Caleffi NorthAmerica,

Caleffi North America, Inc.

Inc.
3883 W. Milwaukee
9850 South 54 StreetRd
th

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Franklin, WI 53132
T:
T: 414.238.2360
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Dear Hydronic and Plumbing Professional,

Dear Hydronic Professional,
Students returning to school after summer break can attest that it’s good for the
Welcome to the 2nd edition of idronics – Caleffi’s semi-annual design journal for
professor to start with a review of the basics. Jumping into Thermodynamics
hydronic professionals.
401 without a refresher can make grasping more advanced topics difficult.
It’sThe
in this spirit that
1st edition we created
of idronics was this 12th in
released edition of idronics
January 2007 andentitled Hydronic
distributed to over
Fundamentals.
80,000 people in North America. It focused on the topic hydraulic separation. From
the feedback received, it’s evident we attained our goal of explaining the benefits
and proper
Feedback application
from our face toof face
this modern
training design technique
programs, as wellforashydronic systems.
those offered
A Technical Journal online, frequently asks for explanation of basic design principles, or why certain
If you haven’t yet received a copy of idronics #1, you can do so by sending in the
installation practices are followed. So, like a professor giving a review at the
from attached reader response card, or by registering online at www.caleffi.us. The
start
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mailed to of
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free of was created
charge. to review,
You can refresh, and
also download the
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complete journal of theour
as a PDF file from fundamentals
Web site. that every hydronic system
relies on. With a solid grasp of these fundamentals you’ll be able to design
This second
efficient edition
and reliable addresses
systems thatair and dirt
deliver in hydroniccomfort.
unsurpassed systems. You’ll
Though notbe
also a new
CALEFFI NORTH AMERICA, INC topic
better to our industry,
prepared the use
for the more of moderntopics
specialized high-efficiency equipment
that will be coming indemands
future a
3883 W. Milwaukee Rd thorough
issues understanding of the harmful effects of air and dirt, as well as knowledge
of idronics
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53208 USA on how to eliminate them. Doing so helps ensure the systems you design will
operate at peak efficiency and provide long trouble-free service.
This issue also makes frequent reference to past issues that have dealt with
Tel: 414-238-2360 specific topics
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will find detail. Weof
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idronics ayou to get
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Sincerely,
To receive future idronics issues
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© Copyright 2011 Mark Olson

General Manager,
Caleffi North America, Inc. Caleffi North America, Inc.
Printed: Milwaukee, Wisconsin USA General Manager & CEO

INDEX
1. Introduction 7: Essential hydronics hardware
2. Benefits of hydronic systems 8: Heat emitter options
3: A brief history of hydronics 9. Hydronic distribution systems
4: The basic hydronic circuit 10: Control concepts and hardware
5: Physical operating conditions 11: Examples of modern hydronic systems
in hydronic systems APPENDIX A: Schematic symbols
6: Hydronic heat sources APPENDIX B: Buffer tank sizing

Disclaimer: Caleffi makes no warranty that the information presented in idronics meets the mechanical, electrical or other code requirements applicable within a 10%
given jurisdiction. The diagrams presented in idronics are conceptual, and do not represent complete schematics for any specific installation. Local codes may
Cert no. XXX-XXX-XXXX
require differences in design, or safety devices relative to those shown in idronics. It is the responsibility of those adapting any information presented in idronics to
verify that such adaptations meet or exceed local code requirements.
 Hydronic Fundamentals

1. INTRODUCTION 2. BENEFITS OF HYDRONIC SYSTEMS

This is a special issue of idronics. Unlike past issues, Modern hydronics technology is a “media” that skilled
which have focused largely on one topic, this issue designers can use to create an appropriate heating or
broadly describes the fundamentals of hydronic systems. cooling solution for almost any building. The versatility of
These fundamentals are the foundation of good system modern hydronics technology is unmatched by any other
design and proper installation. When clearly understood means of heating or cooling buildings.
and applied, they allow designers to create systems
that deliver superior comfort, energy efficiency and This section highlights the benefits of modern hydronic
long-term reliability. When ignored, the results are likely systems, both to those designing and installing systems,
to be inefficient operation, wasted materials, excessive and to the occupants of buildings that are heated or
callbacks and unhappy customers. cooled using hydronics technology. It is essential that
heating and cooling professionals understand the basis
This issue was outlined based on suggestions from many for these benefits and effectively communicate them
hydronic heating professionals. They indicated the need to those who are trying to select a means of heating or
for an issue directed at those new to hydronics, as well cooling for their building.
as one that could refresh and clarify basic concepts to
those already working with hydronic systems. This issue COMFORT:
fills that need. Every heating system affects the health, productivity and
general well-being of numerous people over many years.
Starting from scratch, a thorough discussion of hydronics The ability of that system to provide thermal comfort
technology would require hundreds of pages. Fortunately, is of paramount importance and should be the primary
previous issues of idronics have already discussed many objective of any heating system designer or installer.
specific topics related to hydronic system design in
considerable detail. This issue will leverage that information. Figure 2-1

While reading through this issue, you will find frequent

references to previous issues. Watch for the idronics
icon shown below, followed by reference to one or more
previous issues.

References to issues of idronics

All of these other issues are freely available as

downloadable PDF files under the idronics archive link at
www.caleffi.us.com. You are encouraged to download all
of them, and keep them available for reference.

3
Few people don’t appreciate a warm comfortable house heat to leave a person’s body at the same rate as it
on a cold winter day. A place that helps them forget about is generated, that person feels comfortable. If heat is
snow, ice and wind as they walk in the door. A place that released faster or slower than the rate it is produced,
encourages a sense of well-being and relaxation. some degree of discomfort is experienced.

Still, the average North American homeowner spends A normal adult engaged in light activity generates heat
little time thinking about his or her heating system. Many through metabolism at a rate of about 400 Btu/hr. The body
view such systems as necessary but uninteresting. When releases this heat through several processes, including
construction budgets are strained, it is often the heating convection, radiation, evaporation and conduction.
system that gets compromised to save money for other,
seemingly more important amenities. In many cases, it is For indoor environments in colder weather, thermal
the homebuilder rather than the homeowner who selects radiation and convection typically account for almost
the heating system. Builders often have different priorities 75% of the total heat output from the body. Heat loss by
from those who will live with, maintain and pay for the thermal radiation alone can be 50% to 60% of the total
operation of that system. heat loss, especially within buildings that have cold wall,
floor or ceiling surfaces.
In many cases, people who have lived with uncomfortable
heating systems don’t realize what they have been Properly designed hydronic systems control the air
missing. Many would welcome the opportunity to live or temperature as well as the surface temperature of rooms
work in truly comfortable buildings and would willingly to maintain optimal comfort. A hydronically heated floor
spend more money, if necessary, to do so. Successful or ceiling can raise the average surface temperature of
heating professionals take the time to discuss with rooms. Since the human body is especially responsive
potential clients the full range of benefits of hydronic to radiant heat loss, these warm surfaces significantly
systems as well as the price. enhance comfort. Proper indoor humidity is also easier
to maintain in buildings using hydronic heating due to
Contrary to common belief, comfort during the heating reduced air leakage.
season is not solely determined by indoor air temperature.
Comfort is achieved and maintained by controlling how Factors such as activity level, age and general health
the body loses heat. When interior conditions allow determine what a comfortable environment is for a given
individual. When several people are living or working in
Figure 2-2 a common environment, any one of them might feel too
hot, too cold or just right. Heating systems that allow
different zones of a building to be maintained at different
temperatures can adapt to the comfort needs of several
individuals. Hydronic heating systems are easy to zone
using several different approaches.

See idronics #5 for a complete discussion on

how to zone hydronic heating systems.

ENERGY SAVINGS:
Ideally, a building’s rate of heat loss would not be
influenced by how that heat is replaced. However,
evidence has shown that otherwise identical buildings
can have significantly different rates of heat loss based
on the types of heating systems installed. Buildings with
hydronic heating systems have demonstrated a tendency
for lower heat loss compared to equivalent structures
with forced-air heating systems.

There are several reasons for this reduced heat loss.

One is that hydronic systems, unlike forced-air systems,

4
 have very little effect on room air pressure while operating. The
Figure 2-3
more significant changes in room air pressure created by forced-air
systems can increase the rate of outside air infiltration or inside air
exfiltration through the exterior surfaces. The greater the rate of air
leakage, the greater the rate of heat loss.

Another factor affecting building energy use is air temperature

stratification (e.g., the tendency of warm air to rise toward the ceiling
while cool air settles to the floor). Stratification tends to be worsened by
57 ºF 94 ºF high ceilings, poor air circulation and heating systems that supply air into
rooms at high temperatures. Maintaining comfortable temperatures in
the occupied areas of rooms plagued with a high degree of temperature
temperature
variation with! stratification leads to significantly higher air temperatures near the
forced-air!
heating ceiling. This increases heat loss through the ceiling.

Hydronic heat emitters that transfer the majority of their heat output
by thermal radiation reduce, and in some cases eliminate, undesirable
air temperature stratification. This reduces heat loss through ceilings
and allows comfort to be maintained at lower air temperatures.
ideal
temperature! Figure 2-3 shows a comparison between the undesirable air
variation
temperature stratification created by forced-air systems operating with
poorly placed registers versus the desirable “reverse” stratification
created by hydronic radiant floor heating.
65 ºF 82 ºF
LOW DISTRIBUTION ENERGY:
Forced-air heating Properly designed hydronic systems use significantly less energy to
move heat from where it is produced to where it is needed. A well-
designed hydronic system, using a modern high-efficiency circulator,
can deliver a given rate of heat transport using less than 10% of
the electrical energy required by the blower of a forced-air heating
system transporting heat at the same rate. This is a very important
advantage of hydronic systems—one that can save thousands of
dollars in operating cost over the design life of a typical residential
58 ºF heating system. This savings is often overlooked or not presented
with sufficient emphasis by those who only consider the energy use
temperature
associated with producing heat.
variation with!
radiant floor! Figure 2-4
heating
ideal
temperature!
variation

79 ºF 82 ºF

Hydronic floor heating

5
VERSATILITY: are eliminated. They also improve the efficiency of boilers
Modern hydronics technology offers virtually unlimited and reduce fuel usage relative to systems where each load
potential to accommodate the comfort needs, usage, is served by its own heat source.
aesthetic tastes and budget constraints of almost any
building. A single system can be designed to supply space Hydronic systems can combine a variety of heat emitters for
heating, domestic hot water and specialty loads such as space heating. For example, hydronic radiant floor heating
snowmelting or pool heating. These “multi-load” systems may be used to maintain comfort in a basement, while the
reduce installation costs because redundant components first and second floors are heated by panel radiators.

Figure 2-5 A wide variety of hydronic heat sources are available.

They include boilers fired by gas, oil, electricity, firewood
and pellets; geothermal and air-source heat pumps;
solar collectors and devices that adapt to special
circumstances or opportunities, such as “time-of-use”
electrical rates or waste heat recovery.

CLEAN OPERATION:
A common complaint about forced-air heating is its
propensity to move dust and other airborne particles such
as pollen and smoke throughout a building. In buildings
where air-filtering equipment is either of poor quality or
improperly maintained, dust streaks around ceiling and
wall diffusers are often evident, as seen in Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-6 Figure 2-8

Figure 2-9

Figure 2-7

Courtesy of Gary Todd

6
Eventually duct systems and other air-handling equipment Figure 2-11
require internal cleaning to remove dust and dirt that has
accumulated over several years of operation, as seen in
Figure 2-9.

In contrast, few hydronic systems involve forced-air

circulation. Those that do create room air circulation
rather than building air circulation. This reduces the
dispersal of airborne particles and microorganisms. This
is a major benefit in situations where air cleanliness is
imperative, such as for people with allergies, health care
facilities or laboratories.

QUIET OPERATION:
Many people view their home as an escape from the
noise and stress associated with modern life. As such,
the home should provide “acoustical comfort” as well as Source: Earth Advantage Institute
thermal comfort. When it’s time to relax, noise from any
heating or cooling system is certainly unwelcome. This situation leads to ducts being installed in unconditioned
attics or “hidden” behind interior soffits, as seen in Figure
Figure 2-10 2-12. Such situations can also result in undersized ducts
or inadequate placement of ducts. Occupants eventually
pay the price in terms of reduced comfort, noise, increased
heat loss or compromised aesthetics.
Figure 2-12

A properly designed and installed hydronic system can

operate with virtually no detectable noise in the occupied Source: http://angthebuilder.blogspot.com
areas of a home. These characteristics make hydronic
heating ideal in sound-sensitive areas such as home
theaters, reading rooms or sleeping areas.

NONINVASIVE INSTALLATION:
Consider the difficulty encountered when installing
adequate and properly sized ducting within a typical
wood-framed house. If the house happens to use
open web floor trusses rather than traditional floor
joists, the ducting may be able to be installed as
shown in Figure 2-11.

However, most homes are not framed in this manner.

Instead, they have solid floor joists. Making the cuts
necessary to accommodate properly sized ducting in this
type of framing would destroy its structural integrity. Source: U.S. Department of Energy

7
By comparison, modern hydronic systems are easy Hydronic systems using small diameter flexible tubing
to integrate into buildings without compromising their are also much easier than ducting to retrofit into existing
structure or the aesthetic character of the space. The buildings. The tubing can be routed through closed framing
reason for this is the high heat capacity of water. A given spaces much like electrical cable, as shown in Figure 2-14.
volume of water can absorb almost 3,500 times more
heat as the same volume of air for the same temperature For buildings where utility space is minimal, small wall-
change. This means that the volume of water that must hung boilers can often be mounted in a closet or small
be moved through a building to deliver a given amount of alcove, as seen in Figure 2-15. In many cases, these
heat is only about 0.03% that of air! This greatly reduces compact boilers can supply the building’s domestic hot
the size of the distribution “conduit.” water as well as its heat. The entire “mechanical room”
may have a footprint of less than 10 square feet.
For example, a 3/4-inch diameter tube carrying water at
6 gallons per minute around a hydronic system operating Figure 2-15
with a 20ºF temperature drop transports as much heat
as a 14” by 8” duct carrying 130ºF air at 1,000 feet per
minute. Figure 2-13 depicts these two options, side by
side, in true proportion.

Figure 2-13
this cut would destroy the load-carrying
ability of the floor joists
2 x 12 joist

14" x 8" duct

3/4" tube

Notching into 2 x 12 floor joists to accommodate the

14” by 8” duct would destroy their structural integrity.
However, small-diameter flexible tubing is easily routed
through the center of the same framing with negligible
effect on structure.
Figure 2-14 ABILITY TO ZONE:
The purpose of any heating system is to provide comfort
in all areas of a building throughout the heating season.
Doing so requires systems that can adapt to the lifestyle of
the building occupants, as well as the constantly changing
thermal conditions inside and outside of a building.

Imagine a building in which all rooms have the same floor

area. Someone not familiar with heating system design
might assume that each room, because they are all the
same size, requires the same rate of heat input. Although
such an assumption might be intuitive and simplistic, it
fails to recognize differences in the thermal characteristics
of the rooms. Some rooms might have only one exposed

8
 Beyond these differences are
Figure 2-16 conditions imposed by the
occupants. One person might prefer
M. BATHROOM
sleeping in a room maintained at
63ºF, while another feels chilled if
MASTER BEDROOM
their bedroom is anything less than
ZONE 2 DHW
72ºF. One occupant might prefer
WALK-IN
a living room maintained at 70ºF

MECHANICAL
CLOSET
W D
while relaxed and reading, while
LAUNDRY
boiler
another wants the temperature in
the exercise room at 65ºF during a
KITCHEN
workout.

The combination of room thermal

characteristics, outdoor conditions
and occupant expectations presents
GARAGE
a complex and dynamic challenge
ZONE 3 for the building’s heating system as
ZONE 1 it attempts to maintain comfort.

LIVING & DINING

One method that has long been used
to help meet this challenge is dividing
the building’s heating system into
zones. A zone is any area of a building
for which indoor air temperature is
controlled by a single thermostat (or
other temperature-sensing device).
Figure 2-17 A zone can be as small as a single room, or it may be as
large as an entire building.

Figure 2-16 shows a zoning plan for the first floor of a

house. The living room, kitchen, half-bath and laundry
heat
emitters are combined into a single zone. The master bedroom,
master bathroom and closet form another zone. The
garage is also treated as a separate zone.

There are several ways to create zoned hydronic heating

and cooling systems. All of these approaches are simpler
and less expensive than equivalent zoning of a forced-
air system. Figure 2-17 shows part of a hydronic piping
schematic in which zone valves are used to control the
zone flow of heated water to each heat emitter.
valves

Proper zoning accounts for differences in the activities

that occur in different areas of a building, as well as
differences in preferred comfort levels, interior heat gain
and the desire to reduce energy use through reduced
temperature settings (e.g., “setback”).

wall, while other rooms might have two or three exposed

walls. Some rooms might have a generous window area,
while other rooms have no windows. The air leakage and idronics #5 provides a more in-depth discussion of
potential for sunlight to enter through windows may also modern zoning methods for hydronic systems.
vary from one room to another.

9
3: A BRIEF HISTORY OF HYDRONICS Figure 3-1

Water-based hydronic heating systems in North America
date back over a century. Most accounts point to water-
based systems evolving from steam-based systems. The
latter were the first means of equipping buildings with
“central” heating. Before that, heating was done with
fireplaces and wood-fired or coal-fired stoves located
throughout the building.

Although steam systems were effective, and some are

still in use today, they impose several fundamental
limitations on how the system must be designed and
installed.

First, in a low-pressure steam heating system, the boiler

needs to be located at the bottom of the distribution
system. This is necessary to allow the condensate (steam
that has cooled and changed back to liquid water) to flow
back to the boiler.

Second, steam boilers generally need to operate at

relatively high temperatures. There are exceptions to
this (e.g., vacuum-based steam systems), but they are
not common. The high temperatures needed to produce
steam essentially eliminate contemporary heat source
options such as solar thermal collectors or heat pumps. heat transfer in the radiators and must be periodically
“blown down” from steam producing boilers.
Third, steam systems require carefully planned metal
piping systems. The piping must be pitched for Steam heating deserves distinct recognition within
condensate return to the boiler. Fittings on steam mains the evolution of North American heating systems.
must be properly oriented. The temperatures at which Thousands of innovative products have been produced
most steam heating systems operate preclude the use to improve the performance of steam heating systems
of polymer piping such as PEX or polypropylene. Pipe over several decades. Still, given the resources and
sizes also tend to be larger than those required for installation details they require, the current worldwide
water-based distribution systems. The installation cost costs of energy and the availability of many competing
of the iron or steel piping required in steam systems has methods of heat generation and delivery, very few new
significantly increased over the last decade. steam heating systems are being installed. The present
market for steam heating is almost entirely based
Most steam heating systems use cast iron radiators on replacement of older steam boilers, radiators and
as their heat emitters. An example of such a radiator related hardware. Water, in liquid form, is the future of
is shown in Figure 3-1. While such radiators can be hydronic heating.
very effective, and are often elegant in detail, they
are very heavy. This significantly increases the cost EARLY WATER-BASED SYSTEMS:
of transportation and installation. The manufacturing Water-based central heating systems were originally
procedures used for cast iron have also become more developed in the late 1800s. During that time, and for
difficult to sustain, especially in North America, due to several decades to follow, there were no electrically
increasing energy cost and environmental regulations. powered circulators available. The only “propulsion
effect” available to move water through systems was
Finally, the iron and steel piping used in steam heating the differential pressure created by the simultaneous
systems at various times contains steam, liquid water presence of hot and cool water. Hot water in the boiler is
and air. The combination of water, oxygen from air and slightly lighter than cooler water in the return side piping.
iron creates iron oxides within the piping and radiators. This creates a slight weight imbalance that causes
These oxides eventually form a sludge that reduces hot water to rise while cool water descends, and thus

10
circulation occurs within the system. Early designers Notice that the piping is either vertical or slightly sloped.
quantified this effect, as shown in Figure 3-2, which dates This slope encourages buoyancy driven flow and helps
from an 1896 heating manual. prevent air pockets from forming within the piping. Such
pockets could block flow.
Figure 3-2
Many of these early systems contained an expansion
tank at the high point in the system, often in the attic
of a house. This tank was usually sized to 1/36th of the
total system volume, and equipped with an overflow
pipe leading to a drain or outside the building.

When heated, the water in the system expanded,

possibly to the point where some would spill out of the
overflow pipe from the expansion tank. As the system
cooled, the water would decrease in volume, and the
water level within the expansion tank would drop.

These early hydronic systems were open to the

atmosphere at the overflow pipe. As such, the pressure
within the boiler and piping were limited. In this respect,
they were safer than pressurized steam systems of that
vintage. However, due to evaporation, the water level
within the system would slowly drop. Water had to be
These early hot water systems were often referred to as periodically added to maintain proper operation.
“gravity” hot water systems. An example of the piping used
in these early hydronic systems is shown in Figure 3-3. Although they took great advantage of natural principles
to create circulation, these early systems were very
Figure 3-3 limited in how they could be applied relative to modern
hydronic systems.

Many of these limitations were eliminated when

electrically powered circulators became available in
North America starting in the early 1930s. One example
of an early generation (1931) “booster” circulator is
shown in Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-4

Courtesy of Bell & Gossett

Circulators could create much greater pressure

differentials compared to those created solely by the
buoyancy differences between hot and cool water.
This allowed for smaller diameter piping that could go
in virtually any direction. The boiler no longer had to

11
be located at the base of the system. Piping layouts Figure 3-6
could be very different from those previously required.
Response times were also significantly shorter than with
natural circulation systems.

Figure 3-5 shows a 1949 drawing of a two-zone hydronic

heating system using circulators. This system used a
special fitting called a “Monoflo® tee” to induce flow from
the distribution mains through each cast iron radiator.
These fittings are still available, and their application is
discussed in section 9.

Systems of this vintage were entirely constructed of steel

or iron piping, typically with threaded cast iron fittings. As
time progressed, copper tubing became an increasingly
popular alternative, especially in residential systems.

In 1958, Taco introduced the first “wet rotor” circulator

to the North American hydronics market (shown in Courtesy of Taco

Figure 3-6).
The first generation hydronic radiant panel systems
Wet rotor circulators slowly gained acceptance as an used “grids” and “coils” of steel or wrought iron piping
alternative to traditional 3-piece circulators. By 1980, embedded in concrete slabs. After World War II, soft-
they had become the predominant type of circulator used temper copper tubing became the preferred material for
in new residential and light commercial hydronic systems. such systems due to its availability in smaller sizes and
easier bending characteristics. During the later 1940s
The availability of circulators also allowed for distribution and early 1950s, radiant floor and ceiling heating systems
systems and heat emitters very different from those using copper tubing became increasingly popular.
required by “gravity” flow systems. One example is the
hydronic radiant floor panel system shown in Figure 3-7, Although these radiant panels delivered exceptional
during its installation in the 1940s. comfort for their time, and some are still in use today,
others failed prematurely due to chemical reactions
Figure 3-5 between copper tubing and certain
materials used in concrete. Repetitive
mechanical stresses due to the
heating and cooling also caused
some failures. Such issues eventually
tarnished the reputation of hydronic
radiant panel heating. By the 1970s,
new installations of copper-based
radiant panel heating systems were
almost nonexistent.

Most residential hydronic systems

of the 1960s through 1970s shifted
to cast iron baseboard or copper
fin-tube baseboard. Pressure-rated
boilers with heat exchangers made
of cast iron sections or steel fire
tubes and fueled by natural gas and
fuel oil became common. Hydronic
systems of this era were relatively
Courtesy of Bell & Gossett simple, typically having 1 to 3 zones
and basic electromechanical controls.

12
 Figure 3-7 These devices allowed the boiler to provide domestic
hot water as well as space heating. They also required
the boiler to remain at an elevated temperature of at
least 140ºF for the entire year. Although acceptable at
the time, this method of domestic water heating is now
viewed as very inefficient.

In the early 1980s, crosslinked polyethylene tubing (e.g.,

PEX) made its way to North America after several years
of successful use in Europe. PEX, and other polymer-
based tubing, revolutionized the installation of hydronic
radiant panel heating, providing fast installation and a
long, reliable life. The availability of PEX tubing was
the spark that rekindled interest in hydronic radiant
panel heating in North America during the 1980s.
Since then, thousands of new products have been
introduced into the North American hydronics market.
They were marketed as the modern, safe and fully
These, in combination with contemporary design
automatic approach to centralized heating.
methods, ushered in the era of modern hydronics in
North America.
Some of the boilers used during this time were equipped
with “tankless coil” water heaters, as shown in Figure 3-8.
space heating circulator
MODERN HYDRONICS:
Today, much of the technology available for hydronic
Figure 3-8 heating is a quantum leap above that available in the mid
space heating circulator 1900s. Examples include the following:
ASSE 1017! tankless coil
to/from!
anti-scald! space heating!
valve • Compact wall-hung condensing boilers, such as the one
distribution !
ASSE 1017! tankless coil shown in Figure 3-9, when properly applied, can operate
system
to/from!
anti-scald! space heating! with thermal efficiencies in range of 95%.
valve distribution !
hot
water system
Figure 3-9
hot
water
cold
water cold
water

Source: http://epb.apogee.net Courtesy of Triangle Tube

13
• Renewable energy heat sources, such as solar thermal Figure 3-12
collectors, heat pumps and biomass boilers, can be
integrated into hydronic systems.

Figure 3-10

• A wide assortment of heat emitters is available to match

heating loads and aesthetic preferences.

Figure 3-13

• Multiple water temperatures within the system can be

precisely controlled using both electronic and thermostatic
devices.

Figure 3-11

• Systems can heat buildings as well as supply domestic

Source: bonjourlife.com
hot water, melt snow on outdoor surfaces and warm
swimming pools.
• Durable polymer tubing can be quickly and easily
installed within building structures to create radiant floor,
• Heat sources, mixing devices and circulators can be
wall and ceiling panels. With proper design and controls,
intelligently controlled using microprocessors.
these panels can be used for both heating and cooling.

14
 Figure 3-14 Figure 3-16

Courtesy of ecobee”

• Systems can be designed that use a fraction of the The remainder of this issue will introduce many state-
fuel and electrical energy required by earlier systems, yet of-the-art components and design concepts. It will also
provide superior comfort. show you how to combine them into contemporary
hydronic systems that deliver superior comfort, high
Figure 3-15 efficiency and reliability.

• System operation can be monitored and altered if

necessary using a laptop, tablet or smart phone from any
location with Internet access.

15
4: THE BASIC HYDRONIC CIRCUIT hydronic heat sources that are not closed. An example
would be some outdoor wood-burning furnaces, which
Nearly all hydronic systems have several common are not designed to operate under pressure.
components. This section introduces those components
and briefly describes their function. Later sections The fluid within a hydronic circuit serves as a conveyor
describe this hardware in more detail and show how to belt for heat. That heat is transferred into the fluid at the
size and assemble it into complete systems. heat source, carried through the distribution system by
the fluid and dissipated from the fluid at one or more
The vast majority of modern hydronic heating systems heat emitters. The fluid then returns to the heat source
are closed-loop systems. This means that the piping to absorb more heat and repeat the process. A circulator,
components form an assembly that separates the fluid when operating, maintains flow through the system. The
within the system from contact with the atmosphere. If same fluid remains in the closed-loop system, often for
the system’s fluid is exposed to the atmosphere at any many years. It never loses its ability to absorb, transport
point, that system is classified as an open-loop system. or dissipate heat.

