108 Hvpe

HUMAN VALUES AND
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
(M.B.A. - S.V. University, Tirupati.)
STUDY MATERIAL
Prepared By:
Dr. M. Raghurama Reddy

Principal,
SKIIMS B- SCHOOL
SRI KALAHASTISWARA INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION AND
MANGEMENT SCIENCES
SRIKALAHASTI.
Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 1

108 -HUMAN VALUES AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
UNIT - I
Definition and Nature of Ethics- Its relation to Business, and Environment- Need
and Importance of Professional Ethics - Goals - Ethical Values in Various
Professions-Ethical theories about right action
UNIT - II
Nature of Values- Good and Bad, Ends and Means, Actual and potential Values,
Objective and Subjective Values, Analysis of basic moral concepts- Right, ought,
duty, obligation, justice, responsibility and freedom, Good behavior and respect for
elders- Moral development theories
UNIT - III
Value Education- Definition and its relevance to present days- Concept of human
values- Self Introspection- Self Esteem - Family values-Components-Structure and
responsibilities of family- Neutralization of Anger- Adjustability-Threats of family
life-Time allotment for sharing Ideas and Concerns.
UNIT - IV
Business ethics- Ethical standards of business- Immoral and Illegal practices and
their solutions-Characteristics of Ethical problems in Management- Causes of
Unethical behavior- Ethical abuses and work ethics.
UNIT - V
Environmental and Social Ethics: Ethical theory- Man and Nature- Ecological crisis:
issues related pollution, waste, climate change, energy and population- Social issues
- Human rights violation and social disparities.
References:
1. R. S. Naagarazan -A TEXT 1300K ON PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND

HUMAN
VALUES- -New age International (p) Ltd
2. M. Govindarajan, S. Natarajan, V.S. Senthil Kumar- PROFESSIONAL

ETHICS & HUMAN VALUES.
3. R. R. Gran, R. Sangal, G. P. Bagania -FOUNDATION COURSE IN
HUMAN VALUES & PROFESSIONAL ETHICS.
4. Jayshree Suresh, B.S. Raghavan- HUMAN VALUES AND
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS.

UNIT I
1. DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS
Introduction
Ethics means good or bad right or wrong. It is a field of study which makes
judgement of human action. Every human action should be good and right. This is a
condition for healthy individual and social development. This condition applies to
all fields of activity, including business, and information technology, That is why,
the relevance and importance of ethics in expanding with the development of
science and technology and widening of modern spheres of activity
Meaning
The word „ethics‟ is derived from Greek word „ethos‟ meaning character or
way of living. Derived from the Greek word, ethics is a brunch of philosophy that is
concerned with human conduct. Ethics is also called moral philosophy. The word
moral is from the Latin word mores which means customs or habits. Thus, ethics
consists of code of conduct for human being living is a particular society. It is an
attempt to guide human conduct and it is a also an attempt to help human being on
leading good life by applying moral principles.
In philosophy, ethics defines what is good for the individual and for society
and establishes the nature of duties that people owe to themselves and to one
another. It aims at individual good as well as social good, the good of mankind as a
whole. Ethics examines rational justification for our moral judgement; it studies
what is morally right or wrong, just or unjust. It refers to well based standards of
right and wrong that prescribe what human beings ought to do, usually in terms of
rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness or specific virtues. Thus, ethics is
related to issues of good and bad, rightness and wrongness.
Definitions
Ethics is “a system of moral principles or rules of behavior it consist of

moral principles that control or influence a person‟s behavior” (Oxford Dictionary)

 Machenzie defines ethics as „the study of what is right or good in human
conduct‟ or the „science of the ideal involved in human life‟.
 Ethics can be defined as the study of what makes up good and bad conduct
inclusive of related actions and values.
 Ethics is the „science of morals; it is that branch philosophy, which is
concerned with human character and conduct.
Types of Ethics
There are three different types of ethics.
Transactional Ethics : Human beings have to act and react with others through
different transaction or interactions. The practice of ethics in all these transactions is
called Transactional Ethics.
Participatory Ethics : Human beings have to participate in society in day to day

life and work for common good. Guided by common good, all the participants have
to follow some ethical practices. This is called ParticipatoryEthics.
Recognitional Ethics : Human being are endowed with the ability to understand
the problems of others. This quality leads to the recognition of individuals,
institutions and societies. The correct recognition of the situation helps sole the
conflicting situations. This is called Recognitional Ethics.
Nature of Ethics
Branch of Philosophy : Philosophy is a quest for knowledge, to know the value of

judgements. As ethics is also concerned with value, it is a part of the quest for
knowledge.
Deals with Human Conduct : Ethics is concerned with human beings. It deals
with human conduct which is voluntary or obligatory but not forced or coerced.
A Science : Ethics is a science. Every science is concerned with a particular sphere

of nature. Ethics also has its own particular sphere; it deals with certain judgement
about human conduct.

Systematic Knowledge : Ethics is a systematic Knowledge. It deals with systematic
explanation of rightness or wrongness in the light of highest good of mankind.
Normative Science : Ethics is a normative science. It is concerned with what ought

to be done rather than what is the case, and judges the value of facts.
A Science of Value : Ethics is a science of values as it discovers the forms of

conduct or behavior. It deals with moral aspects and it observes, classifies and
explains them by the moral ideal.
Both Science and Philosophical : Philosophies are becoming more scientific. As

such, ethics is both scientific and philosophical; it gives logical explanation for
values of good and bad, right or wrong.
Also an art : Ethics is also an art because it sets guidelines for practical conduct and
also understanding the meaning behind moral conduct
Scope of Ethics
The scope of ethics indicates its subject matter. It deals with following
aspects.
Moral Ideal : Ethics as a normative science deals with moral ideal or the good in
order to enquire the nature of our conduct.
Highest good : Ethics is also defined as the science of highest good. It is concerned
with the highest good or absolute good and investigates the nature of its notions like
right, duty and good.
Moral Judgement : Moral judgements of good or bad, right or wrong on our

actions are also included wit in the scope of ethics.
Nature of Human Freedom : Ethics discusses the nature of human freedom. It

investigates what constitute good or bad, just or unjust. It also enquires into what is
virtue, law, conscience and duty.
Meta Ethics : As a branch of philosophy, Ethics seeks clarification of terms used in

moral language. Thus, meta-ethical problems fall with the scope Ethics.
Applied Ethics : Ethical principles have situational context – right or wrong, good
and bad depending upon situation, circumstances and place. This is called Applied
Ethics which falls which the broad field of Ethics.

Importance of Ethics :
Ethics is important in following ways;
Satisfying basic human needs- individuals have to follow right conduct to avoid
denial and exploitation
Uniting people and leadership- the right path will unite people and leaders
Creating credibility- right conduct builds confidence in others
Improving decision making- ethics enables right and improved decision

making
Long term gains- right conduct and behavior bring long term gains
Safeguarding the society- right conduct and behavior safeguards the people
Conclusion
Ethics is an important of field of study. It importance extent to all sphere of

activity and is essentially related to all other branches of knowledge like Sociology,
Politics, Law, Engineering Medicine and, Religion. Ethics is also concerned with the
problem of all types like political, economic, religions, environmental in its pursuit
of highest good. So, these problems have additional place in the scope of Ethics.
With the emergence of technology the scope and importance of ethics is also
expanding.

2. RELATION OF ETHICS WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES
Ethics and Religion
Ethics and religion are related to each other. Ethics is the study of principles relating
to right and wrong conduct. It is morality or moral philosophy. Religion is
faithfulness to a given principle. Both stick to or conform to principles leading to
right and good conduct to achieve common good. Thus, ethics and religion are
closely related to each other. The relationship between ethics and religion can be
best understood by the following diagram.
Guiding principles of right or
wrong
Ethics
Religion
Ethical explanations Beliefs customs and rituals
Both ethics and religion have intersecting area of principles of right and
wrong, god and bad. The other part of ethics comprises ethical explanations for the
principles and that of religion encompasses beliefs, customs, traditions which form
the basis for the principles of moral conduct.
Religion is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, and world

views that relate humanity to supernatural or God. Ethics is a branch of philosophy
that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and
wrong, good and bad conduct. A combination of these two things is called Religious
ethics which is concerned with teaching and practices of what is right and wrong,
good and bad, virtuous or vicious from the religious point of view.
The relationship between ethics and religion is so strong that the influential
philosopher Immanuel Kant defined the idea of God as a basic requirement of ethics.
He suggested that every human being should be virtuous and do his duty. Secondly,
for many individuals their religion is centrally defining characteristic of who they
are such that they would be nearly unable to make ethical decisions independent of
their religion beliefs.

There are many common points of view with regard to religion and ethics.
Both strive for good life. A central aspect of ethics is “the good life”, the life worth
living or life that is simply satisfactory. Most religions have an ethical component,
often derived from purported supernatural revelation as guidance. Most religions
also have ethical component encompassing right conduct and good life. Revealed
religions like Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam also prescribe clear
and unambiguous rules to follow. They cannot be changed even if human and social
circumstances change or ethical ideas propels.
There are differences too between ethics and religion. Ethical principles are
based upon reasoning. Meta ethics gives ethical explanations to ethical principles
and standards. Religions tenets differences can only occur within the framework of
fundamental beliefs. But, both religion and ethics are related to each other.
Ethics and Politics
Ethics and Politics are related in such a way that ethics influences the nature
and operations politics of any society or nation. Politics also influence the ethical
values to some extent depending upon the nature of governments. Especially, with
the transformation of police state to welfare state, the influence of ethics on politics
has become greater resulting in the emergence or birth of new branch of ethics
called Political ethics. Nowadays, it has become necessary and politically expedient
for those involved in politics to follow ethical principles at least to gain confidence
and support of the public in general and the voters in particular.
Ethics Politics Political ethics
Principles of Human Process of formation and Making decision in

Behaviour functioning of Government politics
Politics, a word derived from Greek word „polis‟, means the state or
government. Politics includes and encompasses all the activities associated with the
governance of a country or area, especially the debate between parties having power.
Politics can also be understood as the process of making decisions applying to all

members of each group. If refers to achieving and exercising positions of
governance – organized control over human communities particularly a state or
nation. Thus, politics ultimately ends with the distribution of power and resources
within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities.
Ethics, as a study, is a branch of philosophy which deals with judgemental

aspects of good or bad, and right or wrong, ought or ought not. Human actions are
evaluated as good or bad, right or wrong. Ethics, as a body is a collection of
principles and standards that guide human behavior individually as well as member
of society. It is thus a theoretical study and practical code of conduct for the human
being to protect themselves, their society and environment.
Politics and Ethics come together in the context of decision making and the
guidelines there of. This convergence resulted in the birth of a discipline called
Political Ethics. Political Ethics, also called political morality or public ethics is the
practice of making moral judgements about political action and political agents. It
covers two areas. The first is the ethics of process or ethics of office which deals
with public officials and the methods they use. The second area, the ethics of policy,
or ethics of public policy, governs judgements about policies and laws. Political
ethics deals not mainly with ideal justice, but with realizing of moral values in
democratic societies where citizens disagree about what ideal justice is.
There are two different views about the need for ethics in politics. Some
political thinkers argue that ethics has the place in politics. If politics are to be
meaningful in the real word, they should follow ethical principles. Some argue that
we should instead look more closely at two larger structures of society where the
most serious ethical problems exist. If politicians are to be effective in the real
world, they can‟t be bound by moral values. They have to pursue the national
interest. Nicocolo Machiavelli, father of political ethics, believed that in political
leader may be required to commit act that would be wrong if done by private
individuals. The politician use violence to prevent greater violence, but his act is still
wrong even if justified.

Ethics and Law
Ethics and laws are closely related to each other, so closely related that if we
remove moral cover from ethics and legislative cover from law, the content is same
in both ethics and law.. Both ethics and law relate to human behavior, the difference
lies in the point of view; the former looks the issue of right and wrong human
behavior from the angle of morality and the latter looks the same from the legal
perspective. The ultimate principles and standards of human behavior are same;
ethical principles are based on morality while legal principles are based on law of
the land. The relationship between ethics and law can be better illustrated by the
following diagram.
Jurisprudence
Ethics Law
Principle of human
conduct and
Moral science
behavior
The intersecting portion of ethics and law presents the principles of behavior
and conduct prescribed for human beings. But, law tries to prescribe them through
legal framework and jurisprudence while ethics tries to do so through moral science
and ethical explanations.
Law is a systematic set of universally accepted rules and regulations created

by appropriate authority, i.e. Government, which may be regional, national and
international. Ethics is the body of principles that guide a person or society, created
to decide what is good or bad. Law is described as a set of rules and regulation,
created by the Govt. to govern the whole society. The law is universally accepted
method for maintaining social order, peace and justice in the society and thereby
give protection to the general public and safeguard their interests. It is a branch of
philosophy that guide people about what is good or bad. It is a collection of
fundamental concepts and principles of an ideal human character and conduct. These
principles help us in making decisions regarding what is right or wrong. It informs

us about how to act in a particular situation and make a judgement to make better
chance for ourselves. Thus, ethics are the code of conduct agreed upon and adopted
by the people. It sets a standard of how a person should live and interact with other
people.
There are however, few differences between ethics and law.
Ethics Laws
1.Branch of moral philosophy that guides 1.Systametic body of rules that

people about basic human codes. govern the whole society and the
action of individuals
2.Set of guidelines 2.Set of rules and regulations
3.Based on social norms 3.Created by the Government
4.Abstract and traditional 4.Expressed and published
5. Created to help people to decide what is 5.Created with an intent to maintain

wrong and right. social order and peace
6No binding nature 6.Has a legal binding
7.No punishment for violation 7.Violation results in punishment
Despite the above differences, fact is that law is mostly based on ethics. Law
is made after considering ethical principles and moral values. The law is made by
the judicial system of the country. All the persons in the country are bound to follow
the law. It clearly decides what a person must or must not do. In the case of breach
of law, net result is punishment, penalty.
Ethics and Medicine
Ethics and Medicine are also related because the ultimate goal of both is
good and happy life, and avoiding pain in life. Ethics deals with right and wrong
conduct, with what we ought to do and what we should refrain from doing with the
ultimate objective of providing good and happy life. Medicine is a study or field
which deals with treatment of diseases and injuries in order to avoid or ameliorate
pain in life. Thus, there is one ultimate objective which is same for both ethics and

medicine. Ethics also provides principles of right and wrong to be followed by
doctors and others involved in the field of medicine including pharmaceutical
producers, paramedical persons and medical assistants. The combination of
medicine and ethics gave rise to the emergence of what is called Medical Ethics.
Medical Ethics is the field of study which emerges as a result of blending of

medicine and ethics. Medical ethics concerns how to handle moral problems arising
out of the case of patients. Often, clinical decisions must consider more than just the
patient‟s medical condition. For example, the doctor must discharge information that
is materially relevant to the patients, understanding of the condition, their treatment
options and likely outcomes.
Ethics Medicine Medical Ethics

 Ethi
Principles of Method of treat Moral problems

Right and wrong treatment arising out of treatment
As the above diagram shows, ethics provides ethical guidelines to be

followed in medical treatment in order to address moral problems arising out of
treatment.
Five Pillars of Medical Ethics
(i). Respect for autonomy: The patient, the physician and family members should
help patients come to their decisions by providing full information.
(ii). Beneficence : It means providing what is best for patient beneficence and
implies that the physician must consider patient‟s pain, their physical and mental
suffering, the risk of disability and death and their quality of life. At times, the
physician must avoid intervening if the benefit would be nominal.
(iii). Mal-maleficience: It means not to do harm in most cases, treating sick patient
adds little benefit. Most treatments involve some degree of risk or have side effect.
This principle reminds us to think over the possibility of doing harm, especially
when the patient‟s disease cannot be cured.
(iv). Confidentiality: This explains doctor-patient relationship. Confidentiality

involves respecting patient‟s privacy, encouraging them to seek live and providing
discrimination in the basis of their medical condition. The physician should not
release personal medical information without patient‟s consent.

(v). Social good: All those are involved in the field of medicine should work for
conmen good; their activities should benefit not only the patients out the society at
large
The influence of ethics on medicine is so much that the doctors and

pharmacists have to follow the code of ethics of professionals.
Ethics and Environment
Environment and ethics are related; the former‟s existence and development
depends upon the latter. Without ethics, environment will degrade threatening the
very sustenance of human being. Environment refers to the surroundings or
conditions in which a person, animal or plant lives or operates. It includes the
natural world as a whole or in a particular geographical area, especially as affected
by human activity. And ethics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the human
activity and making judgemental values of right or wrong, good or bad.
Environment is natural world affected byhuman activity, and human activity is the
concern of ethics. Thus, environment and ethics are closely related to each other.
The close relationship between ethics and environment are best explained by the
terms environmental philosophy and environmental ethics.
Environmental philosophy is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with

the natural environment and man„s place in it. It asks crucial questions about human
environmental relations such as what do we mean when we talk about nature, what
is the value of natural environment, and how should we respond to environmental
challenges. Environmental philosophy includes environmental ethics, environmental
aesthetics, and environmental theology. Some of the main areas of interest for
environmental philosophers are defining environment and nature, how to value the
environment, moral status of animals and plants, endangered species and
consideration of future generations.
Environmental ethics is the philosophical discipline that considers the moral

and ethical relationships of human beings to environment. Environmental ethics is
that part of environmental philosophy which considers extending traditional
boundaries of ethics from solely including humans to the including the non-human
world. Environmental ethics are moral principles governing the human attitude
towards the environment, and the rules of conduct for environmental care and
preservation.

Environmental ethics is a branch of ethics that studies the relationship
between human beings and the environment and how ethics play a role in this.
Environmental ethics believes that human beings are a part of society as well as
other living creatures which includes plants and animals. The field of environmental
ethics concerns human being‟s ethical relationship with the natural environment.
Environmental ethics helps define man‟s moral and ethical obligations towards
environment.
There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with regard to
environment. These decisions are;
- Should human beings continue clear forest for the sake of their housing and
industrial consumption?
- Why should humans continue to propagate its species and life itself?
- Should humans continue to make gasoline-powered vehicles at a time when

resources are depleting?
- What environmental obligations human beings need to keep for future

generations?
- How should humans best use and conserve the environmental space to rescue
and expand life?
Thus, Environmental Ethics not only prescribe human values but also make
philosophical debates about man‟s interactions with environment. Water and air
pollution, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems and global climate
challenges are all part of environmental ethics debate.
Ethics and Business
Ethics can be described as the conscious appeal to norms and values, to

which we hold our selves obliged and we hold others obliged to the same norms and
values. Ethics is the methodical and systematic elaboration of the norms and values
we appeal to our daily activities. Business is the engagement of an enterprise in the
production and distribution of goods for sale in market or the rendering of service
for a price. This is human activity directed towards producing and acquiring wealth.
Business includes trade commerce and industry. Business is human activity of
production and distribution introducing the participation of others and also the well
being of others. So, it is imperative that ethics has a role in business.

