the eddy
current brake. Calculate percentage decrease in speed at each setting of the brake.
♦ Repeat above for KA=10, 50, 100.
♦ Compare the percentage decrease in speed at various brake settings for open loop,
closed loop with KA=5, and closed loop with KA=10. Comment on the results.

5. RESULTS
Typical results obtained on an experimental unit are given below for guidance.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(a) Motor and Tachogenerator Characteristics

VR=1 volt
S.No. KA N rpm VT Volt VM Volt Experimental
Setting KA=VM/VR
1 3 560 0.31 3.01 3.01
2 4 1453 0.81 4.19 4.19
3 5 2264 1.27 5.45 5.45
4 6 2440 1.38 6.46 6.46
5 7 2445 1.39 7.44 7.44
6 8 2445 1.39 8.55 8.55
7 9 2445 1.39 9.59 9.59
Graphs of N vs. VM, and VT vs. N are shown in Fig. 5. From the linear region, KM and KT are
obtained as, KM=36.468, KT=0.00523, and KMKT=0.19
Time constant was obtained as
1 1 1
T= ⋅ = = 1.997 sec.
2f  VT (p − p) 1   0.04 1 
ln 1 − ⋅  2 × 0.82 ln 1 - ⋅
 VM ( p − p ) K K
M T  0.8 0.19 

Where f = 0.82Hz., VM = 0.8V(p-p), VT = 40mV (p-p)

and the motor transfer function as
KM 36.468
G(s) = =
sT + 1 1.997s + 1
Note that the motor speed-voltage characteristics is rather non-linear. This is because the
motor fails to start at very low voltages and at higher voltages its speed saturates due to
internal speed limiter.

(b) Closed loop performance

(i) Steady state error
VR=1 volt
S.No. KA N rpm VT Volt ess=(VR-VT) ess=1/(1+KAKMKT)
Experimental Theoretical
1 5 648 0.37 0.63 0.516
2 10 1083 0.62 0.38 0.348
3 15 1276 0.73 0.27 0.262
4 20 1377 0.79 0.21 0.210
5 25 1442 0.82 0.18 0.175
6 50 1581 0.90 0.10 0.096
7 75 1635 0.93 0.07 0.066
8 100 1656 0.94 0.06 0.0506

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Observe that the numerical values of theoretical and experimentally obtained steady
state error do not match, though the pattern of variation is same i.e it decreases with increase
in forward gain. The mismatch is due to the fact that the motor gain constant KM does not
remain constant due to non-linearity of the motor.
(ii) System time constant
VR = 0.5 V d.c.
f = 0.82 Hz
KA = 5, VP = 480 mV (p-p), VT = 120 mV (p-p)
From equation 7(b)
KA KM KT 5 × 0.19
K eff = = = 0.487, and
1 + K A K M K T 1 + 5 × 0.19
1 1
Tef f = ⋅ = 846 msec
2 × 0.82  1 120 
ln1 − ⋅ 
 0.487 480 
(iii) Disturbance rejection
Speed = 1200 rpm (approx.)
The table below shows the variation of speed under various conditions of feedback and thus
illustrates the effectiveness of speed control system in rejecting disturbance.

Brake Setting 0 1 2 3 4 5
Open Loop 1204 1200 1136 812 596 563
Speed, rpm
Closed Loop 1205 1203 1182 1023 910 886
(KA=5)
Closed Loop 1208 1205 1189 1107 1010 991
(KA=10)
Closed Loop 1186 1186 1183 1156 1134 1128
(KA=50)
Closed Loop 1196 1195 1192 1178 1167 1164
(KA=100)

6. REFERENCES
[1] Control system Engineering-I.J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, Wiley Eastern Limited.
[2] Modern Control Engineering - K. Ogata, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
[3] Automatic Control System - B.C. Kuo, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

DCS-01 Page 9

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 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

D.C. MOTOR STUDY DCM-01

1. OBJECTIVE
To study the torque-speed characteristics and determine the transfer function of a d.c.
motor.

2. EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
D.C. motors are the most commonly used actuators in electro-mechanical control
systems or servomechanisms. Compared to actuators like 2-phase a.c. motor and stepper
motor, the d.c. motor has the advantage of higher torque and simpler driving circuit. However
the presence of a commutator and a set of brushes with the problems of sparking make the
d.c. motor somewhat less durable. This of course is not true for a present day well designed
d.c. servomotor.
The study of the dynamic characteristics of the d.c. motor is important because the
overall performance of the control system depends on it. A standard analysis procedure is to
model the various subsystems and then combine these to develop the model of the overall
system.
This experiment is designed to obtain the torque-speed characteristics, compute the
various parameter and finally determine the transfer function of a d.c. motor.
The various sections of the unit are described below in some detail.
(a) Mechanical Section : It comprises of the experimental permanent magnet d.c. motor
(approx. 8W) coupled to a small d.c. generator (approx. 2W), which serves the twin
purposes of,
• electrical loading of the motor, and
• transient response signal pick-up.
Further, a slotted disk mounted on the common shaft produces 6 pulses per revolution
through an opto- interrupter, which is used in a 4-digit speed display in r.p.m.
The specifications of the main experimental d.c. motor are:
• Operating Voltage :12Vdc
• No Load Current: 0.09A
• Full Load Current: 1.0A
• Torque: 30mN-m/ 300g-cm
(b) Motor Power Supply : The operating voltage of the motor is 12 volt d.c. while the current,
depending on loading, is around 120-650 mA. A built-in variable voltage source (2-
14Vd.c.) provides this power and two 3½ digit DPMs are available to monitor the
armature voltage and armature current of the motor.
(c) Transient Response Timing Section : When the power is suddenly switched ON, the
motor speed increases gradually and finally reaches a steady value. This process takes a
few tens of milliseconds and is therefore too slow for a CRO display with repeated
ON/OFF of the motor. Although a storage CRO could be used to freeze the transient
response and compute the time constant, an alternative using digital circuits is provided in
the unit. A 3-digit time count display enables the user to measure the time constant
without an expensive storage CRO. This is explained in section 3.3.
(d) Power Supplies : All the circuits are powered through built-in I.C. regulated power supply
of appropriate capacities.
DCM - 01 Page 2

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 DC MOTOR STUDY Model : DCM- 01
mA V

MOTOR UNIT
TIME CONSTANT
SPEED Eg
(RPM) msec
Ea

MOTOR
ON

Es RESET

READY

ON
T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

STUDY OF DC MOTOR, DCM-01

PR
M

MOTOR UNIT

2 3
1 4
0 5

MOTOR SPEED
IL

T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

Panel drawing DC Motor Study, DCM-01

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Ra La

ia if

ea eb

ω
J, B

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

3. BACKGROUND SUMMARY

3.1 D.C. Motor Model [1]

The schematic diagram of a d.c. motor is shown in Fig.1 wherein the following
notations are used
ea : armature voltage (volts)
ia : armature current (amp.)
Ra : armature resistance (ohms)
La : armature inductance (henrys)
eb : back emf (volts)
if : field current (amp.)
TM : motor torque (newton-m)
TL : load torque (newton-m)
ω : angular velocity (rad/sec)
J : moment of inertia of the rotor including external loading if any (newton-
m/rad/sec2)
B : viscous friction coefficient including external loading if any (newton-m/rad/sec)

Upper case notations Ea, Ia, Eb, If are used for steady state values of the respective
variables ea, ia, eb and if
In the present set-up a permanent magnet d.c. motor is used, the field winding is thus
absent and the air gap flux is constant. The input drive may therefore be applied to the
armature only, that is, only armature controlled operation is possible.
The mathematical equations in this operating mode are,
TM = KT ia ; KT : torque constant
eb = Kbω ; Kb : back emf constant
di a
La + Ra ia+ eb = ea ; armature circuit model
dt
dω
J + Bω + TL = TM ; mechanical model
dt
Taking Laplace Transform and rearranging the terms,
ω (s) KT
=
E a (s) (sL a + R a )(sJ + B) + K T K b
Assuming the inductance of the armature circuit to be very small∗, the motor transfer
function may be written as,

∗
For the motor used Ra ≅ 4Ω and La ≅ 2.9mH. Thus even operating at 10 Hz, ωLa = 0.182,
which can be neglected in comparison to Ra.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Ea1
Motor Torque, TM

Ea2
Ea1 > Ea2 > Ea3

Ea3

Shaft Speed, ω

Fig. 2 Typical torque - speed curve

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

ω (s) KT Ra KM
G M (s) ∆ ≈ = ... (1)
E a (s) K K sτ m + 1
Js + B + T b
Ra
where,
KT
KM = : Motor gain constant
R aB + KTKb
RaJ
τm = : Motor time constant
RaB + KTKb
The armature controlled motor therefore has a first order type-0 transfer function as shown in
eqn. (1) and the two constant KM and τm depend upon motor parameters and external loading,
if any.
If the transfer function is defined with respect to shaft position (θ), rather than velocity
(ω=dθ/dt), the transfer function may be written as,
θ(s) KM
G ' M (s) ∆ =
E(s) s(sτ m + 1)
This form would be appropriate if one is interested in shaft position as the output, e.g.,
in a position control system like the D.C. Position Control, DCP-01 manufactured by M/s
Techno Instruments, Roorkee.

3.2 Torque – Speed Curves

As a mechanical actuator the magnitude of the steady state torque produced by the
motor with a given armature voltage is of interest to an user. With a simple rearrangement of
terms the motor torque may be written as,
E − Eb Ea K b ω
steady state armature current, I a = a = −
Ra Ra Ra
KT Kb K
steady state torque generated, TM = KT Ia = − ⋅ ω + T ⋅ Ea ... (2)
Ra Ra
Here TM, Ea, Eb, Ia and ω are the steady state values of the motor torque, applied
armature voltage, back emf, armature current and angular velocity of the shaft.
A typical plot of the above equation is shown in Fig. 2. This assumes a linear torque-
speed behaviour as indicated in eqn. (2). A practical d.c. motor/d.c. servomotor will show
nonlinearity to varying extent depending upon the design and manufacturing aspects. Since a
linear model (transfer function) is used in the current experiment, salient features may be
studied using any good quality d.c. motor. The plotting of Fig. 2 from experimental data is a
little involved because of the difficulty in experimentally determining KT. A relationship
between Kb and KT developed here makes the task simpler.
As the motor runs at constant speed,
Electrical power input, Pin = Ea x Ia watts
Power lost in Ra = Ra x Ia x Ia
Power available in the armature, Parm = (Ea – Ia Ra) Ia
= Eb x Ia
= Kb x ω x Ia
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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Mechanical power developed, Pmech. = TM x ω newton-m rad/sec

= KT x Ia x ω
Assuming 100% conversion of power from electrical input to mechanical output, the
above two expressions can be equated to get
 volts   newton − m 
Kb   = KT  
 rad / sec   amp. 
Thus, the numerical values of KT and Kb may be assumed to be identical.
The torque may then be expressed as,

K 2b Kb
TM = − ⋅ω + ⋅ Ea ... (3)
Ra Ra

This equation may be obtained experimentally with ease since it is very simple to
determine Kb.
When the motor is loaded, the speed decreases which reduces the back emf. This
increases armature current ia so that the motor develops more torque in order to supply the
load. The operation for a constant voltage Ea is represented as in a straight line in Fig. 2.
At steady state (ω = constant) the load torque equation must read as
TM = Bω + TL , TL : load torque ... (4)

In the experimental work TL is increased in steps by loading the motor with the help of
the coupled generator and the values of TM and ω are recorded. While ω is computed from the
speed N, in rpm, as displayed on the motor unit, the following expression is used to compute
the motor torque TM at a constant value of Ea,
Eb E −I R
TM = KT Ia = Kb Ia = ⋅ Ia = a a a ⋅ Ia ... (5)
ω ω
This is essentially same as (3) while avoiding the explicit computation of Kb.
Note that equations (3) and (4) both give the variation of TM with ω for a constant
armature voltage and are therefore basically the same, subject to the assumption that KT = Kb.
In the experiment however eqn. (4) is not used since it involves measurement of load torque
TL.
The value of B, coefficient of viscous friction, may be seen as the negative of the
slope of torque speed curve eqn. (4) and Kb may be computed from the expression
Eb Ea − Ia R a
Kb = =
ω ω

Two motor parameters, B and Kb, may therefore be determined from the Torque-Speed
Characteristics obtained under steady state conditions or constant speed operation of the
motor

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EKM
Motor Speed, ω(t)

0.632.EKM

τM

Time, t

Fig. 3 Step response of the motor

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

3.3 Transient Response

The transfer function of the motor was obtained in eqn.(1) as,
ω (s) KT Ra KM
G M (s) = = = ... (6)
E a (s) K K sτ m + 1
Js + B + T b
Ra

where,
KT
KM = : Motor gain constant
R aB + KTKb
RaJ
τm = : Motor time constant
R aB + KTKb
1
In response to a step input, ea(t) = E.u(t), i.e. Ea(s) = ⋅ E , the motor speed will follow
s
the expression,
 −
t 
 τm 
ω( t ) = E . K M 1 − e  , as shown in Fig. 3
 
 
The step response is very similar to that of an RC circuit charging from a step voltage
input. The parameters of interest, viz., EKM and τm are indicated in Fig. 3. One can easily
measure the steady state speed, N, and hence compute KM,
ω( t ) t →∞ = ωss = E K M

N πN rad/sec
or, KM = rpm/volt =
E 30E a volt
Measurement of τm, the time taken by the motor speed to rise from zero and attain
63.2% of ωss, is a little difficult because of the following facts:
(a) The motor being a mechanical system, takes a long time (approx. 500 msec.) to
reach near ωss. If a steady trace on the CRO is to be displayed, the motor must be
switched ON and OFF at around 1Hz. This is too low a frequency for convenient
viewing.
(b) Even if the above scheme was possible, the time constants during ON and OFF
would be different, since the back emf would be absent in the latter case (armature
circuit is disconnected). The switching frequency will then need to be still lower.
It is of course possible to use a storage CRO or pen recorder to freeze the transient and
make measurements at a later time. In the present unit, a class room experiment, a 3-digit
timer has been provided which gives the time elapsed in milli seconds between starting the
motor and reaching a preset speed, which would be set to 63.2% of the final speed. This then
directly gives the time constant value with a least count of 1 msec.
From the motor time constant τm obtained experimentally, the value of coefficient of
inertia (J) may be computed using eqn. (1) as,

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

 K 2b 

J = τm  B +  …(7)
Ra 
 
Also an explicit expression for the motor transfer function may than be written.
The transient response study gives the value of KM and τm. All the motor parameters and its
transfer function may then be calculated using these and the parameters obtained in section
3.2.