Closed-loop circuits have several advantages over BASIC CONTROLS:

“open-loop” systems. First, because they are well- In an ideal system, the rate at which the heat source
sealed from the atmosphere, there is very little fluid loss produces heat would always match the rate at which
over time. Any slight fluid loss that occurs is usually the building, or domestic water, needs heating. This is
attributable to weepage at valve packings or gaskets. seldom the case with any real system, and thus it is
Such minor losses do not create problems and can be necessary to provide controllers that manage both heat
automatically corrected with components discussed later production and heat delivery.
in this section.
One of the most basic controllers is a thermostat that
Second, properly designed closed-loop systems allow measures room air temperature and turns the circulator on
very little oxygen to enter the system. This greatly and off based on how the room’s temperature compares to
reduces the potential of corrosion, especially in systems the thermostat’s setpoint. The thermostat’s “goal” is to keep
containing iron or steel components. the room air temperature at, or very close to, its setpoint
temperature. If the room’s air temperature begins rising
Third, closed-loop systems operate under slight pressure. above the setpoint temperature, the thermostat turns off the
This helps in eliminating air from the system. It also helps circulator to stop further heat transport to the heat emitters.
in suppressing boiling or circulator noise within the system. When the room temperature drops below the thermostat’s
setpoint, it turns on the circulator to resume heat transport.
THE BASIC CLOSED CIRCUIT:
Figure 4-1 shows a basic closed-loop hydronic circuit. The
Figure 4-2
box representing the heat source could be a boiler, a heat
pump, a thermal storage tank heated by solar collectors thermostat

or some other heat-producing device. Whatever the

case, it is a closed device, sealed from the atmosphere high limit!
heat emitter
and capable of operating under some pressure.There are temperature!
controller
circulator
distribution system
Figure 4-1
heat emitter
circulator
heat emitter

heat source

distribution system

Another common controller is called a high-limit controller.

Its function is to turn the heat source on and off so that
heat emitter
heat source the temperature of the fluid supplied to the distribution
system remains within a narrow and usable range.

16
Figure 4-2 shows a basic hydronic system supplied by a consequences of a system component bursting at high
fuel-burning heat source. The circulator is assumed to be pressures and temperatures could be devastating. Thus,
controlled by a room thermostat. The water temperature all closed-loop hydronic systems must be protected by a
supplied by the heat source is limited by the high-limit pressure-relief valve. This is a universal requirement of all
controller. mechanical codes in North America. Figure 4-4 shows a
pressure relief valve installed on the heat source.
EXPANSION TANK:
Water expands when it is heated. This is a very powerful MAKE-UP WATER SYSTEM:
but predictable characteristic that must be accommodated Most closed-loop hydronic systems experience very
in any type of closed-loop hydronic system. Figure 4-3 minor water losses over time due to weepage from valve
shows a diaphragm-type expansion tank added to the packings, pump seals, air vents and other components.
system. This tank contains a captive volume of air. As the These losses are normal and must be replaced to
heated water within the system expands, it pushes into the maintain adequate system pressure.
tank and slightly compresses the captive air volume. This
causes the system pressure to rise a small amount. As A common method for replacing this water is through
the system’s water cools, its volume decreases, allowing an automatic make-up water assembly consisting of a
the compressed air to expand, and the system pressure pressure-reducing valve, backflow preventer and shutoff
returns to its original value. This process repeats itself each valve (shown in Figure 4-5).
time the system heats up and cools off. Expansion tank
selection and sizing are covered in section 6.
Figure 4-5

Figure 4-3
circulator
circulator heat emitter
heat emitter

distribution system
expansion! distribution
purge!
tank system valve heat emitter

heat emitter heat source

heat source VENT

make-up ! shut off valve

water ! backflow preventer
PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE: assembly pressure reducing valve
Consider what could happen to a closed-loop hydronic
system in which a defective high-limit controller fails
to turn off the heat source after its upper temperature
limit has been reached. As the water gets hotter, system
pressure steadily increases due to the water’s expansion.
This pressure could eventually exceed the pressure
rating of the weakest component in the system. The

Figure 4-4
pressure
relief
valve
circulator
heat emitter

distribution system
Because the pressure in a building water system is
usually higher than the pressure-relief valve setting in a
heat emitter hydronic system, the latter cannot be directly piped to
heat source
the building water system. However, a pressure-reducing

17
valve can be placed between the building water system
and hydronic system to limit pressure in the latter. This Figure 4-6
valve is used to reduce and maintain a constant minimum air
pressure within the hydronic system. It lets water enter separator
the hydronic system whenever the pressure in the system circulator
heat emitter
drops below the valve’s pressure setting. Most pressure-
reducing valves have an adjustable pressure setting.
distribution system
The backflow preventer stops any water that has entered
the system from returning and possibly contaminating
the potable water supply system. Most municipal codes heat emitter
require such a device on any heating system connected heat source
to a public water supply.

The shutoff valve in the make-up water assembly is installed

to allow the system to be isolated from its water source.

A purging valve is also shown in the schematic of Figure

4-5. It allows most of the air within the circuit to exit as
the system is filled with water. Purging valves consist of
a ball valve that is inline with the distribution piping and a
side-mounted drain port. To purge the system, the inline
ball valve is closed and the drain port is opened. As water
enters the system through the make-up water assembly,
air is expelled through the drain port of the purge valve.

idronics #2 describes proper procedures

for purging hydronic systems.
to each other. By assembling these components, we
AIR SEPARATOR: have built a simple hydronic heating system. However,
An air separator is designed to separate air from water and just because all the components are present doesn’t
remove that air from the system. Modern air separators guarantee that the system will function properly. The
create regions of reduced pressure as water passes components must be selected and sized properly so
through. The lowered pressure causes dissolved gases in that they work together as a system. Later sections will
the water to form into bubbles. These bubbles discuss how to do this.
are guided upward into a collection chamber
where an automatic air vent expels them from
Figure 4-7 thermostat
the system. For best results, the air separator
pressure
should be located where fluid temperatures relief valve
are highest. This is typically in the supply pipe
heat emitter
from the heat source, as shown in Figure 4-6.
high limit!
temperature! circulator
controller expansion! distribution
tank system

purge valve
idronics #15 describes how high performance heat emitter
air separators operate and how to apply them. VENT

heat source shut off valve

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER backflow preventer
Figure 4-7 shows all the components previously make-up ! pressure reducing valve
water !
discussed in their proper positions relative assembly

18
5: PHYSICAL OPERATING CONDITIONS IN it must absorb approximately 970 Btu/lb. This is a very
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS large amount of heat to be conveyed by a single pound
of material. It is also the physical characteristic that is
Water is the essential ingredient in any hydronic system. leveraged by a steam heating system.
Its physical properties make it possible to deliver heating
or cooling throughout a building using relatively small SPECIFIC HEAT & HEAT CAPACITY:
“conduits” and minimal amounts of electrical energy. One of the most important properties of water relevant to
its use in hydronic systems is specific heat. The specific
Figure 5-1 heat of any material is the number of Btus required to
raise the temperature of one pound of that material by
one degree Fahrenheit (ºF). The specific heat of water is
1.0 Btu per pound per degree F. To raise the temperature
of 1 pound (lb) of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit (ºF) will
require the addition of 1 Btu of heat.

This relationship between temperature, material weight and

energy content also holds true when a substance is cooled.
For example, to lower the temperature of 1 pound of water
The performance of all hydronic systems is intimately by 1 degree F will require the removal of 1 Btu of energy.
tied to the physical properties of water—in particular,
the process by which water absorbs heat, conveys it The specific heat of any material varies slightly with its
and releases it. This section discusses the fundamental temperature. However, for water, this variation is very
relationships that govern those processes. It discusses small over the temperature range used in residential
properties that affect both the thermal and hydraulic and light commercial hydronic systems. Thus, for the
performance of all hydronic systems. It clarifies the calculations involved in designing these systems, the
differences as well as the interrelationships between specific heat of water can be considered to remain
physical quantities such as temperature, heat content, constant at 1.0 Btu/lb/ºF.
rate of heat transfer, flow rate, flow velocity, head energy
and pressure drop. The specific heat of water is high in comparison to other
common materials. In fact, water has one of the highest
Understanding these physical properties and how specific heats of any known material. Only ammonia has
they are related is essential for anyone who wants to a higher specific heat (which ranges from 1.12 to 1.6 Btu/
design efficient and reliable hydronic systems. Such an lb/ºF, depending on temperature).
understanding is also important for those who diagnose
and adjust hydronic systems for optimal performance. Another index used to quantify a material’s ability to
contain sensible heat is called heat capacity. It is the
SENSIBLE HEAT & LATENT HEAT: number of Btus required to raise the temperature of one
The heat absorbed or released by a material while it cubic foot of the material by one degree Fahrenheit. The
remains in a single phase is called sensible heat. The heat capacity of a material can be found by multiplying
word sensible means that the presence of the heat can the material’s specific heat by its density.
be sensed by a temperature change in the material. When
a material absorbs sensible heat, its temperature must Figure 5-2 lists the specific heat, density and heat
increase. Likewise, when a material releases sensible capacity of some common materials.
heat, its temperature must decrease. Under
normal operating conditions, all the hydronic Figure 5-2
systems discussed in this and other issues
of idronics operate with water that remains in
liquid form. Thus, all heat and heat transfer
quantities discussed are sensible heat.

If a material changes phase while absorbing

heat, its temperature does not change. The heat
absorbed in such a process is called latent heat.
For water to change from a liquid to a vapor,

19
By comparing the heat capacity of water and air, it can The density of water varies with its temperature. Like
be shown that a given volume of water can hold almost most substances, as the temperature of water increases,
3,500 times as much heat as the same volume of air for its density decreases. As temperature increases, each
the same temperature rise. This allows a given volume molecule of water requires more space. This molecular
of water to transport vastly more heat than the same expansion is extremely powerful and can easily burst
volume of air. This is the underlying (and very significant) metal pipes or tanks if not properly accommodated.
advantage of using water rather than air for moving Figure 5-4 shows the relationship between temperature
sensible heat. Figure 5-3 illustrates this advantage by and the density of water.
comparing two heat transport systems of equal heat-
carrying ability. The 1” diameter tube carrying water can The change in density of water or water-based antifreeze
convey the same amount of heat as a 10” by 20” duct solutions directly affects the size of the expansion tank
conveying air when both systems are operating at typical required on all closed-loop hydronic systems. Proper
temperature differentials and flow rates. tank sizing requires data on the density of the system
fluid both when the system is filled and when it reaches
Figure 5-3 its maximum operating temperature.

The change in water’s density based on its temperature

affects several other aspects of hydronic system design
and operation. For example, because hot water is less
dense than cool water, it will rise to the top of a thermal
storage tank. The difference in density between warm
and cool water in different parts of the system was also
responsible for creating circulation in early hydronic
systems, as discussed in section 3.

10" x 20" duct 1" tube

SENSIBLE HEAT QUANTITY FORMULA:
DENSITY: It is often necessary to determine the quantity of heat
In this and other issues of idronics, the word “density” stored in a given volume of water that undergoes a
refers to the number of pounds of the material needed temperature change. Formula 5-1, known as the sensible
to fill a volume of one cubic foot. For example, it would heat quantity formula, can be used for this purpose:
take 62.4 pounds of water at 50ºF to fill a 1 cubic foot
container, so its density is said to be 62.4 pounds per Formula 5-1
cubic foot, (abbreviated as 62.4 lb/ft3).

where:
Figure 5-4
63 h = quantity of heat absorbed or released from the water
(Btu)
62.5
v = volume of water (gallons)
62 ∆T = temperature change of the material (ºF)
61.5
Example: Assume a storage tank contains 500 gallons of
density (lb/ft3)

61
water initially at 70ºF. How much heat must be added to
60.5 raise this water to a temperature of 180ºF?
60
Solution: The amount of heat involved is easily
59.5
determined using Formula 5-1:
59
58.5
58
50 100 150 200 250
water temperature (ºF)

20
SENSIBLE HEAT RATE FORMULA: a. Formula 5-2
Hydronic system designers often need to know the b. Formula 5-3
rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing through a
device such as a heat source or heat emitter. This can
be done using the sensible heat rate formula, given as Figure 5-5
Formula 5-2:
110 ºF 92 ºF
Formula 5-2
1.5 gpm

where:
Solution: Using Formula 5-2, the rate of heat transfer
Q = rate of heat transfer into or out of the water stream from the circuit is:
(Btu/hr)
8.01 = a constant based on the units used
D = density of the fluid (lb/ft3)
c = specific heat of the fluid (Btu/lb/ºF) To use Formula 5-3, the density of water at its average
ƒ = flow rate of fluid through the device (gpm) temperature of 101ºF must first be estimated using
∆T = temperature change of the fluid through the device (ºF) Figure 5-4:

When using Formula 5.2, the density and specific heat should D = 61.96 lb/ft3
be based on the average temperature of the fluid during the
process by which the fluid is gaining or losing heat. The specific heat of water can be assumed to remain 1.0
Btu/lb/ºF.
For cold water only, Formula 5-2 simplifies to Formula 5-3:
Putting these numbers into Formula 5-2 yields:
Formula 5-3

The difference in the calculated rate of heat transfer is

where: small, only about 0.7%. However, this difference will
increase as the water temperature in the circuit increases.
Q = rate of heat transfer into or out of the water stream
(Btu/hr) Formula 5-2 is generally accepted in the hydronics
ƒ = flow rate of water through the device (gpm) industry for quick estimates of heat transfer to or from
500 = constant rounded off from 8.33 x 60 a stream of water. However, Formula 5-3 yields slightly
∆T = temperature change of the water through the device (ºF) more accurate results when the variation in density
and specific heat of the fluid can be factored into the
Formula 5-3 is technically only valid for cold water calculation.
because the factor 500 is based on the density of water
at approximately 60ºF. However, because the factor 500 Formulas 5-2 and 5-3 can also be rearranged to determine
is easy to remember, Formula 5-3 is often used for quick the temperature drop or flow rate required for a specific
mental calculations for the rate of sensible heat transfer rate of heat transfer.
involving water. While this is fine for initial estimates, it is
better to use Formula 5-2 for final calculations because Example: what is the temperature drop required to
it accounts for variations in both the density and specific deliver heat at a rate of 50,000 Btu/hr using a distribution
heat of the fluid. Formula 5-2 can also be used for fluids system operating with water at a flow rate of 4 gpm?
other than water.
Solution: Just rearrange Formula 5-2 and put in the
Example: Water flows into a radiant panel circuit at numbers.
110ºF and leaves at 92ºF. The flow rate is 1.5 gpm, as
shown in Figure 5-5. Calculate the rate of heat transfer
from the water to the heat emitter using:

21
Example: What is the flow rate required to deliver Figure 5-6 shows this relationship between the vapor
100,000 Btu/hr in a distribution system that operates with pressure and temperature of water between 50ºF and
water and a temperature drop of 30ºF? 250ºF.

Solution: Again, Formula 5-2 can be rearranged to The vapor pressure of water at 212ºF is 14.7 psia. Because
determine flow and the known values factored in. 14.7 psia is the absolute pressure the atmosphere exerts
at sea level, and water at sea level boils at 212ºF.

If a pot of water is carried to an elevation of 5,000 feet

above sea level and then heated, its vapor pressure will
Formula 5-2 and the slightly more accurate Formula 5-3 rise until it equals the reduced atmospheric pressure
are perhaps the most important formulas in hydronic at this elevation, and boiling will begin at about 202ºF.
system design. They are constantly used to relate the Conversely, if a container of water is sealed from the
rate of heat transfer to fluid flow rate and the temperature atmosphere and pressurized to about 15.3 psi above
change of the fluid. atmospheric pressure (e.g., to an absolute pressure of 30
psia), Figure 5-6 indicates that the water must be heated
VAPOR PRESSURE AND BOILING POINT: to about 250ºF before it will boil.
The vapor pressure of a liquid is the minimum pressure
that must be applied at the liquid’s surface to prevent it Closed-loop hydronic systems should be designed to
from boiling. If the pressure on the liquid’s surface drops ensure that the absolute pressure of the water at all points
below its vapor pressure, the liquid will instantly boil. If in the system remains safely above the water’s vapor
the pressure is maintained above the vapor pressure, the pressure under all operating condition. This prevents
liquid will remain a liquid and no boiling will occur. problems such as cavitation in circulators and valves or
“steam flash” in piping.
The vapor pressure of a liquid is depends on its
temperature. The higher the liquid’s temperature, the VISCOSITY:
higher its vapor pressure. Stated another way, the greater The viscosity of a fluid is an indicator of its resistance to
the temperature of a liquid, the more pressure must be flow. The higher the viscosity of a fluid, the more drag it
exerted on its surface to prevent it from boiling. creates as it flows through pipes, fittings, valves or any
other component in a hydronic circuit. Higher viscosity
Vapor pressure is stated as an absolute pressure and has fluids also require more pumping power to maintain a
the units of psia. On the absolute pressure scale, zero given flow rate compared to fluids with lower viscosities.
pressure represents a complete vacuum. On earth, the
weight of the atmosphere exerts a pressure on any liquid The viscosity of water depends on its temperature. The
surface open to the air. At sea level, the absolute pressure viscosity of water and water-based antifreeze solutions
exerted by the atmosphere is approximately 14.7 psia. decreases as their temperature increases.

Figure 5-6 Solutions of water and glycol-based antifreeze have

30 significantly higher viscosities than water alone. The
vapor pressure (psia)

greater the concentration of antifreeze, the higher the

25 viscosity of the solution. This increase in viscosity can
no boiling occurs in this region result in significantly lower flow rates within a hydronic
20 system if it is not accounted for during design.

15 DISSOLVED AIR IN WATER:

14.7 psia Water can absorb air much like a sponge can absorb a
10 liquid. Molecules of the gases that make up air, including
oxygen and nitrogen, can exist “in solution” with water
5
molecules. Even when water appears perfectly clear, it
boiling occurs! often contains some dissolved air.
in this region
0
50 100 150 200 250 When hydronic systems are first filled, dissolved air is
water temperature (ºF) 212 ºF
present in the water throughout the system. If allowed
to remain in the system, this air can create numerous

22
problems, including noise, cavitation, corrosion, This indicates a decrease in the ability of water to contain
inadequate flow or even complete flow blockage. dissolved air as its temperature increases. This trend also
holds true for all other constant pressure curves.
A well-designed hydronic system must be able to
automatically capture dissolved air and expel it. A proper The vertical axis of the graph indicates the maximum
understanding of what affects the air content of water is possible amount of dissolved air in water. This condition
crucial in designing a method to get rid of it. represents water that is “saturated” with dissolved air,
and thus unable to absorb any more air.
The amount of air that can exist in solution with water is
strongly dependent on the water’s temperature. As water is The water in a properly deareated hydronic system will
heated, its ability to hold air in solution rapidly decreases. eventually hold much less dissolved air than the numbers
However, the opposite is also true. As water cools, it has a on the vertical axis indicate. Under this condition, the
propensity to absorb air. Heating water to release dissolved water would be described as “unsaturated.” This means it
air is like squeezing a sponge to expel a liquid. Allowing the can absorb air it comes in contact with within the system.
water to cool is like letting the sponge expand to soak up High-performance air separators, such as a Caleffi Discal,
more liquid. Together these properties can be exploited to maintain system water in this unsaturated state, and thus
help capture and eliminate air from the system. enable it to absorb air pockets that might form within the
system due to component maintenance or other reasons.
The water’s pressure also affects its ability to hold dissolved
air. When the pressure of the water is lowered, its ability to The change in the ability of water to retain air can be read
contain dissolved air decreases, and vice versa. by subtracting values on the vertical axis. For example, at
an absolute pressure of 30 psia and temperature of 65ºF,
Figure 5-7 shows the maximum amount of air that can the maximum amount of dissolved air is 3.6 gallons of air
be contained (dissolved) in water as a percentage of per 100 gallons of water. If that water is then heated to
the water’s volume. The effects of both temperature and 170ºF and its pressure is maintained at 30 psia, its ability
pressure on dissolved air content can be determined from to hold air in solution has decreased to about 1.8 gallons
this graph. of air per 100 gallons of water. Thus, the amount of air
released from the water during this temperature increase is
estimated at 3.6-1.8 = 1.8 gallons per 100 gallons of water.
Figure 5-7
The release of dissolved air can be observed in a kettle of
water that is being heated on a stove. As the water heats up,
bubbles will form at the bottom of the kettle (e.g., where the
water is hottest). These bubbles are formed as gas molecules
that were dissolved in the cool water are forced out of solution
by increasing temperature. The molecules join together to
create bubbles. This process is called coalescing. If the kettle
of water is allowed to cool, these bubbles will disappear as
the gas molecules go back into solution.

One can think of the dissolved air initially contained in a

hydronic system as being “cooked” out of the solution
as water temperature increases. This usually takes place
inside the heat source when it is first operated after being
filled with “fresh” water containing dissolved gases.
Well-designed hydronic systems take advantage of this
situation by capturing air bubbles with an air separator
that is typically placed near the outlet of the heat source
(e.g., where the water is hottest).

To understand this graph, first consider a single curve

such as the one labeled 30 (psi). This curve represents
a constant pressure condition for the water. Notice that idronics #15 contains a detailed discussion of air
as the water temperature increases, the curve descends. removal from hydronic systems.

23
INCOMPRESSIBILITY: Thus, an accurate pressure gauge placed 10 feet below
When liquid water is put under pressure there is very little the surface of a lake containing 60ºF water would also
change in its volume. This change is so small that it can read exactly 4.33 psi.
be ignored in the context of designing hydronic systems.
Thus water, as well as most other liquids, can be treated The static pressure of a liquid increases proportionally
as if they are incompressible. from some value at the surface to larger values at greater
depths below the surface. Formula 5-4 can be used to
In practical terms, this means that liquids cannot be determine the static pressure below the surface of a liquid.
squeezed together or “stretched.” It also implies that if
a liquid’s flow rate is known at any one point in a closed Formula 5-4
series piping circuit, it must be the same at all other
points, regardless of the pipe size. If the piping circuit
contains parallel branch circuits, the flow can divide up
through them, but the sum of all branch flow rates must where:
equal the total system flow rate.
Pstatic = static pressure at a given depth, h, below the
Incompressibility also implies that liquids can exert surface of the water (psi)
tremendous pressure in any type of closed container h = depth below the fluid’s surface (ft)
when they expand due to heating. For example, a closed D = density of fluid in system (lb/ft3)
hydronic piping system completely filled with water and Psurface = any pressure applied at the surface of the water
not equipped with an expansion tank or pressure-relief (psi)
valve would quickly burst at its weakest component as
the water temperature increased. Figure 5-8 If the fluid is open to the
atmosphere at the top of
STATIC PRESSURE: the container, even through
Static pressure develops within a fluid due to its own a pin-hole size opening, then
weight. The static pressure that is present within a liquid Psurface = 0. If the container
depends on the depth of the liquid below (or above) is completely closed, then
some reference elevation. Psurface is the pressure
exerted at the top of the fluid.
Consider a pipe with a cross-sectional area of 1 square inch
filled with water to a height of 10 feet, as shown in Figure 5-8. 10!
Knowing the static pressure at
foot! a given location in a hydronic
column! system lets the designer
Assuming the water’s temperature is 60ºF, its density is of!
62.4 lb/ft3. The weight of the water in the pipe could be water evaluate the potential for
calculated by multiplying its volume by its density. problems such as circulator
cavitation. Static pressure
can also help in determining if
1 sq. inch! a piping loop having a known
area! elevation is completely filled
at!
bottom with water. Static pressure
The water exerts a pressure on the bottom of the pipe due at a given location is also
to its weight. This pressure is equal to the weight of the 4.33 psi important when sizing and
water column divided by the area of the pipe. In this case: pressure gauge pressurizing a diaphragm-
type expansion tank.

FLOW RATE:
Flow rate is a measurement of the volume of fluid that
If a very accurate pressure gauge were mounted into the passes a given location in a pipe in a given time. In
bottom of the pipe, as shown in Figure 5-8, it would read North America, the customary units for flow rate are
exactly 4.33 psi. U.S. gallons per minute (abbreviated as gpm). In this
and other issues of idronics, flow rate is represented in
The size or shape of the “container” holding the water formulas by the symbol ƒ.
has no effect on the static pressure at any given depth.

24
FLOW VELOCITY: Figure 5-9
The speed of the fluid passing through a pipe
varies within the cross-section of the pipe. For
flow in a straight pipe, the fluid moves fastest
at the centerline and slowest near the pipe’s
internal surface. The term flow velocity, when
used to describe flow through a pipe, refers to
the average speed of the fluid. If all fluid within the
pipe moved at this average speed, the volume of
fluid moving past a point in the pipe over a given
time would be exactly the same as the amount of
fluid moved by the varying internal flow velocities.

The common units for flow velocity in North

America are feet per second, abbreviated as
either ft/sec or FPS. Within formulas, the average
flow velocity is represented by the symbol, v.

Formula 5-5 can be used to calculate the average

flow velocity associated with a known flow rate in
a round pipe.

Formula 5-5

HEAD ENERGY:
where: Fluids in a hydronic system contain both thermal and
mechanical energy. The exchange of thermal energy
v = average flow velocity in the pipe (ft/sec) is sensed by a change in temperature of the fluid. For
ƒ = flow rate through the pipe (gpm) example, hot water leaving a boiler contains more thermal
d = exact inside diameter of pipe (inches) energy than cooler water entering the boiler from the
distribution system. The increase in temperature of the
SELECTING A PIPE SIZE: water as it passed through the boiler is the “evidence”
When selecting a pipe size to accommodate a given flow that thermal energy was added to it.
rate, the resulting average flow velocity should be kept
between 2 and 4 feet per second. The lower end of this The mechanical energy contained in a fluid is called head.
flow velocity range is based on the ability of flowing water The units for head energy are (ft•lb/lb), shown in proper
to move air bubbles along a vertical pipe. Average flow mathematical form below.
velocities of 2 feet per second or higher can entrain air
bubbles and move them in all directions, including straight
down. The ability of flowing water to entrain air bubbles is
important when a system is filled and purged, as well as
when air has to be removed following system maintenance. The unit of ft•lb (pronounced “foot pound”) is a unit of
energy. As such, it can be converted to any other unit of
The upper end of this flow velocity range (4 feet per energy, such as a Btu.
second) is based on minimizing noise generated by the
flow. Average flow velocities above 4 feet per second can Hydraulic engineers long ago chose to cancel the unit
cause noticeable flow noise and should be avoided. of pounds (lb.) in the numerator and denominator of
this ratio, as shown below, and express head in the sole
Figure 5-9 shows the results of applying Formula 5-5 to remaining unit of feet.
selected sizes of type M copper, PEX and PEX-AL-PEX
tubing. Each formula in the second column can be used to
calculate the flow velocity associated with a given flow rate.
Also given are the flow rates corresponding to average flow
velocities of 2 feet per second and 4 feet per second.

25
 where:
Figure 5-10
increase in pressure, ∆P=6 psi
∆P = pressure change corresponding to the head added
12 psi 18 psi or lost (psi)
circulator ADDS! H = head added or lost from the liquid (feet of head)
head to the fluid D = density of the fluid at its corresponding temperature
flow flow
(lb/ft3)

decrease in pressure, ∆P=3 psi CALCULATING HEAD LOSS:

When designing a hydronic circuit, it is important to
any device that know how much head loss will occur, depending on the
10 psi REMOVES! 7 psi flow rate passing through that circuit. Formula 5-7 can
head from the fluid
be used to calculate this head loss for piping circuits
flow flow constructed of smooth tubing, such as copper, PEX, PEX-
AL-PEX, PE-RT or PP.