Business is a part of subsystem of society. Business‟ functioning must
contribute to the welfare of the society. In order to survive, develop and excel,
business must also earn social sanction of the society where it exists and functions.
Without earning social sanction, business cannot get loyal customers, cannot operate
in the market place. It will soon collapse and die away. If business grows larger, the
public takes more interest in it, since this will lead to a greater impact on the
community. Managers of business are tuned to public opinion and they react to it.
They seek to maintain a proper image of their company in the public mind. This
leads to the assumption of greater responsibilities.
Every business irrespective of size exists more on ethical means or in total

regard to its social concern to survive long. Otherwise, resorting to unethical
behavior or not concerning with social welfare, it will call for its own doom.
Business needs to function as responsible corporate citizens in the country. It is that
organ of the society which creates wealth for the country. Hence, narrow mentality
and narrower foals and motives are to be avoided. Business should be ethical and
socially responsible.
There was an argument whether ethics should form a part of business or not.
This resulted in three different views: utilitarian view, separatist view and
integration view. Utilitarians view that morality and ethics are related to business.
The separatist view expressed that business should concentrate on profits, and ethics
and morality do not form a part of business. The integration view defined a new area
called business ethics, where ethical behavior and business are integrated. The
external forces like government market system, law, and services will guide the
ethical behavior of the business.
All business exists and operates within society and therefore they should
contribute to the welfare of the society. To survive in the market business should
gain loyal consumers and perform social responsibility. As business gets larger, the
public takes more interest in it because it has greater impact on the community.
Thus, businesses, either big or small, must operate on ethical grounds and discharge
their social obligations to survive in the long run. The criticisms about business
ethics is, business being economic entity should have nothing to do with ethics or

morals. Some experts were of the opinion that the purpose of business is to produce
goods and services and maximize profits for the shareholders. They argued that
business being economic entities are guided by principles to determine the
performances. Eminent philosophers like Milton Friedman were of the view that the
aim of the business is to earn profits by utilizing the resources and engaging in open
and free competition, without deception or fraud. Another philosopher Theodore
Levilt, was of the view that social values would dominate business values if business
concerned themselves with ethics. People at that time feared that any ethical conduct
would lead to sacrifice of efficiency and productivity. Lately, this misconception
about business ethics has changed. The businesses believe that being ethical and
moral would provide them loyal customers. Today, more and more businesses are
accepting business ethics as a part of business conduct.
3. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Introduction
Professional ethics is field of applied ethics whose purpose is to define,

clarify, and evaluate professional work and its typical values. Professions are
characterized by means of their/ members‟ expertise and their service ideal. Their
service ideal can be understood in references to values that define the goals of their
work. From the point of view of philosophical ethics, professional work can be said
to embody rights and obligations that are peculiar to each profession.
Definitions
“Professional Ethics encompasses the personal, organizational and corporate

standards of behavior expected of profession”
Professional ethics comprises of ethical norms, values and principles that

guide a profession and the ethical decisions made within the profession
Professional ethics consist of the rules governing the conduct, transaction

and relationships within a profession and among its publics.

Three Types of Professional Ethics
Professional ethics is a term that can be understood in different ways.
Code of Values : First, professional ethics is a code of values and norms that
actually guide practical decisions when they are made by professional.
Set of Values : Secondly, professional ethics is a fully idealized set of values

whose purpose is to explicate the best possible world in which the given profession
could be working..
Critical Discipline: Thirdly, professional ethics may be a critical philosophical

discipline, and as such a part of wider field of applied ethics.
Need for Professional Ethics
Professionals, and those working in acknowledged professions, exercise

special knowledge and skill. How they use this knowledge and skill should be
governed when providing a service to the public can be considered a moral issue and
this moral issue is termed as professional ethics. One of the earliest examples of
professional ethics is the Hippocratic oath to which medical doctors shall adhere to
this day.
Professional are capable of making judgement applying their skills, and

reaching informed decision in situations that the general public cannot because they
have not attained the necessary knowledge and skills. That is why,the professionals
have to stick to principles and regulations which the general public or other
occupations may not. The errors made by the professionals may be more dangerous
than that of others. g. That is why, there is need for professional ethics. The
arguments for the necessity of professional ethics can be put as follows.
Morality: Professional ethics are as important as personal ethic. Moral behavior is

essential for a professional as it is for the individual. A professional should
recognize the distinction between good and evil right and wrong.
Essential: Professionals are life – savers. The life, liberty and safety of the public at
large are in the hands of doctors, lawyers and engineers. As the professionals render
essential service, it is necessary that they follow ethics.

Wider Effects: The services rendered by professionals have wider effects. Their
decisions and activities affect not only the clients, but also other individuals in
society. So, there is need for regulating their activities and controlling their
decisions.
Possibility of Exploitation: As the professional provide special, exclusive and life

saving services there is greater possibility for exploitation of the clients. So, it is
necessary to protect the interests of individuals and society through legislation and
code of conduct.
Despotism: The professional enjoy autonomy in their decision making. But, there is
danger of enjoying this autonomy beyond limits. This leads to despotism which
needs to be controlled.
Competition: There is growing competition among professionasl. The types of

professionals are increasing and the number of professional in each category is ever
increasing. The cut throat competition may compel the professionals to resort to
illegal and immoral methods and principles..
Self–Regulation: Ethics is more voluntary than compulsory. Every human being

including the professional need self-regulation,. They have to regulate themselves.
Conclusion
Professional ethics is necessary for the professionals as the philosophical

ethics is necessary for individuals and groups.. The professionals have to follow
principles, rules, regulations and eclogue for bestowing maximum good to the
society through their services. That is why, there are professional ethics. The
professionals have to become member of Councils of respective professionals like
Medical Council for doctors and Bar Council for lawyers. They have to follow the
rules and regulations framed by the associations and the code of conduct framed by
the respective professionals associations.

4. ETHICAL VALUES IN VARIOUS PROFESSIONS
Introduction
Professions are exclusive and unique occupations, different from jobs and
occupations. A professional are practitioner with some degree of skill acquired
through many years of experience, with an implication that this practitioner will
provide quality services. Given the unique nature, respectable status and the
responsibility and accountability associated with them, them professionals need to
follow ethical principles and adopt ethical values to keep up the dignity of the
professional. The work of professionals is not routine and not capable of
mechanized. It requires sophisticated skills, the use of judgement and discretion. The
membership in the professional requires extensive formal education, not simply
practical training and apprenticeship. Significant public good results from the
practice of profession. That is why, the public allows special societies or
organizations that are controlled by the member of profession into professions, to set
standards of conduct for members, and to enforce these standards. These are, in a
way, ethical values in various professions.
Ethical values for Engineers
Engineering is a profession that requires extensive and sophisticated skills.

The engineers spend four years in college just to get a start in engineering. They also
need extensive formal training. Many engineering jobs even require advanced
degrees beyond bachelor‟s degree. The work of engineers serves the public good by
providing communication systems, transportation, energy resources, and medical,
diagnostic and treatment equipment. The essence of engineering design is judgement
of how to use the available materials, components, devices to reach a specified
objective. Discretion is required in engineering; engineers are required to keep their
employer‟s or clients‟ intellectual property and business confidential. The primary
concern of any engineer is the safety of the public that will use the products and
devices he designs. As such, the engineers have to follow ethical values.
The ethical values for engineers are discussed in a branch of ethics called
Engineering Ethics. It is a field of applied ethics and systems of moral principles
that apply to the practice of engineers. The field examines and sets obligation by

engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. Engineers uphold and
advance the integrity, honour and dignity of the engineering profession by:
Using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare;
Being honest and impartial, and serving with fidelity their clients (including
their employees) and the public; and Striving to increase the competence and
prestige of the engineering profession
The fundamental Rules
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public
in the performance of their professional duties
2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence; they
shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and
shall not compete unfairly with others.
3. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their
careers and shall provide opportunities for the professional and ethical
development of those engineers under their supervision
4. Engineers act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful
agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflict of interest or the appearance of
conflicts of interest.
5. Engineers shall respect the proprietary information and intellectual property
rights of others, including charitable organizations and professional societies
in the engineering field.
6. Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations.
7. Engineers shall issue public statement only in an objective and truthful
manner and shall avoid any conduct with brings discredit upon the
profession
8. Engineers shall consider environmental impact and sustainable development
in the performance of their professional duties
9. Engineers shall not seek ethical sanction against another engineer unless
there is good reason to do so under the relevant codes, policies and
procedures governing that engineers ethical conduct

10. Engineers who are members of the society shall endeavor to abide by the
constitution, by-laws and policies of the society.
Ethical Values for Doctors
Doctors are the backbone of our health care system of course, many other
medical professionals such as nurses, orderlies, radiologists and dietitian are
employed in the health care industry, but vast majority of diagnosis and patient care
is performed by doctors. Doctors are highly educated medical professionals who
spend long year in study. They diagnose and treat patients, including prescribing
meditations. Doctors make decisions regarding patient care and then consult with
other medical personnel to make sure the care instructions are carried out. Doctors
are required to manage complexity and risk situations that can be characterized by
uncertainty and where error can have serious consequences. They assure
responsibility to exercise good judgement in situations beyond the scope of
protocols and guidelines. An important component of the professionalism of doctors
is their responsibility to maintain high personal ethical standards and respect to
others. Doctors abide by code of ethics; they soleminise the Hippocratic oath which
is nothing but moral code for doctors. Further, medical ethics involves application of
a moral wide to the practice of medicine.
The Medical Council of India, with the previous approval of the Central
Government, made the following regulations relating to the professional conduct,
etiquette and ethics for registered medical practitioners.
Duties and responsibility of the physician in general:
Character of physician
A physician shall uphold the dignity and honour of his profession. The prime
object of the medical profession is to render service to humanity; reward or financial
gain is a subordinate consideration

Maintaining good medical practice
The principle objective of the medical profession is to render service to

humanity with full respect for the dignity of profession and man. Physician should
try continuously to improve medical knowledge and skills and make available to
their patients and colleagues the benefits of their professional attainments
Membership in Medical Society: For the advancement of his profession, a

physician should affiliate with associations and societies of allopathic medical
professions and involves actively in the functioning. A physician should participate
in professional meetings as part of continuing medical education programmes, for at
least 30 hours every five years, organized by reputed professional academic bodies
or any other authorized organizations
Maintenance of medical records
Every physician shall maintain the medical records pertaining to his/her

indoor patient for a period of 3 years from the date of commencement of the
treatment in a standard proforma
Display of registration numbers
Every physician shall display the registration number accorded to him by the
state Medical Council Medical Council of India in his clinic and in all his
prescriptions, certificates, money receipts.
Use of Generic names of drugs: Every physician should as far as possible,

prescribe drug with generic names and he/she shall ensure that there is a rational and
use of drugs
Highest Quality Assurance in patient care: Every physician should aid in

safeguarding the profession against admission to it of those who are deficient in
moral character or education
Exposure of Unethical Conduct: A physician should expose, without fear or

favour, incompetent or corrupt, dishonest or unethical conduct on the part of
members of the profession.

Payment of Professional Services: The physician engaged in the practice of
medical shall give priority to the interest of patients. The personal financial interest
of a physician should not conflict with the medical interest of patients.
No evasion of legal Restriction: The physician shall observe the laws of the county
in regulating the practice of medicine and shall also not assist others to evade such
laws.
Duties of Physicians to their patients
Obligation to the sick: Though a physician is not bound to treat each and every
person asking his service, he should not only be every ready to respond to the calls
of the sick and the injured, but should be mindful of the high character of his
mission and the responsibility he discharge in the course of his professional duties.
Patience, delicacy and secrecy: Patience and delicacy should characterize the
physician confidence concerning individual or domestic life entrusted by patients to
a physician and defects in the disposition or character of patient observed during
medical attendance should never be reveled unless their revelation is required by the
laws of the state
Prognosis: The physician should neither exaggerate nor minimize the gravity of a
patients‟ condition. He should ensure himself that the patient, his relatives or his
responsible friends have such knowledge of the patient condition as will serve the
best interests of the patient and the family.
The patient must not be neglected: A physician is free to choose whom he will
serve. He should however, respond to any request for his assistance in an
emergency. Once having undertaken a case, the physician should not neglect the
patient, nor should be withdraw from the case without giving adequate notice to the
patient and his family
Engagement for an obstetric case: When a physician who has been engaged to
attend an obstetric case is absent and another is sent for and delivery
accomplishment, the acting physician is entitled to his professional fees, but should
secure the patients consent to resign on the arrival of the physician engaged.

Duties of physician in consultation
Unnecessary consultations should be avoided: Consulting pathologists

/radiologists or asking for any other diagnostic lab investigation should be done
judiciously and not in a routine manner
Consultations for patients’ benefit: In every consultation, the benefit to the patient
is of foremost importance. All physicians engaged in the case should be frank with
the patient and his attendants.
Punctuality in consultation: Utmost punctuality should be observed by a physician

in making themselves available for consultations.
Statement to patient after consultation: All statements to the patient or his

representatives should the place in the presence of the consulting physician, except
as otherwise agreed. The disclosure of the opinion to the patient or his relatives or
friends shall rest with the medical attendant
Treatment after Consultation: No decision should restrain the attending physician

from making such subsequent variations in the treatment if any unexpected change
occurs, but at the next consultation, reason for the variation should be discussed
explained
Patients referred to specialist: When a patient to a specialist by the attending

physician, a case summary of the patient should be given to the specialist, ho
should communicate.
Fees and other charges: A physician shall clearly display his fees and charges on
the board of his chamber and /or the hospitals he is visiting prescription should also
make clear if the physician himself dispensed any medicine.
Responsibility of Physicians to each other: A physician should consider it is as a

pleasure and privilege to render gratuitous service to all physician and their
immediate family dependants.
Conduct in consultation: In consultations, no insincerity, rivalry or envy should be

indulged in all due respect should be observed towards the physician in-charge of

the case and no statement or remark be made, which would impair the confidence
reposed in him.
Consultant not to take charge of the case: When a physician has been called
consultation, the consultant should normally not take charge of the case, especially
on the solicitation of the patient or friends.
Appointment of substitute : Whenever a physician request another physician to

attend his patient during his temporary absence from his practice, professional
courtesy requires the acceptance of such appointment only when he has the capacity
to discharge the additional responsibility along with his/her other duties.
Visiting another Physician’s case: The physician should communicate another

physician in attendance so as to give him an option for being present.
Duties of Physician to the public and paramedical profession
Physician as citizen: Physician as good citizen possessed of special training should

discriminate advice on public health issues.
Public and community health: Physicians especially those engaged in public

health work. Should enlighten the public concerning quarantine regulations and
measure for the prevention of epidemic and communicable diseases:
Pharmacists/nurses: Physician should recognize and promote the practice of

different paramedical service such as pharmacy and nursing as professions and
should seek their cooperation wherever required.
Ethical Values for IT professionals
IT professionals include hardware designers, software engineers, database

administrators, systems analysts and computer scientists. Computing professionals
perform a variety of task. They write specifications for new computer systems, they
design instruction pipelines for superscalar processors, they diagnose timing
anomalies in embedded systems, they test and validate software system, they
restructure the back end databases of inventory systems, they analyze packet traffic
in local area network, and they recommended security policies for medical
information systems. Computing professionals are obligated to perform these tasks

conscientiously because their decision affect the performance and functionality of
computer system which in turn affect the welfare of the systems users directly and
that of other people less directly. The obligations of computing professionals are
similar to the obligations of other technical professionals, such as civil engineers.
Taken together these professional obligations are called professional ethics.
The ethical obligations of computing professionals go beyond complying

with laws or regulations; laws often lag behind advances in technology. The
professionals must report all relevant findings honestly and accurately. When
designing a new computer system, the professionals of the client but also how the
system might affect the quality of life of users and life of others. The professionals
promise to work for the employer in return for a salary and benefits. Professionals
often have access to the employers‟ proprietary information such as trade secrets and
the professional must keep this information confidential besides trade secrets, the
professional must also honor other forms of intellectual property owned by the
employer.
Although everyone deserves respect from everyone else, when professionals

interact with each other they should demonstrate a kind of respect called collegiality.
Because computing professionals work together, they must observe professional
standards. These standards of practice are created by members of the profession or
within organizations. Computing professionals share this special obligation to
guarantee the safety of the public and to improve the quality of life of those who use
computers and information systems. As part of this obligation, computing
professionals should enhance the public‟s understanding of computing. The
responsibility to educate the public is a collective responsibility of the computing
profession as a whole; individual professionals might fulfill this responsibility in
their own ways.
Contribute to society and human well-being: IT professionals have an obligation

to protect fundamental human rights and to respect the diversity of all cultures
Avoid harm to others: This principle prohibits use of computing technology in

ways that results in harm to any of the following; users, the general public,
employees, employers

Be honest and trustworthy: A computer professional has a duty to be honest about
his or her own qualifications, and about any circumstances that might lead to
conflicts of interest
Be fair and take action not to discriminate: IT professionals have to follow the
values of equality tolerance, respect for others, and the principles of equal justice
govern this imperative.
Honor property rights including copyrights and patent: Violation copyrights,
patents trade secrets and the terms of license agreements is prohibited by law in most
circumstances
Give proper credit for intellectual property: Computing professionals are
obligated to protect the integrity of intellectual property.
Respect the privacy of others: It is the responsibility of professionals to maintain
the privacy and integrity of data describing individual.
Honour confidentiality: IT professionals have to respect all obligations of
confidentiality to employers, clients and users.
IT professionals should
-strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness and dignity in both the process
and products of professional work
-acquire and maintain professional competence
-know and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work
-accept and provide appropriate professional review
-give comprehensive and through evaluations of computer system and their
impact, including analysis of possible risks
-honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities
-improve public understanding of computing and its consequence
-access computing and communication resource only when authorized to do so
Ten Commandments for IT profession
1. Do not use the computer in ways that may harm other people
2. Do not use computer technology to cause interference in other users work
3. Do not spy on another person‟s computer data

4. Do not use computer technology to steal information
5. Do not contribute to the spread of misinformation using computer
technology
6. Refrain from copying software or buying pirated copies. Pay for software
unless it is free
7. Do not use someone else‟s computer resource unless authorized to
8. It is wrong to claim ownership on a work which is the output of someone
else‟s intellect
9. Before developing a software, think about the social impact it can have
10. In using computers for communication be respectful and courteous with the
fellow members.
Ethical Values for Managers
Managers are persons responsible for controlling or administering

organizations or groups of staff. A manager is in-charge of a certain group of tasks
or a certain subset of a company. He/she often has a staff of people, who report to
him or her. Managers play a number of roles in evolving organizations, including
leader, negotiator, figurehead, liaison and communicator. A manager needs to be a
good leader. He must also be a good figurehead who reinforces the mission and
vision of an organization to employers, customers and other stakeholders. Manager
hold positions of authority that make them accountable for the ethical conduct of
those who regard to them. Managers are also called on to make ethical decisions on
the job every day. In is this context, managerial ethics will be of immense help to
managers. Managerial ethics is the rules and principles, decoded by upper
management that spells out what is right and wrong an organization. Managerial
ethics is intended to make it easier for managers to make right decisions on the job
when a conflict of values is presented.
A code of conduct is important for managers in every industry, as a

workforce can‟t move forward without integrity from its leaders. The best managers
place a high value of fairness and ethics as well as their own performance.
Following are the ethical values for managers