4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
This section deals with the details of the suggested experimental work, typical results
and calculations. It must be emphasized here that the typical results given below are based on
the measurements made on an unit randomly picked up from our assembly line. Although
these results are indicative of the general characteristics, they cannot be expected to be
exactly duplicated on other units.

4.1 Armature Circuit Parameters

Ra and La are the two parameters in the armature circuit, which may be measured by
any standard method. Although Ra is required for calculations in the next section, La has been
neglected as explained in sec 3.1.

4.2 Motor and Generator Characteristics

At no load (load step at 0) the motor is supplied with varying armature voltages, Ea =
3, 4, 5, …12. For each Ea, the motor current Ia, speed N, and generator voltage Eg are
recorded. Straight line approximation of the Ea vs. speed and Eg vs. speed yield the motor and
generator constants KM (rpm/volt) and KG (volts/rpm). Referring to the panel diagram on
page 11, the following steps are suggested :
• Set ‘MOTOR’ switch to ‘ON’. Set ‘RESET’ switch to ‘RESET’. Set ‘LOAD’ switch
to 0 position.
• Vary Ea in small steps and take readings as under (Table 1)
Table -1

S.No. Ea, volts Ia, amp. N, rpm Eg, volts

1. 3
2. 4
3.
4.
• Plot N vs. Ea and Eg vs. N. Obtain the slopes and compute KM and KG. {Ref. Fig. 5(a)
and 5(b)}.

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Eg Load Steps
68Ω
0 1
Generator 2 22Ω
3

5 4
12Ω

IL 8.2Ω
5Ω

Fig. 4 Loading system Schematic

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

4.3 Torque Speed Characteristics

To obtain the torque-speed characteristics, the motor is supplied with a fixed armature
voltage and its speed is recorded for varying external loading (Fig. 4). This loading is effected
by electrically loading the coupled generator. Referring to the panel diagram on page 11,
following steps are suggested:
• Set ‘MOTOR’ switch to ‘OFF’. Set ‘RESET’ switch to ‘RESET’. Set ‘LOAD’ switch
to 0 position.
• Connect Ea to the voltmeter and set Ea = 6V
• Shift the ‘MOTOR’ switch to ‘ON’. Measure armature input (Ea), motor current (Ia)
and motor speed in rpm. Record the readings (at S. No. 1 in the Table-2)
• Set the ‘LOAD’ switch to 1, 2, …5 and take readings as above. (S.Nos. 2, 3, … in the
Table 2)
• Complete the table below with the calculated values
Motor Voltage Ea = 6 volts; Ra = 4Ω
Table – 2

S.No. Load Ia, mA N, rpm ω = 2πN = Nπ Eb= Ea _IaRa Eb TM=KbIa

Step 60 30 Kb =
Volts ω newton-m
rad/sec.
1. 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. 5
• Plot Torque vs. Speed curves on a graph paper (approximated straight line plots)
• Compute B from the slope of Torque-Speed curve and average Kb from the table [Fig. 6].
• Repeat above for Ea= 8, Ea= 10, Ea= 12 and record the average values of motor
parameters B and Kb.

4.4 Step Response

The dynamics of the motor is studied with the help of its step response. The various
steps of this experiment are given below.
• Set ‘MOTOR’ switch to ‘OFF’. Set ‘RESET’ switch to ‘RESET’. Set ‘LOAD’ switch
to 0 position.
• Connect Ea to the voltmeter and set it to 8V.
• Switch ‘ON’ the motor and measure Eg and the speed in rpm. These are the steady
state generator voltage Eg and steady state motor speed N, respectively
• Set Es to 63.2% of Eg measured above. This is the generator voltage at which the
counter will stop counting.
• Switch ‘OFF’ the motor. Set ‘RESET’ switch to ‘READY’.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

• Now switch the motor ‘ON’. Record the counter reading as time constant in
milliseconds.
• Repeat above with Ea = 10 V, Ea= 12 V and tabulate the results as shown below in
Table 3.
Table - 3

S.No. Ea, Eg, volts N, rpm Es= 0.632.Eg Time Constant Gain Constant,
volts volts πN
τm KM =
msec 30E a
1.
2.
3.

• Substitute the values of KM and τm in eqn. (6) and write down the motor transfer
function.
• Using the average values of τm, B, Kb and Ra, calculate the motor inertia from eq. (7),
 K 2b 

J = τm B + 
 Ra 
 

4.5 Additional Experimentation

• It is also possible to get the data points for plotting the complete step response by
setting Es = 0.1 Eg, 0.2 Eg, …….0.9 Eg, and obtaining the time count to reach these
values.
• Obtain τm at Ea = 10 volts with load switch set to 3. Note down the modified time
constant and justify.
• The socket marked IL on the motor unit may be used to measure the generator load
current in terms of the voltage drop across a 5Ω resistance. This alongwith the open
circuit generator voltage measurement, may be used to compute the actual electrical
loading in watts and hence TL. Further calculations may be made to establish the
validity of the assumption, Kb = KT, within reasonable experimental errors.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

6000

5000

4000
N (speed in rpm)

3000

2000
5504− 3984 1520
K = =
M 14 − 10 4
1000 = 380rpm/volt

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Ea (Applied Voltage in volts)

Fig 5(a) Motor Characteristics

12

10
Eg (Generator Voltage in volts)

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
N (speed in rpm)

Fig 5(b) Generator Characteristics

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

5. RESULTS
Results obtained on a typical unit are given in Table 4 below for guidance only.
Actual readings may vary from unit to unit.
(a) Armature Resistance, Ra = 4.42Ω, Armature Inductance = 2.21 mH
(b) Motor and Generator Characteristics
S.No. Ea, volts Ia, mA N, rpm Eg , volts
1. 2 145 601 1.13
2. 3 143 1036 1.96
3. 4 138 1469 2.788
4. 5 137 1893 3.59
5. 6 135 2328 4.42
6. 7 136 2747 5.21
7. 8 139 3159 6.00
8. 9 141 3583 6.80
9. 10 143 3984 7.55
10. 11 146 4373 8.28
11. 12 150 4738 8.96
12. 13 153 5133 9.69
13. 14. 158 5504 10.37
14. 14.58 161 5728 10.77
From the plots of Fig 5(a) and 5(b), average values of motor and generator constants
are:
KM = 380 rpm/volt
KG = 0.00186 V/ rpm

(c) Torque-Speed Characteristics

Ea = 8V, Ra = 4.42Ω

S.No. Load Ia, mA N, rpm ω = 2πN = Nπ Eb= Ea - IaRa Eb TM = KbIa

Step 60 30 Kb =
volts ω newton-m
rad/sec.
1. 0 132 3183 333.3 7.41 0.02223 0.002934
2. 1 168 3099 324.5 7.25 0.02234 0.003753
3. 2 204 3013 315.5 7.09 0.02247 0.004583
4. 3 238 2934 307.2 6.94 0.02259 0.005376
5. 4 275 2849 298.3 6.78 0.02272 0.006248
6. 5 320 2750 287.9 6.58 0.002285 0.007312

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2.29
T (0.006248 − 0.002934)
2.28 B= m =
ω (3083 − 2849) × 2π
2.27
60
0.003314 × 60 Newton × meter
= = 94.75 × 10 − 6
2.26 334 × 2π rad/sec
2.25

2.24

2.23

2.22

2.21
2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050 3100 3150 3200 3250
N (speed in rpm)

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

volts
Average Kb = 22.53 x 10 −3
rad / sec
(From the slope of the curve) Fig. 6, coefficient of viscous friction,
newton − m
B = 94.75 x 10 −6
rad / sec

(d) Step response study Ea= 8V, Eg = 6.04 volts, and, τm = 77 msec

S.No. Ea, Eg, volts N, rpm Es= 0.632.Eg Time Constant Gain Constant,
volts volts πN
τm msec KM =
30E a
1. 8 6.04V 3186 3.817V 77 msec 41.70
2. 10
3. 12

π N π 3186
Es = 0.632 x 6.04 = 3.817 V and KM = . = . = 41.70 rad/sec.
30 E a 30 8

 K2 
Thus, J = τm  B + b 
 Ra 
 (22.53 x 10 -3 ) 2 
= 0.077 94.75 × 10 -6 + 
 4.42 
N. m
= 16.14 x 10 −6
rad / sec 2

and motor transfer function is

ω (s) KM 41.70 541.55

G (s) = = = =
E (s) sτ m + 1 0.077s + 1 s + 12.98

6. REFERENCES
[1] Control system Engineering - I.J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, Wiley Eastern Limited.
[2] Modern Control Engineering - K. Ogata, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

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 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

D.C. POSITION CONTROL DCP - 01

1. OBJECT
To study the performance characteristics of a d.c. motor angular position control
system.

2. EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
A major portion of any first course on automatic control system invariably revolves
around the study of d.c. position control systems. Experimental work in this area has however
been confined to analog simulated systems, e.g. through our 'Linear System Simulator' or
similar other units. The biggest advantage of this approach is the unlimited flexibility and
near perfect operation of the simulated systems leading to a close correlation between
theoretical and experimental results, however, the student is denied the feel of a physical
electromechanical system. The present unit has been designed with this objective in mind.
Despite the constraints like friction, dead zone, nonlinearities due to amplifier saturation and
motor current limiting, and low speed of response associated with any mechanical system, the
student has been provided with enough opportunity for experimentation on a working system.
The panel diagram in Fig. 1 shows the various built-in subsystems which are now described.

2.1 Signal Sources

• Angle command (continuous): obtained through a potentiometer with a calibrated
disk attached.
• Angle command (step): available through a toggle switch. Automatic
synchronisation with waveform capture circuit is provided.

2.2 Motor Unit

The position control is achieved through a good quality permanent magnet d.c. gear
motor. The specifications of the motor are :
• Operating voltage : 24Vdc
• No load current : 0.16A
• Full load current : 2.8A
• Rated speed : 40 rpm
• Torque (basic) : 1.48 Kg-cm
However in DCP-01 we are using this motor at only 12Vdc.
Angular position of the motor shaft is sensed by a special 360° rotation potentiometer
attached to it. A calibrated disk mounted on the potentiometer indicates its angular position in
degrees. In addition to this, a small tachogenerator attached to the motor shaft produces a
voltage proportional to its speed which is used for feedback.
All the above components, viz. the motor, potentiometer, tachogenerator etc. are fitted
inside the 'motor unit'. Transparent panels provide a good view of the interior. The motor unit
is connected to the rest of the system through a 9-pin D-type connector and cables.

2.3 Main Unit

The main unit houses the command circuit, the error detector, the gain controls of the
forward path and tachogenerator channels, the power stage and the waveform capture/display
unit. Different experiments are performed by appropriate settings of the controls as explained
later. Description of the above blocks is given next.
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 STEP VS DC POSITION CONTROL
INPUT
VR MODEL : DCP-01
+ V
+
FORWARD
DRIVER
- GAIN
20 30 40 -
MODE RESET
MOTOR
REFERENCE
0 10
TACHO
GAIN DISPLAY

TACHO CAPTURE

VO Y E X
0 1

T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee ON

MOTOR UNIT
Dial 20 30 40

Servo Pot D.C. Motor Spring Coupling Tacho

DC POSITION CONTROL
MODEL : DCP-01

T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

TACHO FEEDBACK

POSITIVE NEGATIVE

Side View Front View

Fig.1 :Panel diagram of D.C. Position Control, Model DCP-01

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Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(a) Command: Two operating modes have been provided in the system. When a continuous
command is given by the rotation of a potentiometer through a certain angle, the closed loop
system responds by an identical rotation of the motor shaft. Alternatively, a step command
equivalent to about 150 degrees may be given by a switch. This is used for quantitative
studies of the step response.
(b) Error detector: This is a 4-input 1-output block. Two of the inputs are meant for
command signals and the remaining two inputs, having 180° phase shift, are used for position
and velocity feedback signals.
(c) Gain blocks: The forward path gain is adjustable from 0 to 10 and the tachogenerator
channel gain may be varied from 0 to 1. The gains may be read from the markings on the
panel.
(d) Driver: The driver is a unity gain complementary symmetry power amplifier suitable for
running the motor upto full power in either direction. A current limiting circuit ensures safety
of the power transistors during motor starting and direction reversal.
(e) Waveform Capture/Display unit: The time response of a mechanical system like the
present one is usually too slow for a CRO display, except on a storage oscilloscope.
Alternatively an X-Y recorder could be used to get a hard copy which may subsequently be
studied quantitatively. Both these options are quite expensive for a usual undergraduate
laboratory. The waveform capture/display unit is a microprocessor based card which can
'capture' the motor response and then 'display' the same on any ordinary X-Y oscilloscope for
a detailed study. The stored waveform is erased whenever another waveform is captured, or
the unit is reset.

2.4 Power Supply

The set-up has a number of IC regulated supplies which are permanently connected to
all the circuits. No external d.c. supply should be connected to the unit.
Capabilities of this unit include an evaluation of the performance of the position
control system for different values of forward gains. Also the effect of tachogenerator
feedback on system stability forms an important study. Effect of non-linearity, so common in
all practical systems, may be readily observed by the student. In all the cases the response is
stored and can then be displayed on an ordinary measuring oscilloscope.

3. BACKGROUND SUMMARY
Second order systems are studies in great detail in any course on linear control
system. The reason for this is that a large number of higher order practical control systems
may be approximated as a second order system while neglecting less dominant modes,
nonlinearities like dead zone, saturation, hysteresis etc., assuming these to have little effect
on the performance. Also second order systems lend themselves to a simple and accurate
mathematical analysis. In the following description we shall follow the above strategy. At the
end however, the imperfections due to nonlinearities shall be pointed out.