Formula 5-7

To make a distinction between feet as a unit of distance

and feet as a unit of mechanical energy in a fluid, the Where:
latter can be stated as feet of head.
HL = head loss of the circuit (feet of head)
When head energy is added to or removed from a liquid a = fluid properties factor (see Figure 5-11)
in a closed-loop piping system, there will always be an c = pipe size coefficient (see Figure 5-12)
associated change in the pressure of that fluid. L = total equivalent length of the circuit (feet)
ƒ = flow rate through the circuit (gpm)
Just as a change in temperature is “evidence” of a gain or 1.75 = an exponent applied to flow rate (ƒ)
loss of thermal energy, a change in pressure is evidence of
a gain or loss in head energy. When head energy is lost, Formula 5-7 should only be used for circuits constructed
pressure decreases. When head energy is added, pressure of smooth tubing. It will underestimate head loss for
increases. This principle is illustrated in Figure 5-10. circuits constructed of rougher tubing, such as steel or
iron pipe.
Using pressure gauges to detect changes in the head of
a liquid is like using thermometers to detect changes in Figure 5-11 50% propylene glycol solution
the thermal energy content of that liquid. 30% propylene glycol solution
water
The only device that adds head energy to fluid in 0.1
hydronic systems is an operating circulator. Every other
device through which flow passes causes a loss of head 0.09
energy. This happens because of friction forces between
the fluid molecules, as well as friction between the fluid 0.08
molecules and the components through which they are
a value

passing. Whenever friction is present, there is a loss of

0.07
mechanical energy.
alpha

Formula 5-6 can be used to calculate the change in 0.06

pressure associated with head energy being added or
removed from a fluid. 0.05

Formula 5-6 0.04

50 70 90 110 130150 170190 210 230250
Fluid temperature (ºF)

26
 To calculate the head loss of a circuit using Formula 5-7, the designer
Figure 5-12 must gather information from other graphs and tables. This includes
values for the fluid properties factor (e.g., “a” value) and the pipe size
coefficient (e.g., “c” value).

The fluid properties factor of a fluid, represents the combined effects of

its density and viscosity. As such, it varies with the fluid’s temperature.
Figure 5-11 can be used to find the fluid properties factor (a) for water
and two concentrations of antifreeze over a range of fluid temperatures.

The value of the pipe size coefficient (c) in Formula 5-7 is a constant
for a given tubing type and size. It can be found for several sizes of
copper, PEX and PEX-AL-PEX tubing from the table in Figure 5-12.

EQUIVALENT LENGTH:
To use Formula 5-7, the designer must also determine the total
equivalent length of the piping circuit. The total equivalent length is the
sum of the equivalent lengths of all fittings, valves and other devices in
the circuit, plus the total length of all tubing in the circuit.

The equivalent length of a component is the amount of tubing of the

same nominal pipe size that would produce the same head loss as
the actual component. By replacing all components in the circuit with
their equivalent length of piping, the circuit can be thought of as if it
were a single piece of pipe having a length equal to the sum of the
actual pipe lengths, plus the total equivalent lengths of all fittings,
valves or other devices in the flow path.

Figure 5-13 lists the equivalent lengths of common fittings and valves.

Figure 5-13

27
 Example: Determine the total
Figure 5-14 equivalent length of the piping circuit
shown in Figure 5-14.

16 ft. fin-tube Solution: Only components that are

2 ft. 2 ft. 6 ft.
in the flow path are counted when
determining equivalent length. Thus,
pressure!
3 ft. gauge
the pressure gauge seen in the upper
5 ft.
4 ft.
right corner of the circuit, the 6 feet of
piping and the ball valve leading up
globe! all tubing is 3/4" copper to it are not counted. Neither are the
valve
4 feet of piping and drain valve in the
6 ft. lower right corner of the circuit.
4 ft.

8 ft. 8 ft. 4 ft.

The circulator is also not counted
swing! ball! ball! because it adds head energy to the
check valve circulator valve circuit, rather than dissipating head
energy from it.
Figure 5-15 Figure 5-15 shows the tally of
COMPONENTS EQUIVALENT LENGTH equivalent lengths for all piping and
3/4” straight tube 58 ft components in the flow path of the
3/4” x 90º elbows 4 x 2 ft each = 8 ft circuit shown in Figure 5-14.
3/4” straight run tees 2 x 0.4 ft each = 0.8 ft
3/4” side port tees 2 x 3 ft each = 6 ft Thus, the total equivalent length of the
3/4” ball valves 2 x 2.2 ft each = 4.4 ft circuit shown in Figure 5-14 is 100.2
3/4” globe valves 1 x 20 ft each = 20 ft
feet of ¾” copper tubing. Figure 5-16
illustrates how the circuit, for purposes of
3/4” swing check 1 x 3 ft each = 3 ft
determining head loss, can be thought of
TOTAL EQUIVALENT LENGTH = 100.2 ft
as a straight length of ¾” copper tubing
with a length of 100.2 feet.
Figure 5-16
The head loss of this circuit can now
be calculated using Formula 5-7,
where the value of (L) is 100.2 feet.
16 ft. fin-tube
2 ft. 2 ft. 6 ft. Example: Determine the head loss
of the circuit shown in Figure 5-14,
pressure! assuming it has water flowing through
3 ft. gauge
5 ft. it at an average temperature of 140ºF
4 ft.
and a flow rate of 5 gpm.
globe! all tubing is 3/4" copper
valve Solution: To use Formula 5-7, the
6 ft. values of (a) and (c) must first be
4 ft.
determined.
8 ft. 8 ft. 4 ft.
The value of (a) for water at 140ºF is
swing! ball! ball!
check valve circulator valve
found in Figure 5-11: a = 0.0475.

The value of (c) for ¾” copper is found

is equivalent to
in Figure 5-12: c = 0.061957

The total equivalent length was just

100.2 ft. total equivalent length
determined to be 100.2 feet.

28
Putting these numbers into Formula 5-7 yields the head Figure 5-17
loss of the circuit under these operating conditions.
flow rate head loss
(gpm) (feet)
0 0
2 0.99
Keep in mind that the head loss of this circuit is only valid
for the stated flow rate and operating conditions (e.g., 4 3.34
water at an average temperature of 140ºF). Any change 6 6.79
in the average temperature or type of fluid used in the 8 11.2
circuit will affect the value of (a), and thus change the
head loss calculated using Formula 5-7. This is also true 10 16.6
for any change in pipe size, or components that affect 12 22.8
the equivalent length of the circuit. Finally, if the circuit
operates at a flow rate other than 5 gpm, the head loss
will also change. The next step is to plot these points and draw a smooth
curve through them, as shown in Figure 5-18.
HEAD LOSS CURVE:
The flow rate that will develop in a hydronic circuit Figure 5-18
depends on the head loss characteristics of that circuit,
25
as well as the head added by the selected circulator. To
find that flow rate, designers need to construct a head
loss curve for the piping circuit. The head loss curve 20
Head loss (feet of head)
is a “picture” (e.g., graph) of Formula 5-7, applied to a
particular piping circuit and operating condition.
15
For a given circuit operating with a specific fluid at a
specific average fluid temperature, Formula 5-7 can be
10
viewed as follows:

Formula 5-7 repeated 5

0
Under these conditions, the head loss around the piping 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
circuit depends only on flow rate. Formula 5-7 can be flow rate (gpm)
graphed by selecting several flow rates, calculating the
head loss at each of them and then plotting the resulting This graph is called a system head loss curve. It
points. Once the points are plotted, a smooth curve can represents the relationship between flow rate and head
be drawn through them. loss for a given piping circuit using a specific fluid at a
specific average temperature.
Example: Use the piping circuit and operating conditions
from the previous example to construct a system head All piping circuits have a unique system head loss curve.
loss curve. It can be thought of as the analytical “fingerprint” of that
piping circuit. Constructing a system head loss curve for
Solution: For this circuit and these operating conditions, a piping circuit is an essential step in properly selecting a
Formula 5-7 simplifies to the following: circulator for that circuit.

Notice that the system head loss curve starts at zero

head loss and zero flow rate. This will always be the case
The next step is to select several random flow rates and for fluid-filled piping circuits. Also notice that the system
use them in Formula 5-7 to determine the corresponding head loss curve gets progressively steeper at higher flow
head losses. This is best done using a table as shown in rates. This will also remain true for all piping circuits. It’s
Figure 5-17. the result of the exponent (1.75) in Formula 5-7.

29
Remember that any changes to the piping components, Now consider what happens when the circulator operates:
tubing, fluid or average fluid temperature will change the The weight of fluid moving up the left side of this circuit
value of (acL) in Formula 5-7, and thus will affect the over any given time is always the same as the weight of
system curve. If the value of (acL) increases, the system fluid moving down the right side during that time. This has
curve gets steeper. If the value of (acL) decreases, the to be true because the fluid has nowhere else to go within
system curve becomes shallower. the circuit. If, for example, we assume that 100 pounds
of fluid went up the left side of the circuit in one minute,
FLUID-FILLED PIPING CIRCUITS: and that only 99 pounds of fluid came down the right side
Most hydronic heating systems consist of closed piping over that minute, the question remains: Where did the
systems. After all piping work is complete, these circuits difference (1 pound) of fluid go? In a closed circuit (with
are completely filled with fluid and purged of air. During no leaks), the only possible answer is nowhere. Thus, the
normal operation, very little, if any, fluid enters or leaves initial assumption of 100 pounds of fluid moving up per
the system. minute, and 99 pounds of fluid moving down during that
minute, has to be false.
Consider the fluid-filled piping loop shown in Figure 5-19.
One can liken fluid moving around a closed, fluid-filled
circuit to the operation of a ferris wheel with the same
weight in each seat. The weight in the seats moving up
Figure 5-19
exactly balances the weight in the seats moving down. If
it were not for friction in the bearings and air resistance,
this balanced ferris wheel would continue to rotate
indefinitely once started. Similarly, since the flow rate
is always the same throughout a fluid-filled piping loop,
the weight of the fluid moving up the circuit in a given
amount of time is always balanced by the weight of fluid
downward flow

moving down the circuit during that time. If it were not for
the viscous friction of the fluid, it too would continue to
fluid-filled!
upward flow

circulate indefinitely within a piping loop.

piping!
loop This effect holds true regardless of the size, shape or
height of the piping path in the upward flowing portion of
the loop versus those in the downward flowing portion.

Another important principle has also been established

by considering this circuit. Namely, that the circulator in
a closed fluid-filled piping circuit is only responsible for
replacing the head energy lost due to friction through the
piping components. The circulator is NOT responsible for
“lifting” the fluid in the upward flowing portion of the circuit.

A B This explains why a small circulator can establish and

maintain flow in a filled piping loop, even if the top of
Assume this loop is filled with fluid that has the same the loop is several stories above the circulator and
temperature at all locations. A static pressure is present contains hundreds or even thousands of gallons of fluid.
at point A due to the weight of the fluid column on the left Unfortunately, many circulators in hydronic systems
side of the loop. are needlessly oversized because this principle is not
understood.
It might appear that a circulator placed as shown would
have to overcome this pressure to lift the fluid and PUMP CURVES:
establish flow around the loop. This is NOT true. The As previously stated, an operating circulator adds head
reason is that the static pressure exerted by the fluid at energy to fluid as it passes through the circulator. The
point A will always be the same as the static pressure amount of head energy a given circulator adds depends
exerted at point B (which is at the same elevation as on the flow rate passing through it. The greater the flow
point A). rate, the lower the amount of head energy added to each

30
pound of fluid. This is a characteristic of all hydronic Pump curves are extremely important in matching the
circulators and can be represented graphically as a performance of a circulator to the flow requirements of a
“pump curve.” An example of a pump curve for a small piping circuit. All circulator manufacturers publish these
hydronic circulator is shown in Figure 5-20. curves for the circulator models they offer. In many cases,
the pump curves for multiple circulators are plotted on
the same graph so that performance comparisons can
Figure 5-20 be made. Figure 5-21 shows an example of a family of
18 pump curves.

16 HYDRAULIC EQUILIBRIUM:
It is possible to predict the flow rate that will develop
14
when a specific circulator is installed in a specific
head added (feet)

12 hydronic circuit. That flow rate will be such that the head
energy added by the circulator is exactly the same as
10 the head energy dissipated by the piping circuit. This
8 condition is called hydraulic equilibrium. The flow rate at
hydraulic equilibrium is found by plotting the head loss
6 curve for the circuit on the same graph as the pump curve
for the circulator, as shown in Figure 5-22.
4

2 Figure 5-22
0 40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 system head loss curve
35
flow rate (gpm)
head added or lost (feet)

30 head at!
hydraulic!
Figure 5-21 equilibrium
25

20 operating!
point
15
pump !
curve
10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
flow rate (gpm) flow rate at!
hydraulic equilibrium!

Courtesy of Grundfos
The point where the head loss curve of the piping circuit
The pump curve of a circulator is developed from test crosses the pump curve for the circulator is called the
data using water in the temperature range of 60ºF to operating point. This is where hydraulic equilibrium occurs.
80ºF. For fluids with higher viscosities, such as glycol-
based antifreeze solutions, there is a very small decrease The flow rate in the circuit at hydraulic equilibrium is found
in head and flow rate capacity of the circulator. However, by drawing a vertical line from the operating point to the
for the fluids and temperature ranges commonly used in horizontal axis. The head added by the circulator (or head
hydronic heating systems, this variation is so small that loss by the piping system) can be found by extending a
it can be safely ignored. Thus, for most residential and line from the operating point to the vertical axis.
light commercial hydronic systems, pump curves (but
not system head loss curves) may be considered to be A performance comparison of several “candidate”
independent of the fluid being circulated. circulators within a given piping circuit can be made by

31
plotting their individual pump curves on the same graph Examples of what could change the pump curve include:
as that circuit’s head loss curve. The intersection of
each circulator’s pump curve with the circuit’s head loss • Change to a different circulator
curve indicates the operating point for that circulator. By • Change to a different motor speed setting
projecting vertical lines from the operating points down to • Altering the circulator’s impeller
the horizontal axis, the designer can determine the flow
rate each circulator would produce within that circuit, as Example: Determine the flow rate for the circuit shown
shown in Figure 5-23. in Figure 5-14, assuming a UP15-42F circulator is used
(pump curve shown in Figure 5-21). The circuit operates
Notice that even though the curves for circulators 1 and with an average water temperature of 140ºF.
2 are markedly different, they intersect the system head
loss curve at almost the same point. Therefore, these Solution: The system curve for this piping system
two circulators would produce very similar flow rates of operating with the stated conditions has already been
about 7.5 gpm and 7.8 gpm in this piping system. The determined and is shown in Figure 5-18. If this curve
flow rate produced by circulator #3, about 4.9 gpm, is is plotted on the same graph with the pump curve of
considerably lower. the UP15-42F circulator, the operating point is easily
determined as shown in Figure 5-24.
Figure 5-23
Figure 5-24
40 pump curve (UP15-42F)
system head loss curve
35 circuit head loss curve
25
head added or lost (feet)

circulator #1
30
Head (added or dissipated) (feet)

circulator #2
25 20
circulator #3
20
15
15 operating!
point
10 10

5
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
flow rate (gpm) 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
flow rate (gpm)

For any combination of piping circuit and circulator,

hydraulic equilibrium will be established within a few Drawing a line from the operating point to the horizontal
seconds of turning on the circulator. Once established, axis indicates that the circuit will operate at a flow rate of
the system will remain at the flow rate corresponding about 7.5 gpm.
to the operating point, UNLESS something occurs that
affects either the head loss curve or the pump curve. HYDRAULIC SEPARATION:
Many hydronic systems contain multiple independently
Examples of what could change the head loss curve include: controlled circulators. These circulators can vary significantly
in their flow and head characteristics. Some may operate at
• The type of fluid in the circuit changes constant speed, while others will operate at variable speeds.
• The average temperature of the fluid changes
• Changes are made to the pipe type, pipe size or to the When two or more circulators operate simultaneously
components in the piping circuit in the same system, they each attempt to establish
• Valve settings are changed differential pressures based on their own pump curves.

32
Ideally, each circulator in a system should establish a
differential pressure and flow rates that is unaffected by Figure 5-26
the presence of another operating circulator within the circuit 1 head loss curve including !
system. When this desirable condition is established, the common piping (both circulators on)
circulators are said to be hydraulically separated from
each other. circuit 1 head loss curve including !
common piping (1 circulator on)

head loss (feet of head)

Conversely, the lack of hydraulic separation can create
very undesirable operating conditions in which circulators
interfere with each other. The resulting flows and rates of
heat transport within the system can be greatly affected
by such interference, often to the detriment of proper
heat delivery.

The degree to which two or more operating circulators very small change in!
pump curve!
interact with each other depends on the head loss of the head loss across!
(circulator 1)
piping path they have in common. This piping path is common piping!
when both circuits
called the “common piping,” since it is in common with
are on
both circuits. The lower the head loss of the common
piping, the less the circulators will interfere with each 0
other. Figure 5-25 illustrates this principle for a system 0 flow rate
with two independently operated circuits.
VERY small decrease in!
circuit 1 flow rate!
Figure 5-25 Very little head loss occurs! when circuit 2 is on
in this portion of the circuits.
flow rate in circuit 1 flow rate in circuit 1
circulator 2
when BOTH circuits! when it is the only
circuit 2 are operating circuit operating

circuit 1
the increase in head loss and pressure drop is very slight.
circulator 1
The system head loss curve that is now seen by circulator
common piping
1 has very slightly steepened. It is the upper (green) curve
shown in Figure 5-26. The operating point of circuit 1 has
moved very slightly to the left, and as a result, the flow rate
through circuit 1 has decreased very slightly.

In this system, both circuits share common piping. The Such a small change in the flow rate through circuit 1 will
spacious geometry of this common piping creates very have virtually no effect on its ability to deliver heat. Thus,
low flow velocity through it. As a result, very little head the interference created when circulator 2 was turned on
loss or pressure drop can occur across it. is of no consequence. We could say that this situation
represents almost perfect hydraulic separation between
Assume that circulator 1 is operating, but that circulator the two circulators.
2 is off. The lower (blue) system head loss curve in Figure
5-26 applies to this situation. One could imagine a hypothetical situation in which the
head loss across the common piping was zero, even with
The point where this lower system head loss curve both circuits operating. Because no head loss occurs
crosses the circulator’s pump curve establishes the flow across the common piping, it would be impossible for
rate in circuit 1. either circulator to have any effect on the other circulator.
Such a condition would represent “perfect” hydraulic
Next, assume circulator 2 is turned on and circulator 1 separation and would be ideal. Fortunately, perfect
remains on. The flow rate through the common piping hydraulic separation is not required to ensure that the
increases, and so does the head loss and pressure drop flow rates through independently operated circuits, each
across it. However, because of its spacious geometry, with their own circulator and each sharing the same low

33
 circulator 2
Figure 5-27
circuit 2

circulator 2
circuit 2 common!
piping
circuit 1

circulator 1
common piping

circuit 1

common! circulator 1
piping

head loss common piping, remain reasonably stable, and generously sized headers. Because they are positioned
thus are capable of delivering consistent heat transfer. as close to each other as possible, there is virtually
no head loss between the tees. These tees form the
With good hydraulic separation, the simultaneously common piping between the heat source circuit and
operating circulators can barely detect each other’s the distribution circuits, and thus provide hydraulic
presence within the system. Thus, each circuit operates separation between these circuits.
as if it were an independent circuit.
One can think of circuits that are
hydraulically separated as if they were Figure 5-28
physically disconnected from each
other, as illustrated in Figure 5-27. circuit with VARIABLE SPEED circulator

circuits with FIXED SPEED circulators

Any component or combination of
components that has very low head
loss and is common to two or more
hydronic circuits can provide hydraulic
separation between those circuits.

One way to create low head loss is to

keep the flow path through the common
piping very short. Another way to create closely spaced tees
low head loss is to slow the flow velocity
through the common piping. supply header

Examples of devices that use these

principles include:
heat
source return header
• Closely spaced tees
circulator
• A tank (which might also serves other
heat source
purposes in the system)
• A hydraulic separator very low head loss!
common piping!
The common piping in Figure 5-28 "generously sized" headers
consists of the closely spaced tees and

34
 The generously sized headers create
Figure 5-29 low flow velocity and low head loss,
circuit with VARIABLE SPEED circulator and thus provide hydraulic separation
circuits with FIXED SPEED circulators between the three distribution
circulators. These headers should be
sized so that the maximum flow velocity
when all circulators served by the
header are on is no more than 2 feet
per second. Together, these details
create hydraulic separation between
all four circulators in the system.

The closely spaced tees allow the heat

supply header
source circulator to only “see” the
flow resistance of the heat source and
buffer! piping between the boiler and closely
tank spaced tees. The heat source circulator
return header
doesn’t help move water through the
distribution circuits. Likewise, the
heat three distribution circulators are only
heat source
source responsible for circulation through their
circulator respective circuits and do not assist in
moving flow through the heat source.
very low head loss!
common piping! Notice also that constant speed and
"generously sized" headers
variable-speed circulators, perhaps
of different sizes, can be combined
onto the same generously sized
header system. Interaction between
Figure 5-30 these circulators will be very minimal
because of the very low head loss of
circuit with VARIABLE SPEED circulator those headers.
circuits with FIXED SPEED circulators
Figure 5-29 shows a buffer tank
combined with generously sized
headers serving as the low head loss
common piping that provides hydraulic
separation between the heat source
hydraulic separator circulator and each of the distribution
circulators. This demonstrates that
hydraulic separation can sometimes be
accomplished as an ancillary function
to the main purpose of the device (e.g.,
supply header hydraulic separation is not the main
return header
function of the buffer tank).

heat Still another method of providing

heat source
source hydraulic separation is through use of
circulator a device that is appropriately called
a “hydraulic separator.” Figure 5-30
very low head loss!
common piping!
shows a hydraulic separator installed
"generously sized" headers
in place of the buffer tank of Figure
5-29. Note the similarity of the piping

35
connections between the buffer tank and hydraulic 6: HYDRONIC HEAT SOURCES
separator.
One of the benefits of hydronic systems is that they can
Hydraulic separators, which are sometimes also called operate using a wide variety of heat sources. Almost any
low loss headers, create a zone of low flow velocity within device that can heat water is a potential hydronic heat
their vertical body. The diameter of the body is typically source. This section briefly discusses several hydronic
three times the diameter of the connected piping. This heat sources that are commonly used in residential and
causes the vertical flow velocity in the vertical body to be light commercial systems.
approximately 1/9th that of the connecting piping. Such
low velocity creates very little head loss and very little CONVENTIONAL BOILERS:
pressure drop between the upper and lower connections. Boilers can be classified in many ways, such as by the
Thus, a hydraulic separator provides hydraulic separation fuel they use, heat output rating, construction material,
in a manner similar to a buffer tank, only smaller. heat exchanger geometry and methods for exhausting
combustion gases. However, from the standpoint of
The reduced flow velocity within a hydraulic separator system design, it is important to distinguish between
allows it to perform two additional functions. First, air “conventional” boilers and “condensing” boilers.
bubbles can rise upward within the vertical body and
be captured in the upper chamber. When sufficient air Conventional boilers are intended to operate so that
collects at the top of the unit, the float-type air vent the water vapor produced during combustion does not
allows it to be ejected from the system. Thus, a hydraulic condense on a sustained basis within the boiler or its
separator can replace the need for a high-performance venting system.
air separator.
Figure 6-1 Nearly all boilers with
Second, the reduced flow velocity allows dirt particles cast iron, carbon steel or
to drop into a collection chamber at the bottom of the copper heat exchangers
vertical body. A valve at the bottom can be periodically fall into this category. An
opened to flush out the accumulated dirt. Thus, the example of a small gas-
hydraulic separator also serves as a dirt separator. fired cast iron boiler is
shown in Figure 6-1. Also
The ability of modern hydraulic separators to provide shown is the schematic
three functions—hydraulic separation, air removal and symbol used to represent
dirt removal—makes them well-suited for a variety of any type of conventional
systems, especially systems in which an older distribution boiler in this and other
system, one that may have some accumulated sludge, is issues of idronics.
connected to a new heat source.

It’s important to
understand that given the
idronics #15 provides a more detailed description of right operating conditions,
hydraulic separators and shows ways to apply them. ANY boiler can be forced
to operate with sustained
flue gas condensation.
The condensate that can
form is not pure water. It
contains several chemical
compounds based on
the fuel burned and
the efficiency at which
combustion occurs.
These compounds make
the condensate highly
corrosive. Materials such
as cast iron, steel, copper
Courtesy of Weil Mclain and galvanized steel

36
vent connector piping can rapidly corrode if repeatedly
Figure 6-3
exposed to this condensate. The boiler heat exchanger
shown in Figure 6-2 is evidence of such damage. 100
98
Figure 6-2
96

Boiler efficiency (%)

94
92
90
88
86
dewpoint shown!
84 at 130 ºF
82 condensing! non-condensing!
range range
80
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Boiler inlet temperature (ºF)

If the temperature of the water entering the boiler is relatively

high (i.e., 200ºF), the combustion-side surfaces of the boiler’s
heat exchanger are well above the dewpoint temperature
of the water vapor in the exhaust gas stream. Under such
conditions, no condensation occurs within the boiler.

However, as the temperature of the water entering

Courtesy of Dave Stroman
the boiler decreases, so does the temperature of the
boiler’s heat exchanger surfaces. At some entering
water temperature, these surfaces reach the dewpoint
It is therefore imperative that conventional boilers
temperature of the water vapor in the exhaust stream. This
are applied and operated so that sustained flue gas
temperature varies with the type of fuel burned, as well
condensation does not occur.
as the air/fuel ratio supplied to the combustion chamber.
For a conventional boiler operating with natural gas, the
It’s also important to realize that all boilers experience
inlet water temperature at which condensation begins
intermittent flue gas condensation when starting from
to form on the boiler’s heat exchanger is approximately
a cold condition. However, when a conventional boiler
130ºF. The lower the entering water temperature, the
is properly applied, intermittent flue gas condensation
more condensate that forms. In theory, if all the water
quickly evaporates as the boiler warms. Intermittent flue
vapor formed during combustion was condensed,
gas condensation is not detrimental to the boiler.
approximately 1.15 gallons of liquid would be generated
for each therm (e.g., 100,000 Btu) of natural gas burned.
The presence or absence of sustained flue gas
condensation is determined by the temperature of the
water entering the boiler, as well as the air/fuel ratio at
which the combustion process occurs. Of these, only
the boiler inlet water temperature is easily controllable by idronics #7 provides a detailed discussion of how
how the boiler is applied. various mixing strategies can be used to protect
conventional boilers for operating with sustained
Figure 6-3 shows a typical relationship between the flue gas condensation.
temperature of the water entering a boiler and that
boiler’s associated thermal efficiency. The latter is the CONDENSING BOILERS:
percentage of the chemical energy content of the fuel Figure 6-3 shows that the thermal efficiency of a
that is converted to heat and transferred to the water in boiler increases rapidly when that boiler is operating
the boiler’s heat exchanger. in “condensing mode,” (e.g., with sustained flue gas

37
condensation). The increased thermal efficiency comes
from capturing the latent heat released as water vapor Figure 6-4
changes to liquid. Each pound of water vapor converted
to liquid releases about 970 Btu of heat to the boiler’s
heat exchanger. In a conventional boiler, this latent heat
is carried away with the exhaust stream.

When fuel was inexpensive, there was little motivation to

capture this latent heat. However, steadily increasing fuel
costs have provided the incentive for boiler manufacturers
to create boilers that are intended to operate with
sustained flue gas condensation. Appropriately, they are
called “condensing boilers.”