Honesty: Managers in every industry must understand their company policies and
guidelines, as well as its mission and how they are expected to go about accomplish
their goals
Accountability: Good managers expect their workers to take responsibility for their
actions and overall performance
Integrity: Managers have to be consistent in their decision making end resolution of
issues
Respect: Managers need to treat staff members, customers and their own
supervisions with the same respect they would expect for themselves
Flexibility: Managers should be patient and work with those in need of assistance.
They should also show their workers how jobs are best performed, then monitor
workers and after suggestions and tips
The ethical behavior by managers in important because it promotes moral

behavior, act as guideline for ethical decision making, enhances the regulations,
prevents negative legal effects, encourages positive relationships, act as a reference
for solving ethical daemons and prevents discrimination and harassment. All these
help in organizational development. Typically, ethical programmes convey
corporate values often using codes and policies to make decisions and behavior, and
include extensive training and evaluating depending upon the organization. They
provide guidance in ethical dilemmas.
The ethical values to be followed by the managers are enshrined in what is

called Managerial Ethics, an offshoot of the necessity of ethics in management.
Managerial ethics refers to the moral guidance a manger provides to employees. A
manager holds position of authority that makes them accountable for the ethical
conduct of those reporting them. They fulfill this responsibility by making the
employees are aware of the organizational ethical code and have the opportunity to
make questioning to develop their understanding. Many ethical approaches exist,
each with a distinct twist in what it means to behave ethically. No one single
ethical approach is universally accepted, so each big and small business must choose
its own approach to ethical management.
Ethical Values for Lawyers
Only lawyers alone can practice law. They have some of the privileges. A
lawyer has the privilege to represent his clients in the court and tribunals. A lawyer

while going to the court to attend the case or while returning from the court is
exempted from arrest under civil process. A lawyer has a privilege of becoming
judge. Attorney general, solicitor general advocate general and government
councils. Since he is fighting for the justice, he is respected next to God. Seven
Lamps of Advocacy are
Honesty: Honesty is the most important quality that an advocate should possess. His
thoughts words and deeds should have sincere co-relation to each other with
genuineness.
Courage: it is the duty of an Advocate to fearlessly uphold the interest of his client
by all fair means without fear of any unpleasant consequences to himself or any
other person.
Industry: it means hard works is absolutely necessary for an Advocate. His

knowledge of law should be up to date. He shall never be ignorant of the current law
in force. He shall get acquainted with the latest law by systematic study.
Wit: Judges and lawyers have to deal with a variety of serious and important matters
affecting life and liberty of the people. So constant clash between them is common.
Occasional wit and humour, provoking sharpen a smile or laughter will help them to
ease the tension and refresh themselves to sharpen their brain for the effective
discharge of the duties
Eloquence: Eloquence means the fluency, force and style of using the language.
Strong vocabulary is one of the powerful weapon which an Advocate should posses.
Judgement: It means the ability to come to a sensible conclusion and make wise
decision at the relevant time in the proper way. It is on the basis of these conclusions
he should employ the necessary facts and the techniques in the case which he is
engaged.
Fellowship: In legal profession one advocate fights with another advocate for
justice before the learned judge. There may be controversies and contradiction in
their contention relating to the case, but that shall never affect the fellowship. The
dvocate should address other advocates as “Learned Friend” and the judge should be
referred as “Learned Judge” in order to maintain the fellowship

The Bar Council of India has laid down certain rules to be observed as the
duty to colleagues. Panchsheel refers to the following five qualities. They are
1. Honesty: Honesty is the most important quality that an advocate should
possess. His thoughts words and deeds should have sincere co-relation to
each other with genuineness.
2. Industry: it means hard work is absolutely necessary for an Advocate. His
knowledge of law should be up to date. He shall never be ignorant of the
current law in force. He shall get acquainted with the latest law by systematic
study.
3. Justice: an advocate is as an officer of the High Court. He should help the
judge in findings out the truth in the dispute, and help him to arrive the right
decision. For this purpose he shall submit the proper position of the law,
facts and evidence related to the case.
4. Service: lawyers shall be willing to protect the right of the oppressed and the
poor. They shall render their service to the general public without any
discrimination
5. Philosophy: Lawyers should have some philosophical outlook. An Advocate
has to deal with the variety of disputes both favorable and unfavorable to this
client.
Ten Commandments of Advocate: The various duties of an Advocate like duties
to the client, duties to the court, duties to the colleagues and duties to the public shall
be put into the following the rules popularly known as the ten.
1.Protection of the interest of the client : An Advocate must be loyal to the

interests of the client and fight for his cause without the fear of any unpleasant
consequence to him or any other person (see duty to the client)
2.Proper Estimation of the values of the Legal Advice: An Advocate shall not
over estimate or under estimate the values of his advice. He must always give proper
legal advice to the client
3.Honest and Respect : He must be always honest and respectful to the court
4.Preparation of the Case: He must prepare the case thoroughly before presenting
it to the court.

5.Service : Lawyers shall be willing to protect the rights of the oppressed and the
poor
6.Loyalty to Law and Justice : He must always give advice to enhance loyalty to
law and justice
7. Fellowship : He must be always friendly with the fellow-members of the Bar and
more friendly with the young lawyers and encourage them
8.Fairness : He must be fair in his dealing with the client, with the court and with
the public
9. Systematic Study: He must develop the habit of systematic of the law and
acquined with the latest development in Law
10.Prudence and Diligence : He must always vigilant active. He must avoid the
easy come and easy- go method
5. ETHICAL THEORIES
Introduction
Ethics or moral philosophy is, at its simplest, a study of right and wrong
behavior, with the ultimate aim of defining what is right and wrong. There is vast
difference between ethics and morality. Ethics is the field of enquiry. Morality is the
object of that enquiry ,the code or codes of behavior acceptable within a particular
group at a particular time. Ethical theories deal with these aspects.
Ethical Theories
Ethical theories are commonly divided into three subject areas.
 Meta ethics
 Normative ethics
 Applied ethics

Meta ethics
Meta ethics deals with the entire gamut of ethical issues. It can be defined as
“the study of origin and meaning of ethical concepts.”The field of meta ethical
enquiry is not very well defined. Broadly, however, meta ethics deals with three
issues.
1. Metaphysical issues that deal with the question whether the moral values
exist independently of humans or whether they are simply human
conventions
2. Psychological issues that dewal with the psychological basis of moral
actions, and
3. Linguistic issues that deal the meaning of the key moral terms we use.
Normative ethics
The term „normative‟ implies something that guides or controls. Thus,

normative ethics is that branch of ethics that guides human conduct. Its sets out
certain moral standards that help us to determine what is right and what is wrong.
The Golden Rule is an example of a normative principle; we should treat others the
same way that we want others to treat us. Thus, the Golden Rule lays down one
single principle on the basis of which an action may be adjudged right or wrong.
Other normative theories lay down a set of fundamental principles, such as “moral
rights to life and liberty, which serve as guide to ethical behavior. There are three
different normative theories each with its own set of moral principles. Each theory
represents a particular approach to resolving the normative question.
The three theories are:
 Teleological ethical theory

 Deontological ethical theory, and
 Virtue ethics
Teleological ethical theory
The word „teleological‟ is derived from two Greek words “telos” meaning
„end‟ „goal‟ or „purpose‟ and “logos” meaning „logic‟ or „reason. Teleological

theories are also called Consequentiality theories. These theories hold that an action
is considered morally correct if the consequences of that action are more favorable
than unfavorable. To judge whether the consequences of an action is favorable or
not, one first has to list the good and bad consequences of that action, and then
determine whether the good consequences outweigh the bad consequences or vice
versa. If the good consequences are greater than the bad consequences, the action is
morally right.
Consequentialists have offered three definitions of „good‟. Each of these

definitions gives us a different consequentialist moral theory. These three theories
are:
Egoism : An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable only to the individual performing the action.
Utilitarianism: An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are

more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
Altruism : An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the individual
The three theories focus on the consequences of actions for different groups
of people and lead to different conclusions.
Deontological ethical theory
The word „deontological‟ is derived from the Greek word “deno” meaning
„duty‟ or „obligation‟. Deontological theories focus on certain fundamental duties
that we have as human being, such as not committing murder or theft.
The duties stress that rightness of an act is derived from some feature of the
action itself, with reference to its consequence. The duties upheld by deontological
theory may be classified under three headings.
 Duties to God, including honoring him and preying to him
 Duties to oneself including preserving one‟s life and sharing happiness

 Duties to others, including family duties, social duties and political duties
Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics is associated with the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle

used the term „virtue‟ to explain our moral obligation. „Virtue‟ may be defined as
any disposition of character or personality that an individual desires in him self or
others. In other words, virtues are those dispositions of character, which an
individual considers to be good. Virtue ethics is concerned with attaining these
dispositions. The theory emphasizes character development rather than the
articulation of abstract moral principles that guide action.
Applied Ethics
Applied ethics is a branch of ethics that deals with specific , often

controversial moral issues such as abortion , female feticide and infanticide,
displacement of tribal people due to huge hydro-electrical project, cloning, testing
drugs on animals etc.. There are many such controversial issues in the moral field.
Business too face many controversial moral choice such as misleading advertising ,
insider trading, bribery, corruption etc.
Conclusion
Ethical theories lay down certain moral standards that provide a reference
point for judging the moral value of a decision. When applied to business, these
theories should enable the manager to distinguish between right and wrong and to
take morally acceptable decision.Ethical behavior is important for long – term
success in business and adversely affects performance in the long run. Let us see
how unethical practices distort the market system.

UNIT - II
6. NATURE OF VALUES
VALUES
The word value is derived from Latin word „uelere‟ value means worth,
worth of something or someone in terms usage and money. In ethics, values are
guiding principles; what are deemed to be correct and desirable in life especially
regarding personal conduct. They are principles or standards of behavior, one‟s
judgement of what is important in life. Thus, values are sign posts in life; they are
individual necessities, social safeguards and cultural etiquettes. The values guide
individuals, safeguards the social order and enriches the culture. Ethics find its
components and objectives in values. Values have major influence on a person‟s
behavior and attitude and serve as broad guidelines in all situations.
Definitions
- Value is a belief that something is good and desirable (M. Haralemtris)

- Values are principles, standards, convictions towards the world and sometimes
simply interests, attitudes, preferences, needs, sentiments and dispositions.
- Values are socially approved desires and goals that are internalized through the
process of conditioning, learning or socialization and that become subjective
preferences, standards and aspirations.
- Values are important and lasting beliefs and ideals shared by members of a
culture about what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable.
- Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or
outcomes. As such values reflect a person‟s sense of right and wrong or what
ought to be
- Values are emotional beliefs in principles regarded as particularly favorable or
important for the individuals.
- Values are guidelines for our success, our paradigm about what is acceptable.

Characteristics
(i). Principles : Values are principles, rules, standards by human behavior and
attitude.
(ii) Paradigm : Value is an example serving as model or pattern for individual

behavior.
(iii). Positive : Values are supposed to be good and have favourable effects on
individual and society.
(iv). Social approval : The values are approved by society as good and beneficial.
(v). Influential : Values influence the individuals behavior in the society.
Nature
(i). Moral : Values are burdened with morality; they are recognized as reasonable
and right.
(ii). Absolute : Ethical values are independent of other values and thus preferred for
their own sake.
(iii). Pre-eminent : Ethical values are preeminent over other human values like
political, civil, economic.
(iv). Universal :Values are universal in the sense that they apply to everyone and
necessary for everyone.
(v). Changing : Values will be changing from time to time, may be in long term
perspective
(vi). Normative : Values have normative significance; they have to followed by

every one for good.
(vii). Obligatory : Values are obligatory- the individuals have choice to follow.
GOOD AND BAD
Values guide individuals to judge actions and their results as good or bad.
Values, themselves can be divided into good and bad. Some values are good while

others are bad. Further, values change over time, good values once may become bad
after a period of time and vice versa. Ethics as a moral science shows individuals
what is good and bad. Thus, the moral concepts of good and bad refer to values,-
human action and their results.
The difference between good and bad depends upon what something
will results in - if something results in pleasure it is good, if something results in
pain it is bad. It we go into detail, good things have positive attitudes when bad
things have negative attributes. The former is useful for a particular purpose and the
latter is not useful for a particular purpose. The former is functional and the latter
non functional. Good things are pleasant, appropriate, suitable and favorable. Bad
things are painful, inappropriate, not suitable and not favorable.
Following are the differences between good or bad
Good Bad
- Abstract, not sensed - Abstract, not sensed
- Feel pleasure in its existence - Feel painful in its existence
- Something desired - Something not desired
- Ought to exist - Ought not to exist
- We say good when we mean that - We say bad when we mean that it
it is desired is desired in
in existence in existence
in effect in effect
Regarding good and bad, there are two different views. Some philosophers
think that good and bad are absolute. Values, action and results are good or bad
absolutely. There is no ambiguity or dilemma regarding what is good and bad. Some
are good to all and at all times and places while others are bad without exception.
But, some philosophers believe that good and bad are relative. What is good for one
may be bad for others, what was good at one time may be bad at other times. These
philosophers think that good and bad are not absolute, but relative-ethical relativism.
For them, there is nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so. But, truth is that we
have to judge whether something is good or bad by its effect or result, it is good
when result in pleasure and bad when result in pain. To Einstein relativity may be
true in physics but not in ethics.

ENDS AND MEANS
Ends and means is an esoteric discussion, Ethics sometimes enter into. Ends
are objectives behind an action or something and means are methods and
instruments used in order to achieve the objectives. The discussion refers to the
evaluation of something or action in an objective (end) or as an instrument (means)
for achieving the objective. For that matter, values are ends or means. Ethics tries to
evaluate whether a value like charity is an end in itself or a means to achieve a more
noble objective. The identification of ends and means leads to next step of
evaluation of an action as good or bad either on the basis of result or end
(teleological) or on the basis of instrument or means (deontological) or means to
justify ends (Gandhi) .
Ethics
Action, Results- good or

Human
instrument, bad, useful or Evaluation
Behavior
method not useful
Means End
The term ends refer to aim, purpose, goal or result. It is the result sought by
an action. The word means or refers to an instrument or condition for a purpose,
what serves to the attainment of any end. It is a resource, or a method. Aldous
Huxley in his book “Ends and Means An Enquiry into the Nature of Ideals and into
the Methods Employed for their Realization” defines ends as ideal to be realized and
means as the methods employed for realization.

The difference between ends and means can be understood as follows
Ends Means
- Aim, purpose, goal, result - Effort, action, resource, instrument
- Acton including instrument and
- Result sought by an action
method
- Ideals to be realized - Methods employed for realization
- End result - Beginning effort
- Un dimensional, specific - Multidimensional, variable
- Ends are final - Ends can become means
However, the distinction between ends and means cannot be final; because
sometimes ends can become means. A thing becomes means when human reason
plans to employ it for the attainment of some end and human action really employs
it for this purpose. Sometimes, means employed might have to be limited to be an
end itself. That is why, it is important to distinguish, at a point of time, place or
context, between means and ends and make value judgements. In some cases ends
may be justified, in other cases means may be justified, in still other cases means
have to justify the ends.
ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL VALUES
Values are standards or principles for judgement of actions as good or bad,

right or wrong as the basis of results of action. But, the results are real and
immediate in some cases, and possible and expected in other cases. The former are
actual results and the latter potential ones. So, we have to judge actions depending
upon the actual results and potential results. Sometimes, potential results will be
different from, often greater than or less than, the actual results. Both these have to
be taken into consideration in evaluating the actions.
Actual is something that is real or exists in fact. It exists in act or reality, not
just potentially. The synonyms of actual are real, present and positive. The potential
is that which can develop into something. It is a possible result. It exists in
possibility, not in actual. The synonyms of potential are expected, future and
estimated. The actual results are something that is already realized while potential
ones are currently unrealized ability. Actual is also understood as active and
energetic while potential in understood as something endowed with energy and
influential.

The difference between actual and potential can be understood as follow.
Actual Potential
- Active, practical existing - Speculative, theoretical, possible
- Based on teleological - Based on deontological
approach approach
- Based an action - Based on result
- Effort - Genetical +effort
- External - Internal
- Short- term - Long-term
- Can be influenced - Cannot be influenced
The distinction between actual and potential is important for

evaluation because some actions will have potential value rather than actual value
while some others have positive potential value and not so positive actual value and
still others may have potential value greater or less than the actual value. Some
action may have both actual and potential values. For example, hard work is actual
value, as it brings direct benefit whereas sympathy is potential value because the
benefits will manifest themselves in future.
OBJECTIVE AND SUBECTIVE VALUES
Values are guidelines for evaluation of human conduct, yet the judgement is
made by human with feelings, emotions, preconceptions and preferences. That is
why, though values are mere guidelines the judgement may be influenced by
persons, their feelings and emotions. If the value judgement is influenced by these it
is called subjective; if the value judgement is not influenced by these things it is
called objective. So, it is important to understand the values per se, whether they are
objective or subjective, and whether the judgement can be objective or subjective.
The term objective means not being influenced by personal feelings or

opinions in considering facts, and the term subjective means influenced by personal
feeling, tastes or opinions. Objectivity is seeing or observing things from an
unbiased lense‟s stand point, and subjectivity is observing or seeing things from a
biased standpoint. Subjective means it depends upon the observer‟s point of view-

his opinion, and objective means the thing in question is the same for all observes,
regardless of their point of view. For example, when we say that violence is bad it is
objective because it causes pain, and when we say charity is good or bad it is
subjective because it depends upon the faith of the person.
An idea is objective when it does not matter who is talking, when it

expresses a reality without modifying it. An idea is subjective when it belongs to
one person, when it is shaped by one‟s way of thinking, values or even mood. An
objective is one that is not influenced by emotions, opinions or personal feelings - it
is a perspective based on fact in things quantifiable and measurable. A subjective is
one given to greater interpretation based on personal feeling emotion etc.
The difference between objective and subjective can be understood as

follows
Objective Subjective
- Fact/observation - Faith/opinion
- Existence, measurable - Beliefs, not measurable
- Not influenced by feeling, emotion Influenced by feelings and emotions
- Perspective based on facts - Perspective based on faith
- Based on observed facts - Based an expected outcomes
- Based on reason - Based on intuition
- Observed by a person and are directly
- Experienced by a person and not
verifiable by others verifiable by others
- Universal, common - Non-universal specific
- Ex: Truth, freedom - Ex: Optimism, pessimism
The distinction between objective and subjective is important to realize that

the value judgement has to be made objectively which leadtof well being of all
individuals in society. Otherwise, biased judgement or subjective value judgements
will kill the very perspective and purpose of values and bring disorder in and
disintegration of the society.

6. BASIC MORAL CONCEPTS
RIGHT
Right is very important for human beings in so far as it is necessary for

carrying out ethical activities. At the same time, ethics demands that every
individual recognizes the right of every other person in the society.
Definition
o Legal social or ethical principle of freedom or environment.
o Common claim of people which every utilized society recognizes as essential
claim for their development and which are enforced by state/Government
Characteristics
(i) Principle of entitlement – right is an entitlement which one wants to have or

possess
(ii) Principle of freedom – right involves freedom to enjoy the entitlement.
(iii). Common claim – right is a claim which an individual can afford to have.
(iv). Essential for development – right is essential for individual to develop.
(v). Reorganization; right is recognized by society as essential by the state.
(vi). Enforced by State ; because right is essential it is enforced by the state.
Types
(i) Natural right: Any right that exists by virtue natural law, not by law
(ii) Moral right: Right bestowed by morality, duty or traditions
(iii) Legal right: right bestowed upon a person by a given legal systems.
(iv) Civil right: right that protects individual freedom from enforcement by
Government and private persons.
(iv) Political right: right endowed upon a person by the political system- right to
vote
(v) Economic right: right endowed upon a person as an economic unit-right to
work.

