Pre Calculus

PRECALCULUS
Jay-R H. Leonidas
Myla Mae P. Balala
1
This module is exclusive to Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
CONIC SECTIONS
Learning Competency:
 Illustrate the different conic sections: circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, and degenerate
cases.
Conic Section is described as the intersection of a plane and a double-napped cone. It can be
formed by slicing a cone with a plane. When the plane does not pass through the vertex of the
cone, Circle, Parabola, Hyperbola, and Ellipse are form.
CIRCLE ELLIPSE PARABOLA HYPERBOLA

Ellipse is form Parabola is form Hyperbola is form
Circle is form when a
when a plane cuts when the plane cuts when the plane cuts
plane cuts the cone
the cone not from the side from one base to the
parallel to the base.
parallel to the base. through the base. other.
These are all called conic sections because they are literally cross section of a cone. We can also
describe conics using its eccentricity. Eccentricity (e) is the term that describes how much a conic
section deviates from being perfectly circular.
 The eccentricity of circle is e = 0
 The eccentricity of ellipse is 0 < e <1
 The eccentricity of parabola is e = 1
 The eccentricity of hyperbola is e > 1
Degenerate Conics
Planes does not necessarily intersect the cone without passing through the vertex. When
the plane passes through the vertex of the cone, degenerate conics such as point, a line, and two
lines are form.
Defining Conic Sections

There are two general ways to define conics. Algebraically, in terms of the general
second-degree equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + F = 0 and as a locus, or collection, of
points satisfying a certain geometric property i.e (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2. In this module, we
will be dealing more with the conics as defined by its locus.
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Equations of a Circle
In this module you will learn the two different forms of equation of a circle. After you read,
practice, and review the lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 define circle;
 determine the standard and general equation of a circle; and
 graph the equation of a circle in the rectangular plane.
CIRCLE
Circle is the locus of points from a plane that is equidistant from a fixed r
point P called center. The distance from the center to any point on the circle
P
is called the radius denoted by r.
STANDARD EQUATION OF A CIRLCE

If we place a circle in a rectangular plane, any point on the circle will have a coordinate of (x, y).
Subsequently, we could label the center as the point (h, k).
Using the Distance Formula, we can algebraically represent the
equation of a circle.
(x,
r
d  ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 )2
(h, Notice that the distance d from the center (h, k) to the point (x, y) is
the radius itself of the circle. Hence, we can have
( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r
Squaring both side, we get the standard Equation of a Circle:
( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2
whose center is (h, k) and a radius r. Moreover, if the center of the circle is at the origin where h
= 0 and k = 0 given the radius r, then the standard from will be:
Example 1:
 Write the standard equation of the circle with center at (2, -1)
3
and radius of 3. (2, -1)
Solution:
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 Write the standard equation of a circle.

(x – 2) + (y – (–1)) = 3 Substitute 2 for h, –1 for k, and 3 for r.
2 2 2
(x – 2)2 + (y +1)2 = 9 Simplify.

Answer: The standard equation of the circle is (x – 2)2 + (y +1)2 = 9.
3
Example 2:
 Graph (x – 1)2 + (y +2)2 = 4 in a rectangular plane.
Step 1: Rewrite the equation to standard form.
(x – 1)2 + (y +2)2 = 22 2
Step 2: Find the center and the radius. (1, 2)
Center: (1, 2); radius: 2
Step 3: Plot in the rectangular plane.
You can do this!
1. Find the equation of the circle given the center

and radius. Then, graph in the rectangular plane.
 center (3, 5); radius 3
 center (2, -2); radius 4
GENERAL EQUATION OF A CIRLCE

The general equation of a circle can simply be found by expanding the standard equation of a
circle.
Expanding the equation in Example 1 which is:
(x – 2)2 + (y +1)2 = 9,
we have:
x2 – 4x + 4 + y2 – 2x + 1 = 9 or
x 2 + y2 – 4x – 2y – 5 = 0.
Hence, we can say that equation above is now in the form
x2 + y2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0
Note that there is no term in xy and the terms x2 and y2 have the same coefficient which is equal to
1. The center of the circle in general equation is given by:
C  D
center  ,  , and radius r  1 C 2  D 2  4 E .
 2 2  2
Example 3:
 Find the center and radius the circle x2 + y2 – 6x + 4y – 12 = 0, then graph.
4
Solution:
  C  D    (6)  (4) 
Center =  , =  ,  = (3,2)
 2 2   2 2 
(3, -2)
Radius = 1 C 2  D 2  4 E
2
5
= 1 (6) 2  (4) 2  4(12) =5
2
Answer: The center of the circle x2 + y2 – 6x + 4y – 12 = 0 is (3, 2) and radius of 5.
If the equation is given in general form, we can use completing the square to find the standard
equation of the circle. Example 4 will show you how to find the standard equation of a circle given
an equation in general form.
Example 4:
 Find the standard equation of the circle x2 + y2 – 3x + 2y – 6 = 0 by completing the
square. Then, identify its center and radius.
Solution:
x2 + y2 – 3x + 2y – 6 = 0 Write the equation.
(x2 – 3x) +( y2 + 2y) – 6 = 0 Collect the terms in x and y.
b
2
(x2 – 3x ± __) +( y2 + 2y ± __) – 6 ± __± __ = 0 Complete the square  

 2a 
(x2 – 3x + 9 ) +( y2 + 2y + 1) – 6 – 9 – 1= 0 Subtract the completing term
4 4
from the constant.
(x – 3 ) 2 +( y + 1) 2 – 37 = 0 Simplify.
2 4
(x – 3 ) 2 +( y + 1) 2 =
 37  2
Rewrite.
2 2
Answer: The standard equation of the circle x2 + y2 – 3x + 2y – 6 = 0 is
(x – 3 ) 2 +( y + 1) 2 =
 37  2
with center at ( 3 ,1) and radius of

 37  2
.
2 2 2 2
You can do this!

1. Identify the center and radius of the following equations.
Then, sketch the graphs.
 x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y – 20 = 0
 x2 + y2 + 2x – 3 = 0
 3x2 + 3y2 – 6x + 9y + 5 = 0
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2. Rewrite the following equations of a circle from general form to standard form.
 x2 + y2 + 8y – 33 = 0
 4x2 + 12x + 4y2 + 16y – 11 = 0
PRECALCULary: Equations of a Circle
1. In the coordinate plane, the standard equation of a circle with (x, y)

center (h, k) and a radius r is
(x - h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 r
2. The general equation of a circle is x2 + y2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0,
(h, k)
C  D
center is given by  ,  , and radius r  1 C 2  D 2  4 E .
 2 2  2
3. You can use completing the square to transform equations of a circle from general
form to standard form.
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Parabola
 define parabola;
 determine the standard and general equation of a parabola; and
 graph the equation of a parabola in the rectangular plane.
PARABOLA
Parabola is the set of all points (x, y) in a plane that are
equidistant from a fixed line called the directrix and a fixed point
called the focus (not on the line). The midpoint between the
focus and the directrix is called the vertex, and the line passing
through the focus and the vertex is called the axis of symmetry
of the parabola.
The axis of symmetry is always perpendicular to the directrix.
The distance from the vertex to the focus is the focal length |p|.
The latus rectum lr, which is a line passing through the focus and
is parallel to the directrix, dictates how wide the parabola opens are given by lr = 4p.
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STANDARD EQUATION OF A PARABOLA
Using the definition above, we can derive the standard equation of a parabola. Given the vertex of
the parabola at the origin (0, 0), opening upward with focus at (0, p) and directrix at y = –p.
By Distance Formula, we can get the distance d1 from the
focus (0, p) to any point R (x, y) on the parabola. Thus,
d1  ( x  0) 2  ( y  p) 2  x 2   y  p 
2
d1 R (x,
(0, p)
y) On the other hand, the distance from point R (x, y) to the
directrix is the difference of y-values such that;
(0,0) d2
y = –p
d 2  y  (  p)  y  p
Bear in mind, the distance from focus to any point R on the parabola denoted by d1 is equal to the
distance d2 from the point R on the parabola to the directrix. Hence:
x 2   y  p
2
= y p Square both sides.
x 2  ( y  p) 2 = ( y  p ) 2 Expand
x 2  y 2  2 py  p 2 = y 2  2 py  p 2 Combine like terms

= 4 py
x2
This is now the standard equation of a parabola with vertical axis of symmetry (opening upward
and downward) and vertex at the origin and focus at (0, ±p). The negative sign (–) in the focus (0,
–p) denotes that the parabola opens downward.
Case 1. Parabola with Vertical Axis of Symmetry (Opening Upward)
Endpoints of
Latus (2p, p) and (–2p, p)
2
x = 4py Rectum
Directrix y = –p
(0, p)
(–2p, (2p, p)
p) p Focus (0, p)
(0,0)
y = –p Equation x2 = 4py
Example 1:
 Find the standard equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and directrix of y = –
1.
Solution:
The given directrix which is y = –1 (p = 1) tells us that
the parabola opens upward with vertex at (0, 0). From
here, we can see that the focus is at (0, 1) and the
endpoints of the latus rectum are (2, 1) and (–2, 1).
x2 = 4y
Solving for the equation:

x2 = 4py Standard form of a parabola with vertical axis.
(0, 1)
2
x = 4(1) y Substitute the value of p. Then, simplify. (–2, 1) (2, 1)
x2 = 4y (0,0)
y = –1
Answer: The standard equation of the parabola with
vertex at the origin and directrix of y = –1 is x2 = 4y.
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Case 2. Parabola with Vertical Axis of Symmetry (Opening Downward)
Endpoints of (2p, –p) and (–2p, –p)
Latus Rectum
y=p
Directrix y=p (0,0)
p
(–2p, –p) (0, –p) (2p, –p)
Focus (0, –p)
Equation x2 = 4py
x2 = –4py
Example 2:
 Write the standard equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and focus at (0, –2).
Then, sketch the graph.
Solution:
The axis of the parabola is vertical, passing through (0, 0)
and (0, –2) and with focal length of 2 units downward. y=2
The endpoints of latus rectum are (4, –2) and (–4, –2). (0,0)
Solving for the equation: (0, –2)
x2 = 4py Standard form of a parabola with vertical axis.
(–4, –2) (4, –2)
2
x = 4(–2) y Substitute the value of p. Then, simplify.
x2 = –8y x2 = –8y
Answer: The standard equation of the parabola with vertex at
the origin and focus at (0, –2) is x2 = –8y.
Case 3. Parabola with Horizontal Axis of Symmetry (Opening to the Right)

The standard equation of the parabola with horizontal axis of symmetry opens to either to the right
or the left.
Endpoints of (p, 2p) and (p, –2p)
Latus Rectum
(p, 2p)
y2 = 4px Directrix x = –p
p
(0,0) (p, 0) Focus (p, 0)
x = –p
Equation y2 = 4px
(p, –2p)
Example 3:
 Find the standard equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and whose focus is at
(3, 0). Then, sketch the graph.
Solution:
The axis of the parabola is vertical, passing through (0, 0)
and (3, 0) and with focal length of 3 units to the right.
The endpoints of latus rectum are (3, 6) and (3, –6).
Solving for the equation:
y2 = 4px Standard form of a parabola with vertical axis.
y2 = 4(3) x Substitute the value of p. Then, simplify.
y2 = 12x
Answer: The standard equation of the parabola with vertex at the
origin and focus at (3, 0) is y2 = 12x.
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Case 4. Parabola with Horizontal Axis of Symmetry (Opening to the left)
Endpoints
of Latus (–p, 2p) and (–p, –2p) (–p, 2p)
Rectum
Directrix x=p
(–p, 0) (0,0)
Focus (–p, 0)
p
y = –4px
2
x=p
Equation y2 = –4px
(–p, –2p)
The negative sign (–) in the focus (–p, 0) denotes that the parabola opens to the left.
Example 4:
 Sketch the graph of the equation y2 = –8x.
Then, indicate its focus, directrix, and endpoints
of latus rectum. y2 = –8x
x=2
(–2, 4)
Solution:
The vertex is at (0, 0) and the parabola opens to the left. (0,0)
From equation, we can deduce that 4p = 8, thus p = 2. (–2, 0)
Essentially, focus is at (–2, 0) with directrix y = 2 and the (–2, –4)
endpoints of latus rectum are (–2, 4) and (–2, –4).
Properties of the Vertex of a Parabola

The vertex of the parabola is integral in the determination of its equation. Its properties are
illustrated below.
1. The vertex of a parabola with vertical axis of symmetry defines the maximum and
minimum points of the parabola.
Maximum Point
Minimum Point
2. The vertex is the point where the parabola turns.

3. The vertex is collinear with the focus of the parabola. Whereas, the axis of symmetry
contains both vertex and the focus.
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EQUATION OF A PARABOLA with VERTEX at (h, k)
The vertex of the parabola is not necessarily always on the origin but may be at any
coordinate (h, k). In this case, the parabola is shifted h units horizontally and k units vertically. In
effect, from the standard equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin x is substituted by (x –
h) and y is substituted by (y – k).
For instance, the vertex of the parabola is at (3, 2) which is at the Quadrant I, this means
that from the origin, the parabola shifted 3 units to the right and 2 units upward
(3, 2)
2 units
upward
(0,0) 3 units to the 3 units to the

right right
In determining the equation and the graph of a parabola with vertex at (h, k), we can follow
the same process as what we have done to determine the standard equation of a parabola with
vertex at the origin. We need to consider the vertex, focus, axis of symmetry, and directrix in order
to find the equation (See Table). Also, these facilitate easiness in graphing the parabola.
Vertical Parabola Horizontal Parabola
Vertex (h, k) (h, k)
Directrix y=k–p x=h–p
Axis of Symmetry x=h y=k
Focus (h, k ± p) (h ± p, k)
Endpoints of Latus (h + 2p, k + p) and (h + p, k + 2p) and

Rectum (h – 2p, k + p) (h + p, k – 2p)
Standard Equation (x–h)2= ±4p (y–k) (y–k)2= ± 4p (x–h)
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x=h
x=h–
(h + p, k + 2p)
(x–h)2= 4p (y–k)
(y – k)2 = – 4p(x – h)
p
p
(h, k+p) y=k
(h–2p, k+p) p (h+2p, k+p) (h, k) (h + p, k)
(h, k) (h + p, k – 2p)
y=k–p
y=k+p
(h + p, k + 2p
x=h+p
(h, k)
(y – k) = – 4p(x – h)
2
p p
(h–2p, k+p) (h+2p, k+p)
(h, k – p) y=k
(h – p, k) (h, k)
2
(x–h) = 4p (y–k)
x=h (h + p, k – 2p
Example 5:
 A parabola has its vertex at (3, 1) and a focus at (3,3). Find the equation of the parabola. The, sketch
the graph.
Solution:
Given the vertex and the focus, we can deduce that the parabola (x–1)2 = 8(y–3)
opens upward with axis of symmetry at x = 3.
(–1, 3)
With the vertex at (3, 1), h = 1 and k = 3. From the vertex
(3, 3) (7, 3)
to the focus, p = 3 – 1 = 2. Hence, directrix at y = –1.
Endpoints of Latus Rectum: (7,3) and (–1, 3). (3,1)
Plug in these values in the equation: y = –1
(x–h)2 = 4p (y–k)
(x–1)2 = 4(2) (y–3)
(x–1)2 = 8(y–3)
Answer: The equation of the parabola with vertex at (3, 1) and focus at (3, 3) is (x–1)2 = 8(y–3).
Example 6:
 Transform the equation of the parabola x= 5(y – 2)2 + 3 in standard form. Then, determine the vertex,
focus, and axis of symmetry.
Solution:
From the given equation, we can notice that the parabola is horizontal since y-term is squared. Thus, we need to
solve in terms of y.
x = 5(y – 2)2 + 3 Subtract 3 both sides by Addition Property of Equality
x – 3 = 5(y – 2) 2 1
Multiply both sides by 5 by Multiplication Property of Equality
1
(x – 3) = (y – 2)2
5
Answer:
1
The equation (x – 3) = (y – 2)2 is now in the standard equation that matches with (y–k)2 = 4p (x–h), solving for
5
1 1
p we have 4p = ;p= . We can now identify the vertex, focus, and axis of symmetry.
5 20
41
Vertex (h, k): (2, 3) Focus: ( , 3) Axis of symmetry: y = 3
20
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You can do this!
1. Find the vertex, focus, directrix, and axis of

symmetry of the following equations. Then,
sketch the graph.
 y = (x – 16)2 + 2
 y2 = 23x
 x = y2 – 14y -59
PRECALCULary: Equations of a Parabola
1. Equations of a Parabola with Vertex at the Origin (0, 0)
x2 = 4p Opening upward
x2 = –4py Opening downward
y2 = 4px Opens to the right
y2 = –4px Opens to the left
2. Equations of Parabola with Vertex at (h, k)
(x – h)2 = 4p (y – k) Opening upward

(x – h)2 = –4p (y – k) Opening downward
(y – k)2 = 4p (x – h) Opens to the right
(y – k)2 = –4p (x – h) Opens to the left
GET CONNECTED
Access your worksheet at [insert URL].
Ellipse
 define ellipse;
 determine the standard form of equation of an ellipse; and
 graph an ellipse in the rectangular plane.
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ELLIPSE
Ellipse is the set of all points R (x, y) in a plane for which the sum of the distances (d1 and d2)
from two fixed points F1 (x1, y1) and F2 (x2, y2), called foci, is a constant k.
Major Axis is the line segment passing through the

R (x, y)
foci for which the endpoints are the vertices. Its
length is defined by the distance between two
Axis
d1 d2
vertices.
F F
Vertex Vertex
Minor
1 2
Center is the midpoint between the vertices which is Major
also the midpoint between the foci. Axis
d1 + d2 = k
Minor Axis is the line segment perpendicular to the
major axis passing through the center. Minor axis
endpoints (also called co-vertices) are points on the ellipse which intersect the minor axis.
Its length is defined by the distance between the co-vertices.
STANDARD EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE

The standard form of equation of an ellipse with center at the origin depends on whether the major
axis is horizontal is horizontal or vertical. The major axis and minor axes of an ellipse has lengths
2a and 2b respectively (where 0 < b < a).
Case 1. Ellipse with Horizontal Major Axis