3.1 Position Control - a second order system

A second order system is represented in the standard form as,
ωn 2
G (s) =
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n 2
where ζ is called the damping ratio and ωn the undamped natural frequency. Depending upon
the value of ζ, the poles of the system may be real, repeated or complex conjugate which is
reflected in the nature of its step response. Results obtained for various cases are :
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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

L R

LOAD

θ
J, f

θ (s) Km
≈
E (s) s (sT + 1)

Fig. 2 : Transfer function of D.C. Motor

R (s) C (s)
+
KA G(s)

-
-

s. KD
Tacho Feed Back

Proportional Feed Back

FIG. 3 : Simplified block diagram

C (t)

ess
1.0

td
C (tp)
0.5 C (∞)

tr

tp

Fig.4 : Normalized step response of the second order system

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(a) underdamped case (0<ζ<1)

e − ζω n t −1 (1 − ζ 2 )
c( t ) = 1 − sin(ωd t + tan ) (1)
(1 − ζ 2 ) ζ

where, ωd=ωn (1 − ζ 2 ) is termed the damped natural frequency. A sketch of the unit
step response for various values of ζ is available in the text books.
(b) Critically damped case (ζ=1)
c(t) = 1 − e − ω n t (1 + ω n t ) (2)
(c) Overdamped case (ζ>1)
ωn  e − s1 t e − s 2 t 
c( t ) = 1 −  −  (3)
2  s1 s 
2 (1 − ζ )  2 

where s1=(ζ + (ζ 2 − 1) )ωn and s2=(ζ - (ζ 2 − 1) )ωn

Referring to Fig. 2, the transfer function G(s) of an armature controlled d.c. motor may be
derived as [1],
θ(s) Km
= G (s) =
E(s) s(sT + 1)
where KM is Motor gain constant, and T the Mechanical time constant.
Considering proportional feedback only, the close loop transfer function of the system
of Fig. 3 may be obtained as,
C(s) K A G (s) KA K m / T
= = 2
(4)
R (s) 1 + K A G ( s) (s + s / T + K A K m / T)
This gives unit step response similar to equations (1), (2) or (3) depending upon the
value of KA. Thus the response of the position control system can be altered by varying the
amplifier gain KA, and a 'satisfactory' performance may usually be obtained. This leads to the
concept of performance characteristics as defined on the step response of an underdamped
second order system in Fig. 4 and explained in brief here.
(i) Delay time, td, is defined as the time needed for the response to reach 50% of the final
value.
(ii) Rise time, tr, is the time taken for the response to reach 100% of the final value for the
first time. This is given by
π−β (1 − ζ 2 )
tr = , where β = tan −1
ωd ζ
(iii) Peak time, tp, is the time taken for the response to reach the first peak of the overshoot
and is given by
π
tp =
ω n (1 − ζ 2 )

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

(iv) Maximum overshoot, Mp, is defined by

c( t p ) − c ( ∞ )
Mp = × 100%
c( ∞ )
(v) Settling time, ts, is the time required by the system response to reach and stay within a
prescribed tolerance band which is usually taken as ±2% or ±5%. An approximate
calculation based on the envelops of the response for a low damping ratio system yields
ts (±5% tolerance band) = 3/ζωn
ts (±2% tolerance band) = 4/ζωn
Another important characteristic of a closed loop system is the steady state error, ess.
For unity feedback systems ess is defined as
e ss = lim e( t ) = lim {r ( t ) − c( t )}
t →∞ t →∞

A simpler way to calculate steady state error without actually computing the time
response is available in the complex frequency domain. Application of the final value
theorem of Laplace Transform to unity feedback system gives,
sR (s)
e ss = lim e( t ) = lim sE (s) = lim
t →∞ s→ 0 s→0 1 + G ( s)

Steady state error may be obtained for various inputs (step, ramp, parabolic) and
systems of various type numbers (number of poles at origin). A summary of the results of the
above calculations may be seen in [11]. To facilitate the calculations, error coefficients are
defined as
Position error coefficient, Kp = lim G (s)
s→0
Velocity error coefficient, Kv = lim sG (s)
s→0
Acceleration error coefficient, Ka = lim s 2 G (s)
s→0

• The position control system has a second order transfer function in the standard
form.
• The system should not have any steady state error for step input.
• The transient response of the system is affected by the value of KA. A higher value
of KA should result in larger overshoot.

3.2 Tachogenerator feedback

It may be intuitively obvious that availability of a single adjustable parameter KA in
the position control system is likely to meet only one of the performance characteristics. In
most cases however one is interested in at least two specifications simultaneously e.g. steady
state error and the damping factor or peak overshoot. In an electromechanical system this is
conveniently achieved through a tachogenerator feedback.
Considering the tachogenerator feedback path also active in Fig. 3, the closed loop
transfer function is obtained as
C(s) K A G ( s) KA K m / T
= = 2
R (s) 1 + K A G (s)(1 + K D s) s + (1 + K A K m K D )( s / T) + ( K A K m ) / T

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

It is easily seen that the steady state error to unit ramp is given by
ess = 1/KAKm, and the damping ratio by
ζ = (1+KAKmKD)/2√(TKAKD)

Thus the specification of ess and ζ may be met simultaneously by a proper choice of
KA and KD.

3.3 System Imperfections

All practical systems are imperfect to some extent. As a result of this, the actual
system response differs from the ideal response of Fig. 4, which is valid for a second order
linear system. Some of the contributing factors relevant to the present set-up are :
(a) Saturation of armature current - necessary to protect the driver from high currents when
the motor starts or reverses its direction. This implies limiting the maximum control effort
for large errors leading to a slower response.
(b) Amplifier saturation - has effects similar to above although the saturation is now a circuit
limitation.
(c) Dead zone - caused by a minimum voltage below which the motor would not start due to
the friction of the brushes and bearings. As a result of this the steady state error may be
larger than expected.
(d) Nonlinear tachogenerator and motor characteristics - due to manufacturing
inaccuracies.
(e) System order - may be actually more than two, due to load characteristics, delays and
filters used.

An accurate analysis taking into account the above mentioned imperfections would
certainly prove to be exceedingly complex. The experiments which follow therefore
consider the system as it is, study the response and the effect of tachogenerator
feedback on the response. A qualitative comparison of the result of experiment with the
theoretical predictions for a second order linear system should be of great interest.

4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The experiments suggested below enable the reader to study the performance of the
closed loop system with proportional feedback and closed loop system with combined
proportional and techogenerator feedback. Idea of dead zone and its effect on steady state
error is also introduced. A special provision has been made in the set-up to store and display a
response of the system - a need which occurs quite frequently. The operation of this
waveform capture/display provision is described first.

4.1 Waveform Capture/Display

This card is designed to automatically store the response of the system in a RAM
whenever a step input is given. The stored response is then displayed on the CRO. Steps for
its operation are as given below:
(a) Power ON the system and/or press the RESET switch - unit goes into DISPLAY the axes
and shows the RAM contents (zero at present).
(b) Press the MODE switch - the unit becomes ready to capture the step response.

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(c) Applying step input now starts the storage. At the end of the capture cycle, the mode
automatically shifts to DISPLAY and the response waveform is seen on the CRO.
(d) Storage of a new response or pressing the RESET switch erases the current waveform.
(e) The time scale of the display may be calibrated by feeding the X-output (sawtooth) of the
unit to the Y-input of the CRO and determining its time period and amplitude.

4.2 Closed loop study (Also see the Note at end, on page 10)
(a) Position control through CONTINUOUS command
• Ensure that the step command switch is OFF
• Starting from one end, move the COMMAND potentiometer in small steps and
observe the rotation of the response potentiometer.
• Record and plot θR, VR, θ0 and V0 for a few values of KA.
• Calculate ∆θR and ∆θ0 (taking initial readings as nominal values) and plot. Also
calculate the errors (∆θR-∆θ0), (∆VR-∆V0) at each step. Justify the presence of errors
and their variation with KA.
(b) Position control through STEP command
• Ensure that the tachogenerator feedback switch on the MOTOR UNIT is set to
NEGATIVE.
• Adjust the reference potentiometer to get VR=0.
• Set KA to 2.
• Connect the CRO, calibrate the time scale, sec. 4.1(e), and switch to CAPTURE
mode.
• Apply STEP input. Wait till storage is complete and the response is displayed. Trace
the waveform from CRO.
• Compute Mp, ζ, tp, tr and the steady state error.
• Repeat for KA = 3,4,....
• Now set KA=6, and choose various values of KD=0.1, 0.2... and repeat the above
observations.
• Tabulate the results as shown in the next section and discuss :
◊ variation of maximum overshoot, rise time and steady state error with forward
gain.
◊ effect of tachogenerator feedback on maximum overshoot, rise time and stability.
◊ effect of dead zone and saturation on step response.
• Compare your results with theoretical predictions assuming a second order system.
• A set of observations with POSITIVE tachogenerator feedback may also be taken in
the same manner as above.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

5. TYPICAL RESULTS
Typical results obtained on a similar unit are next given for guidance. The reading and
result have all been obtained using the waveform capture and other built-in facilities of the
unit. However, a set of step response recording obtained through TEKTRONIX Storage CRO
Type TDS-210 and its PC interface are shown on the facing pages of 8 & 9, purely for
general information
(a) Manual operation of the position control
KD = 0, Tachogenerator channel disabled
KA = 5

S. No. θR ∆θR θ0 ∆θ0 ∆θR-∆θ0 VR V0 ∆VR-∆V0

deg deg deg deg deg volt volt volt

1. 0 - 5 - - 0 0 0
2. 30 30 31 26 4 0.20 0.13 0.07
3. 60 60 62 57 3 0.87 0.90 -0.03
4. 90 90 95 90 0 1.43 1.48 -0.05
.
.
.
The measured values of VR have negative signs which have not been inverted in the internal
circuitry for technical reasons. These may however be read as positive and calculation
should be made with positive values
(b) Calibration of X-output
In the DISPLAY mode with X-output connected to the Y-input of CRO, a sawtooth
waveform is seen. On measurement,
Amplitude of sawtooth = 5.6 volts.
Time duration of the main linear part = 39 msec.
X-output scale factor is thus 6.96 msec/volt
The X-output waveform above consists of axis display part and waveform display
part. The latter is identified by a much longer time duration which has been measured above.
(c) Step response of the position control without tachogenerator feedback
Set KD=0
Vs=2.5 V (internally set)
S. No. KA Mp tp tr ζ ess ωn
% msec msec volt rad/sec
1. 5 16.8 10.5 4.2 0.493 0.12 343.9
2.
3. 7 20.8 6.96 3.48 0.447 0.0 504.6
.
.
.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Vo(t)
ess
VS Dead
Zone

VPEAK
Vo (∞)

t
tr

tp

Fig. 5 : Typical step response of the position control system

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Referring to Fig. 5,
ess=Vs-V0, where Vs and V0 may be measured by DVM

VPEAK − V0 ( ∞)
MP = × 100%
V0 ( ∞)

tp, tr may be obtained from CRO

ζ may be calculated from Mp using the standard relation

Mp = exp (-πζ/ (1 − ζ 2 ) )

ωn is calculated from the expression of tp {=π/ωn (1 − ζ 2 ) }

The closed loop and open loop transfer functions of the system may now be written as,

ωn 2 2.54 × 10 5
Closed loop : =
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ωn 2 s 2 + 4.51 × 10 2 s + 2.54 × 10 5

1 ωn 2 2.54 × 10 5
open loop (excluding KA) : =
K A s(s + 2ζω n s) 7 × s(s + 4.51 × 10 2 s)

• The open loop transfer function (excluding KA) comes out to be different for
different readings - the system is not actually a second order function.
• The peaks of the response curves are flattened - the motor has dead zone.
• The peak overshoot does not increase significantly with KA - motor armature
currents is restricted.

(d) Step response of the position control with tachogenerator feedback

KA=7
Vs=2.5 volts (internally set)

S. No. KP Mp tp tr ζ ess ωn
% msec msec volt rad/sec

1. 0 20.80 6.96 3.48 0.447 0.1 504.6

2. 0.1 12.44 8.10 4.17 0.552 0.1 465.1
3. 0..2 0 - 5.22 1 0 -
.
.
.
MP, tp, ζ and ess may be obtained as outlined in (c) above.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

• The tachogenerator feedback is seen to reduce MP and increase ζ. Relative

stability is improved.
• There is an increase in tr and tp. The system becomes slower.
• The steady state error remains unchanged.

NOTE: Under certain operating conditions, the motor may start continuous uncontrolled
rotation. This is due to a very small gap (approx. 5°) in the response potentiometer which is
easily overshot by the motor, due to its inertia. In such a situation normal operation may be
restored by decreasing the gain or by changing the position of the command potentiometer.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Control System Engineering - I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
[2] Modern Control Engineering - K. Ogata, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
[3] Automatic Control System - B.C. Kuo, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

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 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

STUDY OF MAGNETIC LEVITATION SYSTEM ML-01

1. OBJECTIVE
Theoretical and experimental study of a magnetic levitation setup, an inherently
unstable system.

2. BACKGROUND SUMMARY
The magnetic levitation system consists of an electromagnet which pulls an object (a
magnetic material) in an upward direction, in the presence of downward gravitational force on
it (Fig.1). If the magnet current i is adjusted to satisfy the condition, f = mg, the object should,
at least theoretically, remain suspended in air. In a practical situation, however, even the
smallest disturbance would dislocate the balance and the object would either stick to the
magnet or fall down to ground. Logically therefore the current i needs to be continuously
adjusted to keep the object freely suspended in air. This task is impossible to be achieved
manually , and therefore needs a feedback control loop.
The basic feedback control scheme is shown in Fig.2. The idea here is to monitor the
position of the object continuously and adjust magnet current automatically to ensure the
upward force, f, exactly balances the weight of the object, mg, at all times. It will however be
seen later that due to the unstable dynamics of the object, the automatic control scheme of
Fig.2 is not workable and hence a more elaborate controller is required. A linearized model of
the system is developed next.