These boilers are constructed with large heat exchanger

surfaces made of stainless steel or aluminum. These heat
exchangers are capable of extracting more heat from the
exhaust gases compared to the heat exchangers used
Courtesy of Lochinvar Corporation
in conventional boilers. When operated with suitably low
inlet water temperatures, these boilers can easily cool the
exhaust stream below the dewpoint temperature of the
water vapor, and thus allow condensation to occur.

MODULATING/CONDENSING BOILERS:
Early generation condensing boilers were built to operate
at a fixed firing rate and thus a fixed rate of heat output.
Today, nearly all condensing boilers can vary their heat
output from some maximum rate down to approximately
20% of that maximum output. These boilers are said
to be modulating. The term “mod/con” is often used to
describe boilers that can vary their firing rates and are
intended to operate with sustained flue gas condensation.
mod/con boilers
Figure 6-4 shows an example of a modern mod/con boiler,
along with the schematic symbols used to represent
mod/con boilers in this and
other issues of idronics.
Figure 6-5
Modulating the heat output of heating
a boiler is similar to changing load
the throttle setting on an (Btu/hr)
heating load profile
internal combustion engine.
The rate of heat production is 100% on at 30%, then stabilize
lowered by reducing the fuel ramp down
and air sent to the burner. hold at 20%, then off

A variable-speed blower
controls the air flow rate 20%
entering a sealed combustion 10%
chamber. Natural gas or time (hr)
propane is metered into this
minimum modulation = 20% of full output
airstream in proportion to
the air flow rate. The slightly heat source must cycle on/off to supply loads!
pressurized mixture of gas under 20% of full output
and air is forced into a burner

38
head and ignited. Burner heads are typically made of
stainless steel or porous ceramic materials. Figure 6-6

The ability of a mod/con boiler to modulate is expressed

by its “turndown ratio.” This is the reciprocal of the lowest
possible percentage of full heat output rate the boiler
can maintain. For example: If a boiler can maintain stable
operation down to 20% of its maximum heat output rate,
it would have a turndown ratio of 5:1 (e.g., 5 being the
reciprocal of 20% expressed as a decimal number).

Figure 6-5 shows how the heat output of a modulating

boiler with a turndown ratio of 5:1 matches its heat output
to a hypothetical load.

The blue line that borders the upper edge of the large
shaded area is called a heating load profile. It represents
the rate at which heat is required by the load over a
period of several hours. The load begins at zero, steadily
increases to a maximum value and then reduces in various Courtesy of ClimateMaster

slopes and plateaus over time, eventually stabilizing at

10% of maximum load.
compressor
The red-shaded areas represent the heat output from a mod/
con boiler. That boiler is assumed to have a turn down ratio
of 5:1, and it is sized so that it exactly matches the maximum
heating demand when it operates at 100% output. reversing!
valve

cool! hot!
The pulses seen near the beginning and end of the load fluid fluid

profile result from the boiler turning on at approximately 30% heat !

evaporator

condenser
from! heat to!
output, then quickly reducing output to the lower modulation
source building
limit of 20% and finally turning off for a short time.
cold! warm!
fluid fluid
TXV
The large red-shaded area shows how the mod/con boiler
accurately matches the load whenever it is 20% or more of water-to-water!
heat pump
the maximum load. This is ideal.
(in heating mode)

When loads drop below the minimum modulation rate

(which in this case is 20%), the burner must cycle on and compressor
off to avoid oversupplying the load. When these on/off
cycles occur frequently, they are known as “short cycling.”
Such operation is always undesirable. It causes excessive
wear on components such as the boiler’s ignition system. It reversing!
valve
also results in higher emissions and low thermal efficiency.
cool! cold!
Fortunately, short cycling can be avoided by proper system fluid fluid

design and other components discussed later in this issue. heat!

evaporator
condenser

heat to be!
from!
dissipated
HEAT PUMPS: building
The low water temperatures at which some hydronic warm! cool!
fluid fluid
distribution systems can operate allows the possibility to TXV

use a heat pump as the system’s heat source. water-to-water!

heat pump
(in cooling mode)
All heat pumps move heat from some material at a lower
temperature (e.g., a temperature at which the material

39
cannot directly supply heat to the load) to another
material at a higher temperature. This is done using a Figure 6-7
refrigeration cycle.

The two types of heat pumps most often used in hydronic

systems are:

• Water-to-water heat pumps

• Air-to-water heat pumps

Water-to-water heat pumps typically absorb low

temperature heat from tubing buried in the earth or directly
from ground water. Such heat pumps are further classified
as “geothermal” heat pumps. They then deliver higher
temperature water to a hydronic distribution system.

Figure 6-6 shows an example of a water-to-water

heat pump, along with the schematic symbols used to
represent it.

Air-to-water heat pumps absorb low temperature heat

directly from outside air. Then, as with water-to-water
outside!
heat pumps, they deliver higher temperature water to a fan air

evaporator
outside!
hydronic distribution system within the building. air

Figure 6-7 shows an example of an air-to-water heat

pump mounted on a concrete base outside a house,
along with the schematic symbols used to represent it. hot!
fluid

condenser
A unique feature of both water-to-water and air-to-water heat to!
heat pumps is that they can reverse the direction of heat RV comp. building
movement. Thus, the same heat pump that supplies circulator warm!
TXV fluid
warm water for space heating in winter can also supply
chilled water for space cooling in summer. This ability air-to-water!
opens up a wide variety of applications. heat pump
(in heating mode)

idronics #9 and #25 provide detailed descriptions

of water-to-water and air-to-water heat pumps. fan
outside!
air
They also describe the thermal performance of these
condenser

outside!
air
heat pumps and shows how to integrate them into
hydronic heating and cooling systems.
condensate!
drain
SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS: cold!
fluid
Significant increases in the price of conventional fuel
heat!
evaporator

combined with increased interest in environmental from!

stewardship have created a growing market for thermally RV comp.
building
based use of solar energy. Solar thermal collectors, such circulator cool!
TXV
as the one shown in Figure 6-8, can be easily integrated fluid

as a hydronic heating source in systems that supply both air-to-water!

space heating and domestic hot water. Such systems are heat pump
called solar “combisystems.” (in cooling mode)

40
Figure 6-8 or wood-gasification boilers. An example of the latter is
shown in Figure 6-10.

Figure 6-10

Nearly all solar combisystems are equipped with “auxiliary”

heating sources such as a boiler. Most of these systems are
designed so that the auxiliary heat source will automatically
operate to supply the heating load if the temperature of the
thermal storage tank is insufficient to do so.

idronics #3 and idronics #6 discuss both solar thermal

collectors and systems in more detail. idronics #3 Courtesy of Abasco, Inc.

is an introduction to the subject, and idronics #6 is

specifically focused on solar combisystems. When operated with properly dried (20% or lower
moisture content) wood, gasification boilers can now
produce combustion efficiencies approaching 90%. They
SOLID FUEL BOILERS: also operate with much lower emissions compared to
Many areas of North America have abundant forests that non-gasification wood-burning devices.
could sustainably yield much more wood than is currently
used. The wood can be harvested and processed in several Pellets are another form of wood fuel. They are made by
ways. The most common form in which wood is supplied compressing dried wood fiber under very high pressure
as a heating fuel is as cut, split and dried cordwood. (60,000 psi). This forces the natural resins within the
Figure 6-9 wood to bind the fibers together. The resulting ¼”
diameter pellets are shown in Figure 6-11.
Figure 6-11

Several types of hydronic heat sources have been Given their small size and consistent form, pellets can be
developed to burn cordwood. They include outdoor moved from storage bins to boilers by motorized augers
wood-fired furnaces and pressurized boilers. The latter or pneumatic transport systems. Thus, pellet-fired boilers
can be further categorized as either atmospheric boilers

41
can operate with very little manual intervention. These 7: ESSENTIAL HYDRONICS HARDWARE
boilers can automatically ignite the pellets when heat is
required, and even modulate heat production based on Although the heat source is a critical component in any
the rate at which pellets are burned. hydronic heating system, it is useless without a variety of
other “building block” components, such as pipe, fittings
Figure 6-12 shows an example of a pellet-fired boiler that and valves. This section provides basic information on
is automatically supplied from an inside pellet storage the latter. Later sections will provide basic information
hopper. and several other building block components.

Figure 6-12 PIPING:

Early generation hydronic systems were piped with rigid
steel and iron piping. Threaded fittings were used to join
this piping in residential and light commercial systems. In
large systems, the piping was usually joined by welding.
These piping materials and joining systems were used
largely because they were available at the time.

In North America, some steel and iron piping is still used.

However, its use is typically limited to “near boiler” piping
in the mechanical room. It is seldom used for distribution
piping through the building.

After World War II, copper water tube gradually replaced

iron and steel piping as the dominant piping material for
smaller hydronic systems. In the United States, copper
Courtesy of Tarm BioMass water tube is manufactured according to the ASTM B88
standard. In this category, pipe size refers to the nominal
Systems that supply both space heating and domestic inside diameter of the tube. The word “nominal” means
hot water can be designed around wood-fired and that the measured inside diameter is approximately equal
pellet-fired boilers. These systems usually include a to the stated pipe size. For example, the actual inside
well-insulated thermal storage tank that can absorb any diameter of a 3/4” type M copper tube is 0.811 inches,
excess heat production from the boiler when its output not 0.750 inches as the stated pipe size might imply.
exceeds the current heating load.
The outside diameter of copper water tube is always 1/8
inch larger than the nominal inside diameter. For example,
the outside diameter (O.D.) of 3/4” type M copper tube is
0.875 inches. This is exactly 7/8 inches, or 1/8 inch larger
idronics #10 provides a complete discussion of how than the nominal pipe size.
hydronics systems can be assembled around both
wood-fired and pellet-fired boilers. Copper water tube is available in three wall thicknesses
designated as types K, L and M in order of decreasing
wall thickness. The outside diameters of K, L and M
copper tubing are identical. This allows all three types of
tubing to be used with the same fittings and valves.

Because the operating pressures of residential and

light commercial hydronic heating systems are relatively
low, the thinnest-wall copper tubing (type M) is most
often used. This wall thickness provides several times
the pressure rating of other common hydronic system
components. Some codes may require the use of type L
copper water tube for conveying domestic water. Type L
tubing is also preferred if the tubing will be mechanically
bent to provide changes in direction.

42
Copper tubing has relatively good resistance to corrosion Figure 7-2
that can result from carrying water containing dissolved
oxygen. However, copper tubing is not immune from
all corrosion. The acids formed by glycol-based
antifreeze that have chemically degraded due to extreme
temperatures can be aggressive toward copper. This type
of corrosion can occur in solar thermal systems where
collectors are allowed to repeatedly “stagnate” with no
flow during times of high solar radiation intensity and high
air temperatures. Copper tubing can also be corroded by
water with high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide.

Common methods of joining copper tubing in hydronic

systems include soft soldering and press fitting. Figure
7-1 shows copper tubing joined to a tee fitting using
soft soldering.
Figure 7-1 Courtesy of Viega

• The O-rings used in press fittings have temperature and

pressure limitations that are lower than those associated
with soldered joints. However, some fittings are rated for
operation at temperatures over 200ºF, and thus are well-
suited for use in modern, lower temperature hydronic
heating systems.

PEX TUBING:
Crosslinked polyethylene tubing, commonly referred to as
PEX, is a product that is now used worldwide for a variety
of hydronic heating applications. It is best known for its
use in hydronic radiant panel heating systems.

PEX has significantly higher pressure/temperature ratings

than standard high density polyethylene (HDPE) tubing.
In North America, most PEX tubing used in hydronic
systems conforms to the ASTM F876 standard. It is
commonly available in continuous rolls up through 1,000
A newer method of joining copper tubing for hydronic feet, and in nominal pipe sizes from 5/16” through 2”.
system applications is called press fitting. This joining Tube sizes of 3/8” through 3/4” are commonly used
system uses special fittings containing elastomer (EPDM) in radiant panels. Large sizes are used for distribution
O-rings that are mechanically compressed against the piping. Figure 7-3 shows samples of PEX tubing in sizes
tube wall using a special tool. Figure 7-2 shows this of 3/8”, 1/2”, 5/8” and 3/4”.
pressing tool in use.
Figure 7-3
Advantages of press fit joints include:
• They can be made without cleaning or fluxing tube
and fittings
• They can be made without flame from torches
• They can be made on fittings that is not completely dry
• They reduce installation time relative to soldered joints

The use of press fittings also has some limitations:

• Once made, press fit joints are permanent; they cannot
be separated as soldered joints can.
• Press fitting requires special tools and fittings

43
With all plastic tubing, there is a tradeoff between The PEX-AL-PEX tubing commonly used in hydronic
operating temperature and allowable pressure. The heating systems conforms to the ASTM F1281 standard.
ASTM F876 standard establishes three simultaneous This tubing has slightly higher temperature pressure
temperature/pressure ratings for PEX tubing. The higher ratings compared to PEX. This is attributable to the added
ratings for continuous operation are 180ºF at 100 psi and strength of the aluminum layer. At 180ºF, ASTM F1281
200ºF at 80 psi. PEX-AL-PEX tubing is rated for pressures up to 125 psi.
At 210ºF, it is rated for pressures up to 115 psi.
Specialized fittings are available from the tubing
manufacturers to transition from PEX tubing to standard The aluminum layer in PEX-AL-PEX tubing also
metal pipe fittings, both threaded and soldered. significantly reduces the expansion movement relative to
other (all-polymer) tubes. This characteristic makes PEX-
All polymer tubes allow diffusion of oxygen molecules from AL-PEX well-suited for use in radiant panel construction
the outside of the tube to the fluid within them. When PEX where aluminum heat transfer plates are used as shown
tubing is used in closed-loop hydronic systems that contain in Figure 7-5.
any iron or steel components, the tubing should be specified Figure 7-5
with an oxygen diffusion barrier. This barrier is a thin layer
of a special chemical that is either laminated to the outer
surface of the tubing or co-extruded as an embedded layer.
Its purpose is to reduce the diffusion of oxygen molecules
through the tube wall, and thus significantly reduce the
potential for oxygen-based corrosion within the system.
All oxygen diffusion barriers on polymer tubing used for
hydronic system applications should meet or exceed the
requirements of the DIN 4726 standard.

PEX-AL-PEX TUBING:
Another type of tubing well-suited for hydronic heating
systems is called PEX-AL-PEX, (a.k.a. “composite”
tubing). It consists of three concentric layers bonded Courtesy of Harvey Youker
together with special adhesives. The inner and outer
layers are PEX. The middle layer is longitudinally welded A wide variety of fittings are available for connecting PEX-
aluminum. A close-up of the cut edge of a PEX-AL-PEX AL-PEX tubing to itself as well as copper tubing and other
tube is shown in Figure 7-4. The aluminum layer is easy to components.
see between the inner and outer layers of PEX.
OTHER POLYMER TUBING:
Figure 7-4 Two other types of polymer tubing are being increasingly used
in modern hydronic systems. They are PE-RT and PP-R.

Figure 7-6

44
Figure 7-7 PE-RT stands for PolyEthylene Raised Temperature.
Although relatively new in North America, PE-RT tubing
has been used for over 20 years in Europe. It provides
pressure/temperature ratings of 200 psi at 73ºF and 100
psi at 180ºF. PE-RT tubing is available with an oxygen
diffusion barrier for closed hydronic systems. It is also
available with an aluminum core (e.g., PE-RT/AL/PE-RT).
Like PEX, it can be joined with mechanical fittings.
Because it is not crosslinked, it can also be permanently
joined using socket fusion as shown in Figure 7-6.

Another polymer tubing that is relatively new to North

Courtesy of Aquatherm American is Reinforced Polypropylene
(PP-R). Available in sizes from 3/8” to
Figure 7-8 10”, PP-R tubing features a fiberglass-
reinforced core that, in combination with
the polypropylene inner and outer layers,
limits thermal expansion and allows
sustained operating temperatures up
to 160ºF with a corresponding pressure
of 70 psi and temporary operating
temperatures up to 195ºF for 60 days.

PP-R tubing is joined by either butt

fusion or socket fusion (depending on
size). Figure 7-7 shows the latter, where
the molten end of the tube is about
to be pushed into the molten socket
of the fitting. A heating fixture similar
to that shown in Figure 7-6 is used to
simultaneously heat these surfaces on
the tube and fitting to approximately
500ºF before joining. The resulting joint
is permanent and extremely strong.
PP-R tubing is available in both coils and
straight lengths. The latter is commonly
used in lieu of rigid metal pipe within
mechanical rooms and distribution
systems for both heating and cooling.

PIPE FITTINGS:
There are thousands of pipe fittings of
various shapes, sizes and connections
that can be used in hydronic systems.
Figure 7-8 shows the more common
types of fittings, in this case for copper
tubing.

Learning to specify the type of fitting

needed is an important part of hydronic
design and installation. Some of the
common terminology, abbreviations
and protocols for specifying fittings are
as follows:
Courtesy of the Copper Development Association

45
• Male pipe thread (MPT) Figure 7-10
• Female pipe thread (FPT)
• Copper socket (C)
• For reducer fittings (with two different pipe sizes),
specify the larger connection first
• For tees, specify the larger run connection, then the
other run connection, and finally the side connection

COMMON VALVES:
There are several common valves that are used in
hydronic systems. They can be classified based on three
basic purposes: Courtesy of NIBCO

• Component isolation (the valve is typically fully open or VALVES FOR FLOW REGULATION:
fully closed) Several types of valves have been developed for flow
• Flow regulation (the valve stem may be at any position regulation. The “classic” valve for this application is a
as needed to limit flow rate) globe valve, an example of which is shown in Figure 7-11.
• Preventing flow reversal
Figure 7-11
VALVES FOR COMPONENT ISOLATION:
The two most common valves used for component
isolation are gate valves and ball valves. Of these, ball
valves have now become more widely used, especially in
smaller systems. Figure 7-9 shows a typical gate valve.
Figure 7-10 shows a full-port ball valve.

Figure 7-9

Courtesy of NIBCO

Figure 7-12
handwheel
stem

packing nut
packing

bonnet
O-ring seal
Courtesy of NIBCO body

flat disc
Both gate valves and ball valves should be either fully
open (when flow is allowed through them) or fully closed
(to isolate a component from the remainder of the
system). Operating either of these valves in a partially seat
open mode can lead to chattering and eventual erosion
of their internal trim or seals. Courtesy of NIBCO

46
Globe valves force fluid to pass through a path having Figure 7-13
several abrupt changes in direction as shown in Figure
7-12. The fluid enters the lower valve chamber, flows
upward through the gap between the seat and disc and
then exits sideways from the upper chamber. This enables
the valve to dissipate head energy from the fluid, and thus
create a pressure drop. The stem controls the position of
the disc above the seat. The closer the disc is to the seat,
the greater the pressure drop across the valve.

Always install globe valves so the fluid flows into the lower
body chamber and upward toward the disc. Reverse flow
through a globe valve can cause unstable flow regulation, Courtesy of NIBCO

noise and cavitation. All globe valves have an arrow on

their body that indicates the proper flow direction through Swing check valves should always be installed in horizontal
the valve. piping with the bonnet of the valve in an upright position.
Installation in other orientations can cause erratic operation,
Globe valves should never be used for component which can lead to dangerous water hammer effects.
isolation. Even in their fully open position, globe valves
remove considerably more head energy from the fluid It is also important to install swing check valves with a
compared to a fully open gate valve or fully open ball minimum of 12 pipe diameters of straight pipe upstream
valve. Therefore, during the thousands of operating hours of the valve. This allows turbulence created by upstream
when component isolation is not needed, the globe valve components to partially dissipate before the flow enters the
unnecessarily wastes pumping energy. Using a globe valve. Failure to do so can cause the valve’s disk to rattle.
valve for component isolation is like driving a car with the
brakes partially applied all the time. Another type of check valve is called a spring check
valve. These valves rely on a small internal spring to
Several variations of the fundamental globe valve have close the valve’s disc whenever fluid is not moving in
been developed for hydronic systems. They are called the intended direction. This allows a spring check valve
balancing valves and are used to regulate how much flow to be installed in any orientation. The force required to
passes through various branches of hydronic systems. compress the spring does, however, create slightly more
pressure drop compared to a swing check. An example of
a spring check valve is shown in Figure 7-14.

idronics #8 contains a detailed description of balancing Figure 7-14

valves and shows how they are installed and adjusted.

CHECK VALVES:
The term “check valve” applies to any valve intended to
prevent flow reversal. Such valves are commonly used in
many types of hydronic systems.

The simplest check valve is known as a swing check, an

example of which is shown in Figure 7-13.
Always install check valves with the arrow on the body
Swing check valves contain a disc hinged along its
pointing in the direction of intended flow. As with swing
upper edge. When fluid moves through the valve in the
check valves, install at least 12 diameters of straight pipe
allowed direction (as indicated by an arrow on the side
upstream of spring-load check valves.
of the valve’s body), the disc swings up into a chamber
and out of the fluid stream. The moving fluid holds it
there. When flow stops or attempts to reverse itself, the SPECIALTY VALVES:
disc swings down due to its weight and seals across the Several types of valves have been developed for specific
opening of the valve. The greater the back pressure, the applications in hydronic heating and cooling systems.
tighter the seal. This section provides an overview of these valves. More

47
detailed information on some of these valves can be Figure 7-16
found in other issues of idronics, as well as manufacturer’s
literature.

FEED WATER VALVE:

A feed water valve, which is also sometimes called a
pressure-reducing valve, is used to lower the pressure of
water from a domestic water distribution pipe before it
enters a hydronic system. This valve is necessary because
most buildings have domestic water pressure higher than
the rated opening pressure of the relief valves used in
hydronic systems. The feed water valve allows water to PRESSURE-RELIEF VALVE:
pass through whenever the pressure at its outlet side drops A pressure-relief valve is a code requirement on any
below its pressure setting. It allows small amounts of water closed-loop hydronic heating system. It functions by
to automatically enter the system as air is vented out. An opening at a preset pressure rating, allowing fluid to be
example of a feed water valve is shown in Figure 7-15. safely released from the system before higher pressures
can develop. The pressure-relief valve is the final means
Figure 7-15 of protection in a situation where all other controls fail to
limit heat production.

Most mechanical codes require pressure-relief valves in

any piping assembly that contains a heat source and is
capable of being isolated by valves from the rest of the
system. A pressure-relief valve is also required in any
piping circuit supplied with heat through a heat exchanger.

Pressure-relief valves contain a disc that is held against

its seat by a spring. The spring is calibrated so that
when the pressure on the inlet side of the valve reaches
a certain level, the spring will allow the disc to lift off
its seat and thus discharge fluid from the system. This
rated opening pressure, along with the maximum heating
capacity of the equipment the valve is rated to protect, is
stamped onto a permanent tag or plate attached to the
BACKFLOW PREVENTER: valve, as seen in Figure 7-17.
These valves are designed to prevent any water that has
entered a hydronic heating system from flowing back Figure 7-17
out toward the potable water plumbing. This prevents
potentially toxic liquids such as certain types of antifreeze
from entering potable water piping.

A backflow preventer consists of a pair of check valve

assemblies in series, with an intermediate vent port that
drains any backflow that migrates between the valve
assemblies. An example of a small backflow preventer is
shown in Figure 7-16.

A check valve, or even two check valves in series, are not

acceptable substitutes for a backflow preventer. Such
valves do not provide the vent port that would drain any
minor amount of fluid passing through the downstream
check assembly within a backflow preventer. Always
be sure to install the backflow preventer with the arrow
pointing into the hydronic system.

48
All pressure-relief valves should be installed with their When the valve is mounted in a pipe supplying a
shaft in a vertical position. This minimizes the chance heat emitter, this action decreases water flow, and
of sediment accumulation around the valve’s disc. All thus reduces heat output. As the room air temperature
pressure-relief valves should also have a waste pipe decreases, the fluid contracts, allowing the spring force
attached to their outlet port. This pipe routes any expelled to slowly reopen the valve plug and increase heat output
fluid safely to a drain, or at least down near floor level. from the heat emitter.
The waste pipe must be the same size as the valve’s
outlet port with a minimal number of turns and no valves The combination of the valve and thermostatic operator
or other means of shutoff. represents a fully modulating temperature control system that
continually adjusts flow through the heat emitter to maintain
THERMOSTATIC RADIATOR VALVES: a constant (occupant determined) room temperature.
Thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) can provide precise
room-by-room temperature control in hydronic heating TRVs are often located close to the heat emitter. The
systems. They are installed in the supply pipe of a heat preferred mounting position is with the valve stem in a
emitter, or in some cases integrated into the heat emitter. horizontal position with the thermostatic operator facing
TRVs consist of two parts, the valve body and the away from the heat emitter. In no case should the valve be
thermostatic operator, as shown in Figure 7-18. installed so the thermostatic operator is above the heat
emitter. This will cause the valve to close prematurely and
Figure 7-18 greatly limit heat output from the heat emitter.

Be sure the TRV is mounted with flow passing through it

in the direction indicated by the arrow on the valve body.

MIXING VALVES:
Mixing valves are often used in hydronic heating systems
to blend hot water from a heat source with cooler water
returning from the distribution system. The goal of this
blending is to achieve an appropriate supply water
temperature to the distribution system, and thus produce
the required heat output.

One of the most common types is called a 3-way mixing

valve. It has three ports: one that allows hot water from
the heat source to enter, another that allows cooler water
from the return side of the distribution system to enter
and a third port that supplies the mixture of the two
entering flows to the distribution system.
The nickel-plated brass valve body is available in either
a straight pattern (as shown in Figure 7-18) or angle Figure 7-19
pattern. In the latter, the outlet port of the valve is rotated
90 degrees to the inlet port.

Inside the valve is a plug mounted on a spring-loaded shaft.

The plug is held in its fully open position by the force of the
spring. The fluid pathway through the valve is similar to that
of a globe valve, thus making the valve well-suited for flow
control. To close the valve, the shaft must be pushed inward
against the spring force. No rotation is necessary.

Shaft movement is provided by the thermostatic operator.

This operator contains a fluid in a sealed bellows chamber.
As the air temperature surrounding the operator increases,
the fluid expands inside the bellows, which forces the shaft
of the valve inward towards its closed position.

49
3-way mixing valves can be controlled by thermostatic A typical electrically operated zone valve is shown in
actuators or motorized actuators. Figure 7-19 shows a Figure 7-21. It consists of a valve body combined with
3-way mixing thermostatic mixing valve. The proportions an electrically powered actuator. The actuator is the
of flow entering the ports of this valve are controlled by a device that produces movement of the valve shaft when
non-electric actuator that is built into the valve. supplied with an electrical signal.

Figure 7-20 shows a motorized 3-way mixing valve. The Zone valves operate in either a fully open or a fully closed
actuator attached to this valve is operated by a separate position. They do not modulate to regulate the flow rate
electronic controller. The actuator can rotate the stem of in a piping circuit. Those with gear motor actuators, as
the valve to the position needed to achieve the desired shown in Figure 7-21, can move from fully closed to fully
supply water temperature to the system. open in a few seconds.

Figure 7-20

idronics #5 provides more discussion of zone valves

and how to apply them within systems.

idronics #7 provides a detailed discussion of

both thermostatic and motorized mixing valves and
shows how each are applied in a variety of hydronic
heating applications.

ZONE VALVES:
One of the previously discussed benefits of hydronic
heating is the ability to easily configure the system to
independently supply heat to multiple zones within a
building. Zone valves are often used to allow or prevent
flow through piping serving each of these zones.