Minor Axis
Endpoints (0, –b) and (0, b)
2 2
x y
+ =1
(0, b) a2 b2 Vertices (–a, 0) and (a, 0)
(–c, 0) and (c, 0)
Foci where b2 = a2 – c2
(–a, 0) (–c, 0) (c, 0) (a, 0) x2 y2
+ =1
Equation a2 b2
(0, –b)
Case 2. Ellipse with Vertical Major Axis x2 y2

Minor Axis (0, a) + =1
Endpoints (0, –b) and (0, b) b2 a2
Vertices (0, –a) and (0, a) (0, c)

(0, –c) and (0, c) (–b, 0) (b, 0)
Foci where b2 = a2 – c2
x2 y2 (0, –c)
+ =1
Equation 𝑏 2 𝑎2
(0, –a)
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UNIT 2
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Lesson 2.1
REVIEW OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES
In this module you will learn about the difference between sequences and series. After you read,
 define and illustrate the series;
 determine the terms and values of a sequence;
 differentiate a series from a sequence;
 determine the value of the series.
SEQUENCES
A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers or the set {1, 2, 3, … , 𝑛}.
SERIES
A series represents the sum of the terms of a sequence.
If a sequence is finite, we will refer to the sum of the terms of the sequence as the series
associated with the sequence. If the sequence has infinitely many terms, the sum is defined
more precisely in calculus.
14
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEQUENCE AND SERIES
A sequence is a list of numbers (separated by commas), while a series is a sum of numbers
1 1 1 1 1 1
(separated by “+” or “−” sign). As an illustration, 1, − 2 , 3 , − 4 is a sequence, and 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 =
7
is its associated series.
12
The sequence with nth term 𝑎𝑛 is usually denoted by {𝑎𝑛 }, and the associated series is given by
𝑆 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
Example:
 Determine the first five terms of each defined sequence, and give their associated series.
a) {2 − 𝑛}
b) {(−1)𝑛 }
Solution: We denote the nth term of a sequence by 𝑎𝑛 , and 𝑆 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 + 𝑎5 .
a) 𝑎𝑛 = {2 − 𝑛}
First five terms: 𝑎1 = {2 − 1} = 𝟏
𝑎2 = {2 − 2} = 𝟎
𝑎3 = {2 − 3} = −𝟏
𝑎4 = {2 − 4} = −𝟐
𝑎5 = {2 − 5} = −𝟑
Associated series: 𝑆 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 + 𝑎5
𝑆 = 1 + 0 + (−1) + (−2) + (−3)
𝑆 =1+0−1−2−3
𝑺 = −𝟓
𝑛
b) 𝑎𝑛 = {(−1) }
First five terms: 𝑎1 = {(−1)1 } = −𝟏
𝑎2 = {(−1)2 } = 𝟏
𝑎3 = {(−1)3 } = −𝟏
𝑎4 = {2 − 4} = −𝟐
𝑎5 = {2 − 5} = −𝟑
Associated series: 𝑆 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 + 𝑎5
𝑆 = 1 + 0 + (−1) + (−2) + (−3)
𝑆 =1+0−1−2−3
𝑺 = −𝟓
PRECALCULary: Review of Sequences and Series

 A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers or the set
{1, 2, 3, … , 𝑛}.
 A series represents the sum of the terms of a sequence.
 A sequence is a list of numbers (separated by commas), while a series is a sum of numbers
(separated by “+” or “−” sign).
 The sequence with nth term 𝑎𝑛 is usually denoted by {𝑎𝑛 }, and the associated series is
given by
𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯+ 𝑎 .
15
Lesson 2.2
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
Arithmetic Sequence is a sequence of numbers that has a constant difference between every
two consecutive terms. In other words, arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which
each term except the first term is the result of adding the same number, called the common
difference, to the preceding term.
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
where 𝑎𝑛 is the 𝑛th term or last term of an arithmetic sequence
𝑎1 is the first term of an arithmetic sequence
𝑑 is the common difference
𝑛 is the number of terms
THE SUM OF AN ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

The associated arithmetic series with 𝑛 terms is given by
𝒏(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 ) 𝒏[𝟐𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅]
𝑺𝒏 = =
𝟐 𝟐
where 𝑆𝑛 is sum of an arithmetic sequence
𝑎𝑛 is the nth term or last term of the arithmetic sequence
𝑎1 is the first term of an arithmetic sequence
𝑑 is the common difference
𝑛 is the number of terms
Example 1:
Find the 13th term of the arithmetic sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, …
SOLUTION:
Given: 𝑛 = 13, 𝑑 = 4, 𝑎1 = 1, 𝑎𝑛 =?
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
𝑎13 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑎13 = 1 + (13 − 1)4
𝒂𝟏𝟑 = 𝟒𝟗
Example 2:
Insert 4 arithmetic means between 4 and 29
SOLUTION:
Given: 𝑎1 = 4, 𝑛 = 6(since 4 means between first and last), 𝑎6 = 29, 𝑑?
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎1 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎1 (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
=
𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎1
=𝑑
𝑛−1
29 − 4
=𝑑
6−1
𝒅=𝟓
Answer: 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, 29 𝑎1 + 𝑑 = 𝟗, 𝑎2 + 𝑑 = 𝟏𝟒, 𝑎3 + 𝑑 = 𝟏𝟗, 𝑎4 + 𝑑 = 𝟐𝟒
arithmetic means
16
Example 3:
1
Given:𝑎1 = −1, 𝑑 = 2 , 𝑎𝑛 = 2; Find 𝑛 and 𝑆𝑛
SOLUTION:
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
1
2 = −1 + (𝑛 − 1)
2
4 = −1 + 𝑛 − 1
4 = −2 + 𝑛
4+2 = 𝑛
𝒏=𝟔
𝒏(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 =
𝟐
6(−1 + 2)
𝑆𝑛 =
2
𝑺𝒏 = 𝟑
PRECALCULary: Arithmetic Sequence
 Arithmetic Sequence is a sequence of numbers that has a constant difference between

every two consecutive terms. In other words, arithmetic sequence is a sequence of
numbers in which each term except the first term is the result of adding the same
number, called the common difference, to the preceding term.
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅
 The associated arithmetic series with 𝑛 terms is given by
𝒏(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 ) 𝒏[𝟐𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅]

𝑺𝒏 = =
𝟐 𝟐
You can do this!

Solve the following
1. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is equal to 200 and the common difference is equal
to −10. Find the value of the 20th term.
2. An arithmetic sequence has a common difference equal to 10 and its 6th term is equal to
52. Find its 15th term.
3. Find the sum of the first 21 terms of the sequence 3, 7, 11, 15,…
4. How many terms of the arithmetic sequence 2, 8, 14, 20, … are required to give a sum of
660?
5. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 4 and the tenth term is 67. What is the common
difference?
17
Lesson 2.3
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
Geometric Sequence are sometimes called Geometric Progressions.
The special type of sequence below is called geometric series.
3, 6, 12, 24, …
This happens when the nest term of the series is determined by getting the common
quotient of the second term to the first, quotient of the third term to the second, quotient of
the fourth term to the third and so on or we can say each term after the first is obtained by
multiplying the preceding term by a constant called the common ratio.
6 12 24 Term Value
a) = = =2
3 6 12
𝑎1 3
b) Table
𝑎2 3(2) = 6
𝑎3 6(2) = 12
𝑎4 12(2) = 24
In the 𝑛th term of a Geometric Sequence is 𝑎𝑛 and the common ratio is 𝑟 then we have by
definition
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒓𝒏−𝟏
where 𝑎𝑛 the 𝑛th term of geometric sequence
𝑎1 the first term of geometric sequence
𝑟 the common ratio
𝑛 the number of term
THE SUM OF A GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
𝒏𝒂𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 = 𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = {𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝒊𝒇 𝒓 ≠ 𝟏
(𝟏 − 𝒓)
Another form of sum of geometric sequence is obtained by
𝒓𝒏 −𝟏 𝒓𝒂𝒏 − 𝒂𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 [ 𝒓−𝟏 ] 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 > 𝟏 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 > 𝟏
or 𝒓 − 𝟏
𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 𝒂𝟏 − 𝒓𝒂𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 [ ] 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 < 𝟏 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 < 𝟏
𝟏−𝒓 𝟏−𝒓
18
where 𝑆𝑛 = sum of geometric sequence
𝑎1 = first term of geometric sequence
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛th term or last term of geometric sequence
𝑛 = number of term
𝑟 = common ratio
Example 1:
 Given the sequence 2, 4, 8, … find the 10th term.
If we wanted to find the 10th term of the geometric sequence, we would use 𝑛 = 10
and we already found out that our first term (𝑎1 ) is 2 and common ratio is 2 using the
given definition this will give us
4 8
𝑟= = =2
2 4
SOLUTION:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎10 = 2(2)10−1
𝑎10 = 2(2)9
𝑎10 = 2(512)
𝑎10 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
Example 2:
 Insert four geometric sequence between 5 and 215
SOLUTION:
5, __________, ____________, ____________, _____________, 1215
5, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 , 1215
Since it is composed of 4 means and the first and last our 𝑛 = 6, 𝑎1 = 5 and 𝑎6 = 1215
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
1215 = 5𝑟 6−1
1215 = 5𝑟 5
1215
= 𝑟5
5
5
𝑟 = ±ξ243
𝒓 = ±𝟑
𝒓 = ±𝟑
𝑎1 𝑟 = 𝑎2 = 5(±3) = ±𝟏𝟓
𝑎2 𝑟 = 𝑎3 = ±15(±3) = 𝟒𝟓
𝑎3 𝑟 = 𝑎4 = 45(±3) = ±𝟏𝟑𝟓
𝑎4 𝑟 = 𝑎5 = ±135(±3) = 𝟒𝟎𝟓
𝑎5 𝑟 = 𝑎6 = 405(±3) = ±𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟓
Therefore 4 geometric means where 𝒓 = 𝟑 are 15, 45, 135, 405.
19
Example 3:
 Find 𝑛 and 𝑆𝑛 given 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎𝑛 = 18, 𝑟 = 3
SOLUTION:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝒂𝒏
Solve 𝑟: 𝒓𝒏−𝟏 =
𝒂𝟏
Apply the property of logarithm
𝑎𝑛
log 𝑟 𝑛−1 = log ( ) 𝒓𝒏 − 𝟏
𝑎1 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 ( ) 𝒊𝒇 𝒓
(𝑛 − 1)𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟 𝒓−𝟏
𝑎𝑛 >𝟏
= log ( ) 33
−1
𝑎1 𝑆3 = 2 ( )
𝑎 3−1
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑛
𝑛= 1
+1 33 − 1
log 𝑟 𝑆3 = 2 ( )
2
18
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 27 − 1
𝑛= +1 𝑆3 = 2 ( )
log 3 2
𝒏=𝟑 𝑺𝟑 = 𝟐𝟔
PRECALCULary: Geometric Sequence

 Geometric Sequence are sometimes called Geometric Progressions.
 In the 𝑛th term of a Geometric Sequence is 𝑎𝑛 and the common ratio is 𝑟 then we have by
definition𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒓𝒏−𝟏
 Sum of Geometric Sequence:
𝒏𝒂𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 = 𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = {𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝒊𝒇 𝒓 ≠ 𝟏
(𝟏 − 𝒓)
 Another form of sum of geometric sequence is obtained by
𝒓𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒓𝒂𝒏 − 𝒂𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 [ ] 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 > 𝟏 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 > 𝟏
𝒓−𝟏 or 𝒓−𝟏
𝒂𝟏 − 𝒓𝒂𝒏
𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 < 𝟏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 [ ] 𝒊𝒇 𝒓 < 𝟏 𝟏−𝒓
𝟏−𝒓
You can do this!

Solve the following:
1. Find the 18th term of a geometric sequence with a first term of 5 and a common ratio of 3.
2. Find all terms between 𝑎1 = −5 and 𝑎4 = 135 of a geometric sequence.
3 1 1 1 1
3. Find the sum of the geometric series , , , , .
2 2 6 18 54
4. Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the given sequence 4, −8, 16, −32, 64, …
5. Calculate the 10th term of the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, …
20
Lesson 2.4
SIGMA NOTATION
In this module you will learn about how to use sigma notation to represent series. After you read,
 expand sequences from sigma notation;
 evaluate sums using sigma notation;
 apply the properties of sigma notation.
SIGMA NOTATION
The sigma notation is a convenient way in writing the shorthand method of getting the
sums. To represent the sum of terms in sequence, the Greek letter 𝜎 (sigma) is used for this
purpose.
Generally, the summation has the form:

𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑖)
𝑖=𝑚
where the 𝑛 the upper bound or call the ending point
𝑚 the lower bound or call the beginning point
𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers with 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛
𝑓(𝑖) the summand and in most cases, the index of the summation
Examples:
 Expand each summation and simplify if possible.
7
1. ∑ 𝑓(𝑖 ) = 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 27
𝑖=2
5
2. ∑ 𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑐 + 𝑐 + 𝑐 + 𝑐 = 4𝑐
𝑖=2
3
3. ∑ൣ3(𝑥)𝑖 ൧ = 3(𝑥 )1 + 3(𝑥 )2 + 3(𝑥 )3 = 3(𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )

𝑖=1
5
4. ∑ 𝑓 (3𝑖 − 1) = [3(3) − 1] + [3(4) − 1] + [3(5) − 1] = 33

𝑖=3
3
5. ∑ 𝑓 (2𝑖 2 + 1) = [2(1)2 + 1] + [2(2)2 + 1] + [2(3)2 + 1] = 29

𝑖=1
21
PROPERTIES OF SIGMA NOTATION
1. Sum of Constant Rule
𝑛
∑ 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = 𝑐𝑛
𝑖=𝑚
Example:
𝑛 3
a. ∑ 𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑐 + 𝑐 + 𝑐 + 𝑐+, … + 𝑐 b. ∑ 𝑓(3) = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
2. Constant Multiple Rule:

𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑓 (𝑐𝑖 ) = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑖𝑖
𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
where 𝑐 is any anumber

Example:
𝑛 4
a. ∑ 𝑓(𝑐𝑖 ) = 𝑐(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑚 ) b. ∑ 𝑓 (3𝑖 ) = 3(2 + 3 + 4) = 27

𝑖=1 𝑖=2
3. Sum and Difference Rule:

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
∑[𝑓(𝑖) ± 𝑔(𝑖)] = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑖 ) + ∑ 𝑔(𝑖)

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
Example:
3
a. ∑ 𝑓(2 + 𝑖 ) = (2 + 2) + (2 + 3) = 9
𝑖=2
4
b. ∑ 𝑓 (2𝑖 − 3) = [2(2) − 3] + [2(3) − 3] + [2(4) − 3] = 9

𝑖=2
4. Extension Rule:
𝑛+1 𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = ∑ 𝑓(𝑎1 ) + 𝑓(𝑎𝑛+1 )

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
Example:
5 5
a. ∑ 𝑓(4𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑓 (4𝑖 ) + 4(5) = 4(1 + 2 + 3 + 4) + 4(5) = 60

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
5. Separation Rule
𝑛 𝑐−1 𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑎1 ) + ∑ 𝑓(𝑎1 )

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑐
Example: a. ∑6𝑖=1 𝑓 (𝑖 ) = ∑4𝑖=1 𝑓 (𝑖 ) + ∑6𝑖=5 𝑓(𝑖) = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) + (5 + 6)
= (10)(11)
= 21
22
You can do this!
A. Write each expression in sigma notation.

1. 1 + 2 + 3+, … + 10
2. 8 + 10 + 12 + 14 + 16+, … + 500
3. 3 + 5 + 7 + 9
B. Expand the following summation and if possible determine the sum.

4 3 7 4
𝑖1 𝑖
1. ∑ 𝑓 ( ) 2. ∑ 𝑓 [𝑖(𝑖 + 1)] 3. ∑ 𝑓[3𝑛] 4. ∑ 𝑓 [ ]
𝑖+1 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=5 𝑖=2
3
5. ∑ 𝑓(5 + √4𝑖
𝑖=0
PRECALCULary: Sigma Notation
 The sigma notation is a convenient way in writing the shorthand method of getting the
sums. To represent the sum of terms in sequence, the Greek letter 𝜎 (sigma) is used for this
purpose.
 Generally, the summation has the form:

𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑖)
𝑖=𝑚
 Properties of Sigma Notation:
1. Sum of Constant Rule
𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑐𝑛
𝑖=𝑚
2. Constant Multiple Rule:
𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑓 (𝑐𝑖 ) = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑖𝑖
𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
where 𝑐 is any anumber

3. Sum and Difference Rule:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
∑ [𝑓(𝑖) ± 𝑔(𝑖)] = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑖 ) + ∑ 𝑔(𝑖)

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
4. Extension Rule:
𝑛+1 𝑛
∑ 𝑓 (𝑎1 ) = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑎1 ) + 𝑓(𝑎𝑛+1 )

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
5. Separation Rule
𝑛 𝑐−1 𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑎1 ) + ∑ 𝑓(𝑎1 )

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑐
23
Lesson 2.5
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
In this module you will learn The Principle of Mathematical Induction. After you read, practice,
and review the lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 illustrate the Principle of Mathematical Induction;

 apply mathematical induction in proving identities;
 solve problems using the mathematical induction.
PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
FIRST PRINCIPLE
If, for any statement involving a positive integer 𝑛, the following are true:
1. The statement holds for 𝑛 = 1, and