(vi) Cultural right: right related to art and culture- right to language, religion,
minorities.
Rights are so important that the Indian constitution guarantees fundamental

rights enshrined in the constitution and also implements different policies and
programmes to safeguard and enrich these rights enjoyed by the individuals.
OUGHT
The word ought is to indicate duty or correctness typically when we criticise

someone‟s action suggesting an alternative action, e.g., they ought to respect the
law. The word as used to show which it is necessary to perform the activity referred
to e.g you ought to have gone.
Meaning:
- Used to indicate obligation or duty- you ought to work harder than that
- Used to indicate advisability – you ought to wear a raincoat in raining season.
- Used to indicate desirability – you ought to have attended the interview, you
would have got post.
- Used to show natural expectation- he ought to be here by now.
- Used to indicate logical consequence- the result for this problem ought to be
infinity.
Characteristics:
(i) Duty: ought refers to duty or obligation action that should have been
performed
(ii) Advisability : ought refers to an action that in advisable for good or positive
consequence.
(iii) Desirability : ought refers to action/duty that is desirable in view of positive

result.
(iv) Natural expectation : ought refers to an action or duty that is naturally

expected from individuals

(v) Logical consequence : ought refers to logical consequence of an action or
duty
The concept of ought is a modal verb and this means that it does not behave
like ordinary verb. The concept is generally used to show when it is necessary or
would be a good thing to perform the activity refer to.
DUTY
Duty means one‟s due. In this sense, duty is very important in ethics. Every
individual has to perform his/her duty so that society exists in perfect order and
progresses in desirable path.
Meaning
- A task or action that one is required to perform as part of one‟s job.
- That which one is morally or legally has to do or bound to do.
- Something that one feels one has to do because it is one‟s legal/moral

responsibility.
- Is a term that conveys a sense of moral commitment or obligation to someone

or something.
Characteristics
(i) Action : duty refers to an action that should be performed
(ii) Part of one’s job: duty is a part of one‟s job, the job requires more than one
duty.
(iii) Moral/legal responsibility: duty refers to an action which moral or legal

responsibility
(iv) Moral/ legal binding: duty refers to a action for which are is morally or
legally bound to perform.
(v) Commitment :duty needs commitment to a particular action should be

performed in any circumstance

Types of Duty
Cicero, a Roman statesman stated that duties come from four different
sources- as a result of being human, as a result of one‟s particular place or position,
as a result of one‟s character and as a result of one‟s own moral expectation. Thus,
duties can be divided to four types.
(i) Natural duties: duties which arise by virtue of being human- duty to protect
life.
(ii) Civic duty: duties which have to be performed as a citizen- duty to pay tax.
(iii) Ethical duty: duty which arises out of moral obligation- duty to look after
elders
(iv) Professional duty: duty which arises out of one‟s position, status or
profession – duty of doctor to save life.
Duty is an important aspect of individual‟s life. Every individual has to

perform his/her duty for the well being individuals and progress of society. It is so
important that fundamental duties are enshrined in our constitution.
OBLIGATION
Derived from Latin word, obligation means “to bind”. It means an action one
is forced to do because it is one‟s duty. Thus, obligation refers to duty that is
binding, a commitment. Every individual has obligations to others and to society. He
is morally bound to do these. So, it is important in ethics.
Meaning
- Course of action that someone is required to undertake, whether legal or

moral
- An act or course of action to which a person is morally or legally bound.
- A course of action imposed by society, law or conscience by which someone

is bound.

- Something by which a person is bound or obliged to do certain things and
which arises out of sense of duty or results from custom, tradition, law etc…
Characteristics
(i) A course of action : obligation involves an action or course of action
(ii) Directed to others : obligation is a duty or commitment to others or society
(iii) Binding : obligation is a duty to which an individual is morally or legally

bound
(iv) Imposed by society : obligation is a duty or action imposed by society on

the individual to do
(v) Normative: obligation is a duty to be performed by the individual as a norm

or rule.
(vi) Results from customs/law : obligation arise from law or tradition or

custom.
Types
(i) Civil obligation: one which binds in law, and which may be enforced in
court of justice.
(ii) Natural obligation: one which binds a person in honour or conscience, but
which cannot be enforced in a court of justice.
(iii) Moral obligation : arise from three sources-law, promises, and principles
(iv) Ethical obligation : something that someone is required or compelled to do

based on a predetermined set of standards of right or wrong.
(v) Social obligation : an informal need to do something based an prescribed

social etiquette
(vi) Family obligation : mutual giving within a family that offers support .
(vii) Professional obligation : the benefits out of special skills of professionals

should flow to all people.

Obligations of all above types are important for the individual and society.
All the individuals should fulfill their obligations to others and society. At the same
time society should also fulfill its obligation to the individuals.
JUSTICE
Justice refers to just behavior or treatment. It is ethically and legally

important, because everybody should treat others equally and behave with others
uniformly as per their relationship.
Meaning
- Fairness in dealing with people

- Quality of being fair -- treating everyone in the same manner without any
dissemination
- Conformity to moral rightness in action or attitude
- Action in a accordance with law
- Having and doing what is one‟s own (Plato)
Characteristics
(i) Fair treatment – justice means fair treatment of all people

(ii) Dealing with people - justice refers to the individual‟s action in dealing
with other people.
(iii)Attitude – justice also refers to attitude of people towards others and issues.
(iv) Conformity – justice refers to actions that are in conformity with or in
accordance with law
Types
Philosophically speaking justice can be divided into following four types.
i. Distributive justice: giving all members of society of fair share of benefit

and resources available.
ii. Procedural justice: concerned with making and implementing decision

according to fair process.

iii. Restorative justice : putting back as they should be, also called corrective
justice
iv. Retributive justice : people deserve to be treated in the same way as they
treat others
Practically speaking, justice can be divided into different types as follows
(i) Natural justice : fair results for action- reward for those who do good and
punishment for those who do bad
(ii) Social justice : fair treatment of all sections of society irrespective of

gender, caste, religion and race
(iii) Political justice: equal opportunities for all people and sections to
participate in political process.
(iv) Economic justice: fair distribution of wealth and income as per the effort
and contribution.
(v) Legal justice : fair treatment to all sections in the legal process
(vi) Cultural justice : equal treatment of all languages, religion and cultures
(vii) Ethical justice : fair treatment of all races and ethic sections of society
Justice or fair treatment is an essential aspect of ethics. So, this is an ethical

or moral concept which is important for every individual and society. Then only, the
ethical objective of maximum good for maximum number will be achieved.
RESPONSIBILITY
Responsibility is one of the important ethical aspects. It means that

everybody is bound to do his/her duty to others and also be accountability for the
possible results, good or bad. If every individual is responsible the individuals well
being will be good and the society will be peaceful and in order.

Meaning
- Something that it is one‟s duty to deal with
- Act or having a duty to deal with something or having control over someone.
- Job or duty of dealing with or taking care of something or some one
- A duty, obligation or liability for which someone is held accountable
- The state or fact of being accountable or to blame for something
Characteristics
- Duty - Responsibility arises from duty or obligation there is no responsibility

without duty
- Towards somebody- Responsibility is the duty or obligation towards

somebody or something
- Dealing with – Responsibility implies that one has the duty to deal with
somebody or something
- Taking care The person who is responsibility has to take care of somebody
or something which is crucial
- Accountable : The person who is responsible has to be answerable to the

good or bad results.
- Types
Moral Responsibility: it involves taking action or course of action which deserves

praise, blame, reward or punishment
Ethical Responsibility: the duty of follow a morally correct path
Personal Responsibility: the duty of a person to do his own duty and take care of
himself/herself
Family Responsibility: also called familial responsibility, is the responsibility to

take care of, or to give support to family members

Social Responsibility: a theory in which individuals are accountable for fulfilling
their civic duty.
Legal Responsibility: the duty to respect and act according to law and legal
proceedings
Professional Responsibility: moral duty of professionals to apply their knowledge

for the benefit of entire society
Responsibility encompasses many other ethical aspects like duty,

commitment and accountability. That is why, it is an essential component of ethical
culture. This culture should be developed in all individuals and institutions, public
and private.
FREEDOM
Freedom in general sense, means lack of restraint or control. In ethics it

means more than this. Freedom is very much important ethical aspect because it
enables human beings to do or fulfill other ethical obligations and follow wider
social aspects.
Meaning
- The power or right to act, speak or think as one wants without any restraint
or constraint
- The state of not being subject to or affected by others individuals or nations.
- A special privilege or right of access, especially that of full citizenship of a

country
- The state of being free, of not being imprisoned or enslaved by other

individuals or countries .
Characteristics
o Right – freedom is a right to act, think or tell without any restraint
o Lack of constraint- freedom essentially means lack of constraint , restraint

or control

o No subjection – freedom means lack of subjection or slavery to any others
or nations.
o Unaffected : freedom means a state of being unaffected or not influenced by

others
o Special privilege – freedom is a special privilege endowed to the individuals
o Recognition – freedom is recognized by other individuals or nation
Types
In theoretical or philosophical terms, freedom can be thought of into three

different types
(i) Freedom from – constraints of society
(ii) Freedom to – to do what one country to do
(iii) Freedom to be – to be as are wants to be and meant to be
In practical terms, freedom can be derived into following types
(i) Individual freedom – individual rights and liberties guaranteed by law and
constitution.
(ii) National freedom – freedom from foreign rule
(iii) Political freedom – right of citizen to be act rely involved in their

government
(iv) Social freedom – right of individuals to participate in social activities and

form associations
(v) Cultural freedom – right of individuals and groups to follow their own
religion customs and traditions
(vi) Spiritual freedom – right to have beliefs and thought which exist in the
health, minds and souls of individuals
Freedom is an essential aspect for individuals and society as well to survive

and grow. That is why, the Indian constitution guarantees us six types of freedoms
as our rights.

GOOD BEHAVIOUR
Good behavior is the most important moral concept because it is the ultimate
objective of ethics. Ethics provides guidelines in the form of good or bad, right or
wrong, for good and right behavior and thus lays down a path of happiness and well
being. Thus, good behavior is the summun bonum of ethics.
Meaning
- Behavior that is morally right and acceptable
- Acting in ways consistent with what society and individuals typically think
are good values
- Acting in a manner that is in tandem with what society considers to be good

morals
- Self regarding behavior that affects positively the world around us
- Behavior that contributes positively to our well being, the preservation of

environment and well being of others.
Characteristics
Action: good behavior involves action because it concerns with the individuals
behavior
Morally right: Good behavior is a behavior that is morally right, good to all other
individuals
Consistent : Good behavior is a behavior which is consistent with what society

thinks good values
Recognized as correct: Good behavior is acknowledged and recognized by society

as correct.
Positive contribution: Good behavior should result in positive contribution like

well being, presentation of environment etc.

Good behavior involves respect for key moral principles that include the
following.
Honesty: quality being honest uprightness and fairness – it contributes to positive

mind set and facilities morally acceptable behavior
Fairness: impartial and just treatment or behavior without favoritism or

discrimination
Equality: treating others equally irrespective of gender, caste creed race and
religion
Dignity: behaving in a way worthy of respect and emulation
Diversity: understanding that each individuals is unique, and recognizing our

individual differences
Individual right: state of respective individual rights and protecting one‟s own
rights
CHARACTER AND CONDUCT
Character and conduct are twin values of individuals, the former shows what
the individual „is‟ and the latter shows what the individual „does‟. If we call the
former a structural aspect, the latter is a functional aspect. They are so inseparable
that character and conduct is considered singular and we use singular verb.
Character
Meaning
- The mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual
- Particular combination of qualities in a person or place that makes him

different from others.
- A complex of mental and ethical traits making a person or a group
- Attributes that determine a person‟s moral and ethical actions and responses,

Six Pillars of Character
(i)Trustworthiness: deserving trust and reliability. For gaining trustworthiness an

individual should be honest, loyal, and reliable. He should have the courage to do
the right and should do what he says. He should stand by the family, friends and
country and build a good reputation.
(ii) Respect : one should treat ethics with respect, use good manners and be
considerate to other‟s feelings. One should be tolerant and accepting of differences.
(iii)Responsibility: one should be responsible to one‟s actions and others. One

should do what is expected and best. One should be accountable for one‟s words,
deeds and attitudes
(iv)Fairness : An individual should treat others equally and with fairness. He should
be open minded and also listen to others. He should not take advantage of others.
(v)Caring : one should be kind to others, be compassionate and show care. At the
same time one should show gratitude, forgive others, help people in need.
(vi)Citizenship : one should be a good citizen and contribute one‟s share to make
one‟s community better, get involved in community affairs. One‟s should obey laws
and rules, protect the environment, volunteer and participate in community affairs
Conduct
Meaning
- The manner of guiding or carrying oneself, mode of behavior and action
- The manner in which a person behaves, especially in a particular place or

situation
- A personal behavior, a way of acting and showing one‟s behavior
- General behavior expressed in actions, reactions or inaction of an individual

Types
(i) Civil conduct : behavior of a person as a common citizen
(ii) Ethical conduct : how an individual behaves according to ethical standards

and values
(iii) Moral conduct: human behavior according to moral principles and

standards to promote peacefulness
(iv) Religions conduct: how an individual behaves in the religious context of

festivals, celebrations
(v) Professional conduct: how an individual behaves in his or her job,

profession towards public or client
Character and conduct:
Character and conduct are intertwined to each other. They are two sides of
the same coin of personality. A characteristic property defines the behavior of an
individual. The character is exhibited through conduct. Character is the expression
of the personality of a human being and it reveals itself it one‟s conduct. In this
sense, every individual has a character which is unity of qualities with a
recognizable degree of constancy in mode of action.
RESPECTING ELDERS
Respect for the elderly is common through the world, and it is a natural
human impulse that has become enshrined in collective wisdom. While different
cultures have different ways of showing respect, it is nearly ubiquitous in ancient
cultures. Throughout the world, young people are taught to respect older people.
Part of this has to do with how much the elderly can help the younger generation,
and it is often people who are too old to work who teach valuable lesson to the
younger generation. When formal education was rare, the elderly would often serve
as the primary teachers of younger generations
Respecting elders is important because they have more experience than

younger people and are able to share their wisdom with others. The elderly need

support, and teaching respect makes young people more likely to help. Respect for
the elder is common in many cultures. Respecting the elderly is also a sign of
compassion, a trait that many cultures value. The elderly often need assistance and
cannot provide the same benefits to cultures as younger people. However human are
social beings, and they care for those who need assistance. Respecting the older
generation is about manners, but it is also about ensuring that they are taken care of
by society.
Reasons to Respect yours Elders
Aging is part of life and no one can escape this transition. A child grows into
an adult and with every passing day age takes a toll on each one of us. It takes many
years to earn the kind of experience an elderly person has accumulated over his life
span. Therefore we can say that our elders are similar to a guide who can steer us
through the tough journey of life, successfully. For this and plenty of other reasons,
our elders command our respect.
1. Learn lesson from their experience : We must respect our elders as they
also have been life closely and are be always willing to share their
experiences and guide us through. Experience from their life can act as a
torchbearer for us in the long run
2. Promote a cultured social setup : Elders are very important for an equitable
growth of society. Any social setup is considered more cultured if its people
treat their senior citizen with respect and care
3. Elders are transistors of moral values : Elders are very important in the
busy world of today where most of the married couples are working. It
results in no time for their kids which end up swayed in wrong direction in
absence of right teaching
4. We all are bound to see old age : it is very important that our young
generation knows what gaining is like and should be aware that aging is the
harsh reality of life.

5. Seek the blessing of the elders: we should never forget this truth that it is
just because of our elders that we are enjoying our life on this planet.
6. Elderly are carriers of culture and tradition : Elders are likely the trees of
wisdom. Therefore it is very important to preserve their wisdom and pass on
t the next generation so that the continuity remain intact
7. Serving the elderly inculcates a sense of gratitude: Helping a needy elder

is always satisfying and feeds one with a sense of gratitude. There is no
better feeling than carrying their basket full of groceries drafting and
framing from the market to their pace.
8. Framing country’s policies : The elders could help the administration of

our country in drafting and framing new policies. As they are well versed
with the ground realities of the country, their experience is valuable in
coming up with new rules of co-existence with energizing thoughts from the
youngsters.
9. Elders are like children who need complete care: It is a rule of humanity
to help the weak. And while we do take care of our children, we sometimes
forget that even our elderly citizen are like children whose care and
wellbeing is our responsibility
10. It is our moral duty to look after the elderly: Most importantly, it is our
moral duty to respect your elders without string attached. Any deviation
from the rule can act as a deterrent to your peaceful stay in the civilized
society.
Ways to Respect Elders
Our blessed elders certainly deserve our respect. Though tradition and ways
of life vary from tribe to tribe, showing respect to our elders is a way to remember
tradition, pay homage to our ancestry, and to carry our forward beliefs forward to
our upcoming generations of new leaders.

1. Listen : When in the presence of an elder make sure to listen more than you
speak as an elder‟s words come from a place with many decades of
experience.
2. Be Polite : Acting in a polite way to an elder is a demonstration of respect.

If you are in the presence of an elder, be polite. This means if they are
talking, listen, if they ask you a question, respond respectively and with a
calm tone
3. Ask to Advise : if we are ever in need of advise about how respond in a life
situation, we take some time out of your day seek the counsel of an elder.
Their advice may be better than what the doctor ordered.
4. Visit them : Sometimes our elders may spend time without the benefit of
their communities because they may be at home, in an elder retirement
facility or simply sitting alone
5. Let them Eat First : in many tribal communities it goes without saying that
at any social event, the elders eat first. In any case you can show an elder
respect by offering to get them a plate before you get anything for yourself
6. Ask about Tradition : it‟s a great show of respect to ask the elders of the
tribe to tell you about tradition and culture. You can also learn from them in
the process, which not only is respectful, but of benefit to learning the ways
of your ancestors- a definite with-win.
7. Ask about Their Lives : By asking an elder about their life, we can hear
some of the most amazing stories. It is also shows that you are interested in
them, and that you care.
8. Tell Them you Respect and Appreciate them : Through we may practice
respect to our elders by listening, being polite or visiting, how often do we
actually say „ I respect you greatly and appreciate that you are here. „ thus
may seem simple, but it can be overlooked

8. MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
Introduction:
Ethics are morals refer to a body or compendium of principles, rules and

norms to judge human activities as good or bad, right or wrong. This body of rules
has come into existence over a period of time. A time period is necessary for the
individuals and society for the development of ethics or morals. The morals develop
over a period of time and through different stages. These are discussed in moral
development theories.
Moral Development Theories:
Basically there are two theories of moral development – Kohlberg theory and
Gilligan‟s Theory. Their fundamental approach is same with regard to stages of
development. But, they differ with regard to their assumptions and perceptions.
(i) Kohlberg Theory: Moral development in human being occurs over age and
experience. Kohlberg suggested that there are three levels of moral
development, namely pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional,
based on the type o reasoning and motivation of the individuals in response
to moral questions.
In the pre-conventional level, right conduct for an individual is regarded as
whatever directly benefiting one self. At this level, individuals are motivated
by obedience or the desire to avoid punishment or to satisfy their own needs
or by the influence by power to them. All young children exhibit this
tendency. At the conventional level, people respect the law and authority.
Rules and norms of one‟s family or group or society are accepted, as the
standards of morality. Individuals in this level want to please or satisfy, and
get approval by others and to meet the expectations of the society, rather than
their self interest (e.g., good boy, good girl). Loyalty is regarded as most
important. Many adults do not go beyond this level.
At the post conventional level, people are called autonomous. They
think originally and want to live by universally good principles and welfare
of others. They have no self-interest. They live by principled conscience.