2.1 System Model

The electromagnet pulls the object (iron ball) with a force,
2
i L x
f ( x , i) = c  , and c = 0 0 ….(1)
x 2
Here,
x is the distance between the magnet and the object
i is the current in the magnet coil
c is the constant of proportionality
Lo is the additional inductance of the magnet coil due to the object placed at the
nominal position, x = x0 .
The equation of motion of the object is given by
2
i
m &x& = − c   + mg, where ….(2)
x
m is the mass of the object, and
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
A linearized form of the above equation may be derived as,
2 ~
~  i 0    i (t ) ~x (t ) 
m x (t ) = − c   1 + 2 
&& −  + mg ….(3)
 x 0    i0 x 0 

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 STUDY OF MAGNETIC LEVITATION
A
MODEL : ML-01

V
MAGNET CURRENT SENSOR VOLTAGE

MAGNET UNIT
POWER
CONTROLLER GAIN ELECTRO
AMPLIFIER
+ MAGNET
-

OBJECT

REFERENCE 1 11 SENSOR

SENSOR
T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee ON

80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10

MAGNETIC LEVITATION EXPERIMENT

Model : ML-01

T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

Panel Drawing Magnetic Levitation, Model ML-01

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Electromagnet

f
x

Object

mg

Fig.1 Basic system

Magnet
Currrent Force Object
Desired Position
position of Power i Electromagn f Object
the object + Amplifier et Dynamics
χ
Vref
-

VS Position
Sensor
Measured position
of the object

Fig.2 Automatic Scheme for Control

Incremental voltage applied Incremental position

to the megnet coil K0 of the object
~
V(s)
(s + α )(s 2 − β2 ) ~
X(s)

Fig.3 Open Loop System Model

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

~
where, ~ x (t ) and i (t ) are the incremental displacement and incremental magnet current around
their nominal values, x 0 and i 0 . Since the object is assumed to be at rest at x = x 0 with
i = i0 ,
2
i 
c  0  = mg , which leads to
 x0 
2
2 i0 c ~ 2i c
m &~
x&(t ) = − 2
⋅ i (t ) + 0 3 ~
x (t )
x0 x0
Taking Laplace transform and neglecting initial condition,
− 2 ci0
~
X (s )
2
m x0
~ = , ….(4)
I (s ) 2 2ci0
2

s − 3
m x0
is obtained as the dynamics of the object.
The current – voltage relation of the magnet is given by
~
~v (t ) = R ~i (t ) + L d i (t ) , where ~v (t ) and ~i (t ) are the incremental values of
dt
voltage applied to and the current flowing into the electromagnet, and R, L are the coil
parameters. Taking Laplace transform and neglecting initial conditions,
~ ~
V (s ) = (R + s L ) I (s ) , and
combining the above equations, the system dynamics is given by the transfer function
2 c i0
~ −
X(s )
2
m L x0 K0
~ = G (s ) = =− ….(5)
V(s )  R   2 2 c i 0 
2
(
(s + α ) s 2 − β 2 )
s + s −
m x 0 
3
 L 

2.2 Controller Scheme

The above equation may be represented by the block diagram of Fig. 3 which is the
open loop system.
It is clear that the open loop system above is unstable, due to the pole at s = β , in the
right half of the s-plane. Also, connecting a feedback loop on the line of Fig.2 will not lead to
a stable closed loop system for any value of forward path gain as may be seen from the root
locus diagram of Fig.4. This obviously is a proportional controller, which will not stabilize
the system. In case however a proportional – derivative (PD) controller is used, the revised
root locus diagram of Fig.5 indicates the possibility of stabilizing the system and also
achieving good transient performance for some range of values of forward path gain.
The PD controller is assumed to have the transfer function, Gc = (1 + Tds)
The present experiment involves determination of the system parameters, K0, α and β
experimentally, and then to design Td, the parameter of the controller and choose an
appropriate gain.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

jω

−β β σ
−α

Fig.4 Root Locus with Proportional Controller

jω

−α − β -Td β σ

Fig.5 Root Locus with PD Controller

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

2.3 Parameter determination

(a) The value of α can be calculated from the magnet parameters, R and L, and using
the expression α = R/ L.
(b) Since the open loop system, eqn.(5) is unstable, no experimentation is possible
directly on it. An alternative method is to use an adhoc setting of the PD controller
2
i
to result in stability. Then the force balance equation, c  = mg , is used to
x
calculate an average value of c from measurements of i and x around the nominal
equilibrium point i0, x0. The mass of the object, m, is known beforehand.
The constant K0 and β are then computed from

2 ci0  2ci02 
K0 = 2
and β =  
3 
mL x0  m x0 

3. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The hardware involved in the various blocks of Fig.2 are described in this section.

3.1 Suspended Object

This comprises of two disc magnets M1 and M2 fixed on the two ends of a height
plastic cylinder (Fig. 6). While M1 is used for providing upward force to pull the object, M2 is
used for generating the necessary position information through the hall sensor fixed on the
base. A cylinder made of plastic material ensures proper view and protected movement of the
object. Note that our earlier analysis refers to iron as the suspended object, in the actual model
a magnet M1 is used. This ensures a better control when the object goes close to the
electromagnet. Also since the thickness of a magnet is much smaller that x0, the calculation
are not too much in error. Finally, since the system is highly non-linear and we are linearizing
around the operating point x0, i0, the whole analysis is reasonably accurate even for a magnet
object.

3.2 Electromagnet
A powerful electromagnet is mounted on the top of the guide rod. It exerts variable
attraction force on M1 depending on the current supplied to it. The second magnet M2, being
farther away, is assumed to have a negligible effect on the force. The electromagnet is
characterised by its winding resistance R and inductance L.

3.3 Power Amplifier

It is a complementary symmetry power amplifier having an internal gain of 2, and
capable of providing up to 3 amp. to the electromagnet. The external gain of the circuit may
be varied form 1 to 11 using the potentiometer on the panel.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Electromagnet
Magnet, M

x0
M1

Transparent
Cylinder

M2
y0
Hall Sensor
Sensor, S

Fig.6 Mechanical Arrangement of the Object

ERROR DETECTOR CONTROLLER

R2=100K

Vref
- R1 = 10K

Vsense -
+
+
C1

Fig.7 Electronic Circuit of the System

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

3.4 Position Sensor

It is a hall effect device, which generates an electrical signal proportional to its
distance from M2. The sensor output is thus a measure of the position of the suspended
object. Note that due to the highly non-linear nature of the overall system, we are basically
concerned with small deviations around the equilibrium point. This enables us to represent
the sensor as a constant gain for computation purposes.

3.5 Error detector and controller

The circuit diagram of this section is shown in Fig. 7 . It performs the tasks of,
(i) Placing the object to a suitable position which may be taken as the ‘nominal
position’. This is done by adjusting the reference signal, Vref.
(ii) Providing a PD controller to ensure system stability, and a simple calculation
R
shown the controller transfer function to be, 2 ⋅ (1 + s R 1C1 ) .
R1
(iii)Setting the forward path gain to an appropriate value.

4. EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS

The experiments conducted on a typical unit and the results are described below in
some detailed. The student is expected to repeat the steps on the unit available to him and go
through the design. Actual results are likely to be somewhat different in each case.

4.1 System Identification

Standard Parameter values of a typical unit are:
-3
Magnet Inductance, L = 8.69 × 10 h
Magnet Resistance, R = 4.95 Ω
-3
Mass of the Object, m = 10 × 10 Kg
(a) Based on the parameters of the magnet, the time constant of the coil may be
calculated as,
4.95
α= = 569.62 sec −1
−3
8.69 ×10
(b) The steps below are now followed to determine the remaining parameters.
Step.1 Connect the PD controller (C1 = 2µF) and close the feedback loop. Set
forward gain to a medium value say 4. The object should now be suspended
freely in air by adjusting Vref.
Step.2 Adjust the reference input to move the object in the gap between the magnet
and the sensor. This is the nominal position of the object [x0 is the distance
between the object (top marker) and the electromagnet, M and i0 is the
electromagnet current.]
Step.3 Record x0, i0 and calculate c. The mass of the object,
-3
m = 10 × 10 Kg (Specified by the manufacturer)
x0 = 34 mm = 0.034 m
i0 = 1.15 amp

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Root Locus
500

400

300

200
Imag Axis

100

0 x x x
-100

-200

-300

-400
-500
-800 -700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200
Real Axis

K.3922
G(s) =
(s + 569 ) (s2 - 242 )
Fig. 8 Root Locus Diagram of the Uncompensated System

Impulse Response
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
Image Axis

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4
0
0.02 0.04 0.6 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Time (sec)

C
(s) = G(s)
R 1 + G(s )

Fig. 9 Impulse Reponse of the uncompensated System

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

2 2
x 
 = 10 ×10 −3 × 9.8 × 
0.034  −5
c = mg  0  = 8.56 × 10
 i0   1.15 
Step.4 Compute K0 and β ( Ref to sec. 2.3) as,
2c i 0 2g 2 × 9. 8
K0 = = = = 1961
m L x0 2 L i0 8.69 × 10 −3 × 1.15

2 c i02 2g 2 × 9. 8
β = = = = 24.00
m x 03 x0 0.034

Step.5 The transfer function of the system at the nominal position is now written
explicitly as
2 × 1961
G (s ) = (Internal gain of power amplifier = 2)
(s + 569 ) (s 2 - 24.00 2 )
The forward path transfer function may therefore be written as
K × 3922
K.G (s ) = −
(
(s + 569) s 2 − 24.00 2 )
Where K is adjustable between 1 and 11 as explained in section 3.3
Step.6 Feedback path gain (sensor gain) at the nominal position is found by
displacing the object slightly around the nominal position (say ±3mm) and
monitoring the change in sensor output.
(i) y 0 = 5 mm Sensor output, Vs = 3.62 V

(ii) y0 + ∆ y = 8 mm Sensor output, Vs + ∆Vs = 3.25 V

(iii) y - ∆ y = 2 mm
0
Sensor output, Vs - ∆Vs = 4.63 V

2∆Vs
Average Sensor gain Ks = = 230 V/m
2∆ y
0

The feedback path transfer function may therefore be written as

H(s) = 230
Step.7 Sketch the root locus diagram from the transfer function obtained in Step. 5
and 6 using MATLAB or otherwise, as shown Fig.8. Instability of the closed
loop system for all values of open loop gain is obvious, and may also be
verified through an impulse response plot as in Fig. 9.
Note that since the system has a non-unity feedback path transfer function, the root
locus plot must take this into account. Sample MATLAB commands for this purpose
are listed below.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

500

400 Gain : 3.04

Pole -53.1 + 49.1i
300 Damping : 0.734
Overshoot (%) : 3.34
Imag Axis

200 Frequency (rad/sec) : 72.3

100

0 x x x
-100

-200

-300

-400

-500
-800 -700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200
Real Axis

K (1 + 0.02s )× 0.3922.230
GG c =
(s + 569) s 2 − 24 2 ( )
Fig. 10 Root Locus Diagram of the Compensated System

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
Amplitude

0.15

0.1

0.05

-0.05
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

Time (sec)
Fig. 11 Impulse Response of the closed Loop Compensated
system with K=3

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

s=tf(`s’)
g=(3922)/((s+569)*(s∧2-24∧2));
h=230;
gh=g*h
rlocus(gh)
impulse(((g)/(1+gh)), .2)
Step.8 Choose a suitable closed loop pole location (P) and design a PD controller. A
good choice may be a zero at S = - 50. The compensator transfer function. GC
= (1+0.02s) = 0.02(s+50). With R1 = 10KΩ (internal), the value of
compensator capacitance is C1 = 2µF. A revised root locus diagram may be
drawn as shown in Fig. 10. Note that the system is now stable for K>1.5.
Impulse response plot for K = 3 is shown in Fig. 11
MATLAB command:
gc=((1/50)*(s+50))
rlocus(gh*gc)
implus(((3*g*gc)/(1+3*gh*gc)), .0:.0001:.5)
Calculate and connect the designed value of capacitor on the panel and operate
the system with the computed value of the forward path gain.
A careful observation of the root locus of Fig.10 would show that the system
could be stabilized by using a wide range of capacitors. This may be verified
experimentally.
Also it might appear that large values of K would be preferred in all cases.
This however is not true in the practical situation due to the saturation of the
amplifier.

5. FURTHER WORK
The experimental unit provides the user with an interesting platform to conduct
further experimental work. This however is most conveniently done with the support of
MATLAB. Some suggestions are:
(a) Simulate different PD controllers on MATLAB check the root locus diagram
impulse response their effect on the unit.
(b) Attempt lead compensator design and implement it.
Note: Do not expect the experimental performance to match exactly with theoretical
prediction. While the theoretical work is valid for linear system only, the experimental system
is a non-linear one, which has been approximated as a linear system for small variation
around the operating point.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Franklin GF, JD Powell and Michael Workman, “Digital Control of Dynamic
System”, Addison Wesley, 2000.
[2] Shiao YS, “Design and Implementation of a controller for a Magnetic Leviation
System”, Proc. Natl. Sci.Comc. ROC(D), Vol. II, No. 2, 2001, pp. 88-94.

ML - 01 Page 7

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

STUDY OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS

OBJECT
To study the linear and nonlinear applications of a 741 operational amplifier as
(i) Integrator
(ii) Differentiator
(iii) Summer
(iv) Difference Amplifier
(v) Voltage to Current Converter
(vi) Current to Voltage Converter
(vii) Astable Mode of operation
(viii) Precision Rectifier

THEORY
An operational amplifier (OP-AMP) is a high gain direct-coupled amplifier having low
output impedance and high input impedance. The first stage of an op-amp consists of a
differential amplifier resulting in two input terminals called 'inverting' and 'Non-inverting'
inputs. These are characterised by a -ve and +ve sign respectively. Since the amplifying stages
are direct coupled and the nominal output is required to be at the ground potential, an op-amp
operates from two power supplied, viz. +Vcc and -Vcc. The input applied at 'Non inverting'
terminal is amplified by the amplifier without any phase change whereas an input applied at
'Inverting' terminal undergoes a 180° phase change.
The operational Amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well ac
input signals and was originally designed for computing such mathematical functions as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and integration. Thus the name operational amplifier stems
from original use for these mathematical operations. With the addition of suitable external
feedback components, the modern day op-amp can be used for a variety of applications such as
integrator, differentiator, summer, subtractor, oscillators and others.