2. Whenever the statement holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘, it must also hold for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
Then the statement holds for all positive integers 𝑛
SECOND PRINCIPLE
If, for any statement involving a positive integer 𝑛, the following are true:
2. Whenever the statement holds for 𝑛 ≤ 𝑘, it must also hold for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
Consider the example below:
Show by induction that the following summation are true:
 Demonstrating the first condition above holds is called the Basic Step.
 The second is called the Inductive Step.
24
Example 1:
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
1. ∑ 𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 =
2
𝑖=1
Basic Step:
𝑛=1 𝑛=2
1 2
1(1 + 1) 2(2 + 1) 3
∑𝑖 = =1 ∑𝑖 = =
2 2 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Inductive Step:
𝑛=𝑘
𝑘
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
∑𝑖 =
2
𝑖=1
𝑛 =𝑘+1
𝑘+1
(𝑘 + 1)[(𝑘 + 1) + 1] (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
∑𝑖 = =
2 2
𝑖=1
Proof:
𝑘+1
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
∑𝑖 = + (𝑘 + 1)
2
𝑖=1
𝑘 (𝑘 + 1) + 2(𝑘 + 1)
=
2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
=
2
25
Example 2:
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
2. ∑ 𝑖 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 =
6
𝑖=1
SOLUTION:
Basic Step:
𝑛=1 𝑛=2
1 2
1(1 + 1)(2 ∙ 1 + 1)
2
2(2 + 1)(2 ∙ 2 + 1)
∑𝑖 = =1 ∑ 𝑖2 = = 12 + 22 = 5
6 6
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Inductive Step:
𝑛=𝑘 𝑛 = 𝑘+1
𝑘 𝑘+1
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1)[2(𝑘 + 1) + 1]
∑𝑖 = ∑ 𝑖2 =
6 6
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑘+1
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3)
∑ 𝑖2 =
6
𝑖=1
Proof:
𝑘+1
∑ 𝑖 2 = 12 + 22 + 𝑛2 + (𝑘 + 1)2
𝑖=1
𝑘 (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
= + (𝑘 + 1)2
6
𝑘 (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1)2
=
6
(𝑘 + 1)[𝑘 (2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1)]
=
6
(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 6)
=
6
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
=
6
𝑘+1
∑ 𝑖 2 = 12 + 22 + 𝑛2 + (𝑘 + 1)2
𝑖=1
26
Example 3:
𝑛
3𝑛2 + 7𝑛
3. ∑(3𝑖 + 2) = [3(1) + 2] + [3(2) + 2] + [3(3) + 2] + [3(𝑛) + 2] =
2
𝑖=1
SOLUTION:
Basic Step:
𝑛=1 𝑛=2
1 2
3(12 ) + 7(1) 3(12 ) + 7(1)
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = =5 ∑(3𝑖 + 2) = = 13
2 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Inductive Step:
𝑛=𝑘
𝑘
3(𝑘 2 ) + 7(𝑘) 3𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 4
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = +2=
2 2
𝑖=1
𝑛 =𝑘+1
𝑘+1
3[(𝑘 + 1)2 ] + 7(𝑘 + 1)
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = +2
2
𝑖=1
𝑘+1
3(𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1) + 7(𝑘 + 1) 3𝑘 2 + 6𝑘 + 3 + 7𝑘 + 7 + 4
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = +2=
2 2
𝑖=1
𝑘
3𝑘 2 + 13𝑘 + 14
∑(3𝑖 + 2) =
2
𝑖=1
Proof:
𝑘+1
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = [3(𝑛) + 2] + [3(𝑘 + 1) + 2]

𝑖=1
𝑘+1
3𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 4
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = ቈ ቉ + [3(𝑘 + 1)2]
2
𝑖=1
𝑘+1
3𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 4
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = ቈ ቉ + (3𝑘 + 5)
2
𝑖=1
27
Example 3: (continuation)
𝑘+1
3𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 4
∑(3𝑖 + 2) = ቈ ቉ + (3𝑘 + 5)
2
𝑖=1
𝑘+1
(3𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 4) + 2(3𝑘 + 5)
∑(3𝑖 + 2) =
2
𝑖=1
𝑘+1
(3𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 4) + 2(3𝑘 + 5)
∑(3𝑖 + 2) =
2
𝑖=1
𝑘+1
(3𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 4 + 6𝑘 + 10)
∑(3𝑖 + 2) =
2
𝑖=1
𝑘+1
3𝑘 2 + 13𝑘 + 14
∑(3𝑖 + 2) =
2
𝑖=1
PRECALCULary: Mathematical Induction

 FIRST PRINCIPLE
If, for any statement involving a positive integers 𝑛, the following are true:
2. Whenever the statement holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘, it must also hold for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
 SECOND PRINCIPLE
If, for any statement involving a positive integers 𝑛, the following are true:
2. Whenever the statement holds for 𝑛 ≤ 𝑘, it must also hold for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
You can do this!

Use mathematical induction, prove the following:
𝑛
5𝑛2 + 𝑛
1. ∑(5𝑖 − 2) = 3 + 8 + 13 + ⋯ + (5𝑛 − 2) =
2
𝑖=1
𝑛
2. ∑(2𝑖) = 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + 10 + 2𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑖=1
𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 𝑛
3. ∑ = + + + ⋯+ =
𝑖(𝑖 + 1) 1(2) 2(3) 3(4) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 + 1
𝑖=1
𝑛
4. ∑(2𝑖 − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2
𝑖=1
𝑛
3𝑛 − 1
5. ∑ 3𝑛−1 = 1 + 3 + 32 + ⋯ + 3𝑛−1 =
2
𝑖=1
28
Lesson 2.6
BINOMIAL THEOREM
In this module you will learn The Principle of Mathematical Induction. After you read, practice,
 illustrate Pascal’s Triangle in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 for small positive values of 𝑛;
 prove Binomial Theorem;
 determine any term of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 , where 𝑛, is a positive integer;
 solve problem using the Binomial Theorem.
BINOMIAL
A binomial is an algebraic expression containing two terms. Sometimes we need to expand
binomials. Binomial Theorem gives the coefficient of the expansion of powers of binomial
expressions.
The binomial theorem is a formula for the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 for any positive integers.
(𝑎 + 𝑏)0 = 1
(𝑎 + 𝑏 )1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑏 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏2 + 4𝑎𝑏3 + 𝑏4
(𝑎 + 𝑏)5 = 𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 𝑏 + 10𝑎3 𝑏2 + 10𝑎2 𝑏3 + 5𝑎𝑏4 + 𝑏5
It is difficult for larger powers by doing direct multiplication. We note that the coefficient
(the numbers in front of each term) follow a pattern. (This was noticed long before Pascal, by the
Chinese.)
We list down the coefficients of each expansion in a triangular array as follows:
therefore for the 𝑛 = 6, we get

(𝑎 + 𝑏)6 = 𝑎6 + 6𝑎5 𝑏 + 15𝑎4 𝑏2 + 20𝑎3 𝑏3 + 15𝑎2 𝑏4 + 6𝑎𝑏5 + 𝑏6
For the values of the coefficient, let us recall the concept of combination
𝒏 𝒏!
𝒄(𝒏, 𝒌) = ( ) =
𝒊 𝒊! (𝒏 − 𝒊)!
29
Example 1:
 (𝑥 + 𝑦)3
For 𝑛 = 3, the values of the coefficient will be:
3 3! 3∙2∙1
( )= = =1
0 0! (3 − 0)! 1(3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1)
3 3! 3∙2∙1
( )= = =3
1 1! (3 − 1)! 1(2 ∙ 1)
3 3! 3∙2∙1
( )= = =3
2 2! (3 − 2)! (2 ∙ 1)(1)
3 3! 3∙2∙1
( )= = =1
3 3! (3 − 3)! (3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1)1
and the expansion will be (𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑
We noticed that for each 𝑛, the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 starts with 𝑎𝑛 followed by the exponent of
𝑎 in decreasing order by 1 while the exponents of 𝑏 is in increasing order 1.
PROOF OF BINOMIAL THEOREM
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, for any positive integer

𝒏
𝒏
(𝒙 + 𝒚) = ∑ ( ) 𝒙𝒏−𝒊 𝒚𝒊
𝒏
𝒊
𝒊=𝟎
Example 2:
 Use Binomial Theorem to expand (𝑥 + 𝑦)6

SOLUTION:
6
6
(𝑥 + 𝑦)6 = ∑ ( ) 𝑥 6−𝑖 𝑦 𝑖
𝑖
𝑖=0
6 6 6 6 6
= ( ) 𝑥 6−0 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 6−1 𝑦 1 + ( ) 𝑥 6−2 𝑦 2 + ( ) 𝑥 6−3 𝑦 3 + ( ) 𝑥 6−4 𝑦 4
0 1 2 3 4
6 6−5 5 6 6−6 6
+( )𝑥 𝑦 + ( )𝑥 𝑦
5 6
6 6 6 5 6 6 6 6
= ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑦 + ( ) 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 + ( ) 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + ( ) 𝑥 2 𝑦 4 + ( ) 𝑥𝑦 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 6
+( )𝑦
6
6 6! 6! 1
( )= = = =1
0 0! (6 − 0)! 0! 6! 1
6 6! 6 ∙ 5! 6
( )= = = =6
1 1! (6 − 1)! 1! 5! 1
6 6! 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4! 6 ∙ 5
( )= = = = 15
2 2! (6 − 2)! 2! 4! 2∙1
30
6 6! 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3! 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4
( )= = = = 20
3 3! (6 − 3)! 3! 3! 3∙2∙1
6 6! 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4! 6 ∙ 5
( )= = = = 15
4 4! (6 − 4)! 4! 2! 2∙1
6 6! 6 ∙ 5! 6
( )= = = =6
5 5! (6 − 5)! 5! 1! 1
6 6! 6! 1
( )= = = =1
6 6! (6 − 6)! 6! 0! 1
And the expansion will be

(𝒙 + 𝒚)𝟔 = 𝒙 + 𝟔𝒙𝟓 𝒚 + 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟑𝒚𝟑 + 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟒 + 𝟔𝒙𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟔
Example 3:
 Use Binomial Theorem to expand (2𝑥 + 𝑦)5
SOLUTION:
5
5
(2𝑥 + 𝑦) = ∑ ( ) 𝑥 5−𝑖 𝑦 𝑖
5
𝑖
𝑖=0
5 5 5 5
= ( ) (2𝑥 )5−0 𝑦 0 + ( ) (2𝑥 )5−1 𝑦1 + ( ) (2𝑥 )5−2𝑦 2 + ( ) (2𝑥 )5−3𝑦 3
0 1 2 3
5 5
+ ( ) (2𝑥 )5−4 𝑦 4 + ( ) (2𝑥 )5−5 𝑦 5
4 5
5 5 5 5 5
= ( ) (2𝑥 )5 + ( ) (2𝑥 )4 𝑦 + ( ) (2𝑥 )3 𝑦 2 + ( ) (2𝑥 )2 𝑦 3 + ( ) (2𝑥)1 𝑦 4
0 1 2 3 4
5
+ ( ) (2𝑥 )0 𝑦 5
5
5 5! 5! 1
( )= = = =1
0 0! (5 − 0)! 0! 5! 1
31
5 5! 5 ∙ 4! 5
( )= = = =5
1 1! (5 − 1)! 1! 4! 1
5 5! 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3! 5 ∙ 4
( )= = = = 10
2 2! (5 − 2)! 2! 3! 2∙1
5 5! 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3! 20
( )= = = = 10
3 3! (5 − 3)! 3! 2! 2
5 5! 5 ∙ 4! 5
( )= = = =5
4 4! (5 − 4)! 4! 1! 1
5 5! 5! 1
( )= = = =1
5 5! (5 − 5)! 5! 0! 1
= (1)(2𝑥 )5 + (5)(2𝑥 )4 𝑦 + (10)(2𝑥 )3 𝑦 2 + (10)(2𝑥 )2 𝑦 3 + (5)(2𝑥 )1 𝑦 4

+(1)(2𝑥)0 𝑦 5
= (1)(32𝑥 5 ) + (5)(16𝑥 4 )𝑦 + (10)(8𝑥 3 )𝑦 2 + (10)(4𝑥 2 )𝑦 3 + (5)(2𝑥)𝑦 4
+(1)(1)𝑦 5
= 𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟓 + 𝟖𝟎𝒙𝟒 𝒚 + 𝟖𝟎𝒙𝟑𝒚𝟐 + 𝟒𝟎𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝒚𝟒 + 𝒚𝟓
You can do this!
Expand the following using the Binomial Theorem.
1. (𝑥 + 𝑦)3
2. (3𝑥 + 2𝑦)4
3. (𝑥 − 𝑦)5
4. (𝑥 − 2𝑦)4
5. (𝑦 + 𝑥)9
32
TERMS OF BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Example 4:
Without expanding completely, compute the indicated term(s) in the expansion of
given expression.
 (𝑥 + 𝑦)4 , first three terms
SOLUTION:
4 4 4
( ) 𝑥 4−0 𝑦 0 + ( ) 𝑥 4−1 𝑦 1 + ( ) 𝑥 4−2 𝑦 2
0 1 2
4 4 4
( ) 𝑥 4 (1) + ( ) 𝑥 3 𝑦 + ( ) 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
0 1 2
Coefficient of binomial
4 4! 4! 1
( )= = = =1
0 0! (4 − 0)! 0! 4! 1
4 4! 4 ∙ 3! 4
( )= = = =4
1 1! (4 − 1)! 1! 3! 1
4 4! 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2! 12
( )= = = =6
2 2! (4 − 2)! 2! 2! 2∙1
= (1)(𝑥 4 ) + 4(𝑥 3 𝑦) + 6(𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )

= 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒𝒙𝟑 𝒚 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Example 5:
 (2𝑥 + 5𝑦)7 , first three terms
SOLUTION:
7 7 7
( ) (2𝑥)7−0 (5𝑦)0 + ( ) (2𝑥)7−1 (5𝑦)1 + ( ) (2𝑥)7−2 (5𝑦)2
0 1 2
7 7 7
( ) (2𝑥 )7 (1) + ( ) (2𝑥 )6 (5𝑦) + ( ) (2𝑥 )5 (25𝑦 2 )
0 1 2
7 7! 7! 1
( )= = = =1
0 0! (7 − 0)! 0! 7! 1
7 7! 7 ∙ 6! 7
( )= = = =7
1 1! (7 − 1)! 1! 6! 1
7 7! 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5! 7 ∙ 6 42
( )= = = = = 21
2 2! (7 − 2)! 2! 5! 2 2
= (1)(2𝑥 )7 + (7)(2𝑥 )6 (5𝑦) + (21)(2𝑥 )5 (5𝑦)2

= (1)(128𝑥 7 ) + (7)(64𝑥 6 )(5𝑦) + (21)(32𝑥 5 )(25𝑦)2
= 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝒙𝟕 + 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒙𝟔𝒚 + 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟓 𝒚𝟐
33
Example 6:
 (𝑥 − 3𝑦)6 , third and fourth terms
SOLUTION:
6 6
( ) 𝑥 6−2 (−3𝑦)2 + ( ) 𝑥 6−3 (−3𝑦)3
2 3
6 6
( ) 𝑥 4 (9𝑦 2 ) + ( ) 𝑥 3 (−27𝑦 3 )
2 3
6 6
( ) (9𝑥 4 𝑦 2 ) + ( ) (−27𝑥 3 𝑦 3 )
2 3
Example 6: (solution)
6 6! 6! 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4! 6 ∙ 5 30
( )= = = = = = 15
2 2! (6 − 2)! 2! 4! 2! 4! 2∙1 2
6 6! 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3! 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 120
( )= = = = = 20
3 3! (6 − 3)! 3! 3! 3∙2∙1 6
= (15)(9𝑥 4 𝑦 2 ) + (20)(−27𝑥 3 𝑦 3 )
= 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝒙𝟑𝒚𝟑
You can do this!
Without expanding completely, compute the indicated term(s) in the expansion of given
expression.
1. (𝑥 + 2𝑦)6 , fourth and fifth term
2. (𝑥 − 𝑦 2 )8 , fourth term
3. (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦)10, eight term
4. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦)5 , second term
5. (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )9 , tenth term
PRECALCULary: Binomial Theorem
 A binomial is an algebraic expression containing two terms. Sometimes

we need to expand binomials. Binomial Theorem gives the coefficient of
the expansion of powers of binomial expressions.
 By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, for any positive integer
𝒏
𝒏
(𝒙 + 𝒚) = ∑ ( ) 𝒙𝒏−𝒊 𝒚𝒊
𝒏
𝒊
𝒊=𝟎
34
UNIT 3
UNIT CIRCLE
Lesson 3.1
ANGLES IN A RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
In this module you will learn about Unit Circle. After you read, practice, and review the lessons
in this module, you should be able to:
 illustrate the unit circle and the relationship between the linear and angular measures of a
central angle in a unit circle
Parts of an Angle
Take a look at Figure 1 below. An angle is formed when two

Terminal side
rays meet at a common endpoint. The rays forming the angle
are called its sides, and the point at which the rays meet is
called the vertex of the angle.
Vertex
Initial side
Figure 1 Parts of an Angle

35
Quadrant Angle
If we draw an angle on a Cartesian plane as shown in Figure 2 where the vertex is at the origin and
the initial side is at the positive 𝑥 − axis, we say that the angle is in standard position. The ray on
the positive 𝑥 − axis is called the initial side and the other ray is called the terminal side.
Terminal
side
If the terminal side of an angle in standard position
Angle coincides with one of the axes such as 90°, 180°,
270°, or 360°, it is called a quadrant angle.
Initial side
Figure 2 Quadrant Angle
Coterminal Angle
If the terminal side of the angles rotates in a counterclockwise direction, we say that the angle has
a positive measurement. As shown in Figure 3, the angle marked 55° is positive since its terminal
side rotates in a counterclockwise direction. But when it rotates in a clockwise direction, the angle
measurement is negative. In the same figure, −305° shows that the terminal side rotates in a
clockwise direction, thus, it is negative.
In the same figure, the 55° angle and 415° angle have the same terminal side. We say that they are
coterminal angles.
If two angles in standard position have the

same terminal side, they are called
coterminal angles.
Figure 3 Coterminal Angle
Can you find the other pair of cotermianl angles in the figure?
Based on the given examples, a pair of coterminal angles may be positive or negative. To find a
positive angle coterminal with the given angle, add multiples of 360°. To find a negative
coterminal angles, subtract multiples of 360°.
36
Study these examples.
Examples:
1. Find a positive angle coterminal to 55°.

SOLUTION:
Add 360° to the given angle.
55° + 360° = 𝟒𝟏𝟓°
2. Find a negative angle coterminal to 55°.

SOLUTION:
Subtract 360° from the given angle.
55° − 360° = −𝟑𝟎𝟓°
Remember:
An angle can have an infinite number of coterminal angles.
We can find more coterminal angles by considering more than one rotation.
Example 3:
 Find an angle coterminal to 140°.