They follow Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto
you. They maintain moral integrity, self-respect and respect for others.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages,
one stage at a time. He believed that most of the moral development occurs
through social interactions.
(ii) Gilligan’s Theory: According to Gilligan‟s studies, men have a tendency to
solve problem by applying abstract moral principles. Men are found to
resolve moral dilemma by choosing the most important moral rule,
overriding other rules. In contrast, women gave importance to preserve
personal relationship with all the people involved. The context oriented
emphasis on maintaining personal relationships was called the ethics of care
in contrast with the ethics of rules and rights adopted by men.
Gilligan revised the three levels of moral development of Kohlberg, as stages

of growth towards ethics of caring. The pre-conventional level, which is
same as that of Kohlberg first one, right conduct, is viewed in a selfish
manner solely as what is good for oneself. In the second level called
conventional level, the importance is on not hurting others, and willing to
sacrifice one‟s own interest and help others. This is the characteristic feature
of women. At the post-conventional level, a reasoned balance is found
between caring about others and pursuing the self interest. The balance
between one‟s own need and the needs of others is aimed while maintaining
relationship based on mutual caring. This is achieved by context – oriented
reasoning, rather than by hierarchy of rules.
The process of moral development according to above two theories
and differences therein can be understood by the following diagram.

Moral Development
Pre- Conventional Post-

Theories / conventional
conventional level
Level level
level
Kohlberg Theory Motivated by Respect law and Autonomous-

obedience/ avoid authority, family follow universally
punishment rules and norms good principles
Gilligan‟s Theory Motivated by care Not hurting others, Reasoned balance
and self interest willing to sacrifice between caring
others and self
interest
Differences: The theories of moral development by Kohlberg and Gilligan differ in

the following respects.
Kohlberg‟s Theory Carol Gilligan‟s Theory

A. Basic Aspects
1. Is based on the study on men. Is based on the study on men and
women.
2. Men give importance to moral rule. Women give importance to personal
relationships
3.Ethics of rules and right Ethics of care and context-oriented
B. Characteristic
1.Justice 1. Reason
2.Factual 2. Emotional
3.Right or wrong 3. Impact on relationship

4.Logic and rule based 4.Caring and concern
5.Less of caring 5.More of caring
6.Matter of fact (practical) 6.Abstract
7.Strict rules 7.Making exceptions
8.Independence 8.Dependence
9.Rigid 9.Human oriented
10.Transaction approach 10.Transformational approach

Conclusion: The critical study of two theories gives a conclusion that through their
assumption differ, the approaches are similar. So, a combination of two theories can
give as an integrated analysis of how morality or ethics develop i.e moral
development.

UNIT - III
9. VALUE EDUCATION
Introduction
The term value means importance and education means knowledge;

therefore value education means knowledge of importance. In other words when we
get the knowledge of importance of anything, importance of human being,
importance of us as human beings, then we have value education. Value education
deals with what is universally valuable to us, what is conducive to our individual
and collective happiness and prosperity in a sustainable way. This definition refers
to value education as the process that gives young people an initiation into values,
giving knowledge of the rules needed to function in the mode of relating to other
people, and to seek the development in the youth a grasp of certain underlying
principles, together with the ability to apply these rules intelligently, and to have the
settled disposition to do so.
Significance of value Education
Value education is important to help everyone in improving the value system

that he/she holds and puts it to use. Once, one has understood one‟s values in life
one can examine and control the various choices made in life. One has to frequently
uphold the various types of values in one‟s life such as cultural values, personal
values and social values.
Thus, value education is always essential to shape one‟s life and to give one
an opportunity of performing on the global stage. The need for value education
among the parents, children, teachers etc is constantly increasing as we continue to
witness increasing violent activities, behavior disorders and lack of unity in the
society etc.
Value education enables us to understand our needs and visualize our goals
correctly and also indicate the direction for their fulfillment. It also helps remove our
confusions and contradictions and enables us to rightly utilize the technological
innovations.

The Role of Value Education:
Value education plays a very important role in creating a better society, more
ethical organizations and groups, and better human beings.
Value education can help to build human being who possesses strength,
integrity and fortitude.
Value education builds the values of cooperation and peace as well as

tolerance.
If a person possesses the right values including punctuality, keeping one‟s

word, professionalism, lack of bias or prejudice etc. efficiency can step up
Creating cordial relationship between people by encouraging the values of

respect, love and affection.
Promoting personality development and social cohesion
Regeneration of values of national pride and integration towards nation-

building
Building character in young people who will lead the country in the future.
Promoting harmony between nations and creating a peaceful world order.
Identifying the core universal values of truth, righteous conduct, peace, love
non-violence.
Help create a foundation of the quality of life and strike a balance between
external and internal values.
Thus, value education can play a significant role in the betterment of

individual, groups and society at large.

Purpose of value Education
Developing
Fostering value in
universal core individuals
values -physical
integrity Emotional
discipline -intellectual
justice -spiritual
-moral
asenthetic
Value
Education
Promoting
values in Creating a
society leading Holistic
to individual education
and societal system
transformation
Need for value Education
Correct identification of our aspirations: Value Education enables us to

understand our needs and visualize our goals correctly and also indicate the direction
of their fulfillment. It also helps to remove our confusions and contradiction and
bring harmony at all levels.
Understanding Universal human values: Values form the basis for all our thought,
behavior and action. Once we know what is valuable to us, these values become the
basis. Then only we can be assured of a happy and harmonious human society.
Complementarity of values and skills: To fulfill our aspirations both values and
skills are necessary when we identity and set the right goals and produced in right
direction. Hence, there is an essential complementarity between values and skills for
the success of any human endeavour.
Evaluation of our beliefs : Everybody believes in certain things and we base our
values on these beliefs, be they false or true which may or may not be true in reality.
Value education helps us to evaluate our beliefs and assumed values.
Technology and human values: The present education system has become largely
skill based. The prime emphasis is on science and technology. However. Science

and technology can only help to provide the means to achieve what is considered
valuable. It is not within the scope of science and technology to provide the
competence of deciding what really is valuable.
Conclusion:
Value education is a crucial missing link in the present education system.

Because of this deficiency most of our efforts may prove to be counterproductive
and serious crises at the individual, societal and environmental level are manifesting.
Hence, there is a strong need to rectify this situation Value Education is required to
correctly identify our basic aspiration, understand the values that us to fulfill our
basic aspiration, ensure the complementarity of values and skills, and to properly
evaluate our beliefs. It also facilitates the development of appropriate technology
and its right utilization for human welfare.
10. CONCEPT HUMAN VALUES – SELF ESTEEM,

SELF- INTROSPECTION
Human Values:
Human values are values regarding human thought, attitude behavior and
interaction. Human beings have the unique ability to define their identity, choose
their values and establish their beliefs. All three of these influence a person behavior
and interaction with others. They show the desirable ways of thinking behaving and
interacting. They are shared by all human beings, whatever their religion, notability
culture, personal history or social status. By nature, they induce consideration for
other. Thus, they are the formulation for life in the society; they build space for a
drive, a movement towards are another which lead to peace and prosperity.
Definition
Human values are the virtues that guide us to take into account the human
element when one interacts with other human beings. They are the many positive
dispositions that create bonds of humanity between people and thus have for all of
us a s human beings. They are our strong positive feeling for the human essence of
the other.

Human values are the foundation for any viable life within society: they
build space for a drive, a movement towards one another, which leads to peace
Human values are universal; they are shared by all human beings whatever
their religion their nationality their culture their personal history. By nature, they
induce consideration for others
Human values are:
 Brotherhood, friendship, empathy, compassion, love

 Openness, listening welcoming, acceptance, recognition, appreciation
 Honesty, fairness, loyalty, sharing, solidarity
 Civility, respect, consideration
The function of most of these basic values is to make possible for every
human to realize or maintain the very highest or most basic universal core values of
lifelike love and happiness. Human values are universal and are important
consideration to take into account, hen interacting with other people. These values
help to create bonding between people of different nationalities, race, religious
beliefs and culture. Examples of human values include love, kindness, justice, peace,
honesty, respect, openness, loyalty and equality. Today, human values play a great
role in establishing peace and protecting society. Respect is one of the most essential
values that people need to have. To show respect to a person, one must be able to
appreciate that person‟s other people to do him or her. Ideally, respect is considered
the most basic value from which all other social standards are derived.
Valuing the connection between human beings is important in creating

peaceful coexistence and happiness. A person should be able to manage his or
reaction and feelings that could lead to misunderstanding or injury. Social standards
help people to behave accordingly even when in a state of anger and to avoid any
behavior lacking in respect. Putting human values into practice helps to contribute
towards morality within the society. By integrating human values with personal
relations, a person can live harmony with others.
Human values are the principles, standards, conviction and beliefs that
people adopt as their guidelines in daily activities. Principal human values are the

foundation on which professional ethics are built. They are a set of consistent
measures are behaviors that individuals choose to practice in the pursuit of doing
what is right or what is expected of them by society. Most law and legislation are
shaped by human values.
Human values are passed by parents to their offspring soon after childbirth
and are instilled throughout the children‟s upbringing. As they grow, children learn
more values from their peers,religious leaders, teachers, friends and society at large.
These attributes include honesty, trustworthiness, diligence, discipline, fairness,
love, peace, justice, are for one another and being gainful of the environment,
including plants and animals. In addition, selflessness and putting the well – being
of all before a person own needs are desirable human values. Generally, human
values are highly encouraged in society. While negative attributes are discouraged
and condemned. These values are passed from one generation to another. People
with excellent human values are usually held in high esteem, admired and rewarded.
The traits are important especially in leaders and people in influential positions. All
cultures and societies encourage teachers, doctors, lawyers, politicians,
businesspeople and other professionals to have strong human values
Conclusion
Human values as values regarding human behavior and interaction are the
mortar in the brick wall and society. They build good bandage between people and
dicing of society which are necessary for social peace, solidarity and property, so
families, educational institutions, organizations should play their role in property
and strengthening these make and pasting on from generation to generation.
Self – Esteem
Introduction
Self- esteem is the important human value because it involves valuing

oneself and thus the starting point of value building. Every individual has to evaluate
himself/herself is an objective manner and then try to correct any shortcoming and
then develop. This leads to a healthy and happy society.

Meaning and Definition: Self esteem is our opinion of ourselves, one‟s opinion of
oneself. High self esteem is a good opinion of ourselves and low self-esteem is bad
opinion of ourselves
Reasoner says, self- esteem can be defined as “the experience of being

capable of meeting life‟s challenges and being worthy of happiness”
Self- esteem reflects a person‟s overall subjective emotional evaluation of

this or her own worth. It is a judgement of oneself as well as attitude towards the
self. Self–esteem encompasses belief about one self (for example I am competent, I
am worthy) as well as emotional states, such as triumph, designer, pride and shame;
Smith and Mackie defined self – esteem by saying “the self – concept in
what we think about the self; self-esteem is the positive or negative evaluation of the
self as “how we feel about it”
Self esteem is of two types- low and high self esteem. Low self esteem
comes from a poor self image. Low self esteem also depends on other factors like
your job. Low self esteem feeds us negative thinking and causes us to believe the
criticism others make of us. High self esteem is the opposite of the above. High self
esteem boosts us with positive thinking and makes us believe the good words
spoken about us.
Importance of Self-esteem
The importance of self esteem for the foundation of our existence cannot be
underestimated. It is important because it has an impact on our life and choices.
Self-value is the source of our mental health. Self-esteem is the idea that we have
about ourselves and it is important because;
1. We believe that we are worthy happiness we feel worthy of respect

2. Is the first step in believing in you, it builds self confidence we do you think
that others will
3. Our self esteem has a profound effects on your thinking, emotions,
happiness, desires, values and goals
4. We can still feel respect and be proud even if we make a mistake

5. We never compare to others and our self confidence is strong
6. We have a sense of control and direction and approach problem with a
different perspective to make correct choice
7. Allows to act independently and to assume responsibility for our actions,
goals and desire
8. We can take new challenges easily and handle criticism
9. We consider yourself a valuable person and you live for a reason
10. Gives the clarity to recognize our qualities, strong faith in ourself and know
that you are lovable and capable
As Nathaniel Branden wrote,”positive self esteem is important because when

people experience it, they feel and look good, are effective and productive, and they
respond to others and themselves in healthy, positive growing ways. They know that
they are lovable and capable and acre about themselves and others. They do not
have to build themselves up by tearing others down or by patronizing less competent
people. Esteem deficit contributes to mental health problem. If we know we are
worthy we behave accordingly low self esteem. Low self esteem makes us think we
are undeserving, inappropriate, and lack confidence. We make negative choices, set
wrong goals, and lose happiness. ALL this leads to develop destructive behaviorso.
We put ourselves down, underestimate our qualities and abilities. This leads to a
complete loss of faith in ourselves and life. It can also be a symptom of unresolved
emotional problems or a mental health disorders.
Steps to nourish Self-Esteem
1. Avoid generic positive affirmations: positive affirmation are like empty

calories. Affirmation only work when they fall within the range of believability,
and for people with low self-esteem, they usually don‟t
2. Identity areas of authentic strength or competency: to begin building our

self-esteem we have to identity what you‟re god at, what you do well or what
you do that other people appreciate
3. Demonstrate ability : once we have identified an area strength we should find

ways to demonstrate it. If one is a good bowler one should join a bowling league

4. Learn to tolerate positive feedback: being able to receive compliments is very
important for those seeking to nourish their self – esteem
5. Self-affirm: once we have demonstrated our ability, allow yourself to feel good
about it, proud, satisfied, or pleased with yourself.
Self –Introspection
Introduction : Self introspection is an important human value because it is the

starting point of the process of value building and personality development. All
other values like self esteem, right conduct, peace and non – violence are built upon
this fundamental aspects of self- introspection. It self-introspection is perfect and
objective, every other value will be worthwhile and desirable to enrich one‟s life and
the society t large.
Meaning
The word self – introspection literally means „looking inward‟ „to look
inside‟ and describe the act of thinking about our own actions or inner thoughts.
When we examine what we do say and think or feel and how it affects our life and
the lives of others, that in introspection. Introspection is looking inward especially
the act or process of self examination or inspect one‟s own thoughts and feeling, the
cognition of which the mind has of its own acts and status.
Self-introspection is the process of directly examining one‟s own conscious

mental states and processes
- Self –introspection is a method of inquiry in which subjective attempts to

examine the contents and processes of their consciousness.
- An inward focusing on mental experience on mental experiences, such as
sensations or feeling
- The conscious mental and purposive process relaying an thinking, reasoning
and examination of ones own thought and perceptions.
Importance of self introspection
- Allows people not only to check the validity of their mental processes in
terms of their accuracy, but also their moral or ethical status

- Allows human beings to self – reflect, to arrases their state of mind, their
understanding of the situation and their planned course of action
- Keeps a regular check on own self-development. It helps us realize our goals
and what we have achieved so far through self development procedures
Self introspection enables us to be free the influence of negativity.

Introspection means the desire to be good. introspection brings the ability to look
within and see the true self in the mirror of the heart, thus enabling us to activate the
inner spirituality. Then all effort made will be towards activating this inherent
goodness. And slowly we find that the behavior associated with negative traits is no
more expressed, as they begin to lose their hold. When we are able to introspect and
look within we can find the goodness that is there within us. Because of this we are
naturally free from expectations from others that they should recognize our
goodness or consider us good. Instead, we find ourselves content with what we are
and continue to bring out the best from within us we also continue to learn from all
situation and experience progress.
Self introspection is closely related to human self-reflection and is contrasted

with external observation, introspection generally provides a privatized accesses to
our own mental states, not mediated by other sources of knowledge, so that
individual experience of the mind is unique. Introspection can determine any
number of mental states including sensory, bodily, cognitive, emotional states and so
forth. Introspection has been a subject of philosophical discussion for thousands of
years. The philosopher Plato asked„ why should we not calmly and patiently review
our own thoughts, and thoroughly examine and see what these appearances in us
really are.
11. FAMILY VALUES
Introduction
Family values are the lessons parents teach their children about what is
important and values in family, such as good morals and disruption. Although each
family is different, some of the popular family values are honesty, good self-esteem,
kindness, good. Family values, sometimes referred as familial values, are traditional
or cultural values(that is, values passed from generation to generation within

families) that pertain to the family‟s structure, function, roles, beliefs, attitudes, and
ideals.
Definitions
According to the Dictionary. Com, „family values‟ are defined as “the moral
and ethical principles, traditionally held and transmitted within a family, as honesty,
loyalty, industry and faith
According to the Merriam-Webster, “family Values” are “values especially

of a traditional or conservative kind which are held to promote the sound
functioning of the family and to strengthen the fabric of society.
According to Oxford Dictionries.com, “family values” are “values held to be

traditionally learned or reinforced within a family, such as those of high moral
standards and discipline.
Family values involve all of the ideas of how you want to live our family
life, and they are often passed down from previous generations. They can help
define behavior in various situations, help youth make good choice, and solidify the
bond that our family has
Types of values
Although every family‟s list of values will be different, there are different
categories of values that tend to be similar.
Social values
Social values consist of things like peace, justice, freedom, equality, and
bettering our community – Not hurting others and helping others, being courteous
and respectful in our interactions, being generous with what we have, volunteering
time and skills for the society
Moral values
Moral values are our individual values about what we think is right and
wrong. Moral values provide the foundation from which we make decisions. Moral
values are learned from the parents and their experiences – Being honest and
trustworthy, being courageous, never giving up, being patient

Recreational values
Recreational values refer anything that involves fun and play. Recreation is
important in the family because it fosters closeness in the family, opportunities for
learning, creating memories, improving social skills, and developing empathy –
Providing unstructured play time, having family game nights, taking vacations
together
Political values
There are certain political values that remain constant across political parties
–Patriotism, following law and respecting those who enforce it, treating everyone
equally
Religious values
Religious values center around the expectations that people have about
themselves and others based on the beliefs of their faith. Although each faith has its
beliefs, there are common values that many faiths tend to share – Showing
compassion to those in need, continually learning both spiritually and intellectually,
treating others as one would like to be treated
Work values
Work values include such things as our philosophies about our job, jour
finance, and how we spend your money. For children these values include how they
approach school and their education – Always doing the best work, working in a
team, being proud of achievement, making education a priority, treating co-workers
and others the way that we want to be treated.
The family values are very important that they form the foundation stones for
the social structure and function. The families have to realize this and try to teach,
cultivate and propagate these values. The educational institutions also should
include these values in their daily curriculum.

12. COMPONENTS, STRUCTURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF FAMILY
Family
Family is a group of people who are closely related to one another by blood
and marriage. It includes a set of parents and their children. In the context of human
society, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity or co-
residence or some combination of these. In a dynamic sense, family refers to all
persons that live within a household as well as family member who may live outside
the household , still maintaining relationship with the main family. A family is the
building block of a society. It is the family with which we connect ourselves in
relationships to past current and future generations. Family provides many physical
and non physical things to us protect us and prepares us for the challenges we face in
our life and society
Components of family
Family structure: Family structure refers to the numbers and the relationships
thereof. It shows who are living in the family with consanguine and affinity
relationship. A family structure, (nuclear, joint and extended) influences the
relationship between parents and children and others, like grandparents, grand
children, uncles and aunts etc.
Household residency: The family members should live in the household or

residence. All the members may live in single household; some may live outside, but
still have affiliation.
Marriage: There should be married couple in the family either with children or
without children, either with their parents or without parents.
Love and Nurturing: Love towards children to the parents or to the caregiver. Love
is an essential component in a family. Parental love and nurturing play important
roles in a family.
Permanent and specific relationship: The family members should have permanent
relationship with one another and the relationship should be well defined and
specific

Responsibility: Responsibility is the binding linkage between members of the
family. Parents have responsibilities towards children; children have responsibilities
to the parents
Income Sources: Income is a necessary component of family because it is a source

for satisfying the needs of family members and to nurture the children
Family Structure
Family structure is considered a family support system which involves two

married individuals providing care and stability for their biological offspring. The
family is created at birth and establishes ties across generations. Those generations,
the extended family of aunts, unless grandparents and cousins can all hold
significant emotional and economic roles for the family. There are three popular
family structures in society, particularly in India
Nuclear family
The nuclear family is considered the „traditional‟ family of a mother, father,

and the children. The two-parent nuclear family has become less prevalent, and
alternative family forms such as single–parent households and adopting individuals
are more common.
Joint family
If two or more nuclear families live together under a common shelter and
share a common hearth and common purse, then this type of family is known as
joint family. The Hindu joint family is the best example of such type of family in
which several uterine brothers live together.
Extended family
When the nuclear family is found to be extended on all sides by certain

adhesions in the form of relatives of both sides i.e husband‟s and wife‟s sides it can
be declared as an extended family. These persons are originally of some other
nuclear families but due to some adverse circumstances they are forced to live in the
ego‟s family.