(a) Integrator: A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input
voltage waveform is the integrator or the integration amplifier. Such a circuit is obtained by
using a basic inverting amplifier configuration if the feedback resistor Rf is replaced by a
capacitor Cf.
The expression for the output voltage Vo can be obtained by writing Kirchhoff’s current
equation at node V2:
I1=Ib + If …a(i)

Since Ib is negligibly small, I1§ ,f

We know that the relationship between current through and voltage across the capacitor
is
dVc
ic = C
dt

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2
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

R1 V2 CF

i1 IB iF + V CC
-
+ IC 7 4 1 Vo
V in V1
- +
-V E E
IB RL

FIG . 1: Basic Integrator C ircuit

RF

R1 CF

+V C C
-
+ IC 741 Vo
V in
- +
-V E E
RL
R oM = R 1

FIG . 2: A Practical Integrator

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

C1 V2 RF

ic I B2 ≅ 0 iF +VCC
-
+ dVin
IC 7 41 υ o = − R F C1
V in V1 dt
- +
-V E E
RL
R O M -R F
I B1 ≅ 0

FIG . 3: Basic D ifferentiator C ircuit

CF

0.005 —)
R1 C1
RF

82Ω 0.1—) 1.5KΩ

+12V

-
+ IC 7 4 1 Vo
V in
- +
-1 2 V RL
ROM 10KΩ
1.5KΩ

FIG . 4: A Practical D ifferentiator

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
Vi n − V2
= CF  (V2 − Vo )
d 
Therefore,
R1  dt 

However, V1=V2=0 because A is very large. Therefore,

Vi n dV
= − CF o
R1 dt

The output voltage can be obtained by integrating both sides with respect to time:

t V t d
∫ R dt = ∫ C F (−Vo ) dt
in
0 1 0 dt

= C F (−Vo ) + Vo t =0

Therefore,

1 t
Vo = − V dt + C
R 1C F ∫ in
…a(ii)
0

Where C is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of the output voltage
Vo at time t=0 seconds. When Vin = 0, the integrator of fig. (1) works as an open loop amplifier,
this is because the capacitor CF acts as an open circuit (XCF = ∞) to the input offset voltage Vio.
In other words the input offset voltage Vio and the parts of the input current charging capacitor
CF produce the error voltage at the output of the integrator. Therefore, in the practical integrator
shown in figure 2, to reduce the error voltage at the output, a resistor RF is connected across the
feedback capacitor CF. Thus RF limits the low frequency gain & hence minimizes the variation
in the output voltage.

(b) Differentiator: As its name implies, the circuit performs the mathematical operation of
differentiation; that is, the output waveform is derivative of the input waveform. The
differentiator may be constructed from a basic inverting amplifier if an input resistor R 1 is
replaced by capacitors C1.
The expression for the output voltage can be obtained from Kirchhoff’s current equation
written at node V2 as follows:
iC = IB + iF …b(i)
Since IB= 0, i C = iF
V − Vo
C1
d
dt
(Vin − V2 ) = 2
Rf

But V1=V2=0V (approx.), because A is very Large. Therefore,

dVin V
C1 =− o
dt Rf
dVin
Vo = −R F C1 …b(ii)
dt

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Ra V2 RF
+Va
Rb +C
Ia IF
VC
+Vb -
Ib I B 2 ≅0
 RF RF 
IC 741 Vo = -  Va + Vb 

V1  Ra Rb 
I B 1 ≅0 +
-E
VE RL
R O M = (R a || R b || R F )

FIG . 5: Sum m ing A m plifier (Inverting C onfiguration)

R R
+V a
+V C C

-
IC 741 Vo
R
+V b +
-V E E
RL
R

FIG . 6: D ifference A m plifier

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
Thus the output Vo is equal to the RFC1 times the negative instantaneous rate of-change
of the input voltage Vin with time. Since the differentiator performs the reverse of the integrator's
function, a cosine wave input will produce a sine wave output, or a triangular input will produce
a square wave output. However, the differentiator of Figure 3 will not do this because it has
some practical problems. The gain of the circuit (RFC1) increases with increase in frequency at a
rate of 20 dB/decade. This makes the circuit unstable. Also, the input impedance Xc1 decreases
with increase in frequency, which makes the circuit very susceptible to high-frequency noise.
When amplified, this noise can completely override the differentiated output signal.
Both the stability and the high-frequency noise problems can be corrected by the addition
of two components R1 and CF, as shown in Figure 4. This circuit is a practical differentiator.

(c) Summer Amplifier-Inverting Configuration: Figure 5 shows the inverting configuration

with two inputs Va, and Vb,. Depending on the relationship between the feedback resistor RF and
the input resistors Ra, and Rb, the circuit can be used as either a summing amplifier, scaling
amplifier, or averaging amplifier. The circuit's function can be verified by examining the
expression for the output voltage Vo, which is obtained from Kirchhoff’s current equation
written at node V2. Referring to Figure 5,
Ia +Ib = IB + IF …c(i)
Since Ri and A of the op-amp are ideally infinity, IB =0 A and V1=V2=0V(approx.), Therefore,
Va Vb V
+ =− o
Ra Rb RF
R R 
Vo = − F Va + F Vb  …c(ii)
 Ra Rb 
 

Summing amplifier. If in the circuit of Figure 5, Ra = Rb = R, for example, then Equation c(ii)
can be rewritten as

Vo = −
RF
(V + Vb )
Ra a
…c(iii)

This means that the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the inputs times the
gain of the circuit RF/R; hence the circuit is called a summing amplifier. Obviously, when the
gain of the circuit is 1, that is, Ra = Rb = RF, the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all
input voltages. Thus
Vo = -(Va + Vb) …c(iv)

(d) Difference Amplifier: A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtracter as shown in
Figure 6. In this figure, input signals can be scaled to the desired values by selecting appropriate
values for the external resistors; when this is done, the circuit is referred to as scaling amplifier.
However, in Figure 6, all external resistors are equal in value, so the gain of the amplifier is
equal to 1.
From this figure, the output voltage of the differential amplifier with a gain of 1 is,

Vo = −
R
(V − Vb )
R a

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

R V2 R

I B ≅0
+ VC C

-
IC 7 4 1 Vo

+
I B ≅0 -V E E
R V1 R
+ - - +
I1 I2
V in
+ +
Load
-
-
IL

FIG . 7: Voltage to C urrent C onverter

R V2 RF

I in I in I in +VC C
V in
+
I B2 ≅0 -
-
IC 7 41 Vo
V1
C urre nt S ou rce + -
-V EE
I B1 ≅0 RL

FIG . 8: C urrent to Voltage C onverter

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
That is, Vo= Vb -Va …d(i)
Thus the output voltage Vo is equal to the voltage Vb, applied to the noninverting terminal
minus the voltage Va applied to the inverting terminal; hence the circuit is called a subtracter.
(e) Voltage to current converter: The voltage-to-current converter is shown in Figure 7. In this
circuit, one terminal of the load is grounded, and an input voltage controls load current. The
analysis of the circuit is accomplished by first determining the voltage V1 at the noninverting
input terminal and then establishing the relationship between V 1 and the load current.
Writing Kirchhoff’s current equation at node V1,
I1 + I2 = IL
Vin − V1 Vo − V1
+ = IL
R R
Vin + Vo- 2V1 = IL R
Vin + Vo − I L R
Therefore, V1= …e(i)
2
Since the op-amp is connected in the noninverting mode, the gain of the circuit in figure
7 is 1+R/R=2. Then the output voltage is
Vo = 2V1 …e(ii)
= Vin + Vo - ILR
That is, Vin = ILR
or IL = Vin / R …e(iii)
This means that the load current depends on the input voltage Vin and resistor R and is
independent of the ‘Load’. Notice that all resistors must be equal in value.

(f) Current to Voltage converter: Let us consider the ideal voltage-gain equation of the
inverting amplifier,
Vo R
=− F
Vin R1
Therefore,
V 
Vo = − in R
 F
 R1 

However, since V1 = 0 V and V1=V2,

 Vin 
 =i
R  in
 1 

and Vo = −i in R F …f(i)
This means that if we replace the Vin and R1 combination by a current source Iin as shown
in Figure 8, the output voltage Vo becomes proportional to the input current Iin. In other words,
the circuit of Figure 8 converts the input current into a proportional output voltage.
One of the most common uses of the current-to-voltage converter is in sensing current
from photo detectors and in digital-to-analog converter applications.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

R V olta ge
C V2 O utput
across
V olta ge
capacitor
Vo
V2

Rs + V CC + Vset ≈ Vcc

-
Vo
V id IC 741 +V 1
R1
V1
+ 0 t
Rs -V EE
-V 1

- Vset ≈ Vcc

R2

FIG. 9(a) Square Wave Generator FIG. 9(b) Waveform of output voltage Vo
and voltage across capacitor V2.

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(g) Astable Mode of operation or square wave generator: In contrast to sine wave oscillators,
square wave outputs are generated when the op-amp is forced to operate in the saturated region.
That is, the output of the op-amp is forced to swing repetitively between positive saturation +V sat
(≅ +Vcc) and negative saturation -Vsat (≅ -VEE), resulting in the square-wave output. One such
circuit is shown in Figure 9(a). This square wave generator is also called a free running or
astable multivibrator. The output of the op-amp in this circuit will be in positive or negative
saturation, depending on whether the differential voltage Vid is negative or positive, respectively.
Assume that the voltage across capacitor C is zero volts at the instant the dc supply
voltages +Vcc and -VEE are applied. This means that the voltage at the inverting terminal is zero
initially. At the same instant, however, the voltage V1 at the noninverting terminal is a very
small finite value that is a function of the output-offset voltage VooT and the values of R1 and R2
resistors. Thus the differential input voltage Vid is equal to the voltage V1 at the noninverting
terminal. Although very small, voltage V1 will start to drive the op-amp into saturation. For
example, suppose that the output offset voltage VooT is also positive and that, therefore, voltage
V1 is also positive. Since initially the capacitor C acts as a short circuit, the gain of the op-amp is
very large (A); hence V1 drives the output of the op-amp to its positive saturation + Vsat. With
the output voltage of the op-amp at +Vsat, the capacitor C starts charging toward + Vsat through
resistor R. However, as soon as the voltage v2 across capacitor C is slightly more positive than
V1, the output of the op-amp is forced to switch to a negative saturation, -Vsat. With the op-amp's
output voltage at negative saturation, -Vsat. The voltage v1 across R1is also negative, since

R1
VLO = (− Vsat ) …g(i)
R1 + R 2

Thus the net differential voltage Vid = V1-V2 is negative, which holds the output of the
op-amp in negative saturation. The output remains in negative saturation until the capacitor C
discharges and then recharges to a negative voltage slightly higher than –V1. [See Figure 9(b).]
Now, as soon as the capacitor's voltage V2 becomes more negative than –V1, the net differential
voltage Vid becomes positive and hence drives the output of the op-amp back to its positive
saturation +Vsat. This completes one cycle. With output at +Vsat voltage V1 at the noninverting
input is
R1
V1 = (+ Vsat ) …g(ii)
R1 + R 2

The time period T of the output waveform is given by

 2R 
T= 2RC ln 1 +R 2  …g(iii)

 R 2 

1
fo =
2RC ln[(2R 1 + R 2 )/ R 2 ]
or …g(iv)

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

V in

+ 100m V
+ VC C

- D1 0V t
Vo
IC 7 4 1

- 100m V
+
D1 ON
-V E E Vo
+ RL
V in
+ 100m V
-
0V t

D1 OFF

FIG. 10(a) Positive small signal half wave rectifier. FIG. 10(b) Its output and input waveform

V in

+ 100m V
+ VC C

-
D1 0V t
Vo
IC 7 4 1

+ - 100m V

-V EE
Vo
RL
+
V in
+ 100m V
-

0V t

- 100m V

FIG. 11(a) Negative small signal half wave rectifier. FIG. 11(b) Its output and input waveform

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Equation g(iv) indicates that the frequency of the output fo is not only a function of the
RC time constant but also of the relationship between R1 and R2. For example, if R2= l.l6R1,
Equation g(iv) becomes
1
fo = …g(v)
2RC
Equation g(v) shows that the smaller the RC time constant, the higher the output
frequency fo, and vice versa. As with sine wave oscillators, the highest frequency generated by
the square wave generator is also set by the slew rate of the op-amp. An attempt to operate the
circuit at relatively higher frequencies causes the oscillator's output to become triangular. In
practice, each inverting and noninverting terminal needs a series resistance Rs to prevent
excessive differential current flow because the inputs of the op-amp are subjected to large
differential voltages. The resistance Rs used should be 100 kΩ or higher. A reduced peak-to-
peak output voltage swing can be obtained in the square wave generator of figure 9(a) by using
back to back zeners at the output terminal.

(h) Precision Rectifier: The circuit of Figure 10(a) can be used as a positive small-signal half-
wave rectifier provided that -Vref = 0 V. The resultant circuit can rectify signals with peak values
down to a few millivolts, unlike conventional diodes. This is possible because the high open-
loop gain of the op-amp automatically adjusts the voltage drive to the diode D 1, so that the
rectified output peak is the same as the input [see Figure 10(b)]. In fact, the diode acts as an
ideal diode (switch), since the voltage drop across the on diode is divided by the open-loop gain
of the op-amp. As Vin starts increasing in the positive direction, the Vo' also starts increasing
positively until diode D1 is forward biased. When D1 is forward biased, it closes a feedback loop
and the op-amp works as a voltage follower. Therefore, the output voltage Vo follows the input
voltage Vin during the positive half-cycle, as shown in Figure 10(b). However, when Vin starts
increasing in the negative direction, Vo' , also increases negatively until it is equal to the negative
saturation voltage (= -VEE). This reverse biases diode D1 and opens the feedback loop.
Therefore, during the negative half-cycle of the input signal, Vo is 0 V.

The op-amp in the circuit of Figure 10(a) must be a high-speed op-amp since it alternates
between open-loop and closed-loop operations. µA318, HA2500, and LM310 are typical
examples of high-speed op-amps. However, in the present set-up 741 is used instead although at
low frequencies.

Figure 11(a) shows a negative small-signal half-wave rectifier. During the positive
alternation of Vin, D1 is reverse biased; therefore, Vo = 0V. On the other hand, during the
negative alternation, D1 is forward biased; hence Vo follows Vin.

Yet another negative half-wave rectifier is shown in Figure 12. In this circuit two diodes
are used so that the output Vo' of the op-amp does not saturate. This minimizes the response
time and increases the operating frequency range of the op-amp. However, notice that the op-
amp is used in the inverting configuration, and the output is measured at the anode of diode D1
with respect to ground.

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R1 R F =R 1
Vo
+
V in +
D1
-
+VCC -
-
IC 741 Vo

+
-V E E +
D2
ROM -

FIG. 12 Negative half wave rectifier.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
PROCEDURE

(a) Integrator:
(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 2.
(ii) Set R1=10KΩ, RF= 10KΩ, Rom=10 KΩ, CF=0.1µF.
(iii) Apply the square wave input voltage Vin (in-built) and observe its amplitude and
frequency on CRO.
(iv) Switch ON the unit and observe the output (triangular wave) amplitude and
frequency on CRO.
(v) Tabulate the amplitude and frequency of input and output by varying the frequency
of the input by frequency pot.
(vi) Verify the results with the help of equation a(ii).