SOLUTION:
To find one coterminal angle, look for another angle
whose terminal side coincides with the terminal side of
the original angle. To do that, either add or subtract 360°
to the given angle. In this case, subtract 360° from 140°.
Hence, an angle coterminal to 140° is −220°.
Reference Angle
Another kind of angle associated with an angle in standard
position is the reference angle. If you draw an angle that
measures 135°, its terminal side falls on the second quadrant.
The positive acute angle formed between the terminal side of
this angle and 𝑥 − axis is called its reference angle.
37
In the given example, the reference angle corresponding to 135° is 45°.
To find the reference angle (in degrees) for a given angle 𝑥 whose terminal side is located in
Quadrant II, the formula is 180° − 𝑥°.
A reference angle can be found in any of the four quadrants. In Quadrant I, every positive angle is
already acute; thus, the reference angle is the measure of the angle itself. The measure of the
reference angle is always equal to or greater than 0° but less than or equal to 90°.
Consider the following examples.
Example 4:
 What is the measure of the reference angle for a 205° angle?
SOLUTION:
Step 1. Determine in which
quadrant the terminal of the
given angle is located.
The terminal side of the
given angle is located in
Quadrant III.
Step 2. Compute for the
reference angle.
The measure of the reference angle
is computed by subtracting 180°
from the given angle . The formula
is 𝒙° − 𝟏𝟖𝟎°. Hence, the reference
angle is 25°.
Example 5:
 Find the measure of the reference angle if the given angle is 315°.
SOLUTION:
Step 1. Determine in which quadrant the terminal of the given angle is located.
The terminal side oof the given angle is located in Quadrant IV.
Step 2. Compute for the reference angle.
The measure of the reference angle is computed by subtracting 180° from the given
angle measure from 360°. The formula is 𝟑𝟔𝟎° − 𝒙°. The reference angle has a
measure of 60°.
38
You can do this!
A. Sketch each angle in standard position, and identify in which quadrant it will lie.
1. 35° 2. 175°
Quadrant _______ Quadrant _______
B. Determine two coterminals (one positive and one negative) for each given angle.
1. −79° 2. 230°
C. Find the reference angle corresponding to the given angle.

1. 93° 2. 520°
39
PRECALCULary: Angles in a Rectangular Coordinate System
 An angle is formed when two rays meet at a common endpoint called the
vertex.
 An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin and the initial
side is the positive 𝑥 − axis.
 If the terminal side of an angle in standard position coincides with one of
the axes such as 90°, 180°, 270°, or 360°, it is called a quadrant angle.
 Positive angles are measured counterclockwise, and negative angles are
measured clockwise.
 If two angles in standard position have the same terminal side, they are
called coterminal angles.
 To find a positive angle coterminal, add multiples of 360°. To find a
negative coterminal angles, subtract multiples of 360°.
 An angle can have an infinite number of coterminal angles.
 Reference angle is the positive acute angle formed between the terminal
side of this angle and 𝑥 − axis. Reference angles may appear in all four
quadrants.
 To find the reference angle (in degrees) for a given angle 𝑥 whose
terminal side is located in Quadrant II, the formula is 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝒙°.
 To find the reference angle for a given angle whose terminal side is
located in Quadrant III, the formula is 𝒙° − 𝟏𝟖𝟎°.
 To find the reference angle for a given angle whose terminal side is
located in Quadrant IV, the formula is 𝟑𝟔𝟎° − 𝒙°.
40
Lesson 3.2 CONVERTING RADIAN MEASURE TO
DEGREE MEASURE AND VICE VERSA
In this module you will learn about converting radian measure to degree measure and vice versa.
After you read, practice, and review the lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 convert degree measure to radian measure and vice versa.
RADIAN
One radian is the measure of an angle in standard position whose terminal side
intercepts an arc of length 𝑟.
To understand the definition of radian, consider Figure 1 wherein a circle has a radius 𝑟 which is
centered at the origin.
Since the circumference of a circle is 2𝜋𝑟, we can say that there are 2𝜋 radians in a full circle.
Relating the radian measure with the degree measure, we have the following equation:
2𝜋 radians = 360° or 𝜋 radians= 180°
Using the given equations, we can convert radians to degrees.
𝜋 radians
To convert a degree measure to radian measure, multiply degree measure by
180°
.
180°
To convert a radian measure to degree measure, multiply radian measure by .
𝜋 radians
41
Example 2:
 Convert 45° to radians.
SOLUTION:
Step 1.
𝜋 radians
Multiply the degree measure by .
180°
𝜋 radians
45° = 45° ×
180°
Step 2.
Simplify the result.
1 𝜋 radians 𝜋
45° = 45° × = radians
180° 4 4
𝜋
Example 3:
 Find the radian measure of 60°.
SOLUTION:
Step 1.
𝜋 radians
Multiply the given radian measure by
180°
.
𝜋 radians
60° = 60° ×
180°
Step 2.
Simplify the result.
1 𝜋 radians
60° = 60° ×
180°
3
𝜋
Thus, 60° = radians.
3
42
Figure 2 shows the equivalent degree and radian measures for special angles from 0° to 360° and
0 radians to 2𝜋 radians
Figure 2
It will be helpful to memorize the equivalent degree and radian measures of special angles in
𝜋
Quadrant I and 90° or radians. The rest of the special angles are just multiplies of these angles.
2
You can do this!
A. Convert each angle to radian measure.
1. 75° 4. 150°
2. −104° 5. −27°
3. 290°
B. Convert each angle to degrees.
2𝜋 5𝜋
1. 4.
3 3
𝜋 4𝜋
2. 5. − 3
6
7𝜋
3. − 6
43
Converting Radian Measure to Degree
PRECALCULary: Measure and Vice Versa
 One radian is the measure of an angle in standard position whose terminal

side intercepts an arc of length 𝑟.
 To convert a degree measure to radian measure, multiply degree
𝜋 radians
measure by .
180°
 To convert a radian measure to degree measure, multiply radian
180°
measure by .
𝜋 radians
 The equivalent degree and radian measures for special angles from 0° to
360° and 0 radians to 2𝜋 radians is summarized in this unit circle.
44
Lesson 3.3
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
In this module you will learn about Circular Functions. After you read, practice, and review the
lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 illustrate the different circular functions;
 uses reference angles to find exact values of circular functions.
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
Circular functions are also called trigonometric functions are functions
describing the horizontal and vertical positions of a point on a circle as a function
of angle (cosine and sine) and those functions derived from them.
These six functions are normally abbreviated sin, csc, cos, sec, tan, and cot, respectively.
In a unit circle, the radius is equal to 1, thus
1
sin 𝜃 = 𝑦 csc 𝜃 = , 𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑦
1
cos 𝜃 = 𝑥 sec 𝜃 = , 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
tan 𝜃 = , 𝑥 ≠ 0 cot 𝜃 = , 𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑥 𝑦
The figures below can be used to evaluate the trigonometric function values of special 𝜃-values.
Example 1:
𝜋
 Evaluate the six trigonometric function values of = .
6
SOLUTION:
𝜋 ξ3 1
The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to 𝜃 = has coordinates ( , ).
6 2 2
ξ3 1
We use 𝑥 = and 𝑦 = to find the values of the trigonometric functions
2 2
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 1
sin = 𝑦 = csc = = = 2
6 2 6 𝑦 1
2
𝜋 ξ3 𝜋 1 1 2 2ξ3
cos =𝑥= sec = = = =
6 2 6 𝑥 ξ3 ξ3 3
2
1
𝜋 𝑦 1 ξ3 𝜋 𝑥 2
tan = = 2 = = cot = = = ξ3
6 𝑥 ξ3 ξ3 3 6 𝑦 1
2 2
45
Example 2: 3𝜋
 Evaluate the six trigonometric function values of = .
4
SOLUTION:
3𝜋 ξ2 ξ2
The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to 𝜃 = has coordinates (− , ).
4 2 2
ξ2 ξ2
We use 𝑥 = − and 𝑦 = to find the values of the trigonometric functions
2 2
3𝜋 ξ2 3𝜋 1 1 2
sin =𝑦= csc = = = = ξ2
4 2 4 𝑦 ξ2 ξ2
2
3𝜋 ξ2 3𝜋 1 1
cos =𝑥=− sec = = = −ξ2
4 2 4 𝑥 ξ2
−
2
ξ2 ξ2
3𝜋 𝑦 2 = −1 3𝜋 𝑥 − 2
tan = = cot = = = −1
4 𝑥 ξ2 4 𝑦 ξ2
−
2 2
Example 3:
𝜋
 Evaluate the six trigonometric function values of = − .
2
SOLUTION:
𝜋
The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to 𝜃 = − has coordinates (0, −1)
2
We use 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = −1 to find the values of the trigonometric functions
𝜋 𝜋 1 1
sin − = 𝑦 = −1 csc − = = = −1
2 2 𝑦 −1
𝜋 𝜋 1 1
cos − =𝑥=0 sec − = = undefined
2 2 𝑥 0
𝜋 𝑦 −1 𝜋 𝑥 0
tan − = = undefined cot − = = =0
2 𝑥 0 2 𝑦 −1
Example 4:
 Evaluate the six trigonometric function values of 𝜃 = 3𝜋.
SOLUTION:
The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to 𝜃 = 3𝜋 has coordinates (−1, 0)
We use 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑦 = 0 to find the values of the trigonometric functions
1 1
sin 3𝜋 = 𝑦 = 0 csc 3𝜋 = = undefined
𝑦 0
1 1
cos 3𝜋 = 𝑥 = −1 sec 3𝜋 = = = −1
𝑥 −1
𝑦 0 𝑥 −1
tan 3𝜋 = = =0 cot 3𝜋 = = undefined
𝑥 −1 𝑦 0
46
You can do this!
For each of the following angles, find the exact values of the six circular functions.
3𝜋
1. 𝜃 =
2
2. 𝜃 = −3𝜋
4𝜋
3. 𝜃 =
3
4. 𝜃 = 2𝜋
5. 𝜃 = −𝜋
Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
Let 𝜃 be any angle in standard position. We say that 𝜃 is in standard position if its vertex is at the
origin and its initial side is the positive 𝑥 − axis. The figures below illustrate some angles in
standard position. Going back to 𝜃 in standard position, we let P be any point not at the origin but
on the terminal side of 𝜃 and ̅̅̅̅
PA be perpendicular to the 𝑥 − axis as shown in the figures below.
The six trigonometric function values of 𝜃 are defined as follows:

𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
sin 𝜃 = = csc 𝜃 = =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑦
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎 𝑥 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
cos 𝜃 = = sec 𝜃 = =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎 𝑥
𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎 𝑥
tan 𝜃 = = cot 𝜃 = =
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎 𝑥 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑦
P(𝜃) in Quadrant II:The ratios above are called the trigonometric function values of 𝜃 since they
depend only on the value of 𝜃 and not on the position of P on the terminal side of the angle.
However, the signs of the functions of angle 𝜃 depend upon the signs of the abscissa and ordinate.
47
Each function is positive in two quadrants and negative in the other two. The sign of the function
in any quadrant can easily be remembered by studying the figure below.
Quadrant II Quadrant I
sin 𝜃 : + sin 𝜃 : +
cos 𝜃 : − cos 𝜃 : +
tan 𝜃 : − tan 𝜃 : +
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
sin 𝜃 : − sin 𝜃 : −
cos 𝜃 : − cos 𝜃 : +
tan 𝜃 : + tan 𝜃 : −
Example 5:
−3
 Given cos 𝜃 = , find the other trigonometric function values of 𝜃.
5
SOLUTION:
𝑥
Since by definition, cos 𝜃 = and 𝑟 is always positive, then 𝑥 takes the
𝑟
negative sign. Hence, P(𝜃) is either in the second or third quadrant. The
two positions of P(𝜃) are shown in the figure at the right. Using the
Pythagorean theorem.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟2
𝑦 = √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
= ±√52 − 32
= ±ξ25 − 9
= ±ξ16
= ±4
The other trigonometric function values of 𝜃 are:
P(𝜃) in Quadrant II: P(𝜃) in Quadrant III:
𝑦 4 𝑦 4
sin 𝜃 = = sin 𝜃 = =−
𝑟 5 𝑟 5
𝑥 4 4
cos 𝜃 = = =− 𝑥 −4 4
𝑟 −3 3 cos 𝜃 = = =
𝑟 −3 3
𝑟 5
csc 𝜃 = = 𝑟 5 5
𝑦 4 csc 𝜃 = = =−
𝑦 −4 4
𝑟 5 5
sec 𝜃 = = =− 𝑟 5 5
𝑥 −3 3
sec 𝜃 = = =−
𝑥 −3 𝑥 −3 3
cot 𝜃 = =
𝑦 4 𝑥 −3 3
cot 𝜃 = = =
𝑦 −4 4
48
Example 6:
5
 Given tan 𝜃 = − and sin 𝜃 is positive, find the other trigonometric function
12
values of 𝜃.
SOLUTION:
The tangent function is negative in the second and fourth
quadrants, and the sine function is positive in the first and
second quadrants. Therefore, P(𝜃) is in the second
quadrant.
The figure at the right shows this angle.
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
= √122 + 52
= ξ144 + 25
= ξ169
= 13
The other trigonometric function values of 𝜃 are:
𝑦 5
sin 𝜃 = =
𝑟 13
𝑥 −12
cos 𝜃 = =
𝑟 13
𝑟 13
csc 𝜃 = =
𝑦 5
𝑟 13 13
sec 𝜃 = = =−
𝑥 −12 12
𝑥 −12 12
cot 𝜃 = = =−
𝑦 5 5
You can do this!

Find the other trigonometric function values of 𝜃.
12
1. sin 𝜃 = , 𝜃 in quadrant II
13
−3
2. cos 𝜃 = , 𝜃 in quadrant III
5
5
3. tan 𝜃 = , cos 𝜃 is negative
12
4. sin 𝜃 = −4, tan 𝜃 > 0
5. sec 𝜃 = −3, tan 𝜃 > 0
49
Reference Angles
One important concept in trigonometry that serves as a link between right triangle trigonometry
and general trigonometry is the concept of reference angle. A
reference angle is an acute angle between the terminal side and
the 𝑥 − axis.
Let 𝜃 be any acute angle in standard position. If for instance,
𝜃 = 40°, notice that the terminal ray 180° − 40° or 140° and
the terminal ray of 40° are symmetric with respect to the 𝑦 −
axis. Hence, if we know the sine and cosine values 𝜃 = 40°,
then the sine and cosine values at 𝜃 = 140° can be deducted as
shown in the figure at the right.
In the example, angle 𝜃 = 40° is
known as the reference angle of angle
𝜃 = 140°. It is also the reference
angle of the 220°- and 320°-angles as
shown below.
In general, an acute angle 𝜃 is the reference angle of angles 180 − 𝜃, 180 + 𝜃 and 360 − 𝜃 in
their respective quadrants. We have
Quadrant I Quadrant II
𝑦 𝑦
sin 𝜃 = sin(180 − 𝜃) = = sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥
cos 𝜃 = cos(180 − 𝜃) = = − = − cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = tan(180 − 𝜃) = = − = − tan 𝜃
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥
𝑟 𝑟
csc 𝜃 = csc(180 − 𝜃) = = csc 𝜃
𝑦 𝑦
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
sec 𝜃 = sec(180 − 𝜃) = = − = − sec 𝜃
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥
cot 𝜃 = cot(180 − 𝜃) = = − = − cot 𝜃
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
Quadrant III Quadrant IV

−𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦
sin(180 + 𝜃) = = − = − sin 𝜃 sin(360 − 𝜃 ) = = − = −sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
cos(180 + 𝜃) = = − = − cos 𝜃 cos(360 − 𝜃) = = cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
tan(180 + 𝜃) = = = tan 𝜃 tan(360 − 𝜃) = = − = − tan 𝜃
−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
50
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
csc(180 + 𝜃) = = − = − csc 𝜃 csc(360 − 𝜃 ) = = − = −csc 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
sec(180 + 𝜃) = = − = − sec 𝜃 sec(360 − 𝜃) = = sec 𝜃
−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
cot(180 + 𝜃) = = = cot 𝜃 cot(360 − 𝜃) = = − = − cot 𝜃
Since all the angles can be written in one of the forms: 𝜃, 180 − 𝜃, 180 + 𝜃, and 360 − 𝜃, the
formulas above will allow us to write the functions of any angle greater than 90° in terms of the
functions of an acute angle. If the angle is greater than 360°, we first subtract a multiple of 360°
from the given angle to make it less than 360°.
For convenience, refer to the table below for the sign of each trigonometric function for an angle
located in each quadrant.
QUADRANT 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝜽 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽
I + + + + + +
II + − − + − −
III − − + − − +
IV − + − − + −
Using Reference Angles to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions

The trigonometric function value of any angle 𝜃 is found as follows:
1. Find the associated reference angle, 𝜃’, and the function value for 𝜃’.
2. Use the quadrant in which P(𝜃) lies to annex the appropriate sign to the
function value in step 1..
When finding reference angles, it can

be helpful to keep that the positive 𝑥 −
axis is 𝜃° (and 360°) or 0 radians (and
2𝜋 radians); the positive 𝑦 − axis is
𝜋
90° or radians, the negative 𝑥 − axis
2
is 180° or 𝜋 radians; and the negative
3𝜋
𝑦 − axis is 270° or radians.
2
51
To compute the measure (in degrees) of the reference angle for any given angle 𝜃, use the rules in
the following table and the sign for 𝜃 circular functions in every quadrant.
Table 1
DEGREE MEASURE RADIAN MEASURE