Family Responsibilities
 One of the most important responsibilities of a family is raising a child. It is

the most challenging responsibility because the child has to be raised from
childhood till he/she is old enough to take care of him/herself.
 The family is also expected to educate and transmit the societal norms and
culture to its offspring and also give them a position or status in life.
 The family provides emotional, psychological moral and material support to

members
 The family has to ensure provision of physical security in terms of food,

clothing, shelter and other needs to its offspring or other dependant individual
members of the family
The responsibilities of the family members are
Father
- Provision of food, shelter and money for the family
- Making important decisions
Mother
- Preparing food and keeping the house in order
- Nurturing and raising the children, teaching the children morals and values
It is important to note that the above roles and any other traditional roles
assigned to either parent could be performed by any of the parents. Indeed,
both parents are to complement to each other in the performance of all these
functions
Children
- Obeying their parents

- Assisting in performing household chores, particularly in the kitchen, garden,
laundry, washing the vehicles etc…
- Living up to family expectations
- Getting good grades and knowledge in school
Each of these roles is accorded a status. The status assigned to a particular

role within the family reflects the values and beliefs of that family. The higher the
status assigned to a role, the greater the authority, privileges and reward accord to
that role.
13. THREATS TO FAMILY LIFE
Introduction
Family is one of our most precious gifts. Family members are available to
lend a helping hand, make us laugh, be a support system and cheer us up. They help
us overcome our challenges and offer guidance during those life-changing decision
we are likely to face. Unfortunately, our greatest gift, our family, is deteriorating
rapidly. In reality, the individual household is the basic unit, not only of society, but
also of our markets and all of our larger institutions. But, at present, there are many
types of attacks talking place. Here are three threats to our family we need to be
aware of
Social problems
Our society has completely switched gears into what is normal behavior for a
family. Unfortunately, divorce, cohabitation, no desire for children, pressure for a
successful career instead of a family is all threats that are happening daily.
Materialism and pride
We have become a greedy and selfish society, instead of thinking of others,

we only think about ourselves. We want the best of the best and we skew our
perspective of what truly matters. Many won‟t even consider marriage or children
until they have reached their desired education level or have no more student loans
to worry about.

Lack of concern
Even strong families are not immune to the threats that are attracting them.
One large threat to the family is that they go through life with their eyes closed.
They do not see the attacks coming at them.
Nine threats to family life
Why are families in such disarray as we enter the new millennium? What is
different in our culture that makes the quality of our home life such a struggle? Why
are marriages failing? Why do teens struggle so much? Here are nine ideas that may
lie close to the heart of the problem.
The challenges of materialism
With our comfortable lifestyles and materialistic facilities in front of us, we

don‟t experience enough compassion for the problem of others, nor do we take the
opportunity to serve others,
Not enough love in marriage
Many marriages lack basic respect, compassion, acceptance, forgiveness,

generosity and love. Instead we get marital partners who expect marriage to meet
“their” needs They show little inclination to sacrifice for the other, and put other
things ahead of their relationship.
The media as a powerful, source of influence
The media has emerged as a penetrating and pervasive source of influence

displacing the home, schools, peers and religious institutions for our youth. A pop
culture is indiscriminately invited into our homes with its emphasis on entertaining
ourselves, cynical humor, and immediate gratification.
Competing priorities for time, attention and resource
The plethora of choice we have with regard to careers, hobbies,

entertainment, children‟s activities, technology and bringing work home demand
more and more of our time and energy families are divided and going in different
directions. Parents are exhausted.

Not enough parenting
Parental absence during infancy and early childhood disrupts the attachment
bond upon which future relationship are built.
Weakened commitment
The cultural acceptance of premarital sex, cohabitation, divorce and

infidelity weaken the foundation of marriage
Lack of emotional and self – regulation
Their lack of emotional control makes them self-centered. The result is poor
listening skills, less tact and respect in conflict resolution, unwillingness to
compromise, and an inner neediness that leads to demand and possessiveness. They
lack the ability to empathize and give to others.
Weakened community and extended family support
Old neighborhood ties are replaced by “virtual” communities with less face-
to- face contacts and real involvement with others. Without developing their own
support system, families are more isolated and alone in their struggles.
Life without meaning
Without a belief in god and a spiritual orientation to life, people struggle

with knowing right and wrong how to live, who they are and what is important.
Solutions
1. Spending time together as a family – preferably weekly
2. Spending time alone with our spouse on a daily basis
3. When children need our attention, give it to them. Avoid other distraction,
sink to their level and listen
4. Accepting that we and our family will not be perfect and don‟t beat ourselves
up when mistakes happen
5. Keeping yourselves and our family members in good health so we have the
energy to spend time together, travel together

6. Do not give into our children. Make them work for thing they want and
desire.
7. Allow and create much laughter in the home
8. Keep an orderly home. Contention seems to decrease when the environment

isn‟t in commotion
9. Accept one another‟s difference and praise one another‟s accomplishments
10. Never speak unkindly behind anyone‟s back.
14. NEUTRALIZATION OF ANGER, ADJUSTABILITY, TIME

ALLOTMENT FOR SHARING IDEAS AND CONCERNS
These are the important human and family values that strengthen the family
system and contribute to the family peace and solidarity which are essential inputs
for the effective functioning of society and also other subsystems of society
including business organizations.
Neutralization of Anger
Anger ruins and healthy relationships, it can be observed that people tend to
get angry, most often, with those wish them well, strive for their well being or
sacrifice for their sakes. We all knew the evil effects of anger, hence anger
neutralization practice is essential instead of appreciating their efforts, or repaying
their kindness, people tend to lose their temper.
Anger is a vile temperament, which only leaves pain and misery in its
wake, and is best avoided becomes obvious. With this realization the need to
neutralize anger fills the mind. A mere resolve not to succumb to bouts of anger is
not enough. A suitable anger neutralization practice, which enables superimposition
of imprints which is essential.
A simple practice which brings down all our Anger
Take a writing pad or a dairy and make a list of the people we are prone to
get angry with, most often. Write down names in the order of priority-people with
whom we get angry very often to come first. It is concern that the top in the list
might be closely related to us. If married, the first name might be the name of wife,

are the husbands list and the name of husband in the wife‟s list and then, sons,
daughters, parents, officials, brothers, sisters, friends, teachers and others. The list
may not have more than 10 to 15 names.
Select these names one by one and ask ourselves the following questions.
- What is my relationship with that person?
- What is the reason for my anger?
- What is my role in that situation?
- Have I been angry with the person
Do research into these questions with all the names in the list. Find out the
reasons and expunge them. Take a vow not to get angry again with the person again.
Spend a week with one name in meditation, for second week with the second name.
this you Can neutralize your anger with anybody
Steps for Neutralization of anger
1. Sit peacefully in solitude. Have pen and paper at hand
2. At first write down the name of the persons on whom you get anger. Then
serialize the names according to the high degree and more frequency of your
anger and take up the first person in the list.
3. What is the relationship between himself and yourself?
What is the reason for conflict? Is he the causative factor for your anger or
does it include your mistakes also? Was your anger able to remove his
mistake? Write down the benefits and losses that resulted when you got
anger several times.
4. Say the following many times within your mind “ in future I shall not be
anger when I come in contact with this person. Without forgetting, I shall be
always aware. Under any circumstances, I shall protect my wisdom without
getting anger. “ For a week, by-heart this anger neutralization resolutions
both morning and evening

5. Meanwhile, with awareness, acquaint that person and talk to him. Practice
this method for a week as vow. Success is assured
6. If anger is neutralized, vengeance will disappear.
Time Allotment for sharing Ideas and Concerns
The time allotment for sharing ideas and concerns can help relieve many
individual and social tensions the family members face, build family spending and
private happiness. Nowadays family members work outside different places like
outside and perform many different soles. This raises many concerns also members
should get the idea and concerns of others. So, there shared be time allotment for
sharing ideas and concerns. Family meeting will provide opportunity for this.
Give Family Meeting a Fresh Start
On the surface, the purpose of the Family Meeting may sound simple
and straight forward
 Show appreciation
 Distribute household work
 Express concerns, identity problem and teach problem solving skills
 Distribute allowance
But when we look deeper, the benefits of holding regular family meeting are
anything but simple. The family meeting can almost be referred to as the engine that
keeps families moving in a purposeful and positive direction. Without that forward
momentum, many families find themselves stuck with problems and situation that
just won‟t go away. That we were a family that cares for each other, plans together,
protects and respect each other and moving in the same direction. A family is a gift
God that needs to be cultivated and nurtured. Family conferences or meetings
provide the opportunity to do just that. The family meetings of different durations
can help the family achieve understanding toleration and sacrifice. The family
meetings can be as follows.

Eat together: If all the family members can eat to together, as is the practice now in
may societs,it gives opportunity to share our tests, not only of food but also of
others. The family members can also share love and concern.
Watch together: Eating together may not be possible is a family with different ages
and occupational settings. In such case, the family members can watch together
entrainment programmers in T.V or any other social programmers. This also gives
an opportunity to share our views, preferences and attitudes.
Weekly outings: On weekly basis, the family members can opt for outings as
picnics or cinema or any other meetings. The family members can visit temples,
fairs, malls or picnic spots, where they can share their feelings and concerns.
Religious tourism: The family can take up religious tourism comprising temples,
places of interest, tourist spots and spiritual centers so that the trip is meaningful to
all ages. This will have an overall impact an all members and society.
Social meets: The family members have to unavoidably attend social meetings
where members of family belonging to siblings, relatives and friends meet. This is
an opportunity for all ages to interact with their counterparts in other families and
helps widen their perspectives and understand right aptitudes and preferences.
Celebration of festivals: The festivals, celebrations, rituals give an opportunity to

affiliated families and their members to meet, share their feelings and concern. This
also reminds all the members of the family about their roles, responsibilities and
values.
All these, if followed with commitment, will definitely enhance status of the
family.
Adjustability
Adjustability is one of the important family values that faster peace in the
family or family peace. Family peace has many implications and bearing an society
and also an individual‟s/members ethics performance and efficiency in education
employment business, work place, family solidarity and social progress. Other
family values for family peace one neutralization of anger, sharing of love and

concerns, family support etc. lack of adjustment or failure to adjust by the members
of the family will disrupt family organization‟s solidarity and peace which in turn
will have adverse effects on their important family and social aspects. Peace in the
family is important for salvation also. Every person in life should see that others
interference will not affect him in anyway. And he/she should also adjust with others
within the family and others associated with family.
Meaning
Adjustability means the quality of being adjustable i.e., the quality to change
to fit to circumstances, particularly new circumstances. Adjustability is the quality
of being adjustable. It is generally defined as the ability of somebody, especially of a
child, do adjust to new surroundings. At the family level adjustability implies the
ability of members of family to adjust to the altitudes, behaviors and responses of
other family members. Each member of the family including father, mother, children
(grandfather, grandmother and grand children, uncles, and aunts in joint family), has
unique personality, attitudes preferences principles as balancing paths These may
promote any confrontation. To avoid this, each member has to understand, tolerate
and accept others‟ attitudes and behavior. This is in essence adjustability. Thus,
adjustability is not compromise or surrender, adjustability in understanding,
toleration, accepting; it is sacrificing one‟s ego to live with others.
Adjustability – Dimensions
A family consists of one or two couples and children depending upon the
type of the family. The family members have different statuses and play different
role. They have different responsibilities too. Hence, the issue of adjustability has
many dimensions. For the welfare of the family, everyone in the family should feel
their responsibilities and perform their duties. Ones wisdom and good character
should induce other members of the family to correct themselves. All the family
members should be made to learn to adjust with one another to make the family
peaceful
i. Adjustability between Couple: In a family, adjustment should start with the

couple. It is a joint family the elder couple should be role model for other

couples. The wife and husband should have adjustment at physical, mental,
psychological and spiritual level. Through marriages is our choice, there is
even poor possibility for divergence in thinking, attitudes, physical,
psychological and spiritual needs. Each of the couple has to show concern to
other, respect other‟s altitude, thinking and behavioural pattern and adjust to
each other. This will involve ego-sacrifice also; still it is required because
each of the couple receive many things from the other. Long term adjustment
leads to unity in thought and action
ii. Parents’ Adjustability: parents should develop an adjustment attitude with
the children. They should have let them to it altitude. The children always
face more complex and competitive social setting than the parents might
have faced. Given the same standing, children have more information; they
face new trends and challenges. So, the parents should understand reality and
give freedom to take their decision under the guidance and observance. For
this the parents should have broader understanding, meaningful tolerance and
magnificent acceptance. The parents have to realize the reality of what is
called „generation gap‟ and adjust themselves to this.
iii. Children’s Adjustability: The children should also adjust to the parents and
other elders by considering their wisdom and experience. They should
realize that any amount of information and intelligence are not in any way
equal to wisdom and experience. The children should develop an attitude of
let us listen to them. They may have high level of aspirations and needs. But,
they have to try to understand whether the parents can meet this or not with
their limited physical, financial and other sources. Sometimes, the children
have to either specific or postpone their needs and requirements. This also
involves understanding sacrifice and submission.
iv. Siblings’ Adjustability: The children, sons and daughters and others in the
case of joint family, should adjust among themselves. The children will be in
different ages ranging from kids to adults. They will have different needs
requirements and aspirations. Family has limitations with regard to physical
and financial resources, time and concern. The parents cannot satisfy all the
needs, requirements and aspirations of all the children. So, the children have
to understand and adjust among themselves. The aged children should take

leadership and initiative in this regard and understand, tolerate and accept
other children‟s requirement and aspirations and time allotment. Again this
involves toleration, understanding and acceptance from the aged and waiting
submission and acceptance from the young children.
v. Family Adjustment: this is external aspect while all the above are internal,
internal adjustment within the family. But, the family should adjust
externally to the larger society. A family does not live in isolation, it lives in
a larger society. It has to maintain good and healing relationships with the
neighboring families in a village or a town with the relatives, families and
friends/ co-workers‟ families. The interaction with these families also
disrupts the peace in the family which will have effect on other life and work
aspects. The external adjustment is a major task because these families away
have different cultures adjectives and aspirations. Still all these families have
to develop the value of adjustability among themselves. Each family has to
understand other families‟ cultures, tolerate them and accept them when the
families and family members are put to interacting situations. This needs
greater sacrifices and understanding. Yet, it is a necessity particularly is a
global setting with multi cultural and cross cultural relationships at micro
and macro levels.
Conclusion
Family is a divine and social gift it is a structural foundation of a society.

Hence, the family should be peaceful and promoting values for the entire society in
all aspects, the family should be starting point for values of all types. And, family
peace, both internal and external, is the necessary component of societal peace. So,
the family should teach and inculcate family and social values like adjustability.

UNIT - IV
15. BUSINESS ETHICS
Introduction
Business ethics is ethics and ethical principles applied to business activities

and business enterprises. It deals with the morality and moral practices in business.
Business ethics helps business contribute to the economy and also protects the
society from the all- effects of business practices. Business ethics is important to all
the stakeholders in business and the environment at large. Business enterprises
follow business ethics either voluntarily or though different bodies in which they are
numbers.
Meaning and Definition
 Business ethics refers to high standards of business principles and

professional conduct; ethics are grounded on moral standards which are
supposed to be very clean and acceptable to the society without any
controversy
 Business ethics is a system of laws and guidelines by which business

professionals and companies operate in a fair, legal and moral fashion.
 Business ethics is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that

examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a
business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conditions and is
relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire society.
 Business ethics is the study and examination of moral and social

responsibility in relation to business practices and decision making in
business.
 Business ethics ranges from corporate responsibility to the public to specific

laws prohibiting illegal practices in the work place.

Aspects of Business Ethics
Business ethics covers the following aspects;
Employee Relations: how the company or manager relates and works with
employees.
Investor Relations: the relations of a company with those who support it

financially.
Customer Relations: how a company takes care of, relates to and communicates
with customers.
Vendor Relations: how a company relates with those who supply the products and
services.
State Relations : relationship with the Government and its bodies and agencies.
Significance of Business Ethics
Business ethics is significant in many ways because it rends advantages to

the company, the public and the world at large.
To the Company
Sales: Business ethics helps companies attract customers to their products and
thereby enhance sales.
Employee Loyalty : Business ethics make employee stick to the company and
build employee loyalty.
Customer Loyalty: Business ethics also help build the customer loyalty easier than
otherwise.
Attract Employees: Business ethics help companies attract more and better
employees to the organization.
Attract Investors: Business ethics help companies attract more investors.

To the Public
Long – term growth: Business ethics help achieve long-term growth of the
economy.
Cost and risk reduction: The public need to spend less if all the companies follow
business ethics
Anti-capitalist: Business ethics helps lessening of anti-capitalist sentiment.
Resource Utilization: Business ethics results in effective utilization of limited
resources.
To the Wider World
Protection of Natural World: Business ethics help to protect the natural world
from devastation and destruction.
Protection to developing countries: Business ethics, particularly the multi national
companies, will protect the developing countries from exploitation and degradation.
Need for Business Ethics
Business operates within the society: Business is a part of subsystem of society.

So, business must contribute to the welfare of the society.
Survival and Growth: Business has to survive and grow. In order to survive,
develop and excel, business must earn social sanction of the society where it exits
and functions.
Goodwill and promotion: Business ethics with earn goodwill and helps
promotional effects of the company. Maintaining quality standards, following fair
price policies and avoiding unethical marketing will certainly bring goodwill to the
company. This will help promotion or marketing.
Responsible Corporate Citizen: Business is a responsible corporate citizen of the

country. Hence, it should follow ethical principles and guidelines.
Stakeholders’ ethics: Business is a sector in which different categories of people

are stakeholders. They range from the directors to the small investors and customers.
Business ethics affects the behavior of all these stakeholders.

Equity: Business ethics leads to equitable distribution of wealth and thieve. It all
companies follow business ethics, they will be rewarded equitably and profit will be
distributed on an equitable basis.
External –Power
Internal
Company Company’s Behavior of

mission code of Employees,
Law,
and goals conduct code stakeholders’ Acts
Economy
of ethics condign
Internal
External – Freedom

16. ETHICAL STANDARDS IN BUSINESS
Introduction
Ethical standards are the principles that when followed promote values such
as trust, good behavior, fairness and/ or kindness. There is not one consistent set of
standards that all companies follow, but each company has the right to develop the
standards that are meaningful for their organization. Ethical standards are not always
easily enforceable, as they are frequently vaguely and somewhat open to
interpretation (men and women should be treated equally, “or meet the customer
with respect and kindness); others can be more specific such as „do not ask the
customers‟ private information with anyone outside of the company.
Three levels of Ethical standards in a Business Organization:
The ethical standards of an organization have a major influence on how it

conducts its business. Ethical standards are classified at three levels:
Macro Level
At a macro level, sometimes called the system level, ethic are defined and
influenced by the wider operating environment in which the company exists.
Business owners and managers must be aware of how these pressures affect
operations and relationships and how they may impact on makes locally, nationally
and internationally.
Company Level
At company or corporate level, ethical standards are embedded in the

policies and procedures of the organization, and form an important foundation on
which business strategy is built. These policies derive from the influence felt at
macro level and therefore help a business to respond to changing pressures in the
most effective way.
Individual Level
Since business are run by people, the ethical standards of individual in the
business are an important consideration. Individuals may well have a very different
set of ethical standards from the employer and this can lead to tension. Managers
and business owners should be aware of this to manage potential conflicts.