(b) Differentiator:
(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 4.
(ii) Set R1=270Ω, RF= 100KΩ, Rom=10 KΩ, C1=0.1µF.
(iii) Apply the triangular wave input voltage Vin (in-built) and observe its amplitude and
frequency on CRO. (Ensure that switch S1 is on triangular position)
(iv) Switch ON the unit and observe the output (square wave) amplitude and frequency
on CRO.
(v) Tabulate the amplitude and frequency of input and output by varying the frequency
of the input by frequency pot.
(vi) Verify the results with the help of equation b(ii).

(c) Summer Amplifier:

(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 5.
(ii) Set Ra =Rb= RF = Rom=10 KΩ
(iii) Apply the voltage Va and Vb with the help of inbuilt voltage sources and measure its
amplitude with the help of DVM.
(iv) Switch ON the unit and measure the output voltage on DVM.
(v) Tabulate the Va, Vb, Vo.
(vi) Verify the results with the help of equation C(iv)
(vii) Set the different values of Ra, Rb, Rf, Rom and repeat the steps (iii) to (vi).

(d) Difference Amplifier:

(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 6.
(ii) Set R =10 KΩ
(iii) Apply the voltage Va and Vb with the help of inbuilt voltage sources and measure its
amplitude with the help of DVM.
(iv) Switch ON the unit and measure the output voltage on DVM.
(v) Tabulate the Va, Vb, Vo.
(vi) Verify the results with the help of equation d(i)

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D1
Vo

+
V in 1K
-

FIG. 13(a) Normal Rectifier

V in

+ 100m V

0V t

- 100m V

Vo D1 ON

+ 100m V

0V t

D 1 O FF

FIG. 13(b) Its input & output waveform

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(e) Voltage to current converter:

(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 7.
(ii) For the voltage input (Vin) use in-built voltage source.
(iii) Set R=10 KΩ
(iv) Tabulate the load current on different loads

(f) Current to voltage converter:

(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 8.
(ii) Set RF =270Ω
(iii) Measure the output voltage Vo.
(iv) Use different values of RF upto 10KΩ.
(v) Tabulate the Vo and RF.
(vi) Verify the expression shown in equation f(i).

(g) Astable Mode of operation:

(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 9(a)
(ii) Set R1 =10 KΩ, R2=10 KΩ, RF = 10 KΩ, C=0.047µF
(iii) Switch ON the unit and observe the output square wave and voltage across capacitor
on CRO and measure its frequency
(iv) Calculate the theoretical frequency with the help of equation g(iv) and verify the
results
(v) Set the different values of R1, R2, Rf, and C and repeat the steps (iii) to (iv)

(h) Precision Rectifier: In that experiment first of all we will see the response of normal
rectifier as follows:
(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 13(a).
(ii) Apply the sine wave input Vin ≈ 1V (p-p) (in-built) and observe that wave form on
CRO. (Ensure that the switch S1 is on sine wave position)
(iii) Switch ON the unit and observe the output wave form on CRO and trace it.

Now we will see the response of precision rectifier

(i) Make the connections as shown in figure 10(a).
(ii) Apply the sine wave input Vin ≈ 1V (p-p) (in-built) and observe that waveform on
CRO. (Ensure that the switch S1 is on sine wave position)
(iii) Switch ON the unit and observe the output wave form on CRO and trace it.
(iv) Compare that output voltage trace with the normal diode output voltage trace.

NOTE: Overflow in the DVM is indicated by a steady reading of '1' In such case either switch
the meter to the higher range or decrease the input.

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TYPICAL RESULTS

a) INTEGRATOR:
Input Vin (Square wave) = 5.0 V(p-p), 1KHz
Output Vo (Triangular) = 1.25 V(p-p), 1KHz

1 t
Calculations:- Vo = -
R1 C F ∫ Vin dt
0

0.5 x 10−3
1
=- ∫ 2.5 dt
10 x 103 x 0.1 x 10 −6 0

=-
1 2.5  0.5 x 10 −3 − 0 
 
10 −3 

1 
=- 
2.5 x 0.5 x 10 − 3  = - 1.25 V
10 − 3 

Slope = 2.5 x 10 3 V/sec

Result: Equation a(ii) is verified and the slope of the integrator is 2.5 x 10 3 V/sec

b) Differentiator:
Input Vin (Triangular wave) = 2.5 V(p-p), 1KHz
Output Vo (Square wave) = 10 V(p-p), 1KHz

dVin
Calculations:- Vo = - Rf C1
dt
2.5
= - 10 x 10 3 x 0.1 x 10 −6
0.25 x 10 −3

= - 10 V
Result: Equation b(ii) is verified

c) Summer: Ra = Rb = Rf = Rom = 10KΩ

S. No. (Va) (Vb) (Vo) Measured (Vo) Theoritical

1. 0.503V 0.502V - 1.004V - 1.005V
2. 0. 503V 0.999V - 1.500V - 1.502V
3. 1.000V 1.000V - 2.000V - 2.000V
4. - 1.000V 1.000V 0.000V 0.000V
5. 1.000V - 0.500V - 0.500V - 0.500V

Result: Equation c(iv) is verified.

17

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
d) Difference Amplifier:

S. No. (Va) (Vb) (Vo) Measured (Vo) Theoritical

1. - 0.50V 1.00V 1.51V 1.50V
2. - 1. 00V 1.00V 2.02V 2.00V
3. 0.50V 1.00V 0.50V 0.50V
4. 1.00V 1.00V 0.00V 0.00V
5. 1.00V 0.50V - 0.50V - 0.50V
6. 1.00V - 1.00V - 2.01V - 2.00V

Result: Equation d(i) is verified.

e) Voltage to Current converter:

Vin = + 1V, V1 = 0.10V
Vo = 0.20V, R = 10KΩ
Vin
IL =
R
1
= = 0.1mA
10 K

and Vo = 2 V1
Result: Equation e(ii) is verified.

f) Current to Voltage converter:

1V
Iin = = 1mA and Vo = - iin Rf
1K

S.No. Rf (Vo) Measured (Vo) Theoritical

1. 270 E - 0.26V - 0.27V
2. 1K - 0.98V - 1.00V
3. 10K - 9.67V - 10.00V

Result: Equation f(i) is verified.

g) Astable Mode of Operation:

R = 10.083 KΩ
R1 = 10.120 KΩ
R2 = 10.133 KΩ
C = 0.049 µF

18
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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
1
fo(Measured) = KHz ≅ 909 Hz
1.1
1
( )
fo(Theoritical) =
 2R 1 + R 2
2RC ln  
 R2 

1
=
 2 x 10.120 + 10.133 
2 x 10.083 x 103 x 0.049 x 10 −6 ln  
 10.133 

1
=
0.988 x 10 −3 ln[2.997]

= 921 Hz
Result: fo(Measured) ≅ fo(Theoritical)

h) Precision Rectifier:
Vin = 1.2V(p-p) [+ 0.6V to –0.6V]
With Normal Rectifier:
Vout max = 0.3V

With Precision Rectifier:

Vout max = 0.6V

Result: We can observe that the precision rectifier rectifies more precisely with respect to the
normal rectifier.

NOTE: All the values of capacitors mounted on panel are with in ± 5%. So far accurate results,
measure these values by 4½ digit LC meter.

19
Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE
 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

STROBOSCOPE STB-01

1. OVERVIEW
The STROBOSCOPE is an instrument designed for the visually stopping the motion
in rotating shaft for diagnostic inspection purposes and for measurement of shaft speed in
revolutions per minute (RPM). The instrument has applications in a variety of applications in
industrial and laboratory environment. A principal feature of the STROBOSCOPE is its non-
contact nature, which enables the user to monitor the shaft speed from a distance. Also, the
speed of very small motors may be measured without any loading errors. The speed is
displayed on a 4-digit readout from 500-9900rpm (guaranteed range). A 10-turn
potentiometer is used to span the whole range of speed very conveniently. The instrument
operates from the 220V, 50 Hz line while all internal supplies are IC regulated.

2. STROBOSCOPE SCHEMATIC Diagram

4 Digit Speed
Display

Variable
Frequency
Frequency Flasher Unit
Scalar
Source

Xenon Rotating Shaft

Flasher

Fig. 2 Schematic Diagram

3. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
In a stroboscope high intensity light flashes are directed towards a rotating shaft on
which a distinct marking has already been drawn or pasted. The period of the flashes may be
varied manually. The marking would appear stationary when the time for one shaft revolution
equals the flash period. This is the fundamental period. Also single stationary images will be
seen if the flash period is an integral multiple of the above value. However for sub multiple
flash periods multiple stationary images will be seen. The fundamental period is used for
speed measurement and this is identified as the smallest period (highest frequency) for which
a single stationary image is seen.
Referring to the circuit diagram shown, a variable frequency square wave oscillator
supplies the timing pulses. These are used to periodically trigger a flash tube after suitable
scaling, so as to correspond to speed reading in r.p.m. The power supply unit supplies power
to various subsystems. Speed is read on a 4-digit display of the r.p.m. counter having a crystal
controlled window for greater accuracy.

STB-01 Page 2

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

A PRODUCT OF AN
ISO 9001 : 2008
STROBOSCOPE CERTIFIED COMPANY

Model STB-01
RPM

ON
T TECHNO INSTRUMENTS, Roorkee

Fig. 1 Panel Drawing Stroboscope, STB-01

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Stopped Image 1/4 times 1/2 times 1 times 2 times 3 times 4 times
Flash Rate (FPM) 500 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000

Fig. 3 Object Rotating at 2000 rpm

Lamp Tube
Reflector Glass

Focusing Level

Connector Mounting
Bracket Reflector Glass
Clamp

Fig. 4 Stroboscope Flasher Unit

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Safeguards and Precautions

1. Read and follow all instructions in this manual carefully, and retain this manual for
future reference.

2. Do not use this instrument in any manner inconsistent with these operating
instructions or under any conditions that exceed the environmental specifications
stated.

3. Use of this product may induce and epileptic seizure in person prone to this type of
attack.

4. Objects viewed with this product may appear to be stationary when in fact they are
moving at high speeds. Always keep a safe distance from moving machinery and do
no touch the target.

5. There are lethal voltages present inside this product. Refer to the section on Lamp
Replacement before attempting to open this product.

6. Do not allow liquids or metallic objects to enter the ventilation holes on the
stroboscope as this may cause permanent damage and void the warranty.

7. Do not allow cables extending from unit to come into contact with rotating machinery,
as serious damage to the equipment, or severe personal injury or death may occur as a
result.

8. Do not direct strobe flash toward certain data collectors, as it may temporarily
interrupt data collector operation, and could result in loss of stored data.

9. This instrument is not user serviceable. For technical assistance, contact the sales
organization from which you purchased the product or Techno Instruments Instrument
directly.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

4. OPERATING PROCEDURE

4.1 Using Stroboscope for diagnostic purpose

(a) Connect the connector of lamp unit to the socket given at the back of main unit
(b) Switch ‘ON’ the STROBOSCOPE and direct the flashes at point of inspection on
the rotating shaft.
(c) For focusing the light on the object, unscrew slightly the screw given on top of
focusing lever, given at the side of Lamp. Adjust the lever to obtain best focus of the
light on the object. Once the desired focus is achieved tighten the screw.
(d) Vary the knob on the panel of the main unit to attain a stationary image of the shaft.

4.2 Given below are the steps for reading the speed of a rotating shaft.
(a) While the shaft is stationary, put a mark or a sticker on it.
(b) Allow the shaft to rotate.
(c) Connect the connector of lamp unit to the socket given at the back of main unit
(d) Switch ‘ON’ the STROBOSCOPE and direct the flashes at the mark on the shaft.
(e) If focusing is required, unscrew slightly the screw given on top of focusing lever,
given at the side of Lamp. Adjust the lever to obtain best focus of the light on the
object. Once the desired focus is achieved tighten the screw.
(f) For measurement, starting from the high speed end (extreme clock wise) turn the
‘SPEED’ potentiometer down to lower speed till a single stationary image is
observed.
(g) The reading on the display of Stroboscope directly gives speed in r.p.m.
(h) To confirm the true speed, note the reading and adjust the stroboscope to exactly
half of this reading. You should again see a single image (which may be phase
shifted with respect to the first image)
(i) If the speed is outside the full rage of the stroboscope (9900 rpm), it can be
measured using the method of harmonics and multipoint calculation. Start at the
highest rate and adjust the flash rate down. Be aware that you will encounter
multiple images. Note the flash rate of the first SINGLE image you encounter and
call this speed “A”. Continue decreasing the flash rate until you encounter a second
SINGLE image; note this speed as “B”. Continue decreasing the speed until you
reach a third SINGLE image at speed “C”.
For a two point calculation the actual speed is given by
RPM = AB/ (A+B)
For a three point calculation
RPM = 2XY(X+Y)/ (X-Y)2 where
X = (A-B) and
Y = (B-C)

STB-01 Page 3

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

4.3 Lamp & Fuse Replacement

Warning: Before attempting to remove the lamp, make sure the stroboscope is turned
off and any mains cord is removed from the AC outlet. Allow the lamp to cool
waiting for atleast 1 minute.
The stroboscope is designed to discharge the internal high voltage within 30 seconds.
However caution should be exercised when replacing the lamp.
4.3.1 To change the lamp:
1. Unscrew the clamp holding the reflector glass on the lamp unit.
2. Carefully remove the clamp and the reflector glass.
3. Hold the lamp with a cloth between your forefingers and thumb and rock it back and
forth gently while pulling out. Do not attempt to rotate the lamp. The lamp is socketed
and will come out easily when pulled.
4. The lamps are polarized and must be put into socket matching polarity. Using a lint
free cloth, match the metal ring on the tube with the black ring mark on the socket and
gently rock the lamp back and forth while pushing it into place (as shown in the
figure). Make sure the lamp is straight and centered in the reflector hole.
Warning: Do not allow the reflector to come in contact of the lamp.
5. Reinstall the front glass and check that the clamp screw is sufficiently so as to firmly
secure the front glass.
4.3.2 Fuse Replacement
There is a cartage type fuse inside the main unit which may be accessed by removing
the two screws given on the top panel of the main unit. Under normal operating conditions,
the fuse should never blow. Examples of abnormal operating conditions would be foreign
material entering the strobo (main or lamp unit), such as water, ink etc. If the fuse needs to be
replaced, replace only with a fuse of the same type and value
Fuse: 3/4 “cartage type, Value: 200mA

Technical specifications
(i) Speed Range: 300 - 9900 r.p.m.
(ii) Normal Flash Energy for high FPS shot : 0.02 Joule/Sec
(iii) Average Power Input Max. of the lamp: 5 watt
(iv) Average Flash Life of the lamp tube: 100Hrs.
(v) Reading accuracy : better than ± 0.02% ± 1 digit
(vi) Viewing distance : 0.5 - 5m depending on ambient light
(vii) Operation : Continuous
(viii) Power : 220V, 50 Hz (nominal)

STB-01 Page 4

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Software Experiment 1: Linear Time-invariant Systems and

Representation

Objectives: This experiment has following two objectives:

1. Continued with the learning of Mathematical Modeling from previous experiment, we
now start focusing the linear systems. We will learn commands in MATLAB that
would be used to represent such systems in terms of transfer function or pole-zero-
gain representations.
2. We will also learn how to make preliminary analysis of such systems using plots of
poles and zeros locations as well as time response due to impulse, step and arbitrary
inputs.