QUADRANT Reference Angle Reference Angle
Angle 𝜃 Angle 𝜃
of 𝜃 of 𝜃
𝜋
I 0° to 90° 𝜃 0° to 𝜃
2
𝜋
II 90° to 180° 180° − 𝜃° to 𝜋 𝜋−𝜃
2
3𝜋
III 180° to 270° 𝜃° − 180° 𝜋 to 𝜃−𝜋
2
3𝜋
IV 270° to 360° 360° − 𝜃° to 2𝜋 2𝜋 − 𝜃
2
The tabulated circular functions of angles: 30°, 45°, and 60° are shown below. These angles are
special acute angles in a right triangle with the following values.
To compute the measure (in degrees) of the reference angle for any given angle 𝜃, use the rules in
the following table and the sign for 𝜃 circular functions in every quadrant.
Table 2
Degree 30° 45° 60°
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
Radian
𝟐 𝟒 𝟑
1 1 ξ2
𝑜𝑝𝑝 = ξ3
sin 𝜃 = 2 2
ℎ𝑦𝑝 ξ2
2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 ξ3 1 ξ2
= 1
cos 𝜃 = 2 ξ2 2
ℎ𝑦𝑝 2
𝑜𝑝𝑝 1 ξ3 1 ξ3
tan 𝜃 = = =1 = ξ3
𝑎𝑑𝑗 ξ3 3 1 1
ℎ𝑦𝑝 2 2 2ξ3
csc 𝜃 = =2 ξ2 =
𝑜𝑝𝑝 1 ξ3 3
52
ℎ𝑦𝑝 2 2ξ3 2
sec 𝜃 = = ξ2 =2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 ξ3 3 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 ξ3 1 1 ξ3
cot 𝜃 = = ξ3 =1 =
𝑜𝑝𝑝 1 1 ξ3 3
Example 7:
 Use the reference angle of cos 135° to evaluate it.
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Find the reference angle, 𝜃’, of 𝜃 = 135°. P(𝜃) lies in Quadrant II. The reference
angle
𝜃’= 180 − 135 = 45°
ξ2
The cosine value of the reference angle is cos 135° = .
2
Step 2:Use the quadrant in which 𝜃 lies to annex the appropriate sign to the function value
in Step 1. The angle 135° terminates in Quadrant II. Because cosine is negative in
Quadrant II, put a – sign before the cosine value of the reference angle. Thus
ξ2
cos 135° = − cos 45° = −
2
(See Table 2 to check your answer.)
Example 8:
5𝜋
 Use the reference angle of tan to evaluate it.
4
SOLUTION:
5𝜋
Find the reference angle of 𝜃 = 4 . P(𝜃) lies in Quadrant III. The
reference angle
5𝜋 5𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 = − =
4 4 4 4
𝜋
The tan value of the reference angle is tan = 1.
4
Because the value of tangent is positive in Quadrant III, put a + sign before the function
value of the reference angle. Thus,
5𝜋 𝜋
tan = tan = 1
4 4
(See Table 2 to check your answer.)
53
You can do this!
Use the reference angle of the indicated angle to evaluate each expression.
1. cos 300° 𝜋
4. tan(− 6)
2. sin(−240°) 2𝜋
3. sec 420° 5. cos
3
Lesson 3.4
GRAPHS OF CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
In this module you will learn how to graph the six Circular Functions. After you read, practice,
 determine the domain and range of the different circular functions;
 graph the six circular functions (a) amplitude, (b) period, and (c) phase shift.
Characteristics of the Graphs of Circular Functions

Have you noticed that the points on the graphs of circular functions only lies on the right and they
have different range though they have the same domains?
We can describe the graph of each circular function in terms of the following:
1. Amplitude – it is the height from the center line to the peak (or to the trough). We can
measure the height from the highest point to lowest point and divide that by 2.
2. Period – distance from peak or trough to trough
3. Phase Shift – how far the function is horizontally to the right of the usual position
4. Vertical Shift – how far the function is vertically up from the usual position
Graph of Sine Functions

We can use the general equation below to find the amplitude, period, phase shift and the vertical
shift of a given sine functions.
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 ) + 𝐷
The general equation of the graph of sine function is
𝑦 = 𝑨𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑩𝑥 + 𝑪) + 𝑫
54
Take Note:
1. 𝑨 of the equation helps us to determine the amplitude of the function.
*If 𝑨 is positive, then the graph starts from the top but if 𝑨 is negative it will start from
the bottom.
2. 𝑩 of the equation helps us to determine the period of the function where
3. 𝑪 helps us to determine the phase shift 𝒙 if it is given in the equation by equating the
expression
4. 𝑫 helps us to determine the vertical shift
Steps in Graphing of 𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝑩𝒙 + 𝑪) + 𝑫
1. Determine the amplitude. The amplitude is given by |𝑨| which indicates the height of the
graph.
𝟐𝝅
2. Determine the period of the function. The period is given by is equal to the length of
|𝑩|
one complete cycle.
3. Divide the period into five equal parts.
4. Construct the table of values.
5. Plot the points then connect to sketch the graph.
Example 1:
 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
SOLUTION:
 Amplitude = |𝐴| = |1| = 1
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋
 Period = = = 2𝜋
|𝑩| |1|
 Divide the period into five equal parts. Begin by dividing the period 2𝜋 by 4.
period 2𝜋 𝝅
= =
4 4 𝟐
 Coordinates of the five keypoints
Coordinates of Five Key
Value of 𝒙 Value of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 Points
0 𝑦 = sin 0 = 0 (0, 0)
𝜋 𝝅 𝜋 𝜋
0+ = 𝑦 = sin = 1 ( , 1)
2 𝟐 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
+ = =𝝅 𝑦 = sin 𝜋 = 0 (𝜋, 0)
2 2 2
𝜋 2𝜋 + 𝜋 𝟑𝝅 3𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋+ = = 𝑦 = sin = −1 ( , −1)
2 2 𝟐 2 2
3𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋
+ = = 𝟐𝝅 𝑦 = sin 2𝜋 = 0 (2𝜋, 0)
2 2 2
 Plot the points then connect to sketch the graph.
55
Example 2:
 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = −2 sin 𝑥
SOLUTION:
 Amplitude = |𝐴| = |−2| = 2
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋
|𝑩| |1|
period 2𝜋 𝝅
= =
4 4 𝟐
Coordinates of Five
Value of 𝒙 Value of 𝒚 = −𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 Key Points
0 𝑦 = −2 sin 0 = −2 ∙ 0 = 0 (0, 0)
𝜋 𝝅 𝜋 𝜋
0+ = 𝑦 = − 2 sin = −2 ∙ 1 = −2 ( , −2)
2 𝟐 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
+ = =𝝅 𝑦 = −2 sin 𝜋 = −2 ∙ 0 = 0 (𝜋, 0)
2 2 2
𝜋 2𝜋 + 𝜋 𝟑𝝅 3𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋+ = = 𝑦 = −2 sin = −2 ∙ −1 = 2 ( , 2)
2 2 𝟐 2 2
3𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋
+ = = 𝟐𝝅 𝑦 = −2 sin 2𝜋 = −2 ∙ 0 = 0 (2𝜋, 0)
2 2 2
You can do this!
Sketch the graph.

1. 𝑦 = 5 sin 𝑥
2. 𝑦 = 4 sin 3𝑥
3. 𝑦 = −3 sin(4𝑥 + 1) − 2
56
Graph of Cosine Functions
We will do the same with the cosine functions with a general equation of
𝑦 = 𝑨𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑩𝑥 + 𝑪) + 𝑫
Example 3:
 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
SOLUTION:
 Amplitude = |𝐴| = |1| = 1
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋
|𝑩| |1|
period 2𝜋 𝝅
= =
4 4 𝟐
Coordinates of Five Key
Value of 𝒙 Value of 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 Points
0 𝑦 = cos 0 = 0 (0, 0)
𝜋 𝝅 𝜋 𝜋
0+ = 𝑦 = cos =0 ( , 0)
2 𝟐 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
+ = =𝝅 𝑦 = cos 𝜋 = −1 (𝜋, −1)
2 2 2
𝜋 2𝜋 + 𝜋 𝟑𝝅 3𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋+ = = 𝑦 = cos =0 ( , 0)
2 2 𝟐 2 2
3𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋
+ = = 𝟐𝝅 𝑦 = cos 2𝜋 = 1 (2𝜋, 1)
2 2 2
57
Example 4:
 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑥
SOLUTION:
 Amplitude = |𝐴| = |2| = 2
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋
|𝑩| |1|
period 2𝜋 𝝅
= =
4 4 𝟐
Coordinates of Five
Value of 𝒙 Value of 𝒚 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 Key Points
0 𝑦 = 2 cos 0 = 2 ∙ 1 = 2 (0, 2)
𝜋 𝝅 𝜋 𝜋
0+ = 𝑦 = 2 cos = 2∙0 = 0 ( , 0)
2 𝟐 2 2
𝜋 𝜋
+ =𝝅 𝑦 = 2 cos 𝜋 = 2 ∙ (−1) = −2 (𝜋, −2)
2 2
𝜋 𝟑𝝅 3𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋+ = 𝑦 = 2 cos =2∙0=0 ( , 0)
2 𝟐 2 2
3𝜋 𝜋
+ = 𝟐𝝅 𝑦 = 2 cos 2𝜋 = 2 ∙ 1 = 2 (2𝜋, 2)
2 2
You can do this!
Sketch the graph.

1. 𝑦 = 4 cos(3𝑥 )
2. 𝑦 = −3 cos(2𝑥 ) + 1
3. 𝑦 = −4 cos 𝑥
58
Graph of Tangent Functions
This time, find out the graph of the tangent function 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙.
𝜋 𝜋
Make a table of values in the interval − 2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 and use the points to draw the graph
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 − − 0
2 4 4 2
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 ∞ −1 0 1 ∞
𝜋
Notice that when = ± , the tangent function is undefined. This is because
2
𝜋
𝜋 sin 2 1
tan = = =∞
2 cos 𝜋 0
2
Plot the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and draw a smooth curve. You will come up with the figure below. Notice
that the graph shows five key 𝑥 − values which are the 𝒙 − intercept, the 𝒙 − values where the
asymptotes occur, and the 𝒙 − values halfway between the 𝑥 − intercept and the asymptotes. At
each halfway point, the value of the tangent function is either 1 or −1.
𝜋
An asymptote is a vertical line that occurs regularly at odd multiples of where the cosine
2
function is 0. It is a line that continuously approaches a curve but does not touch it at any given
distance.
𝜋
Observe that there are vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = ± . This means that one full period occurs
2
𝜋 𝜋
between − and . The graph extends indefinitely upward to the right and indefinitely downward
2 2
to the left.
The tangent function has the following characteristics.
1. It is periodic in nature and has a period of 𝝅. It means that the graph has a repeating pattern
that continues indefinitely.
𝜋
2. At odd multiples of , the graph has vertical asymptotes.
2
3. Its amplitude is not defined.
𝜋
At this point, examine the graph of 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩𝒙, where the period is and the vertical
|𝐵|
𝜋
asymptotes are at odd multiples of ± 2|𝐵|.
59
Example 5:
 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = tan 4𝑥.
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Identify the period and vertical asymptotes. Here 𝐴 = 1 and 𝐵 = 4.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
period = = = Vertical asymptotes occur at ± 2|𝐵| = ± 2|4| = ± 8
|𝐵| |4| 4
Step 2:Make a table of values.

Remember the five key 𝑥 − values which are the 𝑥 − intercept, the 𝑥 − values where
the asymptotes occur, and the 𝑥 − values halfway between the 𝑥 − intercept and the
asymptotes. At each halfway point, the value of the given tangent function is either
1 or −1 which is 𝐴.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 − − 0
8 16 16 8
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 ∞ −1 0 1 ∞
Step 3:Sketch the graph.
 Sketch
Example 6: the graph of 𝑦 = 3 tan 2𝑥.
SOLUTION:
Step 1: Identify the period and vertical asymptotes. Here 𝐴 = 3 and 𝐵 = 2.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
period = = = Vertical asymptotes occur at ± =± =±
|𝐵| |2| 2 2 | 𝐵| 2|2| 4
Step 2: Make a table of values.

Remember the five key 𝑥 − values which are the 𝑥 − intercept, the 𝑥 − values where the
asymptotes occur, and the 𝑥 − values halfway between the 𝑥 − intercept and the
asymptotes. At each halfway point, the value of the given tangent function is either 3 or
−3 which is 𝐴.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 − − 0
4 8 8 4
𝑦 = 3 tan 2𝑥 ∞ −3 0 3 ∞
Step 3: Sketch the graph.
60
You can do this!
Sketch the graph.

1. 𝑦 = tan 3𝑥
2. 𝑦 = 2 tan 2𝑥
1
3. 𝑦 = −3 tan 2 𝑥
Graphs of Cotangent Functions

By using the analysis similar to the one used to obtain the graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥, you can obtain the
cos 𝑥
graph of 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 = .
sin 𝑥
Begin with the cotangent function 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙.
To sketch the graph, make a table of values in the interval 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 and use the points to draw
the graph.
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥 0 𝜋
4 2 4
𝑦 = cot 𝑥 ∞ 1 0 −1 ∞
Notice that when 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝜋, the cotangent function is undefined. This is because
cos 0 1 cos 𝜋 −1
cot 0 = = =∞ and cot 𝜋 = = =∞
sin 0 0 sin 𝜋 0
If you plot the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and draw a smooth curve, you will come up with the figure below.
Observe that there are vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝜋. This means that one full period
occurs between 0 and 𝜋. The graph extends indefinitely upward to the left and indefinitely
downward to the right.
The cotangent function has the following characteristics.
61
2. Its vertical asymptotes occur at 𝐵𝑥 = 0 and 𝐵𝑥 = 𝜋.
𝜋
At this point, examine the graph of 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝑩𝒙, where the period is and the vertical
|𝐵|
asymptotes occur at𝐵𝑥 = 0 and 𝐵𝑥 = 𝜋.
Consider this example.
Example 7:
 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = cot 3𝑥.
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Identify the period and vertical asymptotes. Here 𝑨 = 𝟏 and 𝑩 = 𝟑.
𝜋 𝜋 𝝅
period = = =
|𝐵| |3| 𝟑
Vertical asymptotes:
𝐵𝑥 = 0 𝐵𝑥 = 𝜋
3𝑥 = 0 3𝑥 = 𝜋
𝜋
𝑥=0 𝑥=
3
𝝅
Vertical asymptotes occur at 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒙 =
𝟑
𝜋
Step 2:Identify an 𝑥 − intercept, midway the two consecutive asymptotes. Midway 0 and
3
𝜋
0+ 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
is = ( 3
= 6 ). The 𝑥 − intercept is 6 and the graph passes through( 6 , 0).
2
𝜋
Step 3:Find points on the graph midway the 𝑥 − intercept and the consecutive asymptotes.
6
These points have 𝑦 − coordinates 1 and −1, respectively, because 𝐴 = 1. Their 𝑥 −
coordinates are given by
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
0+6
=
𝜋
and 6+3=𝜋
2 12 2 4
Step 4:Use steps 1 to 3 to graph one full period of the function. We use the two consecutive
𝜋 𝜋
asymptotes, 𝑥 = 0 and = , the 𝑥 − intercept ( , 0), and the points midway the
3 6
𝑥 − intercept and the asymptotes with 𝑦 − coordinates of 1 and −1.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 0
12 6 4 3
𝑦 = cot 3𝑥 ∞ 1 0 −1 ∞
62
𝜋
Step 5:Graph one period of 𝑦 = cot 3𝑥 from 0 to . Continue the pattern by adding
3
complete cycles.
FIGURE PAGE 211 CON
You can do this!
Sketch the graph.

𝜋
1. 𝑦 = −3 cot 𝑥
2
2. 𝑦 = 2 cot 2𝑥
𝑥
3. 𝑦 = 2 cot
2
Graphs of Cotangent Functions
By using the analysis similar to the one used to obtain the graph of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥, you can obtain the
cos 𝑥
graph of 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 = .
sin 𝑥
Begin with the cotangent function 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙.
To sketch the graph, make a table of values in the interval 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 and use the points to draw
the graph.
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥 0 𝜋
4 2 4
𝑦 = cot 𝑥 ∞ 1 0 −1 ∞
Notice that when 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝜋, the cotangent function is undefined. This is because
cos 0 1 cos 𝜋 −1
cot 0 = = =∞ and cot 𝜋 = = =∞
sin 0 0 sin 𝜋 0
63
If you plot the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and draw a smooth curve, you will come up with the figure below.
Observe that there are vertical asymptotes at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝜋. This means that one full period
occurs between 0 and 𝜋. The graph extends indefinitely upward to the left and indefinitely
downward to the right.
The cotangent function has the following characteristics.
4. Its vertical asymptotes occur at 𝐵𝑥 = 0 and 𝐵𝑥 = 𝜋.
𝜋
At this point, examine the graph of 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝑩𝒙, where the period is and the vertical
|𝐵|
asymptotes occur at𝐵𝑥 = 0 and 𝐵𝑥 = 𝜋.
Consider this example.
Example 7:
 Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = cot 3𝑥.
SOLUTION:
Step 4: Identify the period and vertical asymptotes. Here 𝑨 = 𝟏 and 𝑩 = 𝟑.
𝜋 𝜋 𝝅
period = = =
|𝐵| |3| 𝟑
Vertical asymptotes:
𝐵𝑥 = 0 𝐵𝑥 = 𝜋
3𝑥 = 0 3𝑥 = 𝜋
𝜋
𝑥=0 𝑥=
3
𝝅
Vertical asymptotes occur at 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒙 =
𝟑
𝜋
𝜋 0+ 𝜋
Step 5: Identify an 𝑥 − intercept, midway the two consecutive asymptotes. Midway 0 and is = ( 3
= ). The 𝑥 −
3 2 6
𝜋 𝜋
intercept is and the graph passes through( , 0).
6 6
𝜋
Step 6: Find points on the graph midway the 𝑥 − intercept and the consecutive asymptotes. These points have 𝑦 −
6
coordinates 1 and −1, respectively, because 𝐴 = 1. Their 𝑥 − coordinates are given by
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
0+6
=
𝜋
and 6+3=𝜋
2 12 2 4
𝜋
Step 5: Use steps 1 to 3 to graph one full period of the function. We use the two consecutive asymptotes, 𝑥 = 0 and = , the
3
𝜋
𝑥 − intercept ( , 0), and the points midway the 𝑥 − intercept and the asymptotes with 𝑦 − coordinates of 1 and −1.
6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 0
12 6 4 3
𝑦 = cot 3𝑥 ∞ 1 0 −1 ∞
64
𝜋
Step 4:Graph one period of 𝑦 = cot 3𝑥 from 0 to . Continue the pattern by adding
3
complete cycles.
Graphs of Cosecant and Secant Functions

The graphs of the two trigonometric functions, cosecant and secant, can be derived from the graphs
1
of the sine and cosine functions. Again, we consider their reciprocal identities csc 𝑥 = and
sin 𝑥
1
sec 𝑥 = .
cos 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
Let us consider − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ . For each 𝑥, we take the reciprocal of cos 𝑥 to get
2
1
𝑦 = cos𝑥 = sec 𝑥.
The following table will help us graph the curve.