Figure 7-21

50
8: HEAT EMITTER OPTIONS dissipated from it at the same rate of 50,000 Btu/hr. Under
this condition, the system is in “thermal equilibrium,” and
There are many types of hydronic heat emitters designed to the water temperature at any given location in the circuit
extract heat from water flowing through them and release will remain steady.
that heat into a space. These devices use a combination
of convection and thermal radiation to release heat. Some The exact value of the water temperature at any of
are manufactured devices, while others are site-built and these locations will depend on the heat dissipating
an integral part of the building they heat. This section characteristics of the distribution system versus the heat
discusses the most common hydronic heat emitters that generating capability of the heat source. For a given
are used in modern hydronic systems. rate of heat generation, the higher the heat dissipating
ability of the distribution system, the lower the water
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM: temperature will be at all locations around the circuit.
Before considering specific types of heat emitters, it’s Conversely, the lower the heat dissipating ability of the
important to understand a general principal that applies distribution system, the higher the water temperature will
to every hydronic systems, regardless of the type of heat be at all locations.
emitters used. That principle is call thermal equilibrium.
The system shown in Figure 8-2 contains 100 feet of
Consider the hydronic heating system shown in Figure 8-1. typical residential-style fin-tube baseboard. For simplicity,
assume all heat dissipation from the distribution system
In this system, the heat source is adding heat to the occurs at this baseboard. Assume the heat source is
water passing through it at a rate of 50,000 Btu/hr. As the capable of generating water temperatures as high as
water flows through the distribution system, heat is being 210ºF, and that the high-limit controller on the heat
source is set for 200ºF. Initially, all system components
and the water they contain are at room temperature.
Figure 8-1
The heat source and circulator are then turned on. The
50,000 Btu/hr!
(released from water)
heat source is now adding heat to the water at the rate
A B of 50,000 Btu/hr. The water temperature at all locations
in the system continues to rise. However, the rate of this
temperature rise slows as the water temperature leaving
heat emitter the heat source climbs higher and higher. When this
D C temperature reaches 184ºF, there is no further rise, even
though the boiler remains in continuous operation.

The explanation for this behavior is that when water at

heat source 184ºF is supplied to 100 feet of fin-tube baseboard, it
50,000 Btu/hr added to water can dissipate 50,000 Btu/hr, exactly the same rate of
heat transfer as is occurring at the heat source. There is
no reason for the water temperature to climb any higher.
The water temperature at all other locations around the
circuit will also remain stable at this point (albeit, at lower
Figure 8-2 temperatures farther downstream). The fact that the high-
50,000 Btu/hr! limit controller on the heat source was set at 200ºF makes
184ºF (released from 100 ft fin-tube) no difference.

Now consider what would happen if this system were

modified so that it contained 200 feet of the same
100 feet
164ºF baseboard. No other changes were made. When the
system is turned on, the water temperature leaving the
heat source rises until it stabilizes at 145ºF, as shown in
Figure 8-3. At that point, the modified system has again
heat source reached thermal equilibrium, where the 50,000 Btu/hr
50,000 Btu/hr added to water rate of heat input at the heat source is exactly matched
by the 50,000 Btu/hr heat dissipation rate from 200 feet

51
 In this case, the heat dissipation capability was increased
Figure 8-3 by adding more heat emitter surface area. Other factors
50,000 Btu/hr!
that could increase heat dissipation would include
184ºF (released from 100 ft fin-tube)
decreasing room air temperature, increasing water flow
rate through the circuit or increasing the air velocity
across the heat emitter surface.
100 feet
164ºF Lowering the water temperature at which thermal equilibrium
occurs is generally acceptable, and even desirable,
because it increases the thermal efficiency of most heat
sources. However, “conventional” boilers have temperature
heat source limits below which they will experience sustained flue gas
50,000 Btu/hr added to water condensation. Operating a conventional boiler under such
conditions is very undesirable because it causes corrosion
of the boiler’s heat exchanger and vent piping. This limitation
50,000 Btu/hr!
was discussed in more detail in section 6.
145ºF (released from 200 ft fin-tube)

100 feet
idronics #7 also discusses sustained flue gas
124ºF condensation within conventional boilers
and how to avoid it.

100 feet
If the heating capacity of the heat source is significantly
heat source higher than the heat dissipation ability of the distribution
50,000 Btu/hr added to water
system, the temperature at which thermal equilibrium
would occur is often much higher than the setting of the
heat source’s high-limit controller.
50,000 Btu/hr!
130.5ºF (released from 300 ft fin-tube) For example, if the baseboard length in the system shown in
Figure 8-2 was decreased to 50 feet, the water temperature
leaving the heat source when thermal equilibrium was
100 feet
finally achieved would be about 265ºF. This is much higher
109ºF than what is considered safe or efficient for any residential
or light commercial system. Fortunately, the heat source’s
high-limit controller would stop further heat generation
when the outlet temperature reached 200ºF. The distribution
100 feet 100 feet
heat source circulator would remain on, and the water temperature
50,000 Btu/hr added to water leaving the heat source would decrease as heat continues
to be dissipated by the distribution system. Eventually, the
water temperature within the system would drop sufficiently
of baseboard. Again, the fact that the high-limit controller
to cause the heat source to turn back on, and the cycle
on the heat source was set at 200ºF makes no difference.
would repeat itself. This is a very common operating mode
in many systems during partial load conditions. It can even
Next, assume another 100 feet of baseboard was added
occur under design load conditions in systems having an
to the system. When the system, which now contains 300
oversized heat source.
feet of baseboard, is turned on, the water temperature
leaving the heat source stabilizes at 130.5ºF. It has
In summary, every hydronic system “wants” to operate
again achieved thermal equilibrium, but at an even lower
at thermal equilibrium. If not for the intervention of
temperature.
temperature-limiting controllers, the water temperature
in any hydronic system will automatically adjust itself as
These scenarios show that increasing the heat dissipation
necessary to make this occur. This water temperature
capability of the distribution system lowers the supply
may or may not provide the proper heat input to the
water temperature at which thermal equilibrium occurs.
building. Likewise, it may or may not be conducive to

52
safe and efficient operation or long system life. Bluntly surrounding the fins. The warm air rises upward due
stated: The system “doesn’t care” if it’s delivering the to its lowered density. Cooler air near floor level flows
proper amount of heat to the rooms or if it’s operating inward and upward into the fin-tube element. This creates
safely. It only “cares” about achieving a balance between a gentle flow of warm air out of the slot at the top of the
heat input and heat output. baseboard’s steel enclosure. A cut-away view of a typical
fin-tube baseboard is shown in Figure 8-5.
Good designers ensure that the heat source and heat
emitters are properly matched so that thermal equilibrium Fin-tube baseboard is typically sold in straight lengths
occurs at water temperatures that are safe and allow for ranging from 2 to 8 feet in 1-foot increments. The finned
efficient operation of the heat source. tube element is a few inches shorter than the enclosure.
Sheet metal accessories such as end caps, corners and
STANDARD FIN-TUBE BASEBOARD: straight enclosure splices are available to connect and
Perhaps the best known hydronic heat emitter in North trim the straight lengths.
America is standard fin-tube baseboard, an example of
which is shown in Figure 8-4. Figure 8-6 shows a typical heat output versus water
temperature relationship for residential grade fin-tube
Figure 8-4 baseboard.

Figure 8-6
65 ºF air temperature!
entering baseboard
Heat output per foot (Btu/hr/ft) 600

500
400
300
Standard fin-tube baseboard was originally developed
as an alternative to cast iron radiators. It consists of a 200
copper tube with attached aluminum fins. The purpose
of the fins is to extend the surface area of the tube. The 100
high conductivity of the aluminum fins “wicks” heat away
from the copper tube, and transfers this heat to the air
0
65 85 105 125 145 165 185

Figure 8-5
Water temperature (ºF)
end cap
enclosure
Designers should keep in mind that standard fin-tube
air outlet slot
damper (can be rotated)
baseboard was designed to operate at relatively high
support bracket average water temperatures (160ºF to 200ºF). While such
temperatures are available from conventional boilers,
they are well above what most renewable energy heat
sources such as solar thermal collectors and heat pumps
can provide. These high water temperatures also lower
the efficiency of mod/con boilers.

air inlet slot

expansion slides idronics #8 provides a more detailed discussion along
aluminum fins with mathematical models for the performance of fin-
copper tube tube baseboard over a range of water temperatures,
entering air temperatures and flow rates.
Courtesy of Cengage Learning

53
LOW-TEMPERATURE FIN-TUBE BASEBOARD: Figure 8-8
Low-temperature heat sources will be increasingly
common in future hydronic systems. This has led to
reconfigurations of traditional products in ways that allow
them to operate at lower water temperatures. An example
of one such product is the low-temperature fin-tube
baseboard, shown in Figure 8-7.

Figure 8-7

Courtesy of Harvey Youker

Courtesy of Smith’s Environmental Products at the lower right of the panel. The knob at the upper
right corner of the panel is a thermostatic operator that
This baseboard uses two tubes within its element (versus controls flow through a valve built into the radiator. This
one tube in a standard baseboard element). The fin area operator serves as the temperature regulator for the room.
is also approximately three times larger than that in If the room’s air temperature begins to drop, the operator
standard fin-tube baseboard. This larger element allows responds by allowing the valve to open farther, and thus
a given rate of heat output at a significantly lower average increases the flow of heated water through the radiator. If
water temperature. the room’s temperature begins to rise above the desired
setting, the operator causes the valve to reduce the flow
For example, at an average water temperature of 110ºF, of heated water through the panel. These actions are
this baseboard releases about 290 Btu/hr/ft when the two entirely controlled by the expansion and contraction of
pipes are configured for parallel flow, and the total flow rate a fluid within the operator. These actuators requires no
through the element is 1 gpm (0.5 gpm through each tube). electrical power. A system that supplies several panel
This increases to about 345 Btu/hr/ft with a total flow rate radiators, each equipped with thermostatic radiator
of 4 gpm (e.g., 2 gpm per tube). Typical residential fin-tube valves, allows for room-by-room temperature control.
would need an average water temperature of about 152ºF
(at 4 gpm flow rate) to yield the same output. Panel radiators are available in different heights, widths
and thicknesses. The larger the surface area of the panel
Low-temperature baseboard is well-suited to systems radiator, the higher its heat output will be for a given
that use renewable heat sources such as solar thermal average water temperature and room air temperature.
collectors or heat pumps. It also allows mod/con boilers Panel thickness is increased by adding water plates
to operate a very high thermal efficiency. to the radiator. The radiator shown in Figure 8-8 has a
single water plate (e.g., the front of the panel with the
PANEL RADIATORS: vertical water channels running between the upper and
Modern panel radiators come in a wide range of shapes lower headers). A double water plate radiator has two
and sizes. Most are constructed of steel, while some are water plates arranged back-to-back. A three-water plate
constructed of aluminum. An example of a typical steel panel adds one more water plate to the back of a double
panel radiator is shown in Figure 8-8 water plate panel. Multiple-water plate radiators are
thicker, but this may be an acceptable tradeoff to keep
This panel radiator delivers radiant heating from the the height of the panel low or reduce the required length
surfaces exposed to the room, as well as convective of the panel. By using combinations of height, width and
heating as room air is heated by fins concealed behind thickness, designers are able to specify radiators that can
the front panel. Water is supplied to and carried away fit within locations with limited wall space, yet still provide
from the panel through the small-diameter tubes seen adequate heat output.

54
 length
Figure 8-9 Heat output ratings (Btu/hr)!
at reference conditions:!
Average water temperature in panel = 180ºF!
height
Room temperature = 68ºF!
temperature drop across panel = 20ºF

1 water plate panel thickness

16" long 24" long 36" long 48" long 64" long 72" long
24" high 1870 2817 4222 5630 7509 8447
plate
water plate

20" high 1607 2421 3632 4842 6455 7260

11 water

16" high 1352 2032 3046 4060 5415 6091

2 water plate panel thickness

16" long 24" long 36" long 48" long 64" long 72" long
24" high 3153 4750 7127 9500 12668 14254
2 water plates

20" high 2733 4123 6186 8245 10994 12368

16" high 2301 3455 5180 6907 9212 10363
10" high 1491 2247 3373 4498 5995 6745

3 water plate panel thickness

16" long 24" long 36" long 48" long 64" long 72" long
24" high 4531 6830 10247 13664 18216 20494
3 water plates

20" high 3934 5937 9586 11870 15829 17807

16" high 3320 4978 7469 9957 13277 14938
10" high 2191 3304 4958 6609 8811 9913

Manufacturers provide heat output ratings for their panel Figure 8-10 Reference condition:!
radiators in either graphical or tabular form. In many Ave water temperature in panel = 180ºF!
cases, “reference” heat output ratings are stated along Room air temperature = 68ºF
1
with corresponding average water temperature and room air
temperatures. 0.9 1.33
CF = 0.001882 ( ∆T )
0.8
Correction factor (CF)

Figure 8-9 shows a heat output table for steel panel radiators of
0.7
several different heights, widths and thicknesses.
reference condition

0.6
The heat outputs shown in Figure 8-9 are referenced to an 0.5
average water temperature of 180ºF and a room air temperature 0.4
of 68ºF. If different operating conditions are expected or
desired, it’s necessary to multiply these reference heat output 0.3
ratings by a correction factor. That factor can be determined 0.2
from either the graph or formula shown in Figure 8-10. 0.1
∆T=112 ºF
0
Example: Find the output of a 24” high by 72” long single
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
water plate panel if operated at an average water temperature
∆T (ave water temp - room air temp) (ºF)
of 110ºF in a room maintained at 68ºF.

55
Solution: Figure 8-9 indicates that a panel with a single Figure 8-13
water plate measuring 24” high and 72” long has a heat Some air handlers
output of 8,447 Btu/hr based on the reference conditions are also capable of
of 180ºF average water temperature and 68ºF room delivering cooling when
air temperature. Using the formula in Figure 8-10, the their coil is supplied
correction factor with an average panel water temperature with chilled water. This
of 110ºF and room temperature of 68ºF is: type of air handler
must be equipped with
a condensate drip pan
located under its coil. The
The estimated heat output at the lower water temperature drip pan collects water
is therefore: droplets that form on the
coil as it dehumidifies the
warm/moist air passing
through it. The drip pan
HYDRONIC FAN-COILS & AIR HANDLERS: connects to a pipe that
Another method of delivering heat to a building is through routes the condensate to
use of hydronic fan-coils and air handlers. These heat a suitable drain.
emitters receive heat from a hydronic distribution system, Courtesy of Myson, Inc.
but deliver that heat to the room using forced air. A blower
or fan within the unit creates the airflow. The forced air Figure 8-14
stream moves across a “coil” consisting of copper tubing
with closely spaced aluminum fins. Figure 8-12 shows the
typical construction of an air handler.

Figure 8-12
coil (aluminum fins/!
copper tubing)

filter cabinet
blower
Courtesy of Mestek

The thermal performance of hydronic fan coils is typically

listed in a table for each specific model. The parameters
that determine thermal performance include:
air outlet
air inlet • Entering water temperature
water! water! • Entering air temperature
outlet inlet • Water flow rate through coil
• Air flow rate across coil
Although both fan-coils and air handlers share common
characteristics, the term fan-coil usually describes a The following general guidelines hold true for more
smaller heat emitter that is mounted to the surface of a hydronic fan-coils and air handlers:
wall or recessed into a wall cavity, as shown in Figure 8-13.
Fan-coils typically deliver heat to a single room. 1. The heat output of a fan-coil or air handler is proportional
to the temperature difference between the entering air and
The term air handler describes a larger device that is entering water.
usually designed for mounting in concealed spaces. Air
handlers have larger coils and blowers contained within Thus, if the heat output of a particular air handler was
a vertical or horizontal sheet metal cabinet. They deliver 10,000 Btu/hr when the entering air temperature was 65ºF
an air stream to ducting that often distributes that air flow and the entering water temperature was 140ºF, its output
to more than one room. An example of a horizontal air when supplied with 180ºF water could be estimated by
handler is shown in Figure 8-14. the following proportion:

56
 RADIANT PANEL HEATING:
Radiant heating is the process of transferring thermal
energy from one object to another by thermal radiation.
2. Increasing either the water flow rate or air flow rate Whenever two surfaces are “within sight of each other,”
through the coil beyond the minimums stated by the and are at different temperatures, thermal radiation travels
manufacturer will marginally increase heat output. from the warmer surface to the cooler surface. All thermal
radiation emitted by surfaces at temperatures lower than
The effect of changing the water flow through the coil of approximately 970ºF will be in the infrared portion of the
a small fan-coil unit above or below the heat output rating electromagnetic spectrum, and as such cannot be seen
established at a flow rate of 1 gpm is shown in Figure by the human eye. All radiant panels discussed in this and
8-15. At flow rates above 1 gpm the increase in heat other issues of idronics operate well below this temperature.
output is slight. However, at flow rates below the rated 1
gpm, heat output decreases quickly. The thermal radiation emitted by a heated surface passes
through room air with virtual no absorption of energy.
3. Air handlers or fan-coils with larger coils surfaces and/ Instead, the radiation is absorbed by the objects in the
or multiple tube passes through the coil are capable of room. Most interior surfaces absorb the majority of any
delivering a rated heat output at lower entering water thermal radiation that strikes them. The small remaining
temperatures. portion is reflected, often to another surface where further
absorption takes place.
Figure 8-15
Figure 8-16
4500

4000

3500
Heat output (Btu/hr)

3000

2500
2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
water flow rate (gpm) It is thus accurate to state that thermal radiation (more
commonly referred to as “radiant heat”) warms the
objects in a room rather than directly heating the air.
This relationship suggests that larger coils are preferred This difference is largely what separates radiant heating
when the heat source is a mod/con boiler, solar thermal from convective heating. Because the absorbed thermal
collector or heat pump. Fan coil units that operate at radiation raises the surface temperature of an object
lower supply water temperatures should be located so above the room air temperature, some heat will in turn be
that their discharge air stream does not directly impinge convected to room air.
on room occupants. Although the temperature of the
discharge air is warmer than the room air temperature, Although human eyes cannot see thermal radiation, it
its velocity tends to make it feel cooler and may induce can be detected by specialized thermographic cameras.
drafts of room air which cause discomfort. Registers or These devices determine the wavelength of thermal
ceiling diffusers supplied by air handlers operating with radiation (and thus the surface temperature) being
lower temperature water should be selected and placed detected by each pixel of their imaging system. They
so that the air they discharge is well-mixed with room air. then associate a color with this temperature and display

57
a thermographic image along with the associated color/
temperature scale. Figure 8-16 shows a thermographic Figure 8-18
Upward heat output !
image of a heated floor slab with tubing embedded about vs.!
2 inches below its surface. Driving ∆T!
for 4" concrete slab
It is important to understand that the thermal radiation
emitter by a typical radiant panel is in no way unhealthy 6-inch tube spacing
or harmful. Thermal radiation is constantly emitted from 12-inch tube spacing
our skin and clothing surfaces to any cooler surfaces
Rff=0 Rff=0.5
around us. This radiant heat emission is one of the ways 60

upward heat flux!

our bodies dissipate the heat produced by metabolism. Rff=1.0

(Btu/hr/ft2)
40 Rff=1.5
The term hydronic radiant panel applies to any room surface Rff=2.0
(floor, wall or ceiling) that is heated or cooled by embedded
tubing, and which has at least 50% of its heat output by 20
thermal radiation. This section briefly discusses the more
common types of hydronic radiant panels used for heating. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
HEATED FLOOR SLABS: Driving ∆T (Tw-Tr) (ºF)!
Concrete slab floors with embedded tubing are by far the Average water temp. - room air temp
most common type of hydronic radiant panel. They are
also one of the most economical, because the concrete, Rff = resistance of finish flooring (ºF/hr/ft^2/Btu)
and often the underslab insulation, is already specified as
part of the building.

Figure 8-17 shows a cross-section for

Figure 8-17 a heated floor slab. Notice that the
tubing has been placed at approximately
edge insulation mid-depth within the slab, and that the
underslab insulation underside and edge of the slab are well-
steel reinforcing insulated (R-10 ºF•hr•ft2/Btu minimum).
concrete slab Both of these details are imperative
embedded tubing in achieving good low-temperature
finish flooring performance.

The graph in Figure 8-18 shows upward

heat output from a heated slab based on
tube spacing of 6”and 12”, and for finish
floor resistances ranging from 0 to 2.0
polyethylene vapor barrier
(ºF•hr•ft2/Btu). The steeper the line, the
lower the water temperature required for
compacted soil
a specific rate of heat delivery.

For example, achieving an upward heat

output of 20 Btu/hr/ft2 from a slab with
no covering (e.g., Rff = 0) and 6” tube
spacing requires the “driving ∆T” (e.g.,
foundation
the difference between average water
temperature in tubing and room air
temperature) to be 17.5ºF. Thus, in a
room maintained at 70ºF, the average
water temperature in the circuit needs to
be 87.5ºF. The supply water temperature
to the circuit would likely be in the range
of 95 ºF to 98ºF. This is a relatively low

58
supply water temperature and would allow heat sources HEATED THIN SLABS:
such as mod/con boilers, solar thermal collectors and Another common method of installing floor heating uses a
heat pumps to operate at high thermal efficiency. “thin slab” (1-1/2” to 2” thickness) poured over a wooden
floor deck.
For comparison, consider supplying the same 20 Btu/hr/ft2
load using a heated floor slab with 12” tube spacing and Figure 8-19 shows an example of such an installation
a finish floor resistance of 1.0ºF•hr•ft2/Btu. The driving ∆T awaiting placement of the concrete.
must now be 42.5ºF. The average circuit water temperature
required to maintain a room temperature of 70ºF would A concrete thin-slab installation begins by marking the
be 70 + 42.5 = 112.5ºF, and the supply temperature location of all interior and exterior walls on the completed
would be likely in the range of 120ºF to 123ºF. This higher floor deck. The deck is then covered with 6-mill translucent
temperature could be produced by conventional boilers but polyethylene sheeting. This acts as a bond breaker layer
would lower the thermal efficiency of mod/con boilers, as between the wooden floor deck, and the concrete slab.
well as solar collectors and heat pumps. It reduces shrinkage cracking of the concrete. The next
step is to install 2x4 or 2x6 lumber where ever there is an
The following guidelines are suggested in applications interior partition or exterior wall. This lumber establishes
where a heated floor slab will be used to deliver heat the thickness of the thin slab. The tubing is then fastened
derived from a mod/con boiler or renewable energy heat in place using a specialized pneumatic stapler. Once
source: all tubing circuits are installed and connected to their
associated manifold, they are pressure-tested with
• Tube spacing within the slab should not exceed 12”. compressed air to verify that there are no leaks. Control
joint strips are added where required. These details have
• Slab should have minimum of R-10 underside and edge all been completed in the photo shown in Figure 8-19.
insulation. The final step is to place the concrete and screed it level
with the top of the 2x4 or 2x6 lumber. The concrete is
• Tubing should be placed at approximately half the slab then troweled as with any other slab. Framing can usually
depth below the surface, as shown in Figure 8-17. Doing resume the following day.
so decreases the required water temperature required for
a given rate of heat output. Lower water temperatures Thin-slabs can also be constructed using poured gypsum
improve heat source efficiency. underlayment rather than concrete. The installation
sequence differs from that used for a thin concrete slab.
• Bare, painted or stained slab surfaces are ideal because First, there is no bond breaker layer required. Second, the
the finish floor resistance is essentially zero. slab is typically poured after all walls have been installed
and finished. The poured gypsum underlayment is mixed
• Other floor finishes should have a total R-value of 1.0 outside the building and pumped in through a hose. This
or less. material has a fluid consistency similar to pancake batter.
As such it provides a high degree of self-leveling as it is
Figure 8-19 poured on the floor, as seen in Figure 8-20.
Figure 8-20

Courtesy of Harvey Youker

59
Poured gypsum underlayment is slightly lighter than Figure 8-21
concrete. When installed, it often brings hundreds of
gallons of water into the building. Much of this water has
to evaporate as the slab hardens. Buildings should be
well-ventilated to avoid condensation on windows and
other surfaces. Also keep in mind that poured gypsum
underlayments are not waterproof, nor are they intended
to serve as a finish floor surface. After curing, they must
be protected against excessive water, and they must be
covered with a finish floor surface.

Because thin-slabs are thinner than a typical slab-

on-grade floor, they have slightly lower heat dispersal
characteristics. This means that slightly higher average
water temperatures are required for a given rate of heat
output relative to that required for a slab-on-grade. This Courtesy of Harvey Youker
difference is slight. A 1-1/2”-thick concrete thin slab
with 12” tube spacing and covered with a finish flooring The installed tubing and aluminum plates will eventually
resistance of 0.5ºF•hr•ft2/Btu yields about 8% lower heat be covered by a nailed-down hardwood finish floor.
output than a 4”-thick slab with the same tube spacing Adequate insulation must be installed under all above
and finish flooring. This can be easily compensated for floor tube & plate radiant panels. If the space under the
by using 9” rather than 12” tube spacing. floor deck is heated or semi-heated, the insulation should
have a minimum R-value of 19 ºF•hr•ft2/Btu. If the space
The following guidelines are suggested for thin-slab under the floor is unheated, the insulation should have a
installations: minimum R-value of 30 ºF•hr•ft2/Btu.

• Tube spacing within the thin-slab should not exceed 9”. Above floor tube & plate panels generally require
higher water temperatures compared to slab systems
• Slab should have minimum of R-19 underside insulation. for comparable heat output. Depending on the thermal
resistance of the finish floor, average water temperatures of
• Floor finishes should have a total R-value of 1.0 or less. 120ºF to 140ºF are common under design load conditions.

• Never use “lightweight” concrete for heated thin-slabs. BELOW FLOOR TUBE & PLATE RADIANT PANELS:
Tube & plate systems can also be installed on the bottom
of a wood subfloor. Such a system is appropriately called
ABOVE FLOOR TUBE & PLATE RADIANT PANELS: a below floor tube & plate system. Figure 8-22 shows
Although heated concrete floor slabs and thin-slabs an example of such an installation, before installing the
make excellent radiant panels, they are not suitable for underfloor insulation.
all installations. For example, in some cases, the floor Figure 8-22
structure cannot support the added dead loading of a
thin-slab. In other cases, a nailed down hardwood finish
floor cannot be properly fastened to a slab.

In such situations, designers have the option of using

a tube & plate floor panel. These panels use aluminum
plates as “wicks” to pull heat away from PEX or PEX-
AL-PEX tubing and disperse it across much of the floor
area. The thin layer of highly conductive aluminum
becomes the substitute for a much thicker and heavier
layer of concrete.

Figure 8-21 shows an example of an above floor tube &

plate radiant panel during construction.

Courtesy of Harvey Youker

60
Figure 8-23 floor tube & plate systems can be difficult to install in
retrofit applications.

Below floor tube & plate systems must drive heat upward
through the subfloor, as well as any finish flooring.
This usually requires higher water temperatures relative
to below floor tube & plates systems. Average water
temperatures of 130ºF to 150ºF are common depending
on the required rate of upward heat transfer and the
thermal resistance of the finish flooring.

RADIANT WALL PANELS:

Radiant panels can also be integrated into walls and
ceilings. In some cases, wall or ceiling panels are
preferable over floor panels. Examples include situations
where finish flooring with high thermal resistance will be
Designers considering use of below floor tube & plate used or when a large percentage of the floor area will be
systems must consider possible interference with any covered with objects that inhibit upward heat flow.
existing or planned wiring, plumbing, ducting or structural
details that may occupy the spaces between joists. In Figure 8-23 shows a radiant wall panel being constructed
new installations, it is very important to have the tube using ½” PEX-AL-PEX tubing and the same type of
and plates, and preferably the insulation, installed before aluminum heat dispersion plates that are used for floor-
other services that use the joist spaces are installed. based tube & plate systems. The construction details for
Because of interference with wiring and plumbing, below this radiant wall panel are shown in Figure 8-24.