List of Equipment/Software
Following equipment/software is required:

 MATLAB

Category Soft-Experiment

Deliverables
A complete lab report including the following:

 Summarized learning outcomes.

 MATLAB scripts and their results should be reported properly.

Mass-Spring System Model

The spring force is assumed to be either linear or can be approximated by a linear function
Fs(x)= Kx, B is the friction coefficient, x(t) is the displacement and Fa(t) is the applied force:

x(t)

Fs(x) Fs(x)

M Fa(t) Fa(t)
M
Ff( 𝑣)
Ff( 𝑣)

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

The differential equation for the above Mass-Spring system can be derived as follows

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Transfer Function:
Applying the Laplace transformation while assuming the initial conditions are zeros, we get

( ) ( ) ( )

Then the transfer function representation of the system is given by

( )
( ) ( )

Linear Time-Invariant Systems in MATLAB:

Control System Toolbox in MATLAB offers extensive tools to manipulate and analyze linear
time-invariant (LTI) models. It supports both continuous- and discrete-time systems. Systems
can be single-input/single-output (SISO) or multiple-input/multiple-output (MIMO). You can
specify LTI models as:

Transfer functions (TF), for example,

( )

Note: All LTI models are represented as a ratio of polynomial functions

Examples of Creating LTI Models

Building LTI models with Control System Toolbox is straightforward. The following sections
show simple examples. Note that all LTI models, i.e. TF, ZPK and SS are also MATLAB
objects.

Example of Creating Transfer Function Models

You can create transfer function (TF) models by specifying numerator and denominator
coefficients. For example,

>>num = [1 0];
>>den = [1 2 1];
>>sys = tf(num,den)

Transfer function:
s
-------------
s^2 + 2 s + 1

A useful trick is to create the Laplace variable, s. That way, you can specify polynomials
using s as the polynomial variable.

>>s=tf('s');
>>sys= s/(s^2 + 2*s + 1)

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Transfer function:
s
-------------
s^2 + 2 s + 1

This is identical to the previous transfer function.

Example of Creating Zero-Pole-Gain Models

To create zero-pole-gain (ZPK) models, you must specify each of the three components in
vector format. For example,

>>sys = zpk([0],[-1 -1],[1])

Zero/pole/gain:

s
-------
(s+1)^2

produces the same transfer function built in the TF example, but the representation is now
ZPK. This example shows a more complicated ZPK model.

>>sys=zpk([1 0], [-1 -3 -.28],[.776])

Zero/pole/gain:
0.776 s (s-1)
--------------------
(s+1) (s+3) (s+0.28)

Plotting poles and zeros of a system:

pzmap
Compute pole-zero map of LTI models

pzmap(sys)
pzmap(sys1,sys2,...,sysN)
[p,z] = pzmap(sys)

Description:
pzmap(sys) plots the pole-zero map of the
continuous- or discrete-time LTI model sys. For
SISO systems, pzmap plots the transfer function
poles and zeros. The poles are plotted as x's and the
zeros are plotted as o's.
pzmap(sys1,sys2,...,sysN) plots the pole-zero map
of several LTI models on a single figure. The LTI
models can have different numbers of inputs and
outputs. When invoked with left-hand arguments,

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

[p,z] = pzmap(sys) returns the system poles and zeros in the column vectors p and z. No plot
is drawn on the screen. You can use the functions sgrid or zgrid to plot lines of constant
damping ratio and natural frequency in the s- or z- plane.

Example
Plot the poles and zeros of the continuous-time system.
( )

>>H = tf([2 5 1],[1 2 3]); sgrid

>>pzmap(H)

Simulation of Linear systems to different

inputs

impulse, step and lsim

You can simulate the LTI systems to inputs like
impulse, step and other standard inputs and see the
plot of the response in the figure window.
MATLAB command ‘impulse’ calculates the unit
impulse response of the system, ‘step’ calculates
the unit step response of the system and ‘lsim’
simulates the (time) response of continuous or
discrete linear systems to arbitrary inputs. When
invoked without left-hand arguments, all three
commands plots the response on the screen. For example:

To obtain an impulse response

>> H = tf([2 5 1],[1 2 3]);
>>impulse(H)

To obtain a step response type

>>step(H)

Time-interval specification:
To contain the response of the system you can also
specify the time interval to simulate the system to.
For example,
>> t = 0:0.01:10;
>> impulse(H,t)

Or

>> step(H,t)

Simulation to Arbitrary Inputs:

To simulates the (time) response of continuous or
discrete linear systems to arbitrary inputs use

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

‘lsim’. When invoked without left-hand arguments, ‘lsim’ plots the response on the screen.

lsim(sys,u,t) produces a plot of the time response of the LTI model sys to the input time
history ‘t’,’u’. The vector ‘t’ specifies the time samples for the simulation and consists of
regularly spaced time samples.

T = 0:dt:Tfinal

The matrix u must have as many rows as time

samples (length(t)) and as many columns as system
inputs. Each row u(I, specifies the input value(s)
at the time sample t(i).

Simulate and plot the response of the system

( )

to a square wave with period of four seconds.

First generate the square wave with gensig. Sample every 0.1 second during 10 seconds:

>>[u,t] = gensig(‘square’,4,10,0.1);

Then simulate with lsim.

>> H = tf([2 5 1],[1 2 3])

Transfer function:
2 s^2 + 5 s + 1
s^2 + 2 s + 3

>> lsim(H,u,t)

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Exercise 1:

Consider the transfer function

( )

Using MATLAB plot the pole zero map of the above system

Exercise 2:

a. Obtain the unit impulse response for the following system

( )
( )

b. Obtain the unit step response for the following system

( )
( )

c. Explain why the results in a. and b. are same?

Exercise 3:
A system has a transfer function

( ) ( ⁄ )( )
( )

Plot the response of the system when R(s) is a unit impulse and unit step for the
parameter z=3, 6 and 12.

Exercise 4:
Consider the differential equation ̈ ̇ where ( ) ̇( ) and
( ) is a unit step. Determine the solution analytically and verify by co-plotting the
analytical solution and the step response obtained with ‘step’ function.

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Software Experiment 2: Block Diagram Reduction

Objective: The objective of this exercise will be to learn commands in MATLAB that
would be used to reduce linear systems block diagram using series, parallel and feedback
configuration.

List of Equipment/Software
Following equipment/software is required:

 MATLAB

Category Soft-Experiment

Deliverables
A complete lab report including the following:

 Summarized learning outcomes.

 MATLAB scripts and their results for examples, exercises and Dorf (text book)
related material of this lab should be reported properly.

Series configuration: If the two blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks are
said to be in series. It would like multiplying two transfer functions. The MATLAB
command for the such configuration is “series”.

The series command is implemented as shown below:

Example 1: Given the transfer functions of individual blocks generate the system transfer
function of the block combinations.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

The result is as shown below:

Parallel configuration: If the two blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks
are said to be in parallel. It would like adding two transfer functions.

The MATLAB command for implementing a parallel configuration is “parallel” as shown

below:

Example 2: For the previous systems defined, modify the MATLAB commands to obtain the
overall transfer function when the two blocks are in parallel.

Feedback configuration: If the blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks are
said to be in feedback. Notice that in the feedback there is no transfer function H(s) defined.
When not specified, H(s) is unity. Such a system is said to be a unity feedback system.

The MATLAB command for implementing a feedback system is “feedback” as shown below:

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

When H(s) is non-unity or specified, such a system is said to be a non-unity feedback system
as shown below:

A non-unity feedback system is implemented in MATLAB using the same “feedback”

command as shown:

Example 3: Given a unity feedback system as shown in the figure, obtain the overall transfer
function using MATLAB:

The result is as shown below:

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
Example 4: Given a non-unity feedback system as shown in the figure, obtain the overall
transfer function using MATLAB:

The result is as shown below:

Poles and Zeros of System: To obtain the poles and zeros of the system use the MATLAB
command “pole” and “zero” respectively as shown in example 5. You can also use MATLAB
command “pzmap” to obtain the same.

Example 5: Given a system transfer function plot the location of the system zeros and poles
using the MATLAB pole-zero map command.

For example:

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab
Exercise 1: For the following multi-loop feedback system, get closed loop transfer function
and the corresponding pole-zero map of the system.

1 1 s2  1 s 1 s 1
Given G1  ; G2  ; G3  2 ; G4  ; H1  ; H2  2
( s  10) ( s  1) ( s  4s  4) ( s  6) ( s  2)
; H 3  1 (Reference: Page 113, Chapter 2, Text: Dorf.)

MATLAB solution:

Instruction: Please refer to Section 2.6 and Section 2.2 in Text by Dorf.

Exercise 2: Consider the feedback system depicted in the figure below

a. Compute the closed-loop transfer function using the ‘series’ and ‘feedback’ functions
b. Obtain the closed-loop system unit step response with the ‘step’ function and verify
that final value of the output is 2/5.

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 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

R(s) Controller Plant Y(s)

+
s
- s s

Reference: Please see Section 2.5 of Text by Dorf for Exercise 3.

Exercise 3: A satellite single-axis altitude control system can be represented by the block
diagram in the figure given. The variables ‘k’, ‘a’ and ‘b’ are controller parameters, and ‘J’ is
the spacecraft moment of inertia. Suppose the nominal moment of inertia is ‘J’ = 10.8E8, and
the controller parameters are k=10.8E8, a=1, and b=8.
a. Develop an m-file script to compute the closed-loop transfer function
( ) ( ) ( ).
b. Compute and plot the step response to a 10o step input.
c. The exact moment of inertia is generally unknown and may change slowly with time.
Compare the step response performance of the spacecraft when J is reduced by 20%
and 50%. Discuss your results.

θd(s) Controller Spacecraft θ(s)

+
Desired Altitude k(s a)
- s b Js
Actual Altitude

Reference: Please see Section 2.9 of Text by Dorf for Exercise 4.

Exercise 4: Consider the feedback control system given in figure, where

( ) and ( ) .

R(s)
+ G(s)
Y(s)

-
H(s)

a. Using an m-file script, determine the close-loop transfer function.

b. Obtain the pole-zero map using the ‘pzmap’ function. Where are the closed-loop
system poles and zeros?
c. Are there any pole-zero cancellations? If so, use the ‘minreal’ function to cancel
common poles and zeros in the closed-loop transfer function.
d. Why is it important to cancel common poles and zeros in the transfer function?
Exercise 5: Do problem CP2.6 from your text

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

 Laboratory Manual
for

Control System Lab

Prepared by

Manmohan Singh
Associate Professor, EIE

Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department

Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology
Longowal-148106
 Laboratory Manual for Control System Lab

Prepared by Manmohan Singh, Associate Professor, EIE

Experiment: To study the performance of various types of controllers used to control the
temperature of an oven.
Apparatus Required: Temperature control is one of the most common industrial control systems
that are in operation. This equipment is designed to expose the students to the intricacies of such
a system in the ‘friendly’ environment of a laboratory, free from disturbances and uncertainties of
plant prevalent in an actual process. The ‘plant’ to be controlled is a specially designed oven having
a short heating as well as cooling time. The temperature time data may be obtained manually, thus
avoiding expensive equipment like an X-Y recorder or a pen recorder. A solid-state temperature
sensor converts the absolute temperature information to a proportional electric signal. The
reference and actual temperature are indicated in degree Celsius on a switch selectable digital
display.
The Controller unit compares the reference and the measured signals to generate the error.
Controller options available to the users consist of ON-OFF or relay with two hysteresis settings
and combination of proportional, derivative and integral blocks having independent coefficient
settings. A block diagram of the complete system is shown in Fig. 1.
Theory: The first step in the analysis of any control system is to derive its mathematical model.
The various blocks shown in Fig. 1 are now studied in detail and their mathematical descriptions
are developed. This would help in understanding the working of the complete system and also to
implement control strategies.
The plant (oven): Plant to be controlled is an electric oven, the temperature of which must adjust
itself in accordance with the reference of heat from one section to another. In the present case we
are interested in the transfer of heat from the heater coil to the oven and leakage of heat from the
oven to the atmosphere. Such systems may be conveniently analysed in terms of thermal resistance
and capacitance, as explained below. However, this analysis is not very accurate, since the transfer
of heat essentially takes pace form every part of the oven-thermal resistance and capacitance are
obviously distributed. The lumped parameter model described here is therefore only an
approximation. For a precise analysis, a distributed parameter model must be used. Another
difficulty associated with temperature control systems is that whereas the temperature rise is
produced by energy input, which is controllable, the temperature fall is due to heat loss which is
uncontrollable and unpredictable. This implies that the oven will have different time constant while
heating and cooling. Such a system is therefore rather difficult to control.
There are three modes of heat transfer viz. conduction, convection and radiation. Heat
transfer through radiation maybe neglected in the present case since the temperature involved are
quite small. For conductive and convective heat transfer
𝜃 = 𝛼∆𝑇
where, 𝜃= rate of heat flow in Joule/sec.
∆𝑇= temperature difference in °C
𝛼=constant
Under assumptions of linearity, the thermal resistance is defined as, R=Temperature-
difference/rate of heat flow= ∆𝑇/𝜃 = 1/𝛼. This is analogous to electrical resistance defined by
I=V/R. in a similar manner thermal capacitance of the mass is defined by
𝑑(∆𝑇)
𝜃=𝐶
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑉
Which is analogous to the V-I relationship of a capacitor, namely 𝐼 = 𝐶 . In the case of heat,
𝑑𝑡

𝐶 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤/𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

The equation of an oven may now be written by combining the above two equation, implying that
a part of the heat input is used in increasing the temperature of the oven and the rest goes out as
loss. Thus

𝑑𝑇 1
𝜃=𝐶 + ( × 𝑇)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
with the initial condition T(t = 0) = 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 . Now, taking the Laplace transform with zero initial
condition
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑅
=
𝜃(𝑠) 1 + 𝑠𝐶𝑅
An analogous electrical network and block diagram may be drawn as in fig. 2 defined by the
equation
𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝐼=𝐶 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Eq. 1 is an extremely simplified representation of the thermal system under consideration and it
gives rise to transfer function of the first order and type zero. Such a system should be easily
controlled in the closed loop. Difficulties are however faced in the system due to the following
reasons:
a) The temperature rise in response to the heat input is not instantaneous. A certain amount
of time is needed to transfer the heat by convection and conduction inside the oven. This
requires a delay or transportation lag term, exp(-sT1), to be included in the transfer function,
where T1 is the time lag in seconds.
b) Unlike the equivalent electrical circuit of Fig. 2, the heat input in the thermal system cannot
have a negative sign. This means that although the rate of temperature rise would depend
 on the heat input, the rate of temperature fall would depend on thermal resistance R. The
conventional analysis methods then become inapplicable.
c) Referring to the closed loop oven control system of fig. 3, it may be seen that in the steady
state the error 𝑒𝑠𝑠 is given as
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑇) =
𝑡→∞ (1 + 𝐴𝑅)

In this system, A cannot be increased excessively in an attempt to reduce error, since a

large gain is likely to lead to instability due to transportation lag. Also, every time
(𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑇) become negative, the heat input is cut off and the oven must cool down slowly.
The temperature T therefore oscillates around the nominal value.