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 − − − − 0
2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2
1 ξ2 ξ3 ξ3 ξ2 1
cos 𝑥 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
2ξ3 2ξ3
sec 𝑥 ∞ 2 ξ2 1 ξ2 2 ∞
2 2
65
𝜋
Note that as 𝑥 gets closer to , cos 𝑥 gets closer to 0. This
2
𝜋
implies that its reciprocal gets very large and that 𝑥 =
is
2
an asymptote. A more accurate graph of the secant
function is shown on the next page.
1
The properties of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 = csc𝑥 can be obtained
from 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, just as the properties of the cosine were
used for the secant. The graph of the cosecant function is
given at the right.
To graph a cosecant or secant curve, begin by graphing the reciprocal function. For example, to
graph 𝑦 = 3 csc 2𝑥, we use the graph of 𝑦 = 3 sin 2𝑥. Likewise, to graph 𝑦 = −2 sec 3𝑥, we use
the graph of 𝑦 = −2 cos 3𝑥.
Notice how we can use the sine curve to obtain the corresponding cosecant curve.
 The 𝑥 − intercepts on the sine curve determine the vertical asymptotes of the cosecant
curve.
 A maximum point on the sine curve corresponds to a minimum point on a continuous part
of the cosecant curve.
 A minimum point on the sine curve corresponds to a maximum point on a continuous part
of the cosecant curve.
Example 8:
 Use the graph of 𝑦 = −2 sin 𝑥 to obtain the graph of 𝑦 = −2 csc 𝑥
SOLUTION:
This is the graph of 𝑦 = −2 sin 𝑥
(Example 2 of page 62).
The 𝑥 − intercepts of 𝑦 = −2 sin 𝑥 determine the vertical asymptotes of 𝑦 = −2 csc 𝑥.

Thus, we draw vertical asymptotes through the 𝑥 − interceps a s shown below. Using the
vertical asymptotes as guide, sketch the graph of 𝑦 = −2 csc 𝑥
66
The graph of the secant function can be obtained in exactly the same way as the graph of cosecant
function is obtained. Thus,
 The 𝑥 − intercepts on the cosine curve determine the vertical asymptotes of the secant
curve.
 A maximum point on the cosine curve corresponds to a minimum point on a continuous
part of the secant curve.
 A minimum point on the cosine curve corresponds to a maximum point on a continuous
part of the secant curve.
Example 9:
 Use the graph of 𝑦 = −2 cos 𝑥 to obtain the graph of 𝑦 = −2 sec 𝑥
SOLUTION:
To graph of 𝑦 = −2 cos 𝑥 is shown below (Example 4 of page 65)
The 𝑥 − intercepts of 𝑦 = −2 cos 𝑥 correspond to the vertical asymptotes of 𝑦 =

−2 sec 𝑥. Thus, we draw vertical asymptotes through the 𝑥 − intercepts. Using the
asymptotes as guides, sketch the graph of 𝑦 = −2 sec 𝑥
You can do this!
Sketch the graph.

1. 𝑦 = 3 sec 𝑥
2. 𝑦 = 2 csc 4𝑥
3 𝑥
3. 𝑦 = 2 csc 4
67
UNIT 4
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Lesson 4.1
DIFFERENTIATING EQUATIONS AND IDENTITY
In this module you will learn how to differentiate equations or identity. After you read, practice,
 determine whether an equation is an identity or a conditional equation.
Trigonometric functions are widely used in solving real-world problems as well as in the
development of mathematics. Whatever their use, it is often of value to be able to change a
trigonometric expression from one form to an equivalent but more convenient form. This involves
the use of identities.
There are some equations that can be satisfied by any real number. In other words, the equation is
true for all real numbers. For example, the equations
𝑚 + 𝑚 = 2𝑚, 𝑚 − 9 = 𝑚 − 9, and 2(𝑚 − 9) = 2𝑚 − 18
can be satisfied by all real numbers, while the equation 2𝑚 + 4 = 10 is only true when 𝑚 = 3.
IDENTITY
An equation in one or more variable/s is said to be an identity if the left side is
equal to the right side for all values of the variables from which both sides are
defined.
In that case, the equations

𝑚 + 𝑚 = 2𝑚, 𝑚 − 9 = 𝑚 − 9, and 2(𝑚 − 9) = 2𝑚 − 18
are all examples of an identity, but 2𝑚 + 4 = 10 is not. The latter is called a conditional equation,
since it holds only when 𝑚 = 3. Likewise, the equations 𝑚2 = 9 and 𝑚2 − 2𝑚 − 8 = 0 are
examples of conditional equations.
Hence, an equation that is satisfied by every real number is called an identity.
On the other hand,
CONDITIONAL EQUATION
Conditional equation is an equation that is true for one real numbers only.
Example 1:
 Show that 7 + 5(𝑥 + 6) + 4 − 30 = 3 + 2(𝑥 − 10) + 3𝑥 + 28 is an identity.
SOLUTION:
To show that 7 + 5(𝑥 + 6) + 4 − 30 = 3 + 2(𝑥 − 10) + 3𝑥 + 28 is an identity, we must
simplify both sides of the equation.
Step 1: Use distributive property to remove the parentheses.
7 + 5(𝑥 + 6) + 4 − 30 = 3 + 2(𝑥 − 10) + 3𝑥 + 28
7 + 5𝑥 + 30 + 4 − 30 = 3 + 2𝑥 − 20 + 3𝑥 + 28
Step 2: Combine like terms
(5𝑥) + (30 + 4 + 7 − 30) = (3𝑥 + 2𝑥) + (−20 + 28 + 3)
5𝑥 + 11 = 5𝑥 + 11
The last equation is true for any value of 𝑥 because the two sides are identical. So, all real
numbers will satisfy the original equations.
68
Example 2:
 Show the equation, and identity if it is a conditional equation or an identity.
2𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 4
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Combine like terms.
2𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 4
4𝑥 = 4
1
Step 2:Multiply both sides by 4 or apply MPE (Multiplication Property of Equality).
4𝑥 = 4
1 1
4𝑥 (4) = 4 (4)
𝑥=1
Since the equation is true only if 𝑥 = 1 and not for all values for which both sides
are defined, then the equation is a conditional equation.
PRECALCULary: Differentiating Equations and Identity
 An identity is an equation that is satisfied by every real number for which

both sides are defined.
 A conditional equation is an equation that is satisfied by at least one real
number but is not an identity.
You can do this!

Solve each equation and identity if it is a conditional equation or an identity
1. 23 − 5(3 − 𝑦) = −4(𝑦 − 2) + 9𝑦
2𝑚
2. =𝑚
2
3. 𝑦 + 6 = 14
4. 3𝑥 − 5 = 2𝑥 − 9
5. (𝑥 − 9)(𝑥 + 9) = 𝑥 2 − 81
69
Lesson 4.2
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
In this module you will learn how about Trigonometric Identities. After you read, practice, and
review the lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 derive the fundamental trigonometric identities;
 prove other trigonometric identities.
Recall from our discussion on unit circle we define the following trigonometric functions as
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦 𝑦
1. sin 𝜃 = = ⇒ sin 𝜃 = ⇒ sin 𝜃 = 𝑦
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟 1
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥 𝑥
2. cos 𝜃 = = ⇒ cos 𝜃 = ⇒ cos 𝜃 = 𝑦
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦 sin 𝜃
3. tan 𝜃 = = ⇒ tan 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝜃
4. csc 𝜃 = = ⇒ csc 𝜃 =
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦 sin 𝜃
5. sec 𝜃 = = ⇒ sec 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝜃 1
6. cot 𝜃 = = ⇒ cot 𝜃 = =
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑦 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃
By definition, we already derived the first five basic trigonometric identities as follows.
Reciprocal Identities
1 1
1. sin 𝜃 = ⇔ csc 𝜃 = ⇔ sin 𝜃 csc 𝜃 = 1
csc 𝜃 sin 𝜃
1 1
2. cos 𝜃 = ⇔ sec 𝜃 = ⇔ cos 𝜃 sec 𝜃 = 1
sec 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1 1
3. tan 𝜃 = ⇔ cot 𝜃 = ⇔ tan 𝜃 cot 𝜃 = 1
cot 𝜃 tan 𝜃
Ratio Identities
sin 𝜃
4. tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃
5. cot 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃
Pythagorean Identities
cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1
1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec2 𝜃
cot 2 𝜃 + 1 = csc2 𝜃
These identities can occur in more than one form. You should learn to recognize them in each of
their various forms. For examples, two other forms of
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟏 are 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.
70
Symmetry or Odd-Even Identities
sin(−𝜃) = −sin 𝜃
cos(−𝜃) = − cos 𝜃
tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃
csc(−𝜃) = −csc 𝜃
sec(−𝜃) = − sec 𝜃
cot(−𝜃) = − cot 𝜃
Example 1:
 Simplify the following.
tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃
a.
sin 𝜃
b. cos 2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 tan2 𝜃
1 + tan2 𝜃
c.
1 + cot 2 𝜃
SOLUTION:
tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃
a.
sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= = =1 by Ratio Identities
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
b. cos 2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 tan2 𝜃

cos 2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 tan2 𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 (1 + tan2 𝜃 ) Apply factoring
= cos 2 𝜃 sec2 𝜃 by Pythagorean Theorem
1
= cos 2 𝜃 by Reciprocal Identities
cos 2 𝜃
=1
1 + tan2 𝜃
c.
1 + cot 2 𝜃
1 + tan2 𝜃 sec2 𝜃
= by Pythagorean Theorem
1 + cot 2 𝜃 csc2 𝜃
1
2 sin2 𝜃
= cos 𝜃 = by Reciprocal Identities
1 cos 2 𝜃
sin 𝜃
= tan2 𝜃 by Ratio Identities
71
Example 2:
3
 If sin 𝜃 = − and cos 𝜃 > 0. Find cos 𝜃.
4
SOLUTION:
Using the identity sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1 with cos 𝜃 > 0, we have
cos 𝜃 = √1 − sin2 𝜃
3 2
= ඨ(1 − (− ) )
4
ξ7
=
4
Example 3:
5
 If sec 𝜃 = and tan 𝜃 < 0, use the identities to find the values of the remaining
2
trigonomteric functions of 𝜃
SOLUTION:
Note that 𝜃 lies in QuadranIV.
1 1 2
cos 𝜃 = = =
sec 𝜃 5 5
2
1 1 −ξ21
sin 𝜃 = −√1 − cos 2 𝜃 = −ඨ1 − 2
= −ඩ1 − 2 =
sec 𝜃 5 5
(2)
1 −5ξ21
csc 𝜃 = =−
sin 𝜃 21
−ξ21
sin 𝜃 5 = −ξ21
tan 𝜃 = =
cos 𝜃 2 2
5
1 1 2ξ21
cot 𝜃 = = =−
tan 𝜃 −ξ21 21
2
72
You can do this!
Use trigonometric identities to simplify each expression.

1. cot 𝜃 sec 𝜃
2. sec2 𝜃 (1 − sin2 𝜃)
sin 𝜃
3. sec 𝜃 ∙
tan 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃
4.
sec 𝜃−1
5. cos 𝑥 cot 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
PRECALCULary: Trigonometric Identities
 Trigonometric identity – an identity that involves trigonometric

functions of one or more variables.
 Fundamental Trigonometric Identities:
a. Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 =
csc 𝜃 csc 𝜃 cot 𝜃
1 1 1
csc 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃
b. Ratio Identities
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
c. Pythagorean Identities
cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1
1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec2 𝜃
cot 2 𝜃 + 1 = csc2 𝜃
d. Symmetry or Odd-Even Identities
sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 cos(−𝜃 ) = − cos 𝜃 tan(−𝜃 ) = − tan 𝜃
csc(−𝜃) = − csc 𝜃 sec(−𝜃 ) = − sec 𝜃 cot(−𝜃) = − cot 𝜃
73
Lesson 4.3 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES INVOLVING SUM
AND DIFFERENCE OF ANGLES
In this module you will learn how about Trigonometric Identities involving Sum and Difference
of Angles. After you read, practice, and review the lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 derive trigonometric identities involving sum and difference of angles.
In previous lesson, we introduced the concept of trigonometric identity, presented the fundamental
identities. In this lesson, we apply or evaluate the sum and diﬀ erence identities for cosine, sine,
and tangent functions, establish the cofunction identities.
SUM AND DIFFERENCE IDENTITIES

For any 𝛼 and 𝛽 in R,
1. sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
2. sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
3. cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
4. cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽
5. tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) =
1 − tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽
tan 𝛼 − tan 𝛽
6. tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 + tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽
Example 1:
 Find the exact value of the following.
a. cos 75° d. sin 50° cos 20° − cos 50° sin 20°
tan 10°+tan 35°
b. sin 105° e.
1−tan 10° tan 35°
𝜋
c. sin
12
SOLUTION:
a. cos 75°
Notice that 75° = 45° + 30°. Since we know the exact value of sine and cosine at 45° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 30°, we use the Addition
Formula for Cosine to get
cos 75° = cos(45° + 30°)
= cos 45° cos 30° − sin 45° sin 30°
ξ2 ξ3 ξ2 1
= ∙ − ∙
2 2 2 2
ξ6 ξ2
= −
4 4
ξ𝟔 − ξ𝟐
=
𝟒
b. sin 105°
Since 105° is the sum of 60° and 45° which are two of the special angles, we can apply the sum identity for the sin 105°.
sin 105° = sin(60° + 45°)

= sin 60° cos 45° + cos 60° sin 45°
ξ3 ξ2 1 ξ2
= ∙ + ∙
2 2 2 2
ξ6 ξ2
= +
4 4
ξ𝟔 + ξ𝟐
=
𝟒
74
Example𝜋 1: (continuation)
c. cos
12
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Since = − , the Subtraction Formula for Cosine to get
12 4 6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
cos = cos ( − )
12 4 6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= cos cos + sin sin
4 6 4 6
ξ2 ξ3 ξ2 1
= ∙ + ∙
2 2 2 2
ξ6 ξ2
= +
4 4
+
ξ𝟔 ξ𝟐
=
𝟒
d. sin 50° cos 20° − cos 50° sin 20°
The given expression fits the formula for sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) with 𝛼 = 50° and 𝛽 = 20°.
sin 50° cos 20° − cos 50° sin 20° = sin(50° − 20°)
= sin 30°
𝟏
=
𝟐
tan 10° + tan 35°
e.
1 − tan 10° tan 35°
The given expression fits the formula for tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) with 𝛼 = 10° and 𝛽 = 35°.
tan 10° + tan 35°
= tan(10° + 35°)
1 − tan 10° tan 35°
= tan 45°
=𝟏
You can do this!
Find the exact value of the following.
1. tan 75° 5𝜋
4. cos
2. cos 285° 12
3. sin 195° 5. tan 225°
PRECALCULary: Sum and Difference Identities
 The following formulas may be used to find the values of the circular functions
of an angle that can be expressed as the sum or difference of two special angles,
and also to prove identities involving sums and differences.
 Sum and Difference Identities:
For any 𝛼 and 𝛽 in R,
1. sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
2. sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
3. cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
4. cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽
5. tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) =
1 − tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽
tan 𝛼 − tan 𝛽
6. tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 + tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽
75
Lesson 4.4
DOUBLE-ANGLE AND HALF-ANGLE IDENTITIES
In this module you will learn how about Double-Angle and Half-Angle Identities. After you read,
 derive the double and half-angle formulas.
Double-Angle Identities
DOUBLE-ANGLE IDENTITIES
For permissible real number 𝛼,
1. sin 2𝛼 = 2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼
2. cos 2𝛼 = cos 2 𝛼 − sin2 𝑎
cos 2𝛼 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝛼
cos 2𝛼 = 2 cos 2 𝛼 − 1
2 tan 𝛼
3. tan 2𝛼 =
1 − tan2 𝛼
Example 1:
 Use double-angle identities to find sin 120°.
SOLUTION:
Rewrite sin 120° as sin 2(60°) and apply the double-angle identity for sin 2𝛼.
sin 120° = sin 2(60°)
= 2 sin 60° cos 60°
ξ3 1
= 2( )( )
2 2
ξ𝟑
=
𝟐
Example 2:
7
𝑦
 If sin 𝛼 = and P(𝛼) lies in quadrant II, find the exact value of
25
a. sin 2𝛼 b. cos 2𝛼 c. tan 2𝛼 𝑟 = 25
SOLUTION: 𝑦=7
7 𝑦
Illustrate sin 𝛼 = 25 = 𝑟 .
Find 𝑥 using Pythagorean theorem. Because 𝛼 lies in quadrant II, 𝑥 is negative. 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 = −ξ252 − 72
= −ξ625 − 49
= −24
𝑥 24 𝑦 7
Thus, cos 𝛼 = 𝑟 = − 25. Also, tan 𝛼 = 𝑥 = − 24.
7 24 𝟑𝟑𝟔
a. sin 2𝛼 = 2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 = 2 ( ) (− ) = −
25 25 𝟔𝟐𝟓
2 2
24 7 𝟓𝟐𝟕
b. cos 2𝛼 = cos 2 𝛼 −sin2 𝛼 = (− ) − ( ) =
25 25 𝟔𝟐𝟓
7 7
2 tan 𝛼 2 (− 24) − 12 𝟑𝟑𝟔
c. tan 2𝛼 = 2
= 2 = 527 = −
1 − tan 𝛼 7 𝟓𝟐𝟕
1 − (− 24) 576
76
Half-Angle Identities
HALF-ANGLE IDENTITIES
For any 𝛼 in R,
𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼 𝛼 1 + cos 𝛼
sin = ±ඨ cos = ±ඨ
2 2 2 2
𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼
tan =
2 sin 𝛼
𝛼 sin 𝛼
tan =
2 1 + cos 𝛼
𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼
tan = ±ඨ
2 1 + cos 𝛼
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
The signs sin and cos depend on the quadrant in which terminates.
2 2 2
Example 3:
 Use half-angle identities to find cos 15°.
SOLUTION:
1
Rewrite cos 15° as cos (2 (30°)) and apply the half-angle identity for cosine.
1
cos 15° = cos ( (30°))
2
1 + cos(30°)
= ±ඨ
2
ξ3
ඩ1 + 2
=±
2
2 + ξ3
ඩ2
=±
2
2 + ξ3
= ±ඨ
4
√𝟐 + ξ𝟑
=±
𝟐
77
Example 4:
4 3𝜋 𝑦
 Given sin 𝛼 = − , 𝜋 < 𝛼 < , find the exact value of
5 2
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝑥
a. sin b. cos c. tan −4
2 2 2 5
SOLUTION:
Draw the reference triangle in quadrant III and find cos 𝛼
𝑥 = −√52 − (−42 )
= −ξ25 − 16
= −3
𝑥 3
cos 𝛼 = 𝑟 = − 5.
3𝜋 𝜋 𝛼 3𝜋 𝛼
If , 𝜋 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ , then ≤ ≤ . Thus, terminates in quadrant II, where sine
2 2 2 2 2
is positive and cosine and tangent are both negative. Using half-angle identities, we
have
3
𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼 ඨ1 − (− 5) 8 4 𝟐ξ𝟓
a. sin = ඨ = =ඨ =ඨ =
2 2 2 10 5 𝟓
3
𝛼 1 + cos 𝛼 1 + (− )
b. cos = −ඨ =−
ඨ 5 = −ඨ 2 = −ඨ1 = − ξ𝟓
2 2 2 10 5 𝟓
𝛼 2ξ5
𝛼 sin 2
c. tan = = 5 = −𝟐
2 cos 𝛼 ξ5
2 − 5
You can do this!