Figure 8-24

cross-section
7/16" oriented strand board wooden nailer (@ end of wall)
3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate insulation
2.5" drywall screws

6"x24" aluminum heat transfer plates

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX tubing

1/2" drywall

fiberglass insulation

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX tubing (8-inch spacing)

6" x 24" aluminum heat transfer plates
3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate foam strips
7/16" oriented strand board

61
When finished, this radiant wall panel is indistinguishable Figure 8-25
from a standard interior wall. Its low thermal mass
allows it to respond quickly to changing internal load
conditions or zone setback schedules. The rate of heat
emission to the room is approximately 0.8 Btu/hr/ft2 for
each degree Fahrenheit the average water temperature
in the tubing exceeds room air temperature. Thus, if
the wall operates with an average water temperature of
110ºF in a room with 70ºF air temperature, each square
foot of wall would release about 0.8 x (110 - 70) = 32
Btu/hr/ft2. This performance makes it well-suited for use
with low-temperature hydronic heat sources.

RADIANT CEILING PANELS:

Another possibility is a radiant ceiling using the same
type of construction as the radiant wall. Figure 8-25
shows the radiant ceiling panel during installation. Figure
8-26 shows the construction details.

As with the radiant wall, this radiant ceiling has low

thermal mass and responds quickly to interior temperature
changes. Heated ceilings also have the advantage of not degree Fahrenheit the average water temperature in the
being covered or blocked by coverings or furniture, and tubing exceeds room air temperature. Thus, if the ceiling
thus are likely to retain good performance over the life of operated with an average water temperature of 110ºF in
the building. a room with 70ºF air temperature, each square foot of
wall would release about 0.71 x (110 - 70) = 28.4 Btu/
For the construction shown in Figure 8-26, the rate of hr/ft2. This performance makes the radiant ceiling well-
heat emission is approximately 0.71 Btu/hr/ft2 for each suited for use with low-temperature heat sources.

Figure 8-26

top side insulation ceiling framing

tube
2.5" drywall screws aluminum heat transfer plate
7/16" oriented strand board
3/4" foil-faced polyisocyanurate foam strips
1/2" drywall

62
9. HYDRONIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS and those near the end of the circuit will be undersized.
In such cases, complaints of underheating from the
A hydronic distribution system is an arrangement of heat emitters near the end of the circuit are likely. The
pipes, valves and one or more circulators that conveys longer the series circuit, the more pronounced this effect
heat from the heat source and delivers it to the heat becomes.
emitters. Distribution systems can be specifically tailored
to the needs of each building, taking into account factors • The total head loss of a series circuit is the sum of
such as the type of heat sources used, the kind(s) of heat the head loss of each component in that circuit. The
emitters used, how the building will be zoned and the circulator must supply this total head loss as the design
ease (or lack thereof) of installing piping within a building. flow rate. Designers must avoid creating series circuits
with excessively high head loss. Such a situation can
TRADITIONAL HYDRONIC DISTRIBUTION occur if a component with relatively high flow resistance is
SYSTEMS: included in the circuit, especially if combined with several
The majority of hydronic distribution systems used heat emitters that also create significant head loss. If
in North America over the last several decades were the circuit’s head loss is high, it may become necessary
designed around rigid metal pipe. This section describes to use a “high head” circulator. Such circulators often
these traditional designs and discusses their individual draw two to three times more wattage than standard
strengths and limitations. It then moves on to discuss circulators, which results in significantly higher operating
more contemporary distribution systems that make use cost. Insufficient flow through a high-head-loss series
of flexible tubing and modern methods of zoning. circuit can also result in reduced heat output.

SERIES LOOP SYSTEMS: • All heat emitters in the series loop provide simultaneous
One of the simplest distribution systems is as a series heat output. It is not possible to zone on a room-by-
loop. Flow passes from the heat source, through each room basis using a series loop. Changing the flow rate
heat emitter and back to the heat source. Figure 9-1 or supply water temperature affects the heat output of
shows an example of a series loop system supplying all heat emitters on the circuit. For this reason, all rooms
several fin-tube baseboard heat emitters. served by a series circuit should be considered as a
single zone. If some rooms experience significant internal
The following points summarize single series loop heat gains and others do not, a series circuit should not
distribution systems: be used. In general, series circuits should be limited
to relatively open floor plans where all areas are to be
• The temperature of the water decreases as flow passes maintained at the same comfort level.
from one heat emitter to the next. Proper design requires
that each heat emitter be sized for the water temperature DIVERTER TEE SYSTEMS:
at its location within the circuit. If, instead, each heat Similar in some respects to series loops, diverter tee
emitter is sized for the average circuit water temperature, distribution systems use a special fitting called a diverter
those near the beginning of the circuit will be oversized, tee to route some of the flow in the main piping
circuit through a branch path
containing one or more heat
Figure 9-1 emitters. Figure 9-2 shows an
example of such a system.

A valve is often installed in each

branch to regulate flow through
the heat emitter(s) in that branch.
VENT

This valve may be manually

operated, electrically operated
or a thermostatic radiator valve.
By controlling the flow in each
branch, it’s possible to provide
room-by-room comfort control
Series loop distribution system (provided there is always flow in
the main circuit whenever any
branch requires heating).

63
 Figure 9-2

diverter tee
diverter tee
VENT

diverter tee

diverter tee diverter tee

diverter tee distribution system

One diverter tee, installed on the return side of the “2-PIPE” DIRECT RETURN SYSTEMS:
branch, usually provides sufficient flow when that branch Hydronic heat emitters can also be piped in a parallel
is located above the main pipe. If the branch circuit is rather than series. One approach puts each heat
long, contains several heat emitters or is located below emitter in its own “crossover” pipe, which connects to
the main pipe, two diverter tees, one “pushing” and the a common supply and return main, as shown in Figure
other “pulling,” are generally recommended. In either 9-3. This configuration is called a “2-pipe” direct return
case, there should be a minimum of one foot of straight distribution system.
pipe between the upstream and downstream tees to
minimize turbulence. Always be sure the diverter tees are Two-pipe direct return systems have the following
installed in the proper direction. characteristics:

Diverter tee distribution systems have the following • Each heat emitter receives fluid at approximately the
characteristics: same temperature. This simplifies sizing, since the water
temperature drop associated with series loops and
• As with a series loop, water temperature decreases diverter tee systems is eliminated.
in the direction of flow along the main pipe. This circuit
temperature drop depends on which branches are active • The heat emitter closest to the circulator on the
at any given time. Designers should size heat emitters supply main is also closest to the circulator on the
assuming all branches are operating simultaneously. return main. The next heat emitter connected to the
supply main has a greater length of piping between
• Each diverter tee adds significant flow resistance to the it and the circulator. The heat emitter farthest away
main circuit. It is not uncommon for a diverter tee fitting from the circulator has the longest overall piping path
to have an equivalent length of at least 25 feet of straight length. If each crossover in the system has the same
tubing. Adding several diverter tees to a circuit significantly flow resistance, the highest flow rate will be through
increases the head loss of that circuit, and thus the the shortest piping path. If uncorrected, this situation
head required from the circulator to achieve a given flow reduces the flow rate through heat emitters located
rate. Designers should carefully assess this effect when farther away from the circulator. Balancing valves
designing the circuit and selecting a circulator. installed in each crossover allow flow rates to be
adjusted in proportion to the required heat output.
• The only significant advantage a one-pipe diverter tee
distribution system has over a series loop system is when • Flow through each crossover can be controlled using
valves are used to control flow through each branch. This either an on/off zone valve or a modulating flow control
advantage comes at an associated higher installation and valve. This allows each heat emitter to be independently
operating cost. Other types of distribution systems are controlled, and thus room-by-room zoning is possible
better suited to control the flow through each heat emitter. when the system is properly configured.

64
 Figure 9-3 balancing valve

zone
valve

VENT

"2-pipe" direct return distribution system

Figure 9-4 balancing valve

zone
valve

VENT

"2-pipe" reverse return distribution system

• Different types of heat emitters can be used on the the system, this configuration is largely self-balancing.
various crossovers provided they are all sized for the However, balancing valves should still be installed ,
same supply water temperature. because the flow resistance through each heat emitter
and its associated crossover will not always be the same.
“2-PIPE” REVERSE RETURN SYSTEMS:
If the piping design used for the direct return system of Reverse return systems are well-suited to applications
Figure 9-3 is modified as shown in Figure 9-4, the result where the supply and return mains run side by side
is called a “2-pipe” reverse return system. and make a loop from the mechanical room around the
building and back to the mechanical room.
Notice that the heat emitter closest to the circulator along the
supply main is now farthest from the circulator on the return 2-pipe reverse return systems have the following
main. This makes the length of the piping path to and from characteristics:
the circulator approximately the same for each crossover.
• Each heat emitter receives water at approximately the
If each crossover has the same flow resistance, and same temperature. This simplifies heat emitter sizing
if the supply/return mains are sized for approximately because the water temperature drop associated with
the same head loss per unit of length at all locations in series loops and diverter tee systems is eliminated.

65
• Flow through each crossover can be controlled using Notice that each zone circuit contains a flow-check
either an on/off zone valve or a modulating flow control valve. This valve can be a separate component mounted
valve. This allows each heat emitter to be independently downstream of the circulator, as shown in Figure 9-5,
controlled, and thus room-by-room comfort control is or it can be integral to the circulator. The flow-check
possible when the system is properly configured. valve prevents reverse flow through inactive zone
circuits while other zones are operating. It also prevents
• Different types of heat emitters can be used on the buoyancy-driven hot water migration through inactive
various crossovers provided they are all sized for the zone circuits. Each zone circuit should also be equipped
same supply water temperature. with its own purging valve to expedite air removal during
start-up and servicing.
• 2-pipe reverse return systems are often favored over
2-pipe direct-return systems because they are closer to Zone circulator systems have the following characteristics:
self-balancing.
• Each zone circuit receives the same supply water
ZONING USING CIRCULATORS: temperature.
A traditional North American approach for creating multi-
zone hydronic systems uses a separate circulator for • The combined flow rate of all operating zones must
each zone circuit, as shown in Figure 9-5. pass through whatever the headers connect to. To
minimize interaction between zone circuits, headers,
When a zone needs heat, the associated circulator and the as well as the piping components connected to the
boiler are turned on. When a zone thermostat is satisfied, headers, should provide low head loss. This is generally
its circulator is turned off. When all the thermostats are not a problem when cast iron boilers or other low-head-
satisfied, the boiler is turned off. All zone circuits begin loss heat sources are used. However, heat sources
and end at headers. These headers should be sized for with higher flow resistance need to be hydraulically
a maximum flow velocity of 2 feet per second to provide separated from the headers using either closely spaced
good hydraulic separation between the circulators. tees or a hydraulic separator.

• The total electrical power demand of a

Figure 9-5 zone circulator system, at design load, tends
to be higher than with other methods of
zoning. Designers should carefully scrutinize
circulator selection and speed settings to
minimize “over-pumping” and excessive
electrical energy use.
flow-check valves
ZONE VALVE SYSTEMS:
Another method of constructing multi-zone
systems uses a single circulator in combination
with an electrically operated zone valve on
each zone circuit, as shown in Figure 9-6.

When any zone thermostat calls for heat, its

associated zone valve opens. An end switch
Zoning within the zone valve closes once the valve
by reaches its fully open position. This switch
signals the circulator and boiler to operate. All
Circulator
zone circuits begin and end at headers.

VENT

The differential pressure bypass valve installed

at the right end of the headers limits the
increase in differential pressure created by a
constant-speed circulator as the number of
active zones decreases. Without this valve,
the increase in differential pressure created

66
 • The combined flow rate of all
Figure 9-6 operating zones must pass through
whatever the headers connect to.
To minimize interaction between
zone circuits, headers, as well as
constant! zone valves the piping components connected
speed! to the headers, should provide low
circulator head loss. This is generally not a
problem when cast iron boilers or
differential!
other low-head-loss heat sources
pressure! are used. However, heat sources
bypass valve with higher flow resistance need to
Zoning using Zone valves be hydraulically separated from the
headers using either closely spaced
tees or a hydraulic separator.

• The total electrical power demand

of a zone valve system at design load
VENT

tends to be lower than an equivalent

system using zone circulators.

• Zone valve systems are well-suited

to variable-speed pressure-regulated
circulators that automatically adjust
Figure 9-7 speed and electrical power input
to maintain a constant differential
pressure between the supply and
return headers, regardless of which
zone circuits are operating. When a
pressure! zone valves pressure-regulated circulator is used,
regulated! there is no need of a differential
circulator pressure bypass valve. Figure 9-7
shows the system of Figure 9-6
modified for use with a pressure-
regulated circulator.

Zoning using Zone valves

VENT idronics #5 provides a

complete description of zoning
with zone valves

SERIES PRIMARY/SECONDARY
SYSTEMS:
by a constant-speed circulator may cause excessive flow Series primary/secondary piping has
velocity and noise in operating zone circuits. been used for several decades in larger commercial
hydronic systems. During the last two decades, this
Zone valve systems have the following characteristics: approach has also been adapted in multi-load/multi-
temperature residential hydronic systems within North
• Each zone circuit receives the same supply water America.
temperature.

67
 Figure 9-8

secondary circuit

secondary! spring-load check valves

circuit

primary secondary circuit

circulator

VENT
primary loop

Series !
primary secondary
distribution system

secondary circuit
low flow resistance
heat source

secondary circuit

A primary/secondary system usually consists of a single The word “series” describes how the sets of closely
primary loop that delivers heated water to one or more spaced tees are arranged, one set after another, along
secondary circuits. The latter are connected to the the primary loop.
primary loop using pairs of closely spaced tees, as shown
in Figures 9-8. If the heat source has low flow resistance, it is usually
piped as part of the primary loop as shown in Figure 9-8.
The pressure drop between a pair of closely spaced tees However, if the heat source has higher flow resistance, it
is almost zero. Thus, there is very little tendency for flow is usually provided with its own circulator and connected
along the primary loop to induce flow within a secondary to the primary loop using a set of closely spaced tees, as
circuit. The closely spaced tees provide hydraulic shown in Figure 9-9.
separation between the primary circuit and each of the
secondary circuits. Flow in a secondary circuit occurs The following points summarize series primary/secondary
when its own “secondary circulator” is turned on. systems:

68
 Figure 9-9

secondary circuit

high flow
resistance
heat source

secondary! spring-load check valves

circuit

primary secondary circuit

circulator

closely!
spaced! primary loop
tees

VENT

Series !
primary secondary
distribution system

secondary circuit

secondary circuit

• The sequential arrangement of secondary circuits around • The primary circulator must operate whenever any
the primary loop creates a temperature drop wherever one or more of the secondary circulators is operating.
primary loop flow passes a pair of tees connected to This increases electrical energy consumption relative to
an operating secondary circuit. As in series loops and systems that do not require a primary circulator.
diverter tee systems, this reduction in water temperature
must be accounted for when sizing heat emitters. PARALLEL PRIMARY/SECONDARY SYSTEMS:
In a parallel primary/secondary system, the primary
• Each circuit in a primary/secondary system is loop is divided into multiple parallel crossovers, as
hydraulically isolated from the other circuits. This prevents shown in Figure 9-10. Water from the heat source splits
interference between circulators. Each circuit can be up through all these crossovers whenever the primary
designed as if it’s a “stand-alone” circuit unaffected by circulator is operating. A pair of closely spaced tees
other circuits in the system. within each crossover provides hydraulic separation of
each secondary circuit.
• A flow-check valve or spring-loaded check valve must
be installed on the supply side of each secondary circuit The following points summarize parallel primary/
to prevent buoyancy-driven heat migration. secondary systems:

69
 • The parallel arrangement of
Figure 9-10 crossovers provides approximately
the same water temperature to each
secondary circuit. This simplifies
heat emitter sizing.

• A balancing valve should be

placed in each crossover so flow
can be adjusted in proportion to the
percentage of total load handled
by the secondary circuit connected
to each crossover. This adds to the
installed cost and commissioning
cost of the system.

• Each circuit in a parallel primary/

secondary system is hydraulically
isolated from the other circuits.
This prevents interference between
circulators.

• A flow-check valve or spring-

loaded check valve must be installed
on the supply side of each secondary
circuit to prevent buoyancy-driven
secondary circuit heat migration.
Figure 9-11
• The primary circulator must operate
secondary circuit
whenever any one or more of the
secondary circulators is operating.
secondary circuit This increases the electrical energy
consumption of the system relative
secondary circuit to systems that do not require a
primary circulator.

Although a parallel primary/

spring-load check valves secondary system improves upon
a series primary/secondary system
by providing equal supply water
boiler temperatures to each secondary
circulator
circuit, it does so with added
complexity and expense.
HydroCal!
hyraulic!
separator The benefits offered by a parallel
primary/secondary system can be
provided with simpler piping by using
a hydraulic separator as shown in
Figure 9-11. This system provides
VENT

equivalent thermal and hydraulic

performance to the system shown
distribution system
in Figure 9-10. High-performance air
using ! and dirt separation is also provided
hydraulic separator by the Caleffi HydroCal hydraulic
separator.

70
MANIFOLD-TYPE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS:
Polymer-based tubing, such as PEX, PEX-AL-PEX and Figure 9-13
PE-RT (polyethylene - raised temperature), has become
increasingly popular worldwide as an alternative to rigid
metal tubing. In North America, these flexible tubing
materials are best known for their use in hydronic radiant
panel heating systems. Beyond such applications, their
temperature and pressure ratings, flexible characteristics
thermostatic operator
and long continuous lengths make them well-suited to
other types of hydronic distribution systems. air vent
panel
In North America, one or more of these flexible tubing radiator

materials is currently available in sizes from 5/16” to

2” nominal inside diameter. Of these, 3/8” to 3/4” are
dual isolation valve
the most commonly used sizes for branch circuits in
manifold-type distribution systems.
pressure! PEX, or !
regulated! PEX-AL-PEX tubing
Special fittings are available for connecting both PEX and
circulator
PEX-AL-PEX tubing to cast brass manifolds, as shown in
supply
Figure 9-12. manifold

Figure 9-12 These fittings use size common

piping for flow return
a single, wrench- velocity of 2 manifold
tightened mechanical ft/sec.
manifold station
compression nut and
collar in combination
with precision O-rings
to ensure high-quality
seals at both the tube
and manifold connection.
When selecting manifold
connection fittings, be sure
their temperature/pressure
boiler with low
rating is compatible with flow resistance
the intended operating
conditions.
The manifold station can be installed within a wall cavity,
as shown in Figure 9-14. It can also be installed under
A simple manifold-based
a floor deck or in the basement below the floor level(s)
hydronic distribution
where the heat emitters are located.
system is shown in Figure
9-13. Figure 9-14

The low-flow-resistance boiler supplies heated water

to a single manifold station. The heated water enters
the supply manifold and splits up among the various
branch circuits based on their current needs. These
branch circuits are piped with PEX or PEX-AL-PEX
tubing. Each branch serves a single heat emitter—in
this case, panel radiators equipped with thermostatic
radiator valves. The common piping that connects
the manifold station and boiler should be sized for
a maximum flow velocity of 2 feet per second to
minimize any tendency for flow in one branch circuit to
affect flow in other branch circuits.

71
Manifold-based distribution systems offer several • The flow rate in each circuit can be adjusted
advantages compared to distribution systems using independently using balancing valves built into the
rigid metal pipe. manifold station or valves attached to or integrated into
each heat emitter. Flow adjustments can compensate for
• The use of small-diameter flexible tubing allows for “overflow” in shorter circuits and prevent flow starvation
easy installation of individual circuits. This is especially in longer circuits.
important in retrofit installations where the installation of
rigid piping often requires cutting through finished walls • The flow in each circuit can be turned on or off, or
and ceilings. In many of these situations, it’s possible to modulated. On/off flow control is done using manifold
pull small-diameter flexible tubing through confined spaces, valve actuators. The upper (return) manifold shown in
much like flexible electrical cable can be “snaked” from one Figure 9-16 is equipped with 4 of these actuators.
point to another within a building (see Figure 9-15).
Figure 9-16
Figure 9-15

• They supply water at approximately the same

temperature to each heat emitter. Thus, heat emitters Manifold valve actuators are powered by a 24 VAC
can all be selected based on the same design load supply thermostat circuit. When screwed into place over a
water temperature. Each heat emitter also receives equal manifold valve, they force the valve’s shaft to its closed
water temperature reduction in systems using outdoor position. When 24 VAC electrical power is supplied to the
reset control. actuator, it retracts its stem and allows the spring-loaded
manifold valve to open.
• Manifold systems, when combined with either
thermostatic radiator valves or individual room • Manifold distribution systems that use either on/
thermostats, allow room-by-room temperature off or modulating flow control through each circuit
control. This allows each heat emitter to adjust its are ideally suited to ECM-based pressure-regulated
output to compensate for internal heat gains created by circulators. Figure 9-17 shows how fin-tube baseboard
sunlight, people or equipment. It also allows each room can be supplied using a manifold distribution system in
to be adjusted for individual temperature preferences or combination with thermostatic radiator valves. This type of
unoccupied temperature setbacks. installation is faster, easier and often less expensive than
installing fin-tube baseboard using soldered copper tubing.
• They allow a variety of heat emitters to be used in
the same distribution system. Heat emitters such as • Adaptability to Variable-Speed Pressure-Regulated
fin-tube baseboard, panel radiators, fan-coils and towel Circulators. All manifold systems that use valves to
warmers can all be combined into the same system, each regulate flow through branch circuits need a means of
on their own branch circuit, provided they are all sized to differential pressure control. It can be provided by a
operate at the same supply water temperature at design differential pressure bypass valve or use of a pressure-
load conditions. regulated circulator. The latter scenario is becoming

72
 Figure 9-17
TRV

TRV

TRV

TRV
angle pattern TRV

pressure ! PEX, or !
regulated! PEX-AL-PEX
circulator tubing

1/2" PEX-AL-PEX to !
3/4" copper adapter

increasingly popular as new ECM (Electronically requires a flow rate of 5 gpm. Under these conditions, the
Commutated Motor) circulators become available in pressure drop around the circuit is 5.51 psi. If this flow
North America. Such circulators are ideal for manifold- and differential pressure requirement is provided by a
type distribution systems. They automatically control typical wet rotor circulator with a wire-to-water efficiency
differential pressure and significantly reduce electrical of 22%, the electrical wattage required to maintain
power consumption under partial-load conditions. circulation is 54.4 watts.

• Lower operating cost: The parallel branches of For comparison, Figure 9-19 shows a manifold distribution
a manifold distribution system often create less system designed to provide the same heating load. Each
total flow resistance than series or diverter tee-type branch circuit consists of 1/2” PEX tubing and a 20-foot
distribution systems. This reduces the electrical power length of 3/4” fin-tube baseboard. The equivalent length
required to maintain circulation, both at design load of each branch circuit is assumed to be 120 feet of 1/2”
conditions when all circuits are active, as well as during PEX tubing. The manifold is supplied with 180ºF water
part-load conditions when some circuits are off and a through 1” copper tubing. At a flow rate of 5 gpm, this
variable-speed pressure-regulated circulator is used. distribution system only develops a pressure drop of 1.68
psi. Assuming a circulator with the same 22% wire-to-
The system shown in Figure 9-18 is a typical series loop water efficiency was used, the electrical wattage required
consisting of five baseboards. Each is sized to deliver to maintain circulation would be 16.6 watts, less than one
10,000 Btu/hr when the circuit is supplied with 180ºF third that required by the series loop system.
water. The loop is constructed of 3/4” copper tubing
and fittings. It’s assumed to follow the perimeter of a 30’ If each distribution system operated 3,000 hours per year in
x 50’ house. With fittings factored in, this circuit has a a location where electrical energy costs 12 cents per kwhr,
total equivalent length of 280 feet. Delivering a total of the annual electrical savings associated with the manifold
50,000 Btu/hr with an assumed temperature drop of 20ºF system would be approximately $13.60. If this cost inflated

73
 by 4% each year, the total savings
Figure 9-18 over 20 years would be $405.
we = electrical wattage

0.4344 × f × ∆ P 0.4344 × 5.0 × 5.51 f = flow rate (gpm)
This comparison is based on the
we = = = 54.4watts ∆P = differential pressure (psi)

nw/w 0.22 nw/w = wire-to water efficiency of circulator nominal 22% peak wire-to-water
efficiency of a constant speed PSC-
180 ºF based wet rotor circulator. Beyond
10,000 Btu/hr! 10,000 Btu/hr!
17 ft fin-tube 18 ft fin-tube this scenario is the possibility of
using a variable-speed pressure-
regulated circulator for the manifold
5.0 gpm 10,000 Btu/hr!
system. These circulators have
19 ft fin-tube
demonstrated the ability to reduce
pressure drop at ! 10,000 Btu/hr! electrical energy usage by 60% or
5.0 gpm = 5.51 psi 20 ft fin-tube more, relative to constant-speed,
160 ºF PSC-based wet rotor circulators.
10,000 Btu/hr!
22 ft fin-tube

280 ft x 3/4" copper! idronics #5 provides additional

total equivalent length information on zoning using
manifold valve actuators.

Figure 9-19 10,000 Btu/hr!

20 ft fin-tube

10,000 Btu/hr!
20 ft fin-tube

10,000 Btu/hr!
20 ft fin-tube

10,000 Btu/hr!
20 ft fin-tube

10,000 Btu/hr!
20 ft fin-tube

each branch is equivalent !

to 120 ft x 1/2" PEX

0.4344 ( 5.0 ) (1.68 )

we = = 16.6watt
0.22

180 ºF differential pressure!

bypass valve!
(closed at design load)

5.0 gpm
pressure drop at ! 160 ºF
5.0 gpm = 1.68 psi

common piping!
is 10 ft x 1"
copper

74
BASICS OF BALANCING: seeks both hydraulic equilibrium and thermal equilibrium.
Many of the distribution systems discussed in this section The operating conditions will also be determined, in part,
use valves to regulate flow through two or more branch by the characteristics of the heat emitters and circulator
circuits. In most cases, the flow rates through these used in the system.
branch circuits need to be different due to differing heat
delivery requirements. Considering that there are often hundreds, if not thousands,
of piping and heat emitter components in a system, and
The term “balancing” describes the process by which the that nearly all of them have some influence on flow
flow rate in each branch of such systems is adjusted so rates and heat transfer rates, it is readily apparent that a
that it is at or close to the flow required for proper heat theoretical approach to balancing can be complicated.
delivery. However, in many cases, it is sufficient to have a clear
understanding of how and why certain conditions exist or
Most hydronic heating professionals agree that balanced develop within a system, even without numbers to show
systems are desirable. However, opinions are widely the exact changes. Such an understanding can guide
varied on what constitutes a balanced system. The the balancing process in the field and help the balancing
following are some of the common descriptions of a technician avoid mistakes or incorrect adjustments that
properly balanced system: delay or prevent a properly balanced condition from
being attained.
• The system is properly balanced if all simultaneously
operating circuits have the same temperature drop.

• The system is properly balanced if the ratio of the flow

idronics #8 provides an in-depth discussion of several
rate through a branch circuit divided by the total system
methods of hydronic balancing along with the proper
flow rate is the same as the ratio of the required heat
placement and adjustment of balancing valves.
output from that branch divided by the total system heat
output.
Figure 9-20
• The system is properly balanced if all branch circuits are
identically constructed (e.g., same type, size and length
of tubing; same fittings and valves; same heat emitter).

• The system is properly balanced if constructed with a

reverse return piping layout.

• The system is properly balanced if the installer doesn’t

receive a complaint about some rooms being too hot
while others are too cool.