Components of Ethical standards in a Business:
The ethical standards of a business are a key factors in how that business is
defined. A business reputation impacts its customers, employees, potential for
growth and overall success. The ethical standards consist of three components.
Law
The nation is a society bound by laws. These laws define the difference
between right and wrong and what is considered acceptable behavior by the majority
of people. A business organization must abide by these laws to uphold its ethical
standards. Wage and hour laws protect employees are one example, while guidelines
overseeing environmental protection are another.
Policies
The second component of ethical standards for a business organization

concerns its internal policies and procedures. The business creates these as
guidelines for its managers and employees to follow. These policies should include
hiring practices, termination procedures, sexual harassment issues, vendor
relationships and gift-giving limits.
Individuals
When an employee joins a business organization, he comes equipped with

his own moral values based on heritage and upbringing. It is the responsibility of the
business organization to foster a corporate climate that supports ethical behavior by
all employees.
Conclusion
If a business ignores or breaks the ethical standards at each level, there are
notable consequences. If a business does not adhere to the law, consequences may
include fines, penalties or even jail sentences for owners. These consequences will
most certainly have a financial impact due to time and cost involved, and may also
negatively impact employee morale as business operations are strained under the
pressure. Hence, it is necessary for businesses to follow and maintain standards.

17. IMMORAL AND ILLEGAL BUSINESS PRACTICES
Meaning
The term “immoral” means not moral, inconsistent with moral rectitude,
purity or good morals. It also means contrary to conscience or the divine law. The
term “illegal” means forbidden by established rules and regulations. It also means
contrary to law especially criminal law. Thus, immoral practices mean all those
actions which are not consistent with or contrary to moral codes and principles that
are normally followed in business. The illegal practices mean all those policies and
action which are normally forbidden by the law in general and business laws in
particular. Compromising with the quality of the product, discrimination almost
employees are some of the examples of immoral practices. Paying low wages to
field employees, asking the workers to work for more hours without pay are some of
the examples for illegal practices. In business, we find both these types of practices,
both moral and illegal practices.
The distinction between immoral and illegal practices is not clear and or
final. The distinction between immorality and illegality is the distinction between
that which applies to the private sphere of man‟s mind and that which governs the
behavior of men in social setting. All that which is immoral is not necessarily also
illegal and vice versa. Some moral actions may not necessarily be illegal and some
illegal acts may not be immoral. However, it is true that all those actions which are
contrary to law based on morality are both illegal and immoral.
Immoral Practices
1. Manufacturing hazardous products: production of goods which are

harmful to health and hazards to life is immoral though there is demand for
the products
2. Using uninformed distributors: the distributors and supplies should have
through knowledge about the products. Otherwise, the customer or consumer
will be at risk
3. Predatory pricing : this means exploiting or victimising others for personal
gain through pricing

4. Corporate influence on law makers: some companies influence the policy
makers and get legislation favorable to them by paying political donations.
Though this is legal it is immoral.
5. Exploitation through advertisement: many companies resort to
advertisement to bully the customers of all ages including children. They
make false and pseudo promises of good effects
6. Discrimination the business men and the employees involve in
discrimination against customers, employees on the basis of age race, caste
7. Ignoring Externalities : some companies release large amounts of
pollutants waste into water, harmful gases into air and noises. All these are
health hazard. Completely ignoring these externalities is immoral
8. Defrauding customers : organizations sometimes inflate fees and charges,
fail to give customers they paid for price gouge, in the event of disasters they
sell inferior products.
Illegal practices
Paying low wages : if the company exploits the labour and pay wages less than
minimum wages it is called illegal practice
Busting unionization : unionization is a legal right to the workers across the world.
Some companies exploit the workers and do not allow them to unionize by closing
the company
Spying others’ activities: some companies especially in the case of oligopolistic

market situations, involve in spying other companies policies and actions
Making false compensations: some companies claim for false compensation or

over compensation
Monopolizing : some companies face charges of monopolising by making

suppliers dependent an then and forcing them to indulge in self defection practices
Getting overtime work : some companies force their workers to work overtime
without pat and denying them health insurance

Unethical accounting practices: certain accounting practices are iilegal such as flat
out misrepresenting income or expense figures an financial statements
Illegal exploitation of resources: some companies explicit public resources in

excess of what they were allotted
Solutions
Stringent laws and regulations : the laws and regulations should be stringent
universally without any exceptions on political, regional or communal groups
Leadership: legislation is no substitute for the presence of leaders who support and
made ethical behavior
Code of ethics : every organization should frame and follow the wide of conduct
strictly. The code of conduct should incorporate all possible aspects of ethics and
ethical violations
Communication : corporate leaders need to communicate ethical values throughout

the organization, but they must do more than talk the talk in order to establish and
sustain an ethical culture
Rewards and punishments : the employees should be motivated to adhere to the

values through rewards. Those who violate should be punished
Guilds : Like professional bodies which regulate professionals , the guilds of

traders should regulate the organizations
Corporate social responsibility: CRS should ply greater sole in the organization‟s
day to day affairs
Good governance: many companies indulge in immoral and illegal practices

because of compulsions arising out of political interference corruption and bad
governance. Good governance can solve these problems

18. ETHICAL PROBLEMS IN MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Management is an act of managing an enterprise, no matter, the enterprise is

industrial, commercial, service, or others. Management is working with individuals
and groups to accomplish enterprise goals. Of course, in this attempt, finance,
technology, human resources, organization policies and external atmosphere serve
as important tools and instruments. The manager has to use these instruments to
motivate or drive the employees work towards fulfilling the goals fixed by the top
management. While doing this, the manager has to follow ethical principles and
laws so that the decision making will not go against the moral principles on one
hand and the legal framework on the other. It is in this context, the manager has to
encounter some ethical problems which are called ethical problems in management.
They are:
Employee Behavior
Managers of large corporations to small business, face ethical issues

stemming from employee behavior. For example, whether an employee can spend
work time checking personal email accounts, how a manager deals with claims of
harassment and to what extent a manager can “groom” a certain employee for a
promotion are all examples of ethical issues regarding employee behavior
Employee working conditions
In addition to employee behavior, there are a number of ethical issues

business people must consider about employee working conditions. For example
managers must be aware of the safety of their work environment
Suppliers/customers relationship
In addition employees and business manager must consider the ethical

issues involved with their relationships between suppliers and customers. When
dealing with customers or claint, business people must ensure that they use their
information correctly do not falsely advertise a product or service, and do no not
intentionally do sub-standard work.

Conflicts of interest
Conflicts of interest may cause ethical issues in business, especially if they

are family run. When personal family issues interfere with business decision, this is
a conflict of interest and an ethical concern.
Lack of Employer intimidation
Employer intimidation is most common form of ethical violation in the work.

Intimidation, also known as bullying, typically involves a pattern of verbal abuse
directed at any employee by an employer. The employers attempt to assert his power
by humiliating the employee. The manager should see that no employee is
intimidated on any ground.
Safety Violation Compensation
Ethical issues may occur regarding workplace safety. Not following

established safety procedures can jeopardize the health or even the lives of other
employees. The managers have to provide safe working conditions and also
insurance and compensation facilities.
Time Theft Prevention
Time theft can be a more subtle from of ethical abuse. Common forms of
time theft involve altering time cards or time sheets to cover up late arrival or early
departures, or even standing around the water cooler instead of working
Stealing Arrest
Ethics violation can also involve stealing items, including office supplies and
computer equipment. Workers may also steal merchandise from a business.
Managers should have theft detecting mechanisms all over the organization.
Misconduct Avoidance

Misconduct in the workplace can take on many forms. Common verities
include sexual harassment, or discriminatory practices such as age, race or gender
bias. Management has to take care of this.
19. CAUSES FOR UNETHICAL BEHAVIOR AND SOLUTIONS
Meaning
Unethical behavior is an action that falls outside what is considered morally

right or proper for a person, a profession or an industry or organization. Individuals
can behave unethically, as can business, professionals, government officials, and
politicians. Ethics teaches what is right or wrong, good or bad. If any action goes
against these principles it can be called unethical.
Unethical Behavior in Business
 Dumping pollution into the water supply rather than cleaning up the
pollution properly
 Releasing toxins into the air in levels above what is permitted by the
environmental protection agency
 Coercing an injured worker not to report a work injury to workers

compensation by threatening him with the loss of a job or benefits
 Refusing to give an employee a final paycheck for hours worked after the
employee leaves the company
 Not paying an employee for all of the hours worked
 Incorrectly classifying an employee as an independent contractor and as an

employee in order to reduce payroll taxes and avoid purchasing
unemployment and workers compensation insurance
 Engaging in price fixing to force smaller competitors out of business
 Using bait advertising tactics customers on or convince them to buy a

product
 Rolling back the odometer on a vehicle that is for sale
 Refusing to honor a warranty claim on a defective product

Common Reasons for Unethical Behavior
What drives employees to make unethical decision or break from the norm
and begin behaving in unethical ways? They may be many reasons that drive people
to cross the line and act unethically. Some examples include
 Pressure can drive people to do things they wouldn‟t normally do. Pressure to
succeed, pressure to get ahead, pressure to meet deadlines and expectations,
pressure from co-workers, bosses, customers, or vendors to engage in
unethical activities or at least look the other way
 Some people make unethical choice because they are not sure about what
really is the right thing to do. Often, ethical problems are complicated, and the
proper choice may be far from obvious
 Self-interest, personal gain, ambition and downright greed are at the bottom
of a lot of unethical activity in business
 Misguided loyalty is another reason for unethical conduct on the job. People
sometimes lie because they think in doing so they are being loyal to the
organization or to their bosses. They may well have reason themselves as
good, loyal employees
 Some might have simply never learned or do not care about ethical values.
Since they have no personal ethical values, they do not have any basis for
understanding or applying ethical standards in business. These people do not
think about and wrong. They only think, “what‟ in it for me? And “can I get
away with it?
Causes of Unethical Behavior in Business
1. “Cooking the books” to look good, to secure a promotion or keep investors

happy achieving short term results
2. Fear of failure, fear of losing a job, fear of disappointing the boss
3. Greed for more prestige, profit, a better position with better pay. Personal or
social pleasure.
4. Laziness or convenience
5. Endanger employees or not paying the wages they deserve. Withholding
benefits or poor work conditions
6. Knowingly market dangerous products or making false misleading claims
7. Rationalization

20. ETHICAL ABUSES AND WORK ETHICS
Ethical Abuses
Abuse is an attempt to control the behavior of another person. It is a misuse

of power which uses the bonds of intimacy, trust and dependency to make the victim
vulnerable. Business ethics teaches right and wrong behavior in the business world.
However, there are a number of actions that are almost universally considered
unethical and abusive, and for which numerous developed nations maintain criminal
laws to prevent. In an organization we can find numerous instances of such abuses,
abuse of employees for one‟s advantage, abuse of finances for one‟s own purpose,
abuse of law for individual company‟s benefit and abuse of power for exploit and
plunder other‟s wealth. These are all ethical abuses.
HR Ethical Abuses
Interactions between managers, business owners and employees create

numerous opportunities for breaches of ethics. Discrimination based on ethnicity,
gender, age or other factors is an issue in the United States, for example. Managers
who discriminate against minority groups in hiring practices, compensation
decisions and the terms of employment can face legal and social consequences.
Dishonesty and manipulation are also examples unethical workplace behavior,
whether on the part of supervisor or subordinates.
Accounting Ethical Abuses
Financial accounting is a major ethical battleground in business, and no

amount of industry or government regulation seems able to prevent dishonest
business people from reporting financial information in unethical ways. Certain
unethical accounting practices are illegal, such as flat-out misrepresenting income or
expense figures on financial statements. There are a number of legal accounting
practices that are considered unethical, as well, such as padding the goodwill figure
on a balance sheet or unjustifiably shifting expenses to inappropriate periods to
influence current financial results.

Community Impacts
Businesses often affect a variety of external stakeholders that have nothing to

do with a company aside from the issues brought about by the company‟s actions.
Large amount of pollution in the air or water can introduce disease and cancer
epidemics in local communities, for example. Simple nuisances like noise pollution
or significant increase in truck traffic can damage the quality of life in surrounding
communities, as well. Completely ignoring these external impacts is clearly
unethical. Companies that do all they can to reduce their negative impacts can be
pegged as unethical by those affected the most. Highly ethical companies do not
accepts any negative impact on those in surrounding communities, taking whatever
steps are necessary to ensure that their actions and business practices enhance their
communities.
Theft and Fraud
Business owners or employees can commit breaches of ethics on an

individual basis, rather than on behalf of a company. The early 21 st century saw a
string of long-running ponzi schemes, for example, in which individuals duped
entire companies and extensive client lists into believing gross exaggerations of their
financial positions. Executives and employees can embezzle money from their
companies for years, taking thousands or millions of dollars for personal use before
getting caught. Even front-line store associates can steal money or inventory directly
from their employers, proving that breaches of ethics can occur at any level of a
business.
Safety violation
Ethical abuse may occur regarding workplace safety. Not following

established safety procedures can jeopardize the health or even the lives of other
employees.
Time Theft
Time theft can be a more subtle from of ethical abuse. Common forms of
time theft involve altering time cards or time sheets to cover up late arrival or early
departures, or even standing around the water cooler instead of working

Stealing
Ethics violation can also involve stealing items, including office supplies and
computer equipment. Workers may also steal merchandise from a business.
Misconduct
Misconduct in the workplace can take on many forms. Common verities

include sexual harassment, or discriminatory practices , such as age, race or gender
bias.
Work Ethics
Work ethics is a value based on hard work and diligence. A work ethic is a
set of moral principles an employee uses in his job. Certain factors come together to
create a strong work ethic. A strong work ethic is vital to a company in achieving its
goals. Every employee, from the CEO to entry-level worker, must have a good work
ethic to keep the company functioning at its peak.
Capitalists believe in the requirement of hard work and its ability to enhance
character. In the context of class conflict, Marxists view the cultural engagement of
this value as a means to delude the working class into creating more wealth for the
upper class. In the Soviet Union, the regime portrayed work ethic as an ideal to
strive for. According to capitalized worth ethics is – not just work but also act of
accompanying virtues, whose crucial role in the development and sustaining of free
market too few now recall
The industrial engineer Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) revised the

notion of work ethic to include giving up control over the work process to
management so that the latter could study and “rationalize” the work process, and
the notion of work ethic thereafter included acknowledgement of management
control.
Marxist and some non-Marxist sociologist do not regard “work ethic” as a

useful sociological concept. They argue that having a work ethic in excess of
managements control doesn‟t appear rational in any mature industry where the
employee can‟t rationally hope to become more than manager whose fate still
depends on the owner‟s decision

Socialists believe that the concept of “hard work” is meant to delude the
working class into becoming loyal servants to the elite and that working hard, in
itself, is not automatically an honorable thing but only a means to creating more for
the people at the top of the economic
Five Factors for a strong Work Ethics
Five factors which combine together to form a strong work ethics are(i)
maintaining integrity,(ii) sense of regularity,(iii) emphasis on quality,(iv) Discipline
and (v) spirit of team work.
Integrity: Integrity is being truthful to one‟s word at all times and in all
circumstances. It stretches to all employees. An employee with integrity fosters
trusting and healthy relationship with clients, coworkers and superiors.
Responsibility: Responsibility is being answerable to one‟s work. A strong sense of

responsibility affects how an employee works and the amount of work he/she does.
When an employee feels personally responsible for job performance, he/she puts in
his/her best efforts.
Quality: Quality means doing the best in terms of outcome. Employees emphasizing
quality do their best to produce great work. The employees commitment to quality
improves the company‟s overall quality.
Discipline: Discipline is obeying the principles and following rules. An employee

with great discipline stays focused on his goals and shall have high level of
dedication to the company.
Teamwork: Team work is to work together. Most employees have to work together
to meet company‟s objectives. An employee with high sense of teamwork helps a
team to meet its goals and deliver quality work.
Developing strong work ethics is very much important for any organization
for its survival and growth. In this context, the top level management has a greater
role to play; they have to role models to other employees. Further, strong work
ethics should be inculcated and enriched through rewards and punishments. Then
only, the organization, its employees and other stakeholders will reap the benefits of
the existence and functioning of an organization.

UNIT - V
21. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Introduction:
Environmental ethics is a branch of applied ethics, which examines the moral

basis of environmental responsibility. Environmental responsibilities have to be
weighed against the responsibilities to stakeholders and societal benefits, as any
damage caused to environment has an society as well as on stakeholders.
Environmental issues such as toxic waste, contamination of ground water, oil spills
destroying the seashores, fossil fuels, producing carbon dioxide resulting in green
house effect, usage of fluro-carbons that deplete the ozone layer etc, can be tackled
by espousing environmental ethics. Thus, the goal of environmental ethics does not
mainly revolve around the concern about the environment but it is concerned about
the moral foundation of environmental responsibility, and the limit up to which this
responsibility extends.
Approaches: There are three approaches concerning the moral responsibility of

environment. Although three different approaches have been adopted, they all, in an
essence, support environment responsibility. The three approaches are:
 Anthropocentric approach
 Axiological approach
 Eco- centric approach
The anthropocentristic approach focuses on the utility that human being can
derive by protecting the environment. Since the survival and well being of human
beings depends on the environment, it is the moral responsibility of human beings to
support and preserve the environment.
According to the Anxiological approach it is the moral responsibility to

protect animals. It implies the responsibility of environment with regard to
preservation of animals and animals‟ „right‟. This approach states that it is essential
for a human being to have a moral standing towards the animals.

Eco-centric approach is considered to be a radical approach to the
environmental responsibility. The theory states that, environment has to be
influenced from direct moral consideration but not that one which is derived from
human interest. The term direct responsibility means, doing such activities, which
aim at preserving the inherent nature and environment.
Although different approaches have been put forward to support

environmental responsibility, a successful foundation for environmental ethics
should fulfill two tasks: first it has to explain how human being have degraded the
environment crisis, second, it must explain how human being can protect the
environment.
Environmental Issues
When there is no strong governing body for formulating and implementing

an environmental policy and when there is lack of adequate environmental expertise,
technology and resources for environment protection, environment degradation goes
unchecked. As business expand, the issues concerned with environment started
gaining importance. Most Western European countries have faced problems due to
environmental degradation. West Germany prepared an ecological balance sheet
showing the extent of the damage caused to the environment. The European
Legislation took an initiative to protect the environment and has proposed more than
120 different acts based on a three – pronged policy.
 Promoting the benefit of pollution prevention
 Customizing legislation to meet the requirements of European member

states.
 Developing and enforcing a polluters pay policy with an aim to impose

fines for the defaulters.
Progammes like green agendas initiated by several governments have

encouraged many organizations to participate in conservation programs. Some
organizations initiated environment protection measures such as installation of
desulphurization plants and introduced energy saving measures.

Environmental Laws in India
A majority of the environment issues that India faces are related to air
pollution. Carbon emission levels are very high in the country. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO) environmental report, new Delhi is one of the
top ten most polluted cities in the world. It was found that respiratory diseases
caused due to air pollution in New Delhi are about 12 times the national average.
Another study revealed that the ratio of vehicle pollution to gross domestic product
was 8:2.5. Also, premature deaths occurring each year due to air pollution is the
highest in our country. The growing environmental concerns and the related in our
daily lives have given birth to a separate body of environmental law. The
constitutional provisions are backed by a number of laws, Acts, rules and
notifications. The Environmental Protection Act of 1986 (EPA) came into force
soon after the Bhopal Gas tragedy and is considered umbrella legislation as it fills
gaps in the existing laws. This Act is aimed at promoting greater awareness about
the growing importance of environment related legal issues in the country.
22. MAN AND NATURE
Man and Nature
Nature refers to the physical world including plants, land, soil, animals and
other elements of earth. There is deep relation between man and nature. There is a
long association of man and trees, dependent on each other, striking a balance in the
eco-system. Both human being and trees have been bound by a bond association
since ancient times. It is but common knowledge that the carbon-di-oxide released
by men are used by trees while the oxygen released by trees are used by men. Trees
supply food, furniture, and shelter to men while the latter manure trees, water them
and transplant them from place to place. Man cannot live without the corn, fruit,
followers, vegetables and leaves supplied by plants and tees. On the other hand,
trees cannot survive in the face of weeds, parasites and drought from which man
alone can save them. This shows that both men and trees are dependent on each
other. We all know that a harmonious relation among trees, animals, and people is
responsible for a balanced eco-system.

The relationship between man and nature can be explained in two
dimensions.
The Unity of man and nature.
Human being live in the realm of nature, they are constantly surrounded by
it and interact with it. The most intimate art of nature in relation to man is the
biosphere, the thin envelop embracing the earth, its soil cover, and everything else
that is alive. Our environment, although outside us, has within us not only its image,
as something both actually and imaginatively reflected, but also its material energy
and information channels and process. This presence of nature in an ideal,
materialized, energy and information from in man‟s self is so organic that when
these external natural principles disappear, man himself disappears from life. If we
lose nature‟s image, we lose our life.
Man is constantly aware of the influence of nature in the form of the air he
breathes. The water he drinks the food he eats, and the flow of energy and
information. And many of his troubles are a response to the natural processes and
changes in the weather, intensified irradiation of cosmic energy and the magnetic
storms that rage around the earth. In short, we are connected with nature by “blood”
ties and we cannot live outside nature. During their temporary departures from Earth
spacemen take with them a bit of the biosphere. Nowhere does nature affect
humanity in exactly the same way. Its influence varies depending on where human
beings happen to be on the earth‟s surface. It assigns them varying quantities of
light, warmth, water, precipitation flora and fauna. Human history offers any
number of examples of how environmental conditions and the relief of our planet
have promoted or retarded human development.
Man’s influence on Nature.
Man is not only a dweller in nature , he also transforms it. From the very
begging of his existence, and with increasing intensity human society has adapted
environing nature and humanity converts all kinds of incursions into it. An
enormous amount of human labour has been spent on transforming nature.
Humanity converts nature‟s wealth into means of the cultural historical life of

society. Man has subdued and disciplined electricity and compelled it to serve the
interests of society. Not only has man transferred various species of plants and
animals to different climatic conditions: he has also changed shape and climate of
his habitation and transformed plants and animals. If we were to strip the
geographical environment of the properties created by the labour of many
generations, contemporary society would be unable to exist in such primeval
conditions.
Man and nature interact dialectically in such a way that, as society develops,
man tends to become less dependent on nature directly, while indirectly his
dependence grows. This is understandable. While he is getting to know more and
about nature, and on this basis transforming it, man‟s power over nature
progressively increases, but in the same process, man comes into more and more
extensive and profound contact with nature, bringing into the sphere of his activity
growing quantities of matter, energy and information.
Life, Resources, Goods
Calamities
MAN NATURE
Misuse, Exploitation
Use, Enrich, Conserve

23. ECOLOGICAL CRISIS
ISSUES RELATED TO POLLUTION, WASTE, CLIMATE CHANGE

AND POPULATION
Introduction
Ecological crisis refers to an unstable situation, especially one involving an

impending abrupt change in ecology, the interrelationship of organizations and their
environment. Ecological crisis occurs when the environment of a species or a
population changes in a way that destabilizes its continued survival. There are many
possible causes of such crisis. First it may be that the environment quality degrades
compared to the species needs after a change a biotic ecological factor such as an
increase in temperature, less significant rainfall etc. Secondly, it may be that the
environment becomes unfavorable for the survival of species or a population due to
an increased pressure of predation. Thirdly, it may be that the situation becomes
unfavorable to the quality of life of the species or the population due to raise in the
number of individuals or overpopulation.
Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment

that cause adverse change-pollution can take the form of chemical substances or
energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the component of pollution, can be
either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is
often classified as point source pollution or nonpoint source pollution.
There are many forms of pollution
 Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and
motor vehicle. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, of fine dust is
characterized by their micrometer size PM to PM.

 Noise pollution : which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise,
industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar
 Soil Contamination: occurs when chemicals are released by spill or

underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated
hydrocarbons
 Thermal pollution , is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused

by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant
 Water pollution : is caused by the discharge of wastewater from

commercial and industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface
waters; discharges of untreated domestic sewage, and chemical
contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated sewage; release of waste and
contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface waters (including urban
runoff and agriculture runoff, which may contain chemical fertilizers and
pesticides) waste disposal and leaching into ground water eutrophication and
littering
 Plastic pollution : involves the accumulation of plastic products in the

environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitants or humans.
Effects of pollution
Pollution has multifarious ill effects. Adverse air quality can kill many
organisations including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory diseases,
cardio vascular diseases, throat inflammation, cheat pain and congestion. Water
pollution causes approximately 14000 deaths per day, mostly due to contaminate of
drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. Oil spills can cause
skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution includes hearing loss, high blood
pressures, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to development
deflects in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to
diseases induced by air pollution. Pollution has been found to be present widely in
the environment. These are a number of effects of this including the emission of
greenhouse gases leading to global warming which affects ecosystems in many
ways. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain, which lower the ph

value in soil. Pollution has an adverse effects an the productivity of both indoor and
outdoor workers.
To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many

nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as
well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. These countries are trying to
control pollution through environment management. It mean consumptions control
of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil without pollution control, the waste
products from over consumptions, heating, mining, and transportation will degrade
the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste
minimization are more desirable.
Waste
Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use or it is

worthless, defective and of no use. It is material, substance or by product eliminated
or discarded as no longer useful or required after the completion of a process.
Examples include municipal social waste (house hold trash/refuse) hazardous waste,
waste water (sewage which contains bodily waste) radioactive waste industrial waste
and others. According to Basel convention (UN), waste are substance or objects,
which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of on are required to be
disposed of by the provisions of natural law. From the business point of view,
wastes are materials that are not prime products (product produced for the market)
for which the internal user has no further use in terms of his/her own purpose of
production, transportation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose
Waste or wastes are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance

which is discarded after primary use or it is worthless, defective of no use. Examples
include municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, waste water radioactive waste and
others. According to Barrel Convention (UN) wastes are substances or objects,
which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be
disposed of by the provisions of national law. UN Statistical Division defined waste
as materials that are not prime. Products (products for the market) for which the
initial user has no further use in terms of his/her own purpose of production,
transportation or consumption, and which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be

generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials
into intermediate and final products the consumption of final products, and others
human activities.
Types of waste: There are many types of waste defined by modern systems of
waste management
- Municipal waste includes household waste , commercial waste and

demolition waste
- Hazardous waste includes industrial waste
- Biomedical waste includes clinical waste
- Special hazardous waste includes active waste, explosive waste, and
electronics waste
Wastes have many costs;
Environmental costs- inappropriately managed waste can attract rodents and

infect which can cause gastro-intestinal parasites, yellow fever, worms the plague
and other diseases. Explosive to hazardous wastes particularly when they are burned
an cause various other diseases including cancer.
Social costs - wastes cause costs to the society many of the environmental
burdens are more often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities,
women and residents of developing nations
Waste management
Waste management or waste disposal includes all activities and actions

required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes,
among other things collection, transportation, treatment and disposal of waste
together with monitoring and regulation. Waste management is intended to reduce
adverse effects of waste or health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste collection is
the first step. Domestic waste collection services are provided by local government
authorities like corporations, municipalities and panchayats. Pyrolisis is used for
disposal of some wastes including tyres to process that can produce recovered fuel,
steel and heat. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic waste is

subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and garment products.
Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collections and reuse of
waste materials such as empty beverages, sometimes to produce new products.
Waste can also be reused. Recoverable materials that are organic in nature can be
recovered through composting and digestion process to decompose the organic
matters and them recycled as compost for agricultural purposes. Energy recovery
can be also be done from waste by the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials
into usable heat, electricity or fuel through a variety of processes, including
combustion, gasification, prolyzation, anaorobic digestion and landfill gas recovery.
Climate change
Climate change is a change in the distribution of weather patterns when that

change tasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of year).
Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time
variation of weather around longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer
extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic
processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonic and volcanic
eruptions. Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes of
recent climate change, often referred to as global warming.
The term climate change is sometimes is used to refer specially to climate

change caused by human activity as opposed to change in climate that may have
resulted as part of Earth‟s natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context
of environment policy, the term climate change has become synonymous with
anthropogenic global warming. Within scientific journals, global warming refers to
surface temperature increase while climate change includes global warming and
everything else that increasing greenhouse levels affect.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) proposed the term ;climate

chamge‟ to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10
tears, regardless of cause. Change was given and climate was used as an adjective to
describe this kind of climate change as opposed to political or economic change.
When it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the

climate, the term climate change replaced as the dominant term to reflect an
anthropogenic cause.
Causes
On a broadest scale it is believed that the rate at which energy is received

from the Sun and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium
temperature and climate of Earth. This energy is distributed around the globe by
winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climate of different
regions. Climate change occurs when this equilibrium is disturbed. This disturbance
is caused by many factors.
Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or forcing
mechanisms. These include processes such as variations in solar radiation in the
Earth‟s orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectively of the continents and oceans,
mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas
concentrations
Forcing mechanisms can be either “internal” or “internal” forcing

mechanism are natural processes within the climate system itself (e.g the
thermohaline circulation). External forcing mechanism can be either natural (e.g
changes in solar output) or anthropogenic (e.g increased emissions of greenhouse
gages).
The ocean and atmosphere can work together to spontaneously generate

internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time. Life affects
climate through its role in the carbon and water cycles and through such
mechanisms as albedo, evapotranspotation, cloud formation and weathering. Slight
variation in Earth‟s orbit also leads to changes in the seasonal distribution of
sunlight reaching the Earth‟s surface and how it is distributed across the globe. The
eruptions considered to be large enough will also affect the Earth‟s climate. The
motion of tectonic plates reconfigures global land and ocean areas and generates
topography that can affect both global and local patterns of climate. Anthropogenic
factor like human activities like deforestation can also affect climate

Climate change is evidenced from changes in proxy‟s indicators that reflect
climate such as vegetation, ice cores, area level changes, dendrochronology, and
glacier geology. Climate change in the recent past may be detected by corresponding
changes in settlement and agricultural patterns. Glaciers are considered to be the
most sensitive indicators of climate change. A change in the type, distribution and
coverage of vegetation may occur given a change in the climate. Climate change
will also have affect an the diversity of forest genetic resources and thereby on the
distribution of forest tree species and the competition of forests
Energy Crisis
The energy is the concern that the world‟s demand on the limited natural
resources that are used to power industrial society are diminishing as the demand
rises. These natural resources are in limited supply. While they do occur naturally, it
can take hundreds of thousands of years to replenish the stores. Governments and
concerned individuals are working to make the use of renewable resources a
priority, and to lessen the irresponsible use of natural supplies through increased
conservation
An energy crisis is any great bottleneck (or price rise) in the supply of energy
resources to a economy. In popular literature though, it often refers to one of the
energy sources used at certain time and place particularly those that supply national
electricity grids or serve as fuel for vehicles
Causes of the Energy Crisis
It would be easy to point a finger at one practice or industry and lay the
blame for the entire energy crisis at their door, but that would be a very naïve and
unrealistic interpretation of the cause of the crisis
1. Overconsumption : the energy crisis is a result of many different strains on

our natural resource not just one
2. Overpopulation : another cause of the crisis has been the steady increase in
the worlds population and its demand for fuel and products

3. Poor infrastructure: aging infrastructure of power generating equipment is
yet another reason for energy shortage. Most of the energy producing firms
keep on using outdated equipment that restricts the production of energy
4. Unexplored Renewable Energy option: renewable energy still remains

unused in most of the countries. Most of the energy comes from non-
renewable source like coal. It still remains the top choice to produce energy
5. Delay in Commissioning of Power Plants : in few countries there is a

significant delay in commissioning of new power plants that can fill the gap
between demand and supply of energy
6. Wastage of Energy : in most parts of the world, people do not realize the
importance of conserving energy
7. Poor Distribution System : frequent tripping and breakdown are result of a

distribution system
8. Major Accidents and Natural Calamities : major accidents like pipeline

burst and natural calamities like eruption of volcanoes, floods, earthquakes
can also cause interruption to energy supplies.
9. Wars and Attacks: Wars between countries can also hamper supply of
energy specially if it happens in Middle East countries like Saudi Arabia,
Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, UAE or Qatar.
10. Miscellaneous factors: Tax hikes, strikes, military coup, political events,
severe hot summers or cold winters can cause sudden increase in demand for
energy and can choke supply.
Solutions to the Energy Crisis
1. Move Towards Renewable Resource : the best possible solution is to

reduce the world‟s dependence on non-renewable resources and to improve
overall conservation efforts
2. Buy Energy Efficient Product : replace traditional bulbs with CFL‟s and
LED‟s. they use less watts of electricity and last longer

3. Lighting Controls : there are a number new technology out there that make
lighting controls that much more interesting and they help to save a lot of
energy and cash in the long run
4. Easier Grid Access : people who use different option to generate power
must be given permission to plug into the grid and getting credit for power
you feed into it
5. Energy Simulation : energy simulation software can be used by big

corporate and cororations to redesign building unit and reduce running
business energy cost.
6. Perform Energy Audit : energy audit is a process that helps you to identity
the areas where your home or office is losing energy and what steps you can
take to improve energy efficiency
7. Common Stands on Climate Change : both developed and developing

countries should adopt a common stand on climate change
Population
Human population has been growing continuously since the end of Black
Death around the year 1350, although the most significant increase has been in the
last 50 years, mainly due to medical advancements and increase in agricultural
productivity. The rate of population growth has been declining since the 1980‟s. The
United Nations has expressed concern on continued excessive population growth in
sub-Saharan Africa. Recent research has demonstrated that those concerns are well
grounded. As of January 26, 2017 the worlds human population is estimated to be
7.48 billion by the United States Census Bureau, and over 7 billion by the United
Nations. Most contemporary estimates for the carrying capacity of the Earth under
existing conditions are between 4 billion and 16 billion. Depending on which
estimate is used, human overpopulation may or may not have already occurred.
Nevertheless, the rapid recent increase in human population is causing much
concern. The population is expected to reach between 8 and 10.5 billion between the
years 2040 and 2050. In May, 2011, the United Nations increased the medium
variant projections to 9.3 billion for 2050 and 10.1 billion for 2100

The recent rapid increase in human population over the past three centuries
has raised concerns that the planet may not be able to sustain present or future
numbers of inhabitants. The Inter Academy Panel Statement on Population Growth,
circa 1994, stated that many environmental problems, such as rising levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and population, are aggravated by the
population expansion. Other problems associated with overpopulation include the
increased demand for resources such as fresh water and food, starvation and
malnutrition, consumption of natural resource (such as fossil fuels) faster than the
rate of regeneration, and deterioration on living conditions. Wealthy but highly
populated territories like Britain rely on food imports from overseas. This was
severely felt during the World Wars when despite food efficiency initiatives like
“dig for victory” and food rationing Britain needed to fight to secure import routes.
However, many state that waste and overconsumption, especially by wealthy nation
is putting more strain on the environment than overpopulation.
Overpopulation
Overpopulation is an undesirable condition where the number of existing

human population exceeds the carrying capacity of Earth. Overpopulation is caused
by number of factors. Reduced morality rate, better medical facilities depletion of
precious resource are few of the causes which results on overpopulation. It is
possible for a sparsely populated area to become densely populated if it is nor able
to sustain life
Decline in the Death Rate : At the root of overpopulation is the differences

between the overall birth rate death rate in populations. If the number of children
born each year equals the number of adults that die, then the population will
stabilize
Better Medical Facilities: Science was able to produce better means of producing
food, which allowed families to feed more mouth. Medical science made many
discoveries thanks to which they were able to defeat a whole range of diseases.
Combining the increase in food supply with fewer cases of mortality tipped the
balance and became the starting point of overpopulation
Technological Advancement in Fertility Treatment: with latest technological

advancement and more discoveries in medical science, it has become possible for

couple who are unable to conceive to undergo fertility treatment methods and have
their own babies.
Immigration : many people prefer to move to developed countries like U.S, U.K
Canada and Australia where best facilities are available in terms of medical,
education, security and employment. The end result is that those people settle over
there and those places become overcrowded.
Lack of family planning: most developing nations have large number of people
who are illiterate, live below the poverty line and have little or no knowledge about
family planning
Effects of Overpopulation
Depletion of Natural Resources : the effects of overpopulation are quite serve. The
first of these is the depletion of resource.
Degradation of Environment : with the overuse of coal, oil and natural gas, it has
started producing some serious effects on our environment
Conflicts and Wars : conflicts over water are becoming a source of tension
between countries, which could result in wars. It causes more diseases to spread and
makes them harder to control.
Rise in unemployment: when a country becomes overpopulated, it gives rise to

unemployment as there fewer jobs to support large number of people. Rise in
unemployment gives rise to crime as people will steal various items to feed their
family and provide them basic amenities of life
Solutions to Overpopulation
Better Education: one of the first measures is to implement policies reflecting

social change. Educating the masses helps them understand the need to have one or
two children at the most
Making people Aware of family planning as population of this worlds is growing

at a rapid pace, raising awareness among people regarding family planning and

letting them know about serious after effects of overpopulation can help curb
population growth.
Tax Benefits or concessions: Government of various countries might have to

come with various policies related to tax exemption to curb overpopulation
Knowledge of Sex Education: imparting sex education to young kids at

elementary level should be must
24. SOCIAL ETHICS
Meaning
Ethics is a rule that is applied in order to curb the relationship with others so
that good communication can be established and familiar. So is social ethics consists
of rules adopted by a social order is the result of human creation are created with the
aim to maintain a good community relation and harmony
Social ethics is applicable in a community and sometimes have a life of its

own. Trait that appears depends on the culture and customs applicable in areas
where a community or a community residence. Then the culture is still influenced
more by the mindset of the local community as well as the location and geographical
conditions in which communities live
Importance of Social Ethics:
As we know in every community there is certain prevailing social ethic. So

every person who is a member of the community must be willing to obey all kinds
of rules and regulations. The goal is, of course, to establish a harmonious life,
especially with other community members.
Every action we take must be in accordance with the prevailing social ethics
in the area. This applies globally wherever we live. Whether it is in the western
hemisphere, east, south or north each has its own rules to maintain the good life in
his neighborhood.
Social ethics deals with the human desire. Most others courses deal with the
means of carrying out these desire. Everyone has sooner or later to find out what he

wants-which desire among those which compete for this attention. He will organize
into the system which makes his plan of life. Without plan of life also, people do get
on. But it seems fair to say that they rarely amount to much. They drift or zigzag or
run in circles. If, then, one needs a plan of life