A. Use double-angle identities to find the exact value of the following.
1. sin 75° 𝜋
4. cos
2. cos 120° 12
3. tan 195° 8𝜋
5. sin
3
B. Use half-angle identities to find the exact value of the following.
1. cos 105°
2. sin 165°
3. tan 22.5°
𝜋
4. sin
8
7𝜋
5. cos
12
78
PRECALCULary: Double-Angle and Half-Angle Identities
 Double-Angle Identities:
1. sin 2𝛼 = 2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼
2. cos 2𝛼 = cos 2 𝛼 − sin2 𝑎

cos 2𝛼 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝛼
cos 2𝛼 = 2 cos 2 𝛼 − 1
2 tan 𝛼
3. tan 2𝛼 =
1 − tan2 𝛼
 Half-Angle Identities:
𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼 𝛼 1 + cos 𝛼
sin = ±ඨ cos = ±ඨ
2 2 2 2
𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼
tan =
2 sin 𝛼
𝛼 sin 𝛼
tan =
2 1 + cos 𝛼
𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼
79
UNIT 5
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Lesson 5.1
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In this module you will learn how about Inverse Trigonometric Functions. After you read, practice,
 illustrate the domain and range of the inverse trigonometric functions;
 evaluate an inverse trigonometric expression.
The table below gives all six inverse trigonometric functions and their corresponding domain and
range.
Inverse Range
Domain
Function Interval Quadrants of the Unit Circle
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 [−1, 1] [− , ] I & IV
2 2
𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 [−1, 1] [0, 𝜋] I & II
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 [−∞, ∞] (− , ) I & IV
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥 (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) [− , 0) ∪ (0, ] I & IV
2 2
80
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = sec−1 𝑥 (−∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) (0, ] ∪ ( , 𝜋] I & II
2 2
𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 (−∞, ∞) (0, 𝜋) I & II
Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse Trigonometric Function

The value of sin−1 𝑥, cos −1 𝑥, tan−1 𝑥, csc −1 𝑥, sec −1 𝑥, and cot −1 𝑥 are referred to as principal
values since values are selected from restricted domain. Examine the following examples on how
to determine the principal values of the inverse trigonometric functions.
 Exact Values of Inverse Sine Function
The exact values of sin−1 𝑥 can be found by thinking of sin−1 𝑥 as the angle in the interval
𝜋 𝜋
[− 2 , 2 ] whose sine is 𝑥. We shall represent such an angle by 𝑦.
1. Let 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥.
𝜋 𝜋
2. Rewrite 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 as sin 𝑦 = 𝑥, where − ≤𝑦≤ .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
3. Find the exact value of 𝑦 in [− , ] that satisfies sin 𝑦 = 𝑥.
2 2
Example 1:
ξ3
 Find the exact value of sin−1
2
SOLUTION:
ξ3
Step 1:𝑦 = sin−1
2
ξ3 √3 𝜋 𝜋
Step 2:Rewrite 𝑦 = sin−1 as sin 𝑦 = 2 , where – ≤ 𝑦 ≤
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 √3
Step 3:Find the exact value of 𝑦 in [− , ] that satisfies sin 𝑦 = 2 .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 √3 𝜋
The only angle in the interval [− , ] that satisfies sin 𝑦 = 2 is .
2 2 3
𝜋
Thus, 𝑦 = 3.
√3 𝜋
Therefore, sin−1 2 = 3.
 Exact Values of Inverse Cosine Function

The exact values of cos −1 𝑥 can be found by thinking of cos −1 𝑥 as the angle in the interval [0, 𝜋]
whose cosine is 𝑥. We shall represent such an angle by 𝑦.
1. Let 𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥.
2. Rewrite 𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 as cos 𝑦 = 𝑥, where −0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.
3. Find the exact value of 𝑦 in [0, 𝜋] that satisfies cos 𝑦 = 𝑥.
81
Example 2:
 Find the exact value of cos −1 (1).
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Let 𝑦 = cos −1 (1).
Step 2:Rewrite 𝑦 = cos −1 (1) as cos 𝑦 = 1, where −0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.
Step 3:Find the exact value of 𝑦 in [0, 𝜋] that satisfies cos 𝑦 = 1.
The only angle in the interval [0, 𝜋] that satisfies cos 𝑦 = 1 is 0.
Thus, 𝑦 = 0.
Therefore, cos −1 (1) = 0.
 Exact Values of Inverse Tangent Function

The exact values of tan−1 𝑥 can be found by thinking of tan−1 𝑥 as the angle in the interval
𝜋 𝜋
(− , ) whose tangent is 𝑥. We shall represent such an angle by 𝑦.
2 2
1. Let 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥.
𝜋 𝜋
2. Rewrite 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 as tan 𝑦 = 𝑥, where − < 𝑦 < .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
3. Find the exact value of 𝑦 in (− , ) that satisfies tan 𝑦 = 𝑥.
2 2
Example 3:
 Find the exact value of tan−1 (−ξ3)
SOLUTION:
Step 1:𝑦 = tan−1 (−ξ3)
𝜋 𝜋
Step 2:Rewrite 𝑦 = tan−1 (−ξ3) as tan 𝑦 = (−ξ3), where – <𝑦< .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
Step 3:Find the exact value of 𝑦 in (− , ) that satisfies tan 𝑦 = (−ξ3).
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The only angle in the interval (− , ) that satisfies tan 𝑦 = (−ξ3) is − 3.
2 2
𝜋
Thus, 𝑦 = − 3.
𝜋
Therefore, tan−1 ൫−ξ3൯ = − 3.
Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse Cotangent, Secant, and Cosecant Function
Finding the exact values of cot −1 𝑥, sec−1 𝑥, and csc −1 𝑥, is not simple, because these functions
must first be expressed in terms of tan−1 𝑥, cos −1 𝑥, and sin−1 𝑥, respectively. For example, if
𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥, then sec 𝑦 = 𝑥, which must be written in terms of cosine as follows.
1 1 1
If sec 𝑦 = 𝑥, then = 𝑥, or cos 𝑦 = and 𝑦 = cos −1
cos 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
We can use the following to evaluate these inverse trigonometric functions.
Exact Values of Inverse Secant Function
1
sec −1 𝑥 = cos −1
𝑥
Exact Values of Inverse Cosecant Function
1
csc −1 𝑥 = sin−1
𝑥
82
Exact Values of Inverse Cotangent Function
1
tan−1 if 𝑥 > 0
cot −1 𝑥 = { 𝑥
1
𝜋 + tan−1 if 𝑥 < 0
𝑥
Example 4:
 Find the exact value of sec −1 2
SOLUTION:
Step 1:𝑦 = sec −1 2
1
Step 2:Evaluate sec −1 𝑥 as cos −1 𝑥.
1 1
Step 3:Rewrite 𝑦 = cos −1 2 as cos 𝑦 = 2, where – 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.
1
Step 4:Find the exact value of 𝑦 in [0, 𝜋] that satisfies cos 𝑦 = 2.
1 𝜋
The only angle in the interval [0, 𝜋] that satisfies cos 𝑦 = 2 is .
3
𝜋
Thus, 𝑦 = 3.
𝜋
Therefore, sec −1 2 = 3.
Example 5:
 Find the exact value of csc −1 ൫−ξ2൯
SOLUTION:
Step 1:𝑦 = csc −1 ൫−ξ2൯

1
Step 2:Evaluate csc −1 𝑥 as sin−1 𝑥
1
y = sin−1 (− ) 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
ξ2
1 1 𝜋 𝜋
Step 3:Rewrite 𝑦 = sin−1 (− ) as sin 𝑦 = − , where – < 𝑦 < .
√2 √2 2 2
1
sin 𝑦 = − 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ξ2
ξ2
=− 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
2
𝜋 𝜋 √2
Step 4:Find the exact value of 𝑦 in (− , ) that satisfies sin 𝑦 = − 2 .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 √2 𝜋
The only angle in the interval (− , ) that satisfies sin 𝑦 = − is- − .
2 2 2 4
𝜋
Thus, 𝑦 = − 4.
𝜋
Hence, csc −1 ൫−ξ2൯ = − 4.
83
Example 6:
 Find the exact value of cot −1 1
SOLUTION:
Step 1: 𝑦 = cot −1 1
1
Step 2: Evaluate cot −1 𝑥 as tan−1 since𝑥 > 0.
𝑥
y = tan−1 1 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
Step 3: Rewrite 𝑦 = tan−1 1 as tan 𝑦 = 1, where – <𝑦< .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
Step 4: Find the exact value of 𝑦 in (− , ) that satisfies tan 𝑦 = 1.
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The only angle in the interval (− , ) that satisfies tan 𝑦 = 1 is- 4 .
2 2
𝜋
Thus, 𝑦 = .
4
𝜋
Hence, cot −1 1 = .
4
Calculators give the approximate values of inverse trigonometric functions. Use the key
marked SIN−1 , COS −1 , and TAN−1 .
Finding the Approximate Value of an Inverse Trigonometric Function
Example 7:
 Use a calculator to find the value of each term.
1 1
a. sin−1 b. cos −1 4 c. tan−1 (−9.43) d. cos −1 3
3
SOLUTION:
Display, rounded to five
Function Mode Keystrokes
decimal places
1
a. sin−1 Radian 1 ÷ 3 = SIN −1 0.33984
3
1
b. cos −1 Radian 1 ÷ 4 = COS−1 1.31812
4
TAN −1 −1.46515
c. tan−1 (−9.43) Radian 9.43 + / −
d. cos −1 3 Radian 3 ERROR
There is no angle whose cosine is 3. The domain of the inverse cosine function is [−1, 1] and 3
does not belong to this domain.
You can do this!

A. Find the exact value of each of the 2√3
3. sec −1 ( 3 )
following.
ξ3
1. cos −1 75 4. sin−1 ( )
2. csc −1 (−2) 2
5. tan−1 ξ3
B. Use scientific calculator to find the value of each function. Express your answer up to 5 decimal
places.
1. sin−1 0.3 3. tan−1 (−4.038)
3 4. sec −1 (−5.118)
2. cos ( )
−1
8 5. tan−1 43.09
84
Lesson 5.2
SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
In this module you will learn how about Trigonometric Equations. After you read, practice, and
 solve trigonometric equations.
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION
A trigonometric equation is an equation whose variable is expressed in terms of
a trigonometric function value.
In fact, we have seen that some trigonometric equations are identities, such as cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 =
1. These equations are true for every value of the variable for which the expressions are defined.
There are trigonometric equations that are only true for some values of the variable. The values
that satisfy these equations are their solutions.
1 1
An example of a trigonometric equation is sin 𝑥 = 2. One solution of sin 𝑥 = 2 in the interval
1 𝜋
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 is 𝑥 = sin−1 2 = . We also know that since sin 𝑥 is positive in the second quadrant,
6
1
there is a second quadrant angle, whose sine is . Recall the relationship between an angle in any
2
quadrant to the acute angle called the reference angle. Hence, another solution for this equation is
𝜋 6𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑥=𝜋− = − = . Figure 1 shows that the equation sin 𝑥 = 2 has solutions 𝑥 = and
6 6 6 6 6
5𝜋
𝑥= in the interval [0, 2𝜋).
6
Moreover, because sin 𝑥 has a period of 2𝜋, there are infinitely many other solutions. Thus, all
1 𝜋 5𝜋
solutions of sin 𝑥 = 2 are given by 𝑥 = +2𝑛𝜋 or +2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is any integer.
6 6
Steps in Solving Trigonometric Equations

1. If the equation is linear in one trigonometric function:
a. Directly solve for the trigonometric function.
b. Then solve for the angle by determining the function values of the quadrantal
or special angle by applying the trigonometric tables.
2. If there are more trigonometric functions, apply the Fundamental Identities to represent the
equation in terms of one trigonometric function.
3. If the equation is not linear, represent it by isolating the left side of the equation. Then
apply factoring (if factorable), otherwise use the quadratic formula.
4. Use the algebraic techniques for solving the trigonometric equations.
85
Example 1:
 Solve the equation: 5 sin 𝑥 − ξ3 = 3 sin 𝑥
SOLUTION:
The equation contains a single trigonometric function, sin 𝑥. Isolate the function on one side
of the equation.
5 sin 𝑥 − ξ3 = 3 sin 𝑥
5 sin 𝑥 = 3 sin 𝑥 + ξ3
5 sin 𝑥 − 3 sin 𝑥 = ξ3
2 sin 𝑥 = ξ3
ξ3
sin 𝑥 =
2
Because sin 𝑥 has a period of 2𝜋, first find all solutions in the interval [0, 2𝜋], these are 𝑥 =
𝜋 2𝜋
and 𝑥 = . Finally, add 2𝑛𝜋 to each of these solutions to get the solutions to get the
3 3
𝜋 2𝜋
solution 𝑥 = +2𝑛𝜋 or = 3 +2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is an integer.
3
The next example can be solved using factoring.
Example 2:
 Solve the equation: 2 sin2 𝜃 − 3 sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
SOLUTION:
The given equation is in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. The given equation can be solved using
factoring.
2 sin2 𝜃 − 3 sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
2(sin 𝜃 − 1)(sin 𝜃 − 1) = 0
2 sin 𝜃 − 1 = 0 or sin 𝜃 − 1 = 0
1
sin 𝜃 =
2
𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= or 𝜃 = or 𝜃 =
6 6 2
𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
The solution in the interval [0, 2𝜋] are , , or .
6 6 2
86
Example 3:
1
 Solve the equation: sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 2, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
SOLUTION:
The given equation is in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. The given equation can be solved using
factoring.
1
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 =
2
2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 1 Multiply both sides by 2.
sin 2𝑥 = 1 Use a double − angle identity formula.
We have an equation with 2𝑥 as reference angle, a multiple angle. The period of the sine
𝜋
function is 2𝜋. In the interval [0, 2𝜋], the only value for which the sine is 1 is . This
2
𝜋
indicates that 2𝑥 = . Because the period is 2𝜋, all the solutions to sin 2𝑥 = 1 are given by
2
𝜋
2𝑥 = + 2𝑛𝜋 , where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer.
2
𝜋
𝑥 = + 𝑛𝜋 Divide both sides by 2.
4
𝜋 5𝜋
The solution in the interval [0, 2𝜋] are and by letting 𝑛 = 0 and 𝑛 = 1.
4 4
Example 4:
 Solve the equation: tan 2𝜃 = ξ3, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
SOLUTION:
The period of the tangent function is 𝜋. In the interval [0, 𝜋], the only value for which the tangent
𝜋 𝜋
function is ξ3 is . This means that 2𝜃 = . Since the period is 𝜋, all the solutions to tan 2𝜃 = 1 are
3 3
given by
𝜋
2𝜃 = + 𝑛𝜋 n is any nonnegative integer .
3
𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝜃= + Divide both sides by 2.
6 2
In the interval [0, 2𝜋], the solutions of tan 2𝜃 = ξ3 are
𝜋
2𝑥 = + 2𝑛𝜋 , where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer.
2
𝜋
𝑥 = + 𝑛𝜋 Divide both sides by 2.
4
𝜋 5𝜋
The solution in the interval [0, 2𝜋] are and by letting 𝑛 = 0 and 𝑛 = 1.
4 4
Let 𝑛 = 0 Let 𝑛 = 2
Let 𝑛 = 1
𝜋 0𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃= + 𝜋 1(𝜋) 𝜃= +
6 2 𝜃= + 6 2
6 2
𝜋 7𝜋
= 2𝜋 =
6 = 6
3
13𝜋
If 𝑛 = 4, 𝑥 = . This value exceeds 2𝜋. Thus in the interval [0, 2𝜋], the solution of tan 2𝜃 = ξ3 are
6
𝜋 2𝜋 7𝜋 5𝜋
, , , or .
6 3 6 3
87
Example 5:
𝜋 𝜋
 Find all solutions of sin (𝑥 − 4 ) + sin (𝑥 + 4 ) = 1 in the interval [0, 2𝜋].
SOLUTION:
Using the sum and difference formulas, rewrite the equation as
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑥 cos − cos 𝑥 sin + sin 𝑥 cos + cos 𝑥 sin = 1
4 4 4 4
𝜋
2 sin 𝑥 cos = 1
4
ξ2
2(sin 𝑥 ) ( ) = 1
2
1
sin 𝑥 =
ξ2
ξ2
sin 𝑥 =
2
𝜋 3𝜋
Therefore, the only solution in the interval [0, 2𝜋] are 𝑥 = or 𝑥 =
4 4
You can do this!