While some of these definitions of proper balancing

are related, none of them is totally correct or complete.
It follows that any attempt at balancing a system is
pointless without a proper definition and “end goal” for
the balancing process. The following statement correctly
identifies the end goal of balancing a hydronic system:

A properly balanced hydronic system is one that

consistently delivers the proper rate of heat transfer
to each space served by the system.

Balancing hydronic systems requires simultaneous

changes in the hydraulic operating conditions (e.g.,
flow rates, head losses, pressure drops), as well as the
thermal operating conditions (e.g., fluid temperatures,
room air temperatures) of the system. These operating
conditions will always interact as the system continually

75
10: CONTROL CONCEPTS AND HARDWARE
Figure 10-1
The control subsystem is the “brain” of any hydronic
heating or cooling system. It determines exactly when

heating load (Btu/hr)

and for how long devices such as circulators, burners,
compressors and mixing valves will operate. Even the design load
best hydronic heat source, distribution system and heat
emitters, cannot provide proper comfort without a well-
planned control strategy.
gray area represents heating load

This section gives an overview of the basic controllers (a) time (hr)
used in modern hydronic heating systems. It also provides
information on how the heat output of a system responds
to changes in water temperature, as well as changes in
flow rate, which is also essential when planning control

heating load (Btu/hr)

strategies.
all red shaded areas represent heat input
design load
CONTROLLING HEAT OUTPUT:
There are several ways to regulate the rate of heat
delivery from a hydronic system to the building it serves.
Fundamentally, they can be categorized as follows:

• Turn the heat source and distribution circulator on and off

(b) time (hr)
• Regulate the temperature of the water supplied to the
heat emitters any given time
• Regulate the flow rate of water passing through heat
emitters.

ON/OFF CONTROL OF HEAT SOURCE:

Many of the heat sources (e.g., boilers, heat pumps, etc.) Ideally, the total
used in residential and light commercial hydronic systems red shaded area
have only two operating modes: on or off. Whenever the would equal the
heat source is on, it produces heat at a fixed rate. When total area under the load profile
total gray shaded
the heat source is off, it produces no heat output. Such area out to any
heat sources require a simple on/off control signal from any given time point in time.
their controller. This is typically provided by the closing
and opening of an electrical contact.

The total amount of heat added to the system over time is

regulated by periodically turning the heat source on and
off. This is illustrated in Figure 10-1.

Figure 10-1a shows a hypothetical heating load profile

(e.g., the rate of heat delivery required by the load over total area of the rectangles

time). The load begins at zero, rises at a constant rate to

its maximum design value and then decreases back to
half its design value. The time over which this occurs can rate of heat delivery is constant whenever the heat source
be assumed to be a few hours. is on. In this case, that rate matches the design load (e.g.,
the maximum required load).
Figure 10-1b shows how a heat source operated by an on/
off controller supplies heat to this load. The red-shaded The width of the rectangles increases as the load
rectangles represent heat input from the heat source. The increases. This means that the duration of the on-cycle is
height of the rectangles remains the same because the increasing. When design load occurs, the rectangle remains

76
uninterrupted. Since the heat source is sized to the design
load of the building, it must operate continuously whenever Figure 10-2
design load conditions exist. As the load decreases, the
rectangles become narrower. When the load stabilizes at
50% of design load, the width of the rectangles remains
constant. Under this condition, the heat source is on 50%
of the time. When on, its rate of heat output is twice the
rate at which the building requires heat.

The area of each red-shaded rectangle represents the

quantity of heat delivery by the heat source during its
on cycle. Ideally, the gray-shaded area under the load
profile, from when the load begins and out to some point
in time, exactly equals the total area of the red-shaded
rectangles over that same time. This implies that the total
heat production of the heat source exactly matches the
total load over that period.

The match between heat output and heating load at low

and medium load conditions is not ideal. For example,
consider the time when the load is very small. Under such
conditions, the heat source sends short pulses of heat
to the load. The height of these pulses corresponds to
the full heating capacity of the heat source, which under
partial load conditions may be several times higher than
the load.
VENT

In heating systems with low thermal mass, this on/off

cycling of the heat source is often noticeable and generally
undesirable. A forced-air furnace with a constant-speed
blower and fixed firing rate is an example of such
a system. Under partial load conditions, the furnace high thermal mass heat source:!
produces its full rate of heat output whenever it is on. 400 lbs. cast iron!
Since the air in the building, along with the metal in the 10 gallons of water!
furnace’s heat exchanger, provides very little thermal (total thermal mass = 130 Btu/ºF)

mass for absorbing this heat, the air temperature in the

building increases quickly. When the thermostat reaches
its setpoint temperature, its contacts open and the The heat source is assumed to be a small cast iron boiler.
furnace is turned off. An operating cycle could be as short The heat exchanger in a typical small cast-iron boiler
as 2 or 3 minutes under partial-load conditions. contains approximately 400 pounds of cast iron and
10 gallons of water. The combined thermal mass of the
During this time, the occupants sense the rapidly changing metal and water allow the boiler to continue delivering
room air temperature and usually do not like it. These heat to the zoned distribution system for several minutes
short operating cycles repeat themselves as long as the after the burner has turned off. After the boiler’s thermal
load persists at its present level. mass has cooled by several degrees, the burner is turned
back on and will likely operate for several minutes before
Many hydronic systems, especially those having high the water temperature leaving the boiler can again climb
thermal mass embodied by the heat source, buffer tank high enough to turn the burner off. This prevents “short
or high mass heat emitters, have an advantage in this cycling” of the burner. Longer on-cycles also improve
respect. Their greater thermal mass can temporarily combustion efficiency and reduce emissions.
absorb some of the surplus heat output generated by the
heat source and spread out its delivery over time. This Systems with low-mass heat sources, such as certain
helps stabilize room temperatures. The system shown in types of mod/con boilers or water-to-water heat pumps,
Figure 10-2 is an example. often require additional mass to prevent short cycling.

77
 Figure 10-3

to / from! to / from!
earth loop buffer tank

TXV

low thermal mass! low thermal mass!

mod/con boiler heat pump

sensor!
in well

Figure 10-4

VENT

high thermal mass !

ThermoCon tank:!
50 gallons of water!
(total thermal mass = 417 Btu/ºF)

This added mass can be provided through use of a buffer tank, as shown in Figure
10-3.

Buffer tanks, such as the Caleffi ThermoCon tank shown in Figure 10-4, can be
sized to provide a specific minimum on-cycle. A commonly accepted minimum
on-cycle for boilers and heat pumps is 10 minutes. Appendix B provides relatively
simple formulas for determining the required volume of the buffer tank based on
the heat capacity of the heat source, and a specified minimum on-cycle.

78
ON/OFF SETPOINT TEMPERATURE CONTROL: Both the setpoint and differential are adjustable on most
Many control actions in hydronic systems are initiated and temperature setpoint controllers used in hydronic heating
terminated based on temperature. An example would be and cooling systems. Setting the differential involves a
burner operation in an on/off gas-fired boiler. When there compromise: The greater the differential, the longer the
is a “call” for heat by some other controller in the system, on and off cycles of the controlled device will be. This
control authority is given to the boiler’s high-limit controller. is generally considered beneficial to the life expectancy
If the water temperature in the boiler is at or below the of devices such as burners or compressors. However,
current “setpoint” of the high-limit controller minus a the wider the differential, the greater the variation in
specific “differential,” the burner is turned on. When (and temperature between the desired setpoint and what
if) the water temperature in the boiler reaches the setpoint the temperature may be at any given time. If the actual
temperature of the high-limit controller, the burner is temperature varies too far from the setpoint, comfort and
turned off. This control action is illustrated in Figure 10-5. efficiency may be negatively affected.

A typical room thermostat is also a temperature setpoint

Figure 10-5 controller. When the room air temperature drops slightly
contacts open
typical temperature response below the setpoint of the thermostat, it closes its electrical
contacts to initiate a “call” for heat from the remainder
setpoint temperature!
of the system. When the room air temperature rises and
approaches the setpoint, the thermostat’s contacts open
temperature

differential
to stop further heat generation by the heating system.
setpoint - differential!
contacts close FLOATING CONTROL:
time Floating control was developed to operate motorized
valves or dampers that need to be powered open as well
NOTE: differential below setpoint
as powered closed. In hydronic heating systems, floating
control is commonly used to drive 3-way and 4-way
The “differential” of a setpoint temperature controller motorized mixing valves.
is the difference in temperature between where the
electrical contacts on the controller close and when they
open. Some setpoint temperature controllers place the Figure 10-7
differential below the setpoint, as shown in Figure 10-5. For 3-wire cable
example, if the setpoint of the controller is 140ºF and the contact to !
differential is 10ºF, the electrical contacts on the controller open valve valve!
would close when the temperature being sensed drops actuator!
to 130ºF (e.g., 140ºF - 10ºF differential). These contacts motor
controller
would reopen if and when the temperature rises to 140ºF. open
power com.
close
Figure 10-6
contacts open
typical temperature response contact to !
close valve
setpoint temperature! mixing!
valve
temperature

differential

contacts close
time
NOTE: differential centered on setpoint

Other setpoint controllers center the differential on the

setpoint temperature, as shown in Figure 10-6. In this case,
if the setpoint was 140ºF and the differential was 10ºF, the
contacts would close at 135ºF and reopen at 145ºF.

79
Figure 10-7 shows how a controller operating with floating 10 VDC modulating valve is shown in Figure 10-8. Notice
control would be wired to a typical motorized mixing valve that 24 volts AC power must also be supplied to the valve
(an example of which is seen below the schematic). to power the motor and the actuator’s circuitry. Likewise,
a variable-speed pump that is controlled by a 2 to 10 VDC
With floating control, the controlled device is always in or 4 to 20 milliamp signal typically requires line voltage
one of three possible states: (120 VAC) to supply operating power.

1. The controlled device is opening

2. The controlled device is closing Figure 10-8 120 VAC
3. The controlled device is holding its current position

These states are created by the status of two normally

transformer
open relay contacts within the controller, as seen in modulating!
valve!
Figure 10-7. One electrical contact closes to drive the actuator
controlled device’s actuating motor in a clockwise (CW) 24 VAC
modulating!
direction. The other electrical contact closes to drive controller 24 VAC
the actuator motor counterclockwise (CCW). Only one common common
contact can be closed at any time. The actuating motor
driving the controlled device turns very slowly. Some 2-10 VDC 2-10 VDC
actuating motors can take up to three minutes to rotate
the shaft of a valve or damper over its full rotational range
of 90 degrees. This slow operation is desirable, since it
allows the sensor ample time to provide feedback to the
controller for stable operation.

Floating control is sometimes also called “3-wire control” 3-way mixing valve
because three wires are required between the controller
and the actuating motor of the controlled device.
The reason these control signals do not begin at zero
MODULATING TEMPERATURE CONTROL: voltage or current is to prevent electrical interference
Some control actions used in hydronic heating systems or “noise” from affecting the controlled device. This
require gradual changes within a predetermined range. electrical noise can come from nearby motors, electrical
For example, depending on the current heating load, wiring or certain types of lighting.
the firing rate of a burner in a mod/con boiler may need
to vary from full output down to about 20% of that CONTROLLING HEAT OUTPUT
output. Another example would be where the speed of FROM HEAT EMITTERS:
a circulator has to vary from completely off to full speed. There are two fundamental methods of controlling the
These control actions are provided by controllers with heat output of hydronic heat emitters:
modulating output signals.
1. Vary the water temperature supplied to the heat emitter
Modulating controllers output a continuous electrical while maintaining a constant flow rate through the heat
signal, either 2 to 10 volts DC or 4 to 20 milliamp current. emitter.
The value of this voltage or current within its overall range
is what determines the response of the controlled device. 2. Vary the flow rate through the heat emitter while
For example, a controller output signal of 2 volts or less maintaining a constant supply water temperature to the
supplied to a motor is “instructing” the motor to remain heat emitter.
off. A 10-volt DC signal to the same motor means that it
should be operating at full speed. A signal of 6 volts DC, Both approaches have been successfully used in many
which is 50% of the overall range of 2 to 10 volts, means types of hydronic heating applications over several
that the motor should be running at 50% of full speed. decades. It is important for system designers to understand
the differences, as well as the strengths and weaknesses,
Keep in mind that these variable DC outputs are for of each approach.
control only and do not supply the electrical power to
drive the device. For example, the typical wiring of a 2 to

80
VARIABLE WATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL: If one assumes a desired room air temperature of 70ºF,
The heat output of any hydronic heat emitter is the graph shown in Figure 10-9 can be modified to that
approximately proportional to the difference between shown in Figure 10-10.
supply water temperature and room air temperature. This
can be represented mathematically as Formula 10-1: Figure 10-10
25000
Formula 10-1
Room air temperature!
20000 assumed to be 70 ºF
where:

Heat output (Btu/hr)

15000
Qo = rate of heat output from heat emitter (Btu/hr)
k = a constant dependent on the heat emitter used
Ts = fluid temperature supplied to the heat emitter (ºF) 10000
Tr = air temperature of room where heat emitter is located (ºF)
5000
A graph of Formula 10-1 is a straight line, as shown in Figure
10-9. For this graph, the value of “k” in Formula 10-1 is 250.
0
Figure 10-9 70 80 90 100 110 120130 140150 160 170
Supply water temperature (ºF)
25000

The only difference is that the supply water temperature

20000 is now shown on the horizontal axis. This proportional
relationship between supply water temperature and
Heat output (Btu/hr)

heat output holds true, as a reasonable approximation,

15000
for most hydronic heat emitters. It is an important
characteristic in the context of another control technique
10000 called outdoor reset control.

OUTDOOR RESET CONTROL:

5000
As outdoor temperatures change, so does the heating
load of a building. Ideally, every heating system would
0 continually adjust its rate of heat delivery to match its
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 building’s current rate of heat loss. This would allow inside
(Ts-Tr) (ºF) air temperature to remain constant regardless of outside
conditions. Outdoor reset control was developed to do
If water is supplied to the heat emitter at room this by changing the temperature of the water supplied to
temperature (whatever that temperature happens to be), the system in response to outdoor temperature.
there will be zero heat output from the heat emitter. As
the temperature of the water supplied to the heat emitter An outdoor reset controller continuously calculates the
climbs above room air temperature, its heat output also ideal “target” supply water temperature to a hydronic
increases. This graph shows that when the supply water system. This temperature depends on the type of heat
temperature is 50ºF above the room air temperature, the emitters in the system, as well as the current outdoor
heat emitter will release 12,500 Btu/hr into the room. If temperature. It therefore has the potential to change from
the supply water temperature climbs to 100ºF above the one moment to the next.
room’s air temperature, the heat emitter releases 25,000
Btu/hr into the room. Thus, doubling the temperature Outdoor reset controllers use Formula 10-2 to calculate the
difference doubles the heat output. target water temperature that (ideally) should be supplied
to a given hydronic distribution system at any given time.
The slope of the line in such a graph depends on the
characteristics of the heat emitter. The greater the ability Formula 10-2
of the heat emitter to release heat at a given supply water
temperature, the steeper the slope of the line.

81
Where: no load conditions (e.g., where no heat output is needed
from the heat emitters). The sloping line that connects
Ttarget = the “ideal” target supply water temperature to the these two dots is called the reset line.
system
Tindoor = desired indoor air temperature The reset ratio (RR) is the slope of the reset line. It is
RR = reset ratio (slope of reset line) found by dividing the vertical temperature difference
between the red dot and blue dot by the horizontal
The reset ratio (RR) is determined as follows: temperature difference between the same dots. For the
case represented in Figure 10-11, the reset ratio is:
Formula 10-3

Where: The graph of a reset line can be used to find the target
water temperature for any outdoor temperature. First,
Twd = required supply water temperature to distribution locate the outdoor temperature on the horizontal axis.
system at design load Next, draw a vertical line up to intersect the reset line.
Twnl = water temperature supplied to distribution system Finally, draw a horizontal line from this intersection
at no load to the vertical axis and read the required target water
Tad = outdoor air temperature at design load temperature. For example, when the outdoor temperature
Tanl = outdoor air temperature at no load is 10ºF, the reset line in Figure 10-11 indicates the target
supply water temperature is 100ºF.
The graph in Figure 10-11 is a good way to visualize these
relationships. The target water temperature can also be determined by
entering the outdoor temperature into the formula for the
The red dot in the upper right portion of the graph reset line. For the line shown in Figure 10-11, the target
represents design load conditions (e.g., the coldest day water temperature when the outdoor temperature is 10ºF
of winter). The blue dot in the lower left corner represents would be:

Figure 10-11 Tanl ! Tad

120
design load conditions
IMPLEMENTING OUTDOOR RESET CONTROL:
There are three ways to implement outdoor reset control
target supply temperature (ºF)

110 in hydronic systems:

• Heat source reset (for on/off heat sources)

100 • Heat source reset (for modulating heat sources)
or
) • Mixing reset
tdo
-T ou
Twd ! Twnl

90 70
) ×( These techniques can be used individually or together.
0.5 ine
+( et
l
80 70 s HEAT SOURCE RESET
= re
ge
t (FOR ON/OFF HEAT SOURCES):
T tar
The temperature of water supplied to a distribution
no load conditions
70 system can be controlled by turning a heat source such
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 as a boiler or heat pump on and off.
Outdoor temperature (ºF)
The graph in Figure 10-12 illustrates the control logic
(T ! Twnl ) = (110 ! 70 ) = 40 = 0.5
RR = wd
used by a reset controller that controls an on/off heat
(Tanl ! Tad ) ( 70 ! [ !10 ]) 80 source. The sloping blue line represents the “target
temperature” (e.g., the ideal supply water temperature
Ttarget = 70 + ( 0.5 ) × ( 70 - Toutdoor ) for the distribution system over a range of outdoor
temperatures). For example, if the outdoor temperature

82
 most outdoor reset controllers. Smaller control
Figure 10-12 differentials reduce the variation in supply water
temperature both above and below the target
heat source is off temperature. However, if the control differential
130 is too small, the heat source will cycle on and
Supply water temperature (ºF)

control differential = 10ºF off excessively. This is not good for the life of
120
components such as boiler ignition systems or
110 heat pump compressors and contactors.
105
contacts on reset controller!
100 open to turn off heat source HEAT SOURCE RESET
90 calculated target temperature
(FOR MODULATING BOILERS):
Many modern boilers, and even some
80 contacts on reset controller! heat pumps, can adjust their heat output
close to turn on heat source
over a relatively wide range. This is called
70
heat source is on
modulation, and it allows the heat source to
60
better match the heating load. Modulation
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 reduces issues such as short cycling and
Outdoor temperature (ºF) temperature variations that are more common
in systems using on/off heat sources.

is 10ºF, the blue line in Figure 10-12 indicates a target Modulating heat sources usually have their
temperature of 105ºF (as indicated by the blue dot). own internal outdoor reset controllers. They continually
measure outdoor temperature, calculate the target supply
When the reset controller is powered on, it measures water temperature and compare it to the measured
both outdoor temperature and the current supply supply water temperature. Deviations between these
water temperature. It then uses the measured outdoor temperatures cause the internal reset controller to regulate
temperature, along with its settings, to calculate the target the speed of the combustion air blower on a modulating
temperature. Then it compares the calculated target boiler or compressor speed on a modulating heat pump.
temperature to the measured supply water temperature. The goal is to keep the measured supply temperature
very close to the calculated target temperature.
If the measured supply water temperature is equal or
close to the target temperature, no control action is taken. MIXING RESET:
However, if there is sufficient deviation between these Outdoor reset control can also be implemented by a
temperatures, the reset controller takes action. mixing assembly such as 3-way and 4-way mixing valves
or a variable-speed injection mixing pump. The logic
The settings represented in Figure 10-12 would result used for mixing reset is similar to that already described
in the following control actions when the outdoor for modulating heat sources. The outdoor temperature
temperature is 10ºF: is measured. The target temperature is then calculated.
The measured supply temperature is then compared
• If the water temperature supplied to the distribution to the target temperature. The deviation between these
system is above 100ºF (e.g., 105 less one half the temperatures determines the output signal from the
differential of 10ºF), the contacts in the reset controller reset controller to the mixing assembly. The goal is the
remain open and the heat source remains off. same—to keep the water temperature supplied to the
distribution system at, or very close to, the calculated
• If the water temperature supplied to the distribution target temperature.
system is below 100ºF, the contacts in the reset controller
close to turn on the heat source. Once turned on, the heat
source would remain on until the water supplied to the
distribution system reaches 110ºF (105 plus one half the
idronics #7 provides a complete description of the
control differential) or higher.
benefits of outdoor reset control. It also shows
several ways to implement outdoor reset control
The 10ºF differential between the temperatures at which
using various mixing hardware.
the heat source is turned on and off discourages short
cycling. The value of the differential can be adjusted on

83
CONTROLLING HEAT OUTPUT USING FLOW RATE: This “non-linear” relationship between heat output and
The flow rate through any heat emitter affects its heat flow is typical of all hydronic heat emitters. It tends to make
output. The following principle always applies: adjusting heat output with a valve more complicated than
what one might assume. For example, as a technician
The faster a heated fluid passes through a heat emitter, first begins closing a standard globe valve that is used
the greater the rate of heat transfer, all other conditions for balancing a hydronic circuit, there is relatively little
being equal. change in the heat output of the circuit. However, when
that valve is only 10% to 25% open, small adjustments
It might seem intuitive to assume that heat transfer from will yield relatively large changes in heat output.
a heat emitter increases in proportion to flow rate through
it (i.e., doubling the flow rate through the heat emitter Special types of valves with equal percentage characteristics
would double its heat output). Unfortunately, this is not have been developed to compensate for the rapid rise in
true. The rate of change of heat output from any hydronic heat output low flow rates. These valves allow flow rate to
heat emitter is a strong function of flow rate. At low flow rise very slowly as they first start to open. The farther the
rates, heat output rises rapidly with increasing flow, but valve stem is opened, the faster flow through the valve
the greater the flow rate becomes, the slower the rate of develops. The resulting combination provides a more
increase in heat output. proportional relationship between the position of the valve
stem and the rate of heat output from the heat emitter
To illustrate this, consider the situation shown in Figure being regulated by the valve, as shown in Figure 10-14.
10-13, which shows the heat output of a typical radiant
floor circuit versus the flow rate through it. This circuit is
supplied with water at a constant temperature of 105ºF. Figure 10-14
flow rate vs. % valve stroke!
for equal percentage valve
Figure 10-13
% heat output vs.% valve stroke

7000 6860 % heat output vs. flow rate!

for heat emitter
6180
6000 100
105ºF!
constant! 90
heat output (Btu/hr)

5000 inlet temp.

80
% of heat output

4000 70
60
3000 2950
50
2000 40
300 ft x 1/2"!
PEX circuit in! 30
1000 4-inch bare slab, !
12-inch! 20
tube spacing
0 10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0
circuit flow rate (gpm) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

% of stroke
The circuit’s maximum heat output of 6,860 Btu/hr occurs
at the maximum flow rate shown (2.0 gpm). Decreasing
the circuit’s flow rate by 50% ( to 1.0 gpm) decreases its
heat output to 6,180 Btu/hr, a drop of only about 10%.
Reducing the flow rate to 10% of the maximum value (to idronics 8 provide a detailed discussion of how equal
0.2 gpm) still allows the circuit to release 2,950 Btu/hr, percentage valves are constructed and used to
about 43% of its maximum output. control heat output.

84
 around 130ºF for gas-fired boilers),
mixed supply the mixing assembly restricts the
Figure 10-15 temperature!
rate at which heat is allowed to
sensor
pass from the boiler loop to the
distribution system. Providing this
protection requires the mixing
mixing! distribution assembly to continually monitor
assembly
system boiler input temperature.
VENT

boiler loop

THERMODYNAMICS OF
MIXING:
The first law of thermodynamics
states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed—only changed in
form. This principle always holds
boiler inlet
temperature!
true when flow streams are mixed
sensor together in hydronic heating
systems. In such applications, it is
conventional convenient to express the first law
boiler as follows:

The rate of heat flow into a mixing

MIXING FUNDAMENTALS:
assembly must equal the rate of heat flow out of the
The water temperature supplied to a hydronic distribution
assembly.
system is often controlled by a device that blends hot
water from the heat source with cooler water returning
It is also true, based on a principle called conservation
from the distribution system. An example would be water
of mass, that the flow rate of an incompressible fluid
supplied at 140ºF from the storage tank of a solar thermal
entering any fluid-filled component in a hydronic system
system being blended with water at 90ºF returning from
must equal the flow rate leaving that component.
a radiant floor distribution system in proportions that
Common hydronic system fluids like water or a mixture
create a supply water temperature of 110ºF back to the
of water and antifreeze are incompressible, and thus this
distribution system.
relationship must hold true. For a mixing assembly, it can
be stated as:
In hydronic systems, mixing takes place within a “mixing
assembly.” This assembly can be composed of several
The total flow rate of fluid entering a mixing device must
different devices, such as valves, controllers or variable-
equal the total flow rate of fluid leaving the mixing device.
speed circulators. However, the thermodynamics of mixing
are independent of the specific hardware used within
When these two physical relationships are combined
the mixing assembly. Thus, the mixing assembly can be
mathematically, the result is a simple but powerful
considered as a “bridge” between the heat source loop and
formula for determining the temperature on the outlet side
the distribution system, as shown in Figure 10-15. Notice
of any mixing device. It is stated in Formula 10-4:
that all heat passing from the heat source to the distribution
system must pass through the mixing assembly.
Formula 10-4
PURPOSE(S) OF MIXING:
One purpose of all mixing assemblies is to provide the
proper supply water temperature to the distribution system.
Where:
When a conventional boiler (e.g., a boiler that requires
Tmix = resulting temperature of the mixed fluid stream
protection against sustained flue gas condensation)
T1 = entering temperature of fluid stream #1
serves as the heat source, the mixing assembly must also
T2 = entering temperature of fluid stream #2
provide that protection. It typically does so by sensing the
ƒ1 = flow rate of fluid stream #1
water temperature entering the boiler. If that temperature
ƒ2 = flow rate of fluid stream #2
is at or below some present minimum value (usually

85
 Figure 10-16 Figure 10-17
f2 T2
170 ºF ? ºF
T1 Tmix
f1 f1 +f2 5 gpm 13 gpm

110 ºF
8 gpm
3-way!
T1 Tmix mixing!
f1 f1 +f2 valve

f2 T2
VENT

T1
f1
tank
Tmix
f1 +f2
T2
f2

The temperatures and flow rates used in Formula 10-4

can be expressed in any consistent system of units.
This formula applies to water and other fluids, such as idronics #7 provides a more in-depth discussion of
antifreeze solutions, provided the same type of fluid mixing, including a wide variety of hardware devices
enters both inlets to the mixing assembly. that can be used to build the mixing assembly.
This formula also holds true regardless of the physical
device in which the fluid streams come together. It PRIORITIZED LOADS:
applies to a tee, a tank, or any type of mixing valve, as There are many hydronic heating systems that supply
illustrated in Figure 10-16. more than just space heating. Some common “ancillary”
loads include domestic water heating, snowmelting and
Example: Hot water is supplied from a conventional pool heating. When designing the heat source for such
boiler at a temperature of 170ºF and flow rate of 5 gpm. It systems, some designers add up all the heating capacity
flows into the hot port of a 3-way mixing valve as shown required by all of these loads, assuming they might
in Figure 10-17. Cooler water returns from the distribution operate at the same time, then size the heat source to
system at 110ºF and 8 gpm. Determine the mixed supply supply the total.
water temperature to the distribution system under these
conditions. Although this practice might seem intuitive, it is very
seldom necessary. The diversity of when these loads
Solution: Enter the values for temperature and flow rate require heat, as well as the timespan over which they
of each entering fluid stream entering into Formula 10-4 can accept heat, often allows the heat source to be sized
and solve: significantly smaller than the total of all connected loads.
This, in combination with “prioritized load management,”
allows for lower installed cost and higher operating
efficiency.