3.2 Controller
Basic control actions commonly used in temperature control systems are
• ON-OFF or relay
• Proportional
• Proportional-Integral
• Proportional-Integral-Derivative
These are described below in detail.
a) ON-OFF or relay type controllers, also referred to as two position controllers, consist of a
simple and inexpensive switch/relay and are, therefore, used very commonly in both
industrial and domestic control systems. Typical applications include air-conditioner and
refrigerators, ovens, heaters with thermostat. Solenoid operated two position valves are
commonly used in hydraulic and pneumatic systems. The basic input-output behavior of
this controller is shown in Fig. 4. The two positions of the controller are M1 and M2, and
H is the hysteresis or differential gap.

The hysteresis is necessary, as it enables the controller output to remain at its present value
till the input or error has increased a little beyond zero. Hysteresis helps in avoiding too
frequent switching of the controller, although a large value results in greater errors. The
response of a system with ON-OFF controller is shown Fig. 5. Describing function
technique is a standard method for the analysis of non-linear systems, for instance, one
with an ON-OFF controller.

b) Proportional controller is simply an amplifier of gain Kp which amplifies the error signal
and passes it to actuator. The noise, drift and bias currents of this amplifier set the lower
limit of the input signal which may be handled reliably and therefore decide the minimum
possible value of the error between the input signal and output. Also, the saturation
characteristics of this amplifier sets the linear and non-linear regions of its operation. A
typical proportional controller may have an input-output characteristic as in Fig. 6. Such
controller gives non-zero steady state error to step input for a type-0 system as indicates
 earlier. The proportional (P) block in the system consists of a variable gain amplifier having
a maximum value, Kpmax of 20.

c) Proportional-Integral (PI) controller: Mathematical equation of such a controller is given

by
𝑡
1 𝑡
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 𝑇𝐼 0
and a block diagram representation is shown in fig. 7. It may be easily seen that this
controller introduces a pole at the origin, i.e. increases the system type number by unity.
The steady state error of the system is therefore reduced or eliminated. Qualitatively, any
small error signal e(t), present in the system, would get continuously integrated and
generate actuator signal m(t) forcing the plant output to exactly correspond to the reference
input so that the error is zero. In practical systems, the error may not be exactly zero due
to imperfections in an electronic integrator caused by bias current needed, noise and drift
present and leakage of the integrator capacitor.

The integral (I) block in the present system is realised with the circuit shown in
fig. 8 and has a transfer function
1 𝐾
𝐺𝑟 (𝑠) = = 𝐼
41𝑠 𝑠
The integral gain is therefore adjustable in the range 0 to 0.024 (approx.). Due to the
tolerance of large capacitance’s, the value of KI is approximate.
d) Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller: Mathematical equations governing the
operation of this controller is as

𝑡
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝐼 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝐷
0 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
1 𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
= 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑇𝐷
𝑇𝐼 0 𝑑𝑡
So that in the Laplace transform domain,
𝑀(𝑠) 1
= (𝐾𝑝 + 𝑇𝐷 𝑠 + )
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑇𝐼 𝑠
A simple analysis would show that the derivative block essentially increases the damping ratio of
the system and therefore improves the dynamic performance by reducing overshoot. The PID
controller therefore helps in reducing the steady state error with an improvement in the transient
response.
The derivative (D) block in this system is realized with the circuit of fig. 9. This has a transfer
function
𝐺𝐷 (𝑠) = 19.97𝑠 (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥. )
The derivative gain is therefore adjustable in the range 0 to 20 approximately. Again, the
approximation is due to the higher tolerance in the values of large capacitances.
PID controller is one of the most widely used controller because of its simplicity. By adjusting
its coefficients 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝐷 (or 𝑇𝐷 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 KI (or T1) the controller can be used with a variety of systems.
The process of setting the controller coefficients to suit a given plant is known as tuning. There
are many methods of ‘tuning’ a PID controller. In the present experiment, the method of Ziegler-
Nichol has been introduced which is suitable for the oven control system, although better methods
are available and may be attempted.
Temperature Measurement
The oven temperature can be sensed by a verity of transducers like thermistor, thermocouple, RTD
and IC temperature sensors. In the present setup, the maximum oven temperature is around 90°c
which is well within the operating range of IC temperature sensor like AD590. Further, these
sensors are linear and have a good sensitivity. The time constant of the sensor has however been
neglected in the analysis since it is insignificant compared with the oven time constant.
Procedure
A variety of experiments may be conducted with the help of this unit. The principal advantage of
the unit is that all power sources and metering are built-in and needs only a watch to be able to
note down the temperature readings at precise time instants. After each run the oven must be cooled
to nearly the room temperature, which may take about 15-20 minutes. This would limit the number
of runs to about four in a usual laboratory class. The experiments suggested could be completed in
about 6-8 hours.
Identification of oven parameters
Plant identification is the first step before an attempt can be made to control it. In the present case,
the oven equations are obtained experimentally from its step response as outlined below:
In the open loop testing, the oven is driven through P- amplifier set to a gain of 10. The input to
this amplifier is adjustable through reference potentiometer. This input can be seen on digital
display, so that when you set 5.0°C, the input to proportional amplifier is 50mV and its output is
0.5V.
• Keep switch S1 to ‘WAIT’, S2 to ‘SET’ and open ‘FEEDBACK’ terminals.
• Connect P output to the driver input and switch ON the unit.
• Set P potentiometer to 0.5 which gives KP=10. Adjust reference potentiometer to read 5.0
on the DVM. This provides an input of 0.5V to the driver.
• Put switch S2 to the ‘MEASURE’ position and note temperature readings every 15 sec, till
the temperature becomes almost constant.
• Plot the temperature-time curve on a graph paper. Calculate T1 and T2 and hence write the
transfer function of the oven including its driver.
ON-OFF controller
• Keep switch S1 to ‘WAIT’ position and allow the oven to cool to room temperature. Short
‘FEEDBACK’ terminals.
• Keep switch S2 to the ‘SET’ position and adjust reference potentiometer to the desired
output temperature, say 60.0°C, by seeing on the digital display.
• Connect R output to the driver input. Outputs of P, D and I must be disconnected from
driver input. Select ‘HI’ or ‘LO’ value of hysteresis. (First keep the hysteresis switch to
‘LO’)
• Switch S2 to ‘MEASURE’ and S1 to ‘RUN’ position. Read and record oven temperature
every 15/30 sec., for about 20 minutes.
• Plot a graph between temperature and time and observe the oscillations in the steady state.
Note down the magnitude of oscillations.
• Repeat above steps with the ‘HI’ setting for hysteresis and observe the rise time, steady -
state error and percent overshoot.
Proportional controller
Ziegler and Nichols suggest the value of KP for P-Controller as:
1 𝑇
𝐾𝑃 = (𝐾) × 𝑇1
2

• Starting with a cool oven, keep switch S1 to ‘WAIT’ position and connect P output to the
driver input. Keep R, D and I outputs disconnected. Short ‘FEEDBACK’ terminals.
• Set P potentiometer to the above calculated value of KP, keeping in mind that the maximum
gain is 10.
• Plot the observations on a linear graph paper and observe the rise time, steady-state error
and percent overshoot.
Proportional-Integral controller
Ziegler and Nichols suggested the value of KP and K1 for P-I controller as
0.9 𝑇1 1 1
𝐾𝑃 = ( ) × ; 𝑇1 = = 3.3𝑇2 ; 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾1 =
𝐾 𝑇2 𝐾1 3.3𝑇2
• Starting with a cool oven, keep switch S1 to ‘WAIT’ connect P and I outputs to driver input
and disconnected R and D outputs. Short feedback terminals.
• Set P and I potentiometers to the above values of KP and K1 respectively, keeping in mind
that the maximum value of KP is 20 and that of K1 is 0.024.
• Select and set the desired temperature to say 60.0°C.
• Keep switch S1 to ‘RUN’ position and record temperature readings as before.
• Plot the response on a graph paper and observe the steady state error and percent overshoot.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller
Ziegler and Nichols suggested the value of KP and KD and K1 for tis controller as
0.9 𝑇1 1 1
𝐾𝑃 = ( ) × ; 𝑇1 = = 3.3𝑇2 ; 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾1 =
𝐾 𝑇2 𝐾1 3.3𝑇2

• Starting with a cool oven, keep switch S1 to ‘WAIT’ connect P, D and I outputs to driver
input. Keep R output disconnected. Short feedback terminals.
• Set P, I and D potentiometers according to the above calculated values of KP, K1 KD
keeping in mind that the maximum value for these are 20, KP is 20, 0.024 and 23.5
respectively.
• Select and set the desired temperature, say 60.0°C.
• Switch S1 to ‘RUN’ and record temperature readings.
• Plot the response on a linear graph paper and observe the rise time, steady state error and
percent overshoot.
• Compare the results of the various controller options.
Further experimentation
The controller settings suggested by Ziegler and Nichols are not optimum. It is therefore possible
to experiment with other methods available in the literature or to attempt trial and error settings.
Students at the master’s level may attempt to calculate theoretically the optimum values of KP ,
KD and K1 based on some performance criterion and then verify the results on the setup. It may be
convenient to use a pen recorder or X-Y recorder for such experiments. A terminal has been
provided at the back of the unit for this purpose with a sensitivity of 10mV/°C.
Additional laboratory work may involve modification of the oven parameters and then repeating
the basic experiments. This may be done simply by putting thermal load into the oven, thus
increasing its thermal capacitance or by providing insulation to the oven thus increasing its thermal
resistance. These may also act as disturbance inputs to the oven while it is operating under steady-
state conditions, and their effect may be studied.

Results
a) Open loop measurement:
b) Calculation of KP, KI, KD:
1. P Control: KP
2. PI Control: KI
3. PID Control: KD
c) Results:
Typical Readings:
Time Temp. (degree c) Set point = Time (secs) Temp. (degree c) Set point =
(secs) 30.0 room temp=23.0 30.0 room temp=23.0
0 23
15 25.2
30 26.6
45 28.1
60 29.1
75 29.6
90 29.9
105 30.0
120 30.0
135 29.9
150 29.8
165 29.7
180 29.5
195 29.3
210 29.2
225 29.0
240 28.8
255 28.7
270 28.7
285 28.6
300 28.6
315 28.6
330 28.6
345 28.6
360 28.6
375 28.6
390 28.6
405 28.6
420 28.6
435 28.6
450 28.6

Experiment: using PI controller

Time (secs) Temp. (degree c) Set point = 30.0 room temp=23.0
0 23.5
15 24.9
30 26.5
45 28.6
60 29.8
75 30.4
90 30.6
105 31.0
120 31.1
135 31.0
150 31.0
165 30.8
180 30.7
195 30.5
210 30.3
225 30.1
240 29.9
255 29.8
270 29.6
285 29.4
300 29.3
315 29.2
330 29.1
345 29.0
360 29.0
375 29.0
390 29.0
405 29.0
420 29.0
435 29.0
450 29.0

Experiment: using PID controller

Time (secs) Temp. (degree c) Set point = 30.0 room temp=23.0
0 23.5
15 24.8
30 26.6
45 28.4
60 29.7
75 30.3
90 30.8
105 31.0
120 31.1
135 31.1
150 31.0
165 30.9
180 30.8
195 30.6
210 30.5
225 30.3
240 30.1
255 30.0
270 29.6
285 29.6
300 29.5
315 29.3
330 29.2
345 29.1
360 29.1
375 29.1
390 29.1
405 29.1
420 29.1
435 29.1
450 29.1

Experiment: using Relay control

Time (secs) Temp. (degree c) Set point = 30.0 Room temp.=23.0
0 23.6
15 25.0
30 28.4
45 32.0
60 34.1
75 35.2
90 35.6
105 36.0
120 35.9
135 35.8
150 35.5
165 35.2
180 34.9
195 34.5
210 34.0
225 33.7
240 33.3
255 32.9
270 32.5
285 32.1
300 31.8
315 31.4
330 31.1
345 30.8
360 30.5
375 30.3
390 30.0
405 30.0
420 30.0
435 30.0
450 30.0
Experiment: using P controller (open loop)
Time (secs) Temp. (degree c) Set point = 30.0 room temp=23.0
0 23.7
15 24.6
30 27.3
45 31.1
60 35.5
75 40.2
90 45.0
105 49.8
120 54.4
135 58.7
150 62.8
165 66.5
180 70.0
195 73.3
210 76.2
225 79.0
240 81.5
255 83.8
270 86.0
285 87.9
300 89.6
315 91.2
330 92.7
345 94.0
360 95.2
375 96.2
390 97.2
405 98.2
420 99.0
435 --
450 --