Find all possible solutions of each equation.
ξ2 1
1. sin 𝑥 = 3. cos 𝑥 =
2 2
2. tan 𝑥 = ξ3 4. tan 𝑥 = −1
5. 3 sin 𝑥 − 2 = 5 sin 𝑥 − 1
PRECALCULary: Solving Trigonometric Equation
 A trigonometric equation is an equation whose variable is expressed in

terms of a trigonometric function value.
 Steps in Solving Trigonometric Equations
1. If the equation is linear in one trigonometric function:
a. Directly solve for the trigonometric function.
b. Then solve for the angle by determining the function values of
the quadrantal or special angle by applying the trigonometric
tables.
2. If there are more trigonometric functions, apply the Fundamental
Identities to represent the equation in terms of one trigonometric function.
3. If the equation is not linear, represent it by isolating the left side of the
equation. Then apply factoring (if factorable), otherwise use the quadratic
formula.
4. Use the algebraic techniques for solving the trigonometric equations.
88
UNIT 6
POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
Lesson 6.1
LOCATING POINTS IN THE POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
In this module you will learn how about locating points in the Polar Coordinate System. After you
read, practice, and review the lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 locate points in polar coordinate system.
The Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinate System has been used exclusively in the previous
lessons. It is used to describe the location of a point on a plane or space, using the coordinates
(𝑥, 𝑦) wherein we start at the origin and move 𝑥 units horizontally; then 𝑦 units vertically. See
Figure 1.
However, this is not the only way to describe the position or location of a point on a two-
dimensional plane or space.
Instead of defining a point using the coordinates in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, draw a line 𝑟 which is the
directed distance from the origin called the pole to the point. Then, determine 𝜃 which is directed
angle whose initial side is along the positive 𝑥-axis which we call the polar axis, and whose
terminal side is along line 𝑟. This is shown in Figure 2.
89
From the diagram, we now have as coordinates
(𝑟, 𝜃) which we call the polar coordinates where 𝑟 is
the radial coordinate and 𝜃 the angular coordinate or
polar angle. The angle may be expressed in degrees
or radians.
When plotting points on a polar coordinate system,
remember the following:
1. The directed angle 𝜃 is positive if measured
counterclockwise, and negative if clockwise.
2. The directed distance 𝑟 is positive if the point
is on the terminal side of the angle, and negative if
the point is located on the other side of the pole
along the line where the angle terminates.
As mentioned earlier, angle measurement may be expresses in degrees or radians. Let us first try
to plot coordinates whose angle 𝜃 is in degrees. See Figure 3.
Example 1:
 Plot points 𝑃 and 𝑅 with coordinates (3, 30°) and (4, −135°), respectively.
In the figure, the polar coordinates (3, 30°) are plotted as point 3 units from the pole on a
30° angle from the polar axis.
The given directed distance 𝑟 is positive; thus, the point is along the terminal side of the
angle. Since, the given angle 𝜃 is also positive, it is measured in a counterclockwise motion.
For 𝑅 with coordinates (4, −135°), the point is plotted 4 units from the pole along the
terminal side of the angle. Since the given angle is negative, it is measured clockwise.
90
Example 2:
 This time, plot the following points on the polar coordinate system with angles in degrees using
Figure 4
A(2, 45°) B(1, −60°) C(−2, 90°) D(−2, 150°)
Try plotting points 𝑋, 𝑌, and 𝑍 on the given polar

coordinate system in Figure 5.
𝑋(−4, 300°) 𝑌 (2, 240°) 𝑍(6, −120°)
Since angles on the polar coordinate system are defined

in a way similar to a unit circle, they are usually
expressed in radians.
Example 3:
This time, plot the following points, where angles are in radians, using Figure 6.
3𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋
M (3, ) N (5, ) O (−3, ) P (5, )
4 4 4 4
Let us first consider point M. The directed distance 𝑟 is positive 3 and 𝜃,
3𝜋
which is , and is measured counterclockwise. Similarly, point N has
4
𝜋
appositive value for 𝑟, which is 5, and an angle of which is measured
4
counterclockwise.
Let us closely examine the remaining points. Point O, which has a
negative value for 𝑟, is located on the opposite side of the line where the
7𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋
angle terminates. Notice that the coordinates (3, ) and (−3, )
4 4 4
represent the same point. Thus, because 𝑟 is a directed distance, the
coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) and (−𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝜋) represent the same point.
𝜋
Now, point N has a positive 𝑟 value of 5 and an angle of which is measured counterclockwise. Point P,
4
5𝜋
which has a negative value for 𝑟, is located on the opposite side of the line where the angle terminates.
4
Notice also that the coordinates of N and P lie on the point. Thus, because 𝑟 is a directed distance, the
coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) and (𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝜋) represent the same point.
Generally, any given point (𝑟, 𝜃) may be represented as:
(𝒓, 𝜽) = (𝒓, 𝜽 ± 𝟐𝒏𝝅) 𝐨𝐫 (𝒓, 𝜽) = (−𝒓, 𝜽 ± (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝅)
where 𝑛 is any integer.
91
You can do this!
Plot the following points on the Polar Coordinate System and give two equivalent representations
for each.
1. A(2, 45°)
2. B(−2, 90°)
3. C(4, −240°)
4. D(−6, 150°)
5. E(−5, 300°)
PRECALCULary: Locating Points in the Polar Coordinate System
 The Polar Coordinate System is a circular coordinate system with a

fixed point at the origin called pole. The line extending along the positive
horizontal axis from the pole is called polar axis.
 The location of a point is determined by the coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) where line
𝒓 is the directed distance from the pole to the point and 𝜃 the directed
angle between the polar axis and the line.
 If the directed angle 𝜃 is measured in a counterclockwise direction, the
angle is positive. If measured in a clockwise direction, the directed angle
is negative
 If the point is on the terminal side of angle 𝜃, then the value of the directed
distance 𝑟 is positive. If the point is on the opposite side of the pole, then
the value of 𝑟 is negative.
 The polar coordinates of a point can be written as an ordered pair (𝑟, 𝜃)
where 𝑟 is the radial coordinate and 𝜃 the angular coordinate or polar
angle. The angle measurement may be expressed in degrees or radians.
 The coordinates 𝑟 and 𝜃 can have either positive or negative values.
Further, in the polar coordinate system, any point can have an infinite
number of coordinates.
Any given point (𝑟, 𝜃) may be represented as:
(𝑟, 𝜃 ) = (𝑟, 𝜃 ± 2𝑛𝜋) or (𝑟, 𝜃 ) = (−𝑟, 𝜃 ± (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋)
where 𝑛 is any integer.
92
Lesson 6.2 CONVERTING THE COORDINATES OF A POINT FROM
RECTANGULAR TO POLAR SYSTEM AND VICE VERSA
In this module you will learn how about Polar Coordinate System. After you read, practice, and
 convert the coordinates of a point from rectangular to polar systems and vice versa.
Study the Cartesian coordinate system in Figure 1. Point P has coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦). Try to find 𝑟
and 𝜃 in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
In order to find 𝑟, use the Pythagorean theorem, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 .
Thus,
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .
To determine 𝜃, use the tangent function.
opposite side 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
adjacent side 𝑥
𝑦
Thus, = tan−1 .
𝑥
Use these formulas to convert the coordinate of a point from
rectangular to polar system.
Example 1:
 Convert (0, 2) to polar coordinates. Express 𝜃 in degrees and radians.
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Find the value of 𝑟. Here 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 2.
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √02 + 22 = ξ4 = 2
Step 2:Determine the value of 𝜃.
𝜋
Thus, the corresponding polar coordinates to (0, 2) is (2, 2 ).
Example 2:
 Convert (3, 4) to polar coordinates.
SOLUTION:
Step 1: Find the value of 𝑟. Here 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 4.
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √32 + 42 = ξ9 + 16 = ξ25
𝑟=5
Step 2: Determine the value of 𝜃.
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥
4
= tan−1
3
−1
4
= tan ( )
3
𝜃 = 53.1°
Thus, the corresponding polar coordinates to (3, 4) is (5, 53.1°).
93
Example 3:
 Convert (−3, 4) to polar coordinates.
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Find the value of 𝑟. Here 𝑥 = −3 and 𝑦 = 4.
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √32 + 42 = ξ9 + 16 = ξ25
𝑟=5
Step 2:Determine the value of 𝜃.
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 + 𝜋 since 𝑥 and 𝑦 are in the 2nd quadrant.
𝑥
4
= tan−1 + 180°
−3
= −53.1° + 180°
𝜃 = 126.9°
Thus, the corresponding polar coordinates to (−3, 4) is (5, 126.9°).
This time, let us find out how to convert polar coordinates to

rectangular coordinates. Study Figure 2.
Based on the figure, we can obtain thee values of 𝑥 and 𝑦, using the
sine and cosine functions.
𝑥 𝑦
cos 𝜃 = and sin 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑟
Therefore, 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
Study the following examples.
Example 4:
𝜋
 Convert the point (3, ) to rectangular coordinates.
3
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Use 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 to solve for 𝑥.
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝜋
= 3 cos
3
1
=3∙
2
3
𝑥=
2
Step 2:Use 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 to solve for 𝑦.
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝜋
= 3 sin
3
ξ3
=3∙
2
3ξ3
𝑦=
2
𝜋 3 3ξ3
Thus, (3, ) in rectangular coordinates is ( , )
3 2 2
94
Example 5:
 Convert the point (7, 210°) to rectangular coordinates.
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Find 𝑥 using 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃.
= 7 cos 210°
𝑥 = −6.1
Step 2:Find 𝑦 using 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
= 7 sin 210°
𝑦 = −3.5
Thus,(7, 210°) in rectangular coordinates is (−6.1, −3.5).
Example 6:
 Determine the equivalent rectangular coordinates for (−5, 75°).
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Find 𝑥 using 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃.
= −5 cos 75°
𝑥 = −1.3
Step 2:Find 𝑦 using 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
= −5 sin 75°
𝑦 = −4.8
Thus, the corresponding rectangular coordinates for (−5, 75°) is (−1.3, −4.8).
95
You can do this!
A. Convert the following to polar coordinates.

1. (1, 2)
2. (4, −3)
3. (−2, 5)
4. (−3, −3)
5. (12, −5)
B. Convert the following to rectangular coordinates.
𝜋
1. (7, )
3
2. (3, 110°)
3. (−10, 63°)
4. (8, −45°)
5. (−7, −45°)
Converting the Coordinates of a Point from

PRECALCULary: Rectangular to Polar System and Vice Versa
 To convert rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates, find 𝑟 by using

the following formula.
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .
To find 𝜃, use the following formula

𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥 𝑥
 To convert polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates, get the
values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 using the following formulas.
𝑥 𝑦
cos 𝜃 = and sin 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑟
96
Lesson 6.3
SOLVING APPLIED PROBLEMS INVOLVING POLAR
COORDINATE SYSTEM
In this module you will learn how to solve applied problems involving Polar Coordinate System.
After you read, practice, and review the lessons in this module, you should be able to:
 solve situational problems involving polar coordinate system.
So far, we have explored the Polar Coordinate System by locating points on a polar grid and
converting coordinates of a point from rectangular to polar system and vice versa. This time, let
us find out actual applications of polar coordinates in real-life situations.
Let us study the following examples.
Example 1:
 In skydiving, competitive accuracy landing is a team event. Skydivers attempt to land as
near as possible to the “dead center”, the center of a target marked by a disk 2 meters in
diameter. The disk measures the distance from the edge of the dead center of the circle to
the point where the skydiver will touch the disk. Write polar equations representing the
two target boundaries A and B. Then, graph them on a polar grid.
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Recall that in a polar coordinate system, a circle centered at the origin with a radius 𝑎
units has a polar equation 𝑟 = 𝑎.
Since the dead center, which is target A, has a radius of 1 meter, its polar equations is
therefore 𝑟 = 1.
Target B has a radius of 10 meters. Therefore, its polar equation is 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎.
Step 2:Draw a polar grid and graph the polar equations.
97
Another interesting application of polar coordinates is in determining susceptibility of sound
picked up by microphones. The curves or patterns resulting from the polar equations dictate the
type of microphone and the direction of sound picked up.
One of the patterns is called omni-directional. Omni-directional microphones pick up sound in all
directions.
Based on the figure below, the entire shaded area around the omni-directional microphone is
equally sensitive to sound. As shown, the omni-directional polar pattern is circular and corresponds
to the polar curve 𝑟 = sin 𝜃.
microphone
Let us have an example.
Example 2:
 A conductor of a choir sets up on stage an omni-directional microphone for the rehearsal.
The recorded pattern is shown in the polar equation 𝑟 = 2 sin 𝜃. Complete the table below
for the given polar equation and plot the corresponding points on a polar grid. Show how the
polar diagram look like.
Polar equation: 𝑟 = 2 sin 𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃
4 2 6 3
𝑟
SOLUTION:
Step 1: Get the value of 𝑟 for each given value of 𝜃 using the equation.
𝜋
𝑟 = 2 sin 𝑟 = 1.4 𝑟 = 2 sin 𝜋 𝑟=0
4
𝜋 4𝜋
𝑟 = 2 sin 𝑟=2 𝑟 = 2 sin 𝑟 = −1.7
2 3
5𝜋
𝑟 = 2 sin 𝑟=1 𝑟 = 2 sin 2𝜋 𝑟=0
6
Step 2: Complete the table.
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃
4 2 6 3
𝑟 1.4 2 1 0 −1.7 0
98
Step 3:Plot the corresponding points on a polar grid.
As shown in the diagram, the recorded pattern is circular.
Example 3:
 An archery board consists of 10 evenly spaced concentric circles with score values from
1 to 10 points from the outer circle to the center. Suppose an archer using a target with a
50-cm radius shoots arrows at (40, 45°) and (15, 210°). How many points did the archer
earn?
SOLUTION:
Step 1:Plot the points where the archer’s arrows hit the target on a polar grid.
Step 2:Determine first the point values for an arrow landing between the distances.
0 cm – 5 cm 10 pts 25 cm – 30 cm 5 pts
5 cm – 10 cm 9 pts 30 cm – 35 cm 4 pts
10 cm – 15 cm 8 pts 35 cm – 40 cm 3 pts
15 cm – 20 cm 7 pts 40 cm – 45 cm 2 pts
20 cm – 25 cm 6 pts 45 cm – 50 cm 1 pt
Step 3:Determine the points which the archer earned.

The shot at (40, 45°) earned 2 pts.
The shot at (15, 210°) earned 7 pts.
Thus, the total number of points earned by the archer is 9 pts.
99
We can also find the distance between two points in the polar coordinate system using the polar
coordinates distance formula. Take a look at Figure 1 below.
Let 𝑑 be the distance between two points (𝑟1 , 𝜃1 ) and
(𝑟2 , 𝜃2 ). The angle 𝜃 between 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 which are joined
at the origin is equal to (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ).
To determine the distance formula in polar coordinates, we
use the law of cosines.
In trigonometry the law of cosines is used to compute for
the third side of a triangle when two sides and their
enclosed angle are known. Let us consider Figure 2 below. Angles A, B, and C respectively
opposite the sides a, b, and c.
To solve for a, we use the cosine formula
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A.
If we are going to consider the values found in Figure 1 and substitute these values into the given
formula, we get
𝑑 2 = 𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos((𝜃2 − 𝜃1)
𝑑 = √𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

which is the polar coordinates distance formula.
You can do this!
100
REFERENCES
Oronce, Orlando A. and Mendoza, Marilyn O., “e-math Advance Algebra and Trigonometry
Revised Edition” Published by Rex Bookstore, 856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St.
Gatmaitan, Jophel M., et. al., “Conceptual Math and Beyond Precalculus A Worktext for Senior
High School” Published by Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc., Bonanza Plaza 2, Block 1, Lot 6,
Hilltop Subdivision Greater Lagro, Novaliches, Quezon City
Aspuria, Corazon S., et. al., “Pre-Calculus for Senior High School”, Published by Mutya
Publishing House Inc., 105 Engineering Road, Araneta University Village, Potrero, Malabon City.
Agot, Mar V., “Pre-Calculus Quarter 2 Module 1, 2 and 3”, Deped Division of Cagayan de Oro
101

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PRECALCULUS

CIRCLE ELLIPSE PARABOLA HYPERBOLA

Defining Conic Sections

STANDARD EQUATION OF A CIRLCE

(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 Write the standard equation of a circle.

(x – 2)2 + (y +1)2 = 9 Simplify.

You can do this!

1. Find the equation of the circle given the center

GENERAL EQUATION OF A CIRLCE

Answer: The center of the circle x2 + y2 – 6x + 4y – 12 = 0 is (3, 2) and radius of 5.

(x2 – 3x ± __) +( y2 + 2y ± __) – 6 ± __± __ = 0 Complete the square  

Answer: The standard equation of the circle x2 + y2 – 3x + 2y – 6 = 0 is

with center at ( 3 ,1) and radius of

You can do this!

PRECALCULary: Equations of a Circle

1. In the coordinate plane, the standard equation of a circle with (x, y)

Access your worksheet at [insert URL].

x 2  y 2  2 py  p 2 = y 2  2 py  p 2 Combine like terms

Solving for the equation:

Case 3. Parabola with Horizontal Axis of Symmetry (Opening to the Right)

Properties of the Vertex of a Parabola

2. The vertex is the point where the parabola turns.

(0,0) 3 units to the 3 units to the

Vertical Parabola Horizontal Parabola

Vertex (h, k) (h, k)

Directrix y=k–p x=h–p

Axis of Symmetry x=h y=k

Endpoints of Latus (h + 2p, k + p) and (h + p, k + 2p) and

Standard Equation (x–h)2= ±4p (y–k) (y–k)2= ± 4p (x–h)

1. Find the vertex, focus, directrix, and axis of

PRECALCULary: Equations of a Parabola

1. Equations of a Parabola with Vertex at the Origin (0, 0)

2. Equations of Parabola with Vertex at (h, k)

(x – h)2 = 4p (y – k) Opening upward

Major Axis is the line segment passing through the

STANDARD EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE

Case 1. Ellipse with Horizontal Major Axis

Case 2. Ellipse with Vertical Major Axis x2 y2

Vertices (0, –a) and (0, a) (0, c)

PRECALCULary: Review of Sequences and Series

THE SUM OF AN ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

PRECALCULary: Arithmetic Sequence

 Arithmetic Sequence is a sequence of numbers that has a constant difference between

𝒏(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 ) 𝒏[𝟐𝒂𝟏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅]

You can do this!

THE SUM OF A GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

PRECALCULary: Geometric Sequence

You can do this!

Generally, the summation has the form:

3. ∑ൣ3(𝑥)𝑖 ൧ = 3(𝑥 )1 + 3(𝑥 )2 + 3(𝑥 )3 = 3(𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )

4. ∑ 𝑓 (3𝑖 − 1) = [3(3) − 1] + [3(4) − 1] + [3(5) − 1] = 33

5. ∑ 𝑓 (2𝑖 2 + 1) = [2(1)2 + 1] + [2(2)2 + 1] + [2(3)2 + 1] = 29

a. ∑ 𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑐 + 𝑐 + 𝑐 + 𝑐+, … + 𝑐 b. ∑ 𝑓(3) = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9

2. Constant Multiple Rule:

where 𝑐 is any anumber

a. ∑ 𝑓(𝑐𝑖 ) = 𝑐(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑚 ) b. ∑ 𝑓 (3𝑖 ) = 3(2 + 3 + 4) = 27

3. Sum and Difference Rule:

∑[𝑓(𝑖) ± 𝑔(𝑖)] = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑖 ) + ∑ 𝑔(𝑖)

b. ∑ 𝑓 (2𝑖 − 3) = [2(2) − 3] + [2(3) − 3] + [2(4) − 3] = 9

(x2 – 3x ± ) +( y2 + 2y ± ) – 6 ± ± = 0 Complete the square  

Quadrant _ Quadrant _