86
 Figure 10-18 to/from!
space heating loads

(P2) (P3)

DHW
circulator!
(P1) hot
water
cold
purging! water
valves

tank!
thermostat!
(T1)
VENT

indirect water heater

Prioritized load management refers to assigning a specific Consider the system shown in Figure 10-18. It consists of
“priority” to each of the connected loads. The higher the two space heating zones, each operated by independent
priority of the load, the sooner it will receive available heat circulators (P2) and (P3). Domestic hot water is provided
from the heat source. by an indirect water heater with internal heat exchanger.
Circulator (P1) operates to move hot boiler water through
One of the most common scenarios in hydronic systems this heat exchanger whenever the tank’s thermostat
is assigning top priority to domestic water heating, along calls for heat.
with subsequent priority to space heating. Loads such
as pool heating are generally assigned lower priority If priority is to be given to domestic water heating,
because their high thermal mass allows for gradual circulators (P2) and (P3) must turn off when circulator (P1)
temperature changes over several hours. Thus, they can is operating. The ladder diagram in Figure 10-19 shows
accept heat from the heat source at almost any time of the relay logic used to do this.
day without undergoing temperature changes of more
than a few degrees. Upon a call for heat from the tank thermostat (T1), the coil
of relay (R1) is powered on by the 24 VAC circuit. Relay
Priority control can be accomplished using hard-wired contact (R1-1) closes to supply line voltage to the DHW
relay logic or with a prebuilt multi-zone relay center that circulator. This contact also supplies 120 VAC to power-
includes priority logic. The latter is the fastest and easiest on a time delay relay (TD-1). This time delay relay uses
way to implement priority control. a “delay-on-make” configuration. As such, its normally

87
 when relay (R1) is powered on. This interrupts 24 VAC to
Figure 10-19 all space heating thermostats, which turns off any active
L1 N
space heating zones.

At this point, the domestic water heating load is active,

all space heating zones are off and the timer in relay
main!
(TD-1) is counting towards 30 minutes. If the domestic
time delay relay!
switch
water thermostat is satisfied within 30 minutes, relay
TD (R1) is turned off and 24 VAC is resupplied to the space
heating thermostats. If the domestic water thermostat
R1-1 is not satisfied within 30 minutes, the normally open
contact (TD-1), wired in parallel with contact (R1-2),
closes. This re-establishes 24 VAC to the space heating
DHW!
circulator P1 thermostats and allows the domestic water heater to
R2-1 (priority load) continue operating. This latter function is called priority
override. It prevents a long-term “lockout” of space
heating in the event that the domestic water heating load
space heating!
circulator P2 cannot be satisfied.
R3-1

space heating!
circulator P3 idronics #11 provides a more in-depth discussion of
prioritized loads in combination with high capacity,
hydronic-based domestic water heating.

120/24 VAC transformer

DHW tank thermostat

R1

T1
This NO contact closes after
R1-2

the time delay is completed

TD-1 reestablishing power to
space heating thermostats.

R2

T2
heating thermostat
R3

T3
heating thermostat

open contacts will only close after a preset time has

elapsed. For priority DHW control, this time is typically
set for 30 minutes.

Another relay contact associated with relay (R1) is located

in the low voltage portion of the ladder diagram. The
contacts (R1-2) are normally closed. As such, they open

88
11: EXAMPLES OF MODERN SYSTEM #1:
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS This system uses a mod/con boiler in combination
with a manifold-based distribution system serving panel
Previous sections have described the building blocks of radiators and a towel warmer radiator. The heat output of
modern hydronic systems. This section combines the each panel radiator and the towel warmer is regulated by
principles and hardware discussed in previous sections a thermostatic radiator valve.
into full systems.
A 25-gallon Caleffi ThermoCon buffer tank interfaces the
Although there are virtually unlimited ways to combine boiler to the distribution system. It provides hydraulic
design concepts and hardware into working systems, separation between the boiler circulator (P1) and the
the designs presented in this section are focused on variable-speed pressure-regulated distribution circulator
the most modern and cost-effective concepts. These (P3). The thermal mass of this tank also helps prevent
designs are also built around common residential and boiler short cycling when only one of the panel radiators
light commercial building requirements. is operating.

towel
Figure 11-1 warmer
air radiator
vent
thermostatic operator

air
vent
panel
radiator

TRV
dual isolation valve

mod / con boiler

hot
(P1)
(P2)

water PEX, or !
PEX-AL-PEX tubing
cold
pressure!
water
regulated!
circulator

temperature! (P3)
dip tube

sensor manifold
station

indirect water heater ThermoCon! VENT

buffer tank

89
The boiler is operated by its internal outdoor reset The “heat-enabled” status of the system can be invoked
controller. This controller monitors the temperature several ways. One is to enable the system whenever the
sensor installed in a well within the buffer tank whenever outdoor temperature drops below a preset value, such
the system is “heating enabled.” The boiler operates as as 60ºF. Some boiler controllers provide this function.
necessary to maintain the buffer tank at an appropriate Another is to install a manually operated switch in the
temperature based on outdoor temperature. Thus, living space, and thus turn control over to the occupants.
whenever the system is heating enabled, warm water is A third way is to enable heating using a “master
available to flow to any panel radiator with a partially open thermostat” located within the living space. Whenever
(or fully open) thermostatic valve. the indoor temperature drops slightly below the setting of
this master thermostat, its contacts close to enable the
The distribution circulator (P3) is set for constant system to begin heating operation.
differential pressure control. As such, it maintains a
consistent pressure difference between the supply and In summary, this system takes advantage of modern
return manifolds. As more thermostatic radiator valves concepts such as a high thermal efficiency mod/con boiler,
open, the differential pressure across the manifolds low wattage pressure-regulated distribution circulator,
attempts to drop. However, the circulator senses this and outdoor reset control, small-diameter flexible distribution
compensates by immediately increasing its speed so that tubing, prioritized domestic water heating and “wireless”
the set differential pressure is restored. The value of this room-by-room zoning using thermostatic radiator valves.
pressure differential would be that required when all the
thermostatic radiator valves are fully open.

Domestic water heating is handled as a prioritized load

based on the logic within the boiler circuitry. When the idronics #5 provides a broad discussion of manifold-
thermostat monitoring the water temperature in the based distribution systems, as well as variable-speed
indirect water heater calls for heat, the control logic within pressure-regulated circulators.
the boiler automatically stops supplying heat to the buffer
tank by turning off circulator (P1). The boiler targets a SYSTEM #2:
higher setpoint temperature that has been preset for When a building contains multiple types of heat emitters,
domestic water heating mode. The boiler’s internal it is often necessary to create a distribution system that
control circuitry also turns on circulator (P2) to create can simultaneously deliver multiple water temperatures.
flow through the heat exchanger of the indirect water The schematic in Figure 11-2 is an example of such a
heater. The system remains in this mode until either the system.
water temperature in the indirect tank reaches the desired
setpoint or the time limit on the domestic water heating Heat is supplied by a conventional gas-fired boiler. As
mode expires, in which case space heating resumes. discussed in section 6, such boilers require protection
from sustained flue gas condensation. This protection
There is no need to stop circulator (P3) from operating is provided by a high flow capacity thermostatic mixing
during the domestic water heating mode. It can draw valve (Caleffi 280). When the boiler undergoes a cold
upon the thermal mass of the buffer tank to supply heat start, this valve recirculates water leaving the boiler’s
to the radiators. outlet port, back to its inlet port. No hot water is allowed
to pass farther into the distribution system. This allows
The panel radiators are sized so that they can supply the boiler to warm above the dewpoint temperature of
design load heat output at a supply water temperature its flue gases as soon as possible and remain above that
of 130ºF, and flow rates that correspond to a design dewpoint for the remainder of its operating cycle.
load temperature drop of 20ºF. Thus, their average water
temperature at design load is 120ºF. The relatively low Once the boiler is operating at a temperature hot enough
water temperatures allow the mod/con boiler to operate to prevent flue gas condensation, the thermostatic valve
with sustained flue gas condensation, and thus high allows hot water to flow onward to the Caleffi HydroLink.
thermal efficiency, under both design load and partial-load This device combines a hydraulic separation chamber
conditions. Selecting the radiators around a low design with two high flow capacity manifold chambers. All
water temperature also “future-proofs” the distribution heating loads are supplied from and returned to the
system. It enables other low-temperature heat sources HydroLink. The hydraulic separation chamber on the left
such as solar collectors or heat pumps to potentially be side of the HydroLink prevents the load circulators from
used as a replacement for the original heat source. interfering with each other.

90
The indirect domestic water heater is supplied directly The three space heating subsystems each operate at
from the HydroLink. Thus, it received water at or close different water temperatures. This schematic shows three
to the temperature of the water leaving the boiler. possible mixing assemblies that could be used to create
Domestic water heating is treated as the priority load. these temperatures.
The other three load circulators would not operate
while domestic water heating is active. Also note that The panel radiators are supplied from a manifold station
the circulator supplying the indirect water heater is that is equipped with electric valve operators on each
equipped with an internal check valve to prevent reverse circuit. These operators allow flow through their respective
circulation when the water heating load is off, but other circuits when energized with a 24 VAC electrical signal from
loads are on. associated thermostats. Because different circuit valves

Figure 11-2

zoned
distribution
system

(single zone)!
medium temperature
manifold valve actuators distribution system

differential pressure bypass valve

outdoor
temperature! 3-way thermostatic mixing valve 3-way thermostatic mixing valve
sensor

3-way thermostatic mixing valve!

(boiler protection)

HydroLink

boiler loop outdoor!

reset!
130 ºF

controller

hot
water
cold
3-way motorized! water
mixing valve

conventional boiler

(single zone)! indirect water heater

low temperature !
floor heating

91
will be open at different times, it is necessary to regulate motorized mixing valve and floating control actuator rather
differential pressure across the manifold. This is handled by than a thermostatic mixing valve. This allows full reset of
a differential pressure bypass valve that is integrated into the supply water temperature based on the current outdoor
the mixing assembly (Caleffi 163 HydroMixer) attached to temperature. It also allows the possibility of constant
the HydroLink. The 163 HydroMixer also reduces the water circulation through the radiant panel circuits, which is
temperature supplied to the manifold using an integrated preferred by some designers. An outdoor reset controller
thermostatic mixing valve. that supplies a 3-wire floating output signal is used to
operate the motorized actuator on the 167 HydroMixer.
The medium-temperature radiant panel circuits in the
upper right corner of the schematic operate as a single
zone. As such, no differential pressure regulation is
necessary. Mixing is again handled by a Caleffi 163
HydroMixer, but without the differential pressure bypass
idronics #15 provides more information on the
subassembly.
HydroLink.
The lower temperature radiant panel circuits in the lower idronics #7 provide more information on mixing in
left of the schematic also operate as a single zone. hydronic systems.
The mixed water temperature supplied to these circuits
is created by a Caleffi 167 HydroMixer, which uses a

outdoor!
Figure 11-3 sensor

Mixng valve
controller w/!
outdoor reset

Caleffi !
distribution
station 172

pressure
regulated! quicksetter!
circulator valves

hot (P1)
water circulator!
w/ check
cold
water boiler inlet temperature sensor
(P2) inline flow check

VENT

indirect water heater

conventional boiler

92
SYSTEM #3: SYSTEM #4:
In residential applications, it’s common to see a conventional The benefits of hydronic systems can be merged with
boiler supplying low-temperature floor heating to a several types of renewable energy heat sources. One of
basement slab, while also supplying higher temperature the most common applications is to use an array of solar
water to heat emitters, such as fin-tube baseboard, on the thermal collectors as the heat source for a system that
first and second floors. The need for domestic hot water provides both space heating and domestic hot water.
rounds out the requirement. The system shown in Figure Such systems are called “combisystems” and typically
11-3 provides a state-of-the-art solution. include an auxiliary heat source for times when the solar
collector array cannot provide all the heat needed. The
This system contains 3 zones of fin-tube baseboard, system in Figure 11-4 is an example of a solar thermal
each controlled by zone valve. The zones have differing combisystem.
amounts of baseboard, and thus likely need to operate at
different flow rates. Each circuit is therefore equipped with This system uses drainback freeze protection of the
a Caleffi 132 QuickSetter, which combines a flow meter collector array. When the differential temperature controller
with a balancing valve. These valves can be adjusted as senses that the collectors are a few degrees warmer than
necessary to achieve the required “design” flow rates in the water in the lower portion of the Caleffi ThermoCon
each circuit. storage tank, it turns on the collector circulator (P1).
Water is driven up through the collector array, and air is
The low-temperature floor heating circuits in the pushed back down into the upper portion of the storage
basement are supplied by a Caleffi 172 distribution tank. Flow is sustained between the lower portion of
station. This station combines a motorized 3-way the storage tank and the collector array, as long as the
mixing valve, circulator, supply and return manifolds latter is a few degrees warmer than the lower storage
and a flow bypass connection that provides hydraulic tank. When this condition is no longer true, the collector
separation between the circuit supplying hot water to circulator turns off and water in the collector array drains
the station and the circulator within the station. An back to the storage tank. Air from the upper portion of
outdoor reset controller with a floating output signal the storage tank moves back into the collector array
is used to control the motorized 3-way mixing valve. and associated piping. It is imperative that all piping
This controller also measures the water temperature between the collector array and storage tank be sloped a
entering the boiler, and if necessary, reduces hot water minimum of ¼ inch per foot to ensure complete drainage.
flow into the 3-way mixing valve to ensure the boiler All collector circuit piping should also be insulated to
does not operate with sustained flue gas condensation. minimize heat loss, especially to unconditioned space.
Note the position of the boiler inlet temperature sensor.
In this location, the sensor detects how all operating The water temperature at the top of the storage tank is
loads affect the boiler inlet temperature. monitored by the auxiliary boiler. This boiler fires when
necessary to maintain the upper portion of the storage
Flow to all space heating circuits is provided by a tank at a temperature high enough to supply domestic
variable-speed pressure-regulated circulator that is set water at the expected temperature. If solar input to the
to maintain a constant differential pressure between the tank is sufficient to maintain this temperature, there is no
supply and return manifolds. As zone valves open up, this need for the boiler to operate.
circulator automatically increases speed to maintain the
fixed differential pressure, and vice versa. Domestic water is heated instantaneously whenever a hot
water faucet is opened. When the domestic water flow
Flow to the indirect water heater is provided by a fixed- rate reaches 0.5 gpm, the contacts of a flow detecting
speed circulator. If domestic water heating is to be a switch close. This completes an electrical circuit that
priority load, the space heating circulator (P1) is turned allows the circulator (P3) to operate. Hot water from the
off during the domestic water heating cycle. If no load top of the storage tank immediately flows through the left
priority is used, circulators (P1) and (P2) can operate side of the stainless steel brazed plate heat exchanger,
simultaneously. Either scenario is possible depending on as cold domestic water flows into the right side of this
the preferences of the designer and occupants. heat exchanger. Heat is immediately transferred to the
entering cold water, and it leaves the heat exchanger at
The inline flow check valve on the return header prevents a temperature high enough for delivery to the faucets. An
heat migration into that header. This is especially beneficial ASSE 1017 thermostatic mixing valve with a maximum
in warm weather, when domestic water heating is likely to outlet temperature setting of 120ºF ensures that scalding
be the only active load. hot water will not be delivered to the faucets in the event

93
 Figure 11-4
towel warmer
air vent radiator
thermostatic operator
Caleffi!
Starmax V!
drainback
panel
collectors
radiator

TRV
auxiliary boiler dual isolation valve

all collector piping

must slope minimum
of 1/4" per ft.

PRV
air return tube
air
return! diverter valve
min. tube
outdoor!
water temperature!
level drainback and sensor PEX, or !
expansion volume (P2) A B PEX-AL-PEX
2" AB (P4) tubing
sight tube

upper!
(P3) hot cold
storage! water water pressure! manifold
temperature!
regulated station
(iSolar)! sensor
circulator
differential! flow
temperature! (P1) switch closely spaced tees
controller

lower!
storage!
temperature!
sensor

inline
flow
stainless steel!
check brazed plate!
heat exchanger

ThermoCon storage tank

the storage tank is at a very high temperature. When the As the storage tank temperature drops, the boiler fires
faucet is closed, the flow switch opens its contacts and and the diverter valve reroutes flow through the boiler
circulator (P3) turns off. (from port AB to port A). Boiler operation can be
simultaneous with either space heating or domestic
When there is a demand for space heating, circulator water heating, or it could occur when neither load is
(P2) operates to move hot water from the top of the active, simply to maintain the tank at a suitable minimum
storage tank through the diverting valve (from port AB temperature for domestic water heating. Circulator (P2)
to port B) and on to a pair of closely spaced tees. These operates whenever the boiler is firing.
tees provide hydraulic separation between circulator
(P2) and circulator (P4). Hot water is drawn into the The thermal mass of the heated water in the storage tank
3-way motorized mixing valve, which operates based on provides excellent buffering of the zoned distribution
outdoor reset control to provide the required supply water system, and thus prevents the boiler from short cycling.
temperature to the manifold-based distribution system. This thermal mass also provides reserve capacity for
(P4) is a variable-speed pressure-regulated circulator domestic water heating.
that maintains a constant differential pressure across
the manifold station that supplies each panel radiator. Any air captured by the vertical air separator is returned
Flow through each radiator is managed by a thermostatic to the storage tank through the air return tube. This is an
radiator valve. essential detail. It represents “air control” rather than “air

94
elimination” and helps maintain the slight air pressurization SYSTEM #5:
within the system. If necessary, air can be added to the top Geothermal heat pumps can provide both heating and
of the storage tank to maintain this pressurization. cooling. A reversible water-to-water geothermal heat
pump is well-suited as the heating and cooling source
The captive air volume at the top of the tank also absorbs for a hydronic distribution system. The system shown in
the expansion volume changes of the system’s water as Figure 11-5 shows one example.
its temperature varies. There is no need of a separate
expansion tank. Also note that there is no automatic This system allows for multiple heating zones, along with
makeup water subassembly within this system. Instead, a single zone of cooling. The latter is accomplished using
water can be added or removed through a drain valve at an appropriately sized chilled water air handler equipped
the bottom of the storage tank. The water level within the with a drip pan.
tank is monitored by a transparent sight tube seen at the
left of the storage tank. Whenever an on/off heat pump is used as the heat
source for a zoned hydronic distribution system, a buffer
tank must be used to prevent the heat pump from short
cycling. The buffer tank stabilizes the system when the
idronics #6 provides a broad discussion of rate of heat generation by the heat pump is significantly
drainback-protected as well as other types of different from the rate of heat dissipation by the zoned
solar thermal combisystems. distribution system.

Figure 11-5
CW

DHW P&TRV

electric!
heating!
element
chilled water!
air handler to / from
other heating
all piping carrying
zones
chilled water!
must be
insulated and
vapor sealed

water heater
diverting!
valve
heating mode

variable-speed!
Comp.

pressure-regulated!
temperature!
circulator
sensor
reversing!
valve
evaporator

condenser

TXV

reversible!
water-to-water! ThermoCon
heat pump buffer tank
VENT

geothermal
manifolds

purging!
valves

earth loop circuits

95
The buffer tank also provides hydraulic separation between removal from the air and prevent the heat pump from
the circulator on the load side of the heat pump and the short-cycling.
variable-speed circulator in the distribution system.
The heat pump is also shown equipped with a
The size of the buffer tank depends on the acceptable desuperheater heat exchanger for preheating domestic
minimum run time of the heat pump and the allowed water. Desuperheaters are an option offered by several
temperature differential of the tank between when the manufacturers of water-to-water heat pumps. They
heat pump turns on and when it turns off. Appendix B are refrigerant-to-water heat exchangers that receive
gives the necessary formulas for determining the size of the highest temperature refrigerant gas directly from
the buffer tank. the compressor and transfer heat from that gas to a
stream of domestic water being circulated through the
The heat pump is turned on and off by an outdoor reset desuperheater.
controller that monitors the temperature of the buffer tank
whenever the system is in heating mode. Whenever the
temperature of the storage tank drops below a calculated
lower limit, the heat pump and its two associated idronics #9 provides a broad discussion of
circulators are turned on. When the tank reaches a hydronic heating and cooling systems designed
calculated upper temperature limit, the heat pump and around geothermal heat pumps.
circulators are turned off.
SYSTEM #6:
Because the buffer tank is not active during the cooling
With the increasing cost of conventional fuels, boilers
mode, the total cooling capacity of the air handler must
that burn firewood or wood pellets have become
be matched to the cooling capacity of the heat pump at
increasingly popular, especially in rural areas. Modern
a chilled water supply temperature not lower than 45ºF.
wood gasification boilers, when properly operated with
This will allow the air handler to provide good moisture
dry wood, can yield thermal efficiencies approaching

Figure 11-6 towel warmer

air vent radiator
thermostatic operator

panel
radiator

TRV
auxiliary boiler dual isolation valve

diverter valve

outdoor!
temperature!
sensor PEX, or !
(P2) A B PEX-AL-PEX
AB (P4) tubing

upper!
(P3) hot cold
storage! water water pressure! manifold
temperature!
regulated
bypass

sensor station
circulator
flow
switch closely spaced tees

(P1)

inline
ThermoBloc™ flow
stainless steel!
check brazed plate!
wood gasification boiler heat exchanger

ThermoCon storage tank

96
90%. However, to attain such performance, they must SUMMARY:
operate at a high burn rate. In this mode, they often The systems shown in this section are but a sampling
produce heat at rates significantly higher than the current of thousands of possible variations involving different
space heating requirement of the building they serve. The heat sources, heat emitters and distribution systems.
solution is to install a thermal storage tank. They are meant to convey state-of-the-art concepts
in combination with high quality hardware. The reader
With the exception of some pellet-fired boilers, wood- is strongly encouraged to reference previous issues
fired boilers cannot automatically start themselves. Thus, of idronics for additional information on specific heat
there will likely be times when heat is needed by the sources, as well as several other types of systems
building, or perhaps for domestic hot water, and the designed around those heat sources.
wood-fired boiler is not operating. To accommodate
these situations, many systems incorporate an auxiliary
boiler that can automatically turn on to provide space
heating and domestic water until the output of the wood-
fired boiler is sufficient to cover the load.

The system shown in Figure 11-6 provides a thermal

storage tank, as well as an auxiliary boiler.

From the ThermoCon storage tank out through the

distribution system, this schematic is identical to the
schematic in Figure 11-4. The only difference is that
a wood gasification boiler serves as the primary heat
source rather than an array of solar collectors.

The piping leading into wood gasification boiler is equipped

with a Caleffi ThermoBloc anti-condensation device. This
device combines a circulator and thermostatic mixing
valve. It operates whenever the wood gasification boiler
is operating and prevents the boiler from operating with
sustained condensation of the flue gases it produces.
This reduces the possibility of creosote formation within
the boiler.

During a power failure, the ThermoBloc also allows

thermosyphon flow between the storage tank and boiler.
This flow dissipates residual heat that continues to be
generated (albeit at a much lower rate) within the boiler.

If the wood gasification boiler can maintain the thermal

storage tank at a temperature sufficient to provide domestic
hot water and space heating, the auxiliary boiler will not
operate. If the tank temperature drops due to insufficient
heat from the wood gasification boiler, the auxiliary boiler
automatically fires to maintain a minimum accepted water
temperature at the top of the storage tank.

idronics #10 provides a broad discussion of

hydronic heating and cooling systems designed
around wood- and pellet-fired boilers.

97
APPENDIX A: Schematic symbols

GENERIC COMPONENTS CALEFFI COMPONENTS

3-way motorized
circulator mixing valve DISCAL central!
air separators !

circulator w/! 4-way motorized

isolation flanges ! mixing valve inline check valve
manifold station with
balancing valves
union
float-type! 3-way !
circulator w/! air vent thermostatic mixing
internal check valve! valve
& isolation flanges ! swing check valve

backflow
spring-loaded!
VENT
preventer
gate valve check valve
pressure-
reducing!
globe valves purging valve valve distribution!
station
ball valve pressure-
reducing!
pressure gauge valve
(3/4")
primary/secondary!
fitting
pressure
relief zone valve!
(2 way) geothermal!
valve
manifold!
hose bib! station
drain valve pressure &
temperature
relief valve zone valve! Starmax V!
(3 way) thermostatic! solar collector
diverter tee
radiator valve

cap metered
thermoelectric!
balancing thermostatic!
zone valve!
valve radiator valve
(2 way)

pressure! dual isolation!

diaphragm-type ! relief valve valve for!
brazed !
expansion tank panel radiators
plate! ThermoCon!
heat ! buffer!
exchanger differential ! tanks (4 sizes)
pressure!
bypass valve

DIRTCAL!
dirt separator
panel radiator Hydro
with dual
isolation valve Separator

Comp.

DIRTMAG!
dirt separator
heating mode

reversible!
water-to-water!
heat pump

mixing units!
(2 configurations)
reversing! DISCALDIRT! DISCALDIRT!
conventional boiler
valve air & dirt! air & dirt!
separator separator
evaporator

condenser

FLOCAL!
balancing!
TXV valve

QuickSetter!
balancing! solar!
valve w/! circulation!
flowmeter station

motorized!
ball valve! Hydrolink!
(2 way) (3 configurations)
Modulating / condensing boiler

motorized!
ball valve!
high temperature!
(3 way)
solar 3-way thermostatic!
high temperature! mixing valve
solar DISCAL !
air separators !
isolar !
differential
boiler! temperature
high temperature!
protection! controller
solar pressure!
valve
relief valve!

high temperature! high

solar air vent temperature!
ThermoBloc™
solar !
high temperature! expansion!
shut-off valve for! tank
wood-fired boiler solar air vent
indirect water heater (with trim)

98
APPENDIX B: Buffer tank sizing

The size of the buffer tank used in a system is determined

by the desired “on-time” of the heat source and the
acceptable temperature rise of the water in the buffer
tank during this on-time. The on-time is that time between
when the heat source turns on to begin warming the tank
and when it turns off after lifting the tank temperature
through the acceptable temperature rise. Formula B-1
can be used to determine tank size.

Formula B-1

Where:
Vbtank = required volume of buffer tank (gallons)
t = desired on-time for heat source (minutes)
QHP = heating output of heat source (Btu/hr)
QL = any heating load served by buffer tank while
charging (Btu/hr)
∆T = allowed temperature rise of tank during heat source
on-time (ºF)

Example: Determine the size of a buffer tank that will

absorb 48,000 Btu/hr while increasing in temperature from
90ºF to 110ºF during a heat source on-cycle of 10 minutes.
There is no heating load on the tank during this charging.

Solution: The temperature rise (∆T) is 110-90 = 20ºF. Putting

this and the remaining data into Formula B-1 yields:

If the allowed temperature rise was 10ºF, rather than 20ºF,

the required tank volume would double to 96 gallons. If
the desired on-time was only 5 minutes rather than 10
minutes, the volume would be cut in half. Anything that
increases the desired on-time or decreases the allowed
temperature rise during this on-time will increase the
required tank volume, and vice versa.

The same formula can be used to determine the size of a

buffer tank used for cooling. The value of QHP would be
the cooling capacity of the heat pump. The value of ∆T
would be the allowed temperature drop in the tank during
this on-time.

99
 A JOURNAL OF DESIGN INNOVATION
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renewable energy professionals to aid them in system design, component application and
selection. The popular and frequently referenced publication is written by engineers and
oriented towards innovative design techniques with a commitment to continuous education
of North American professionals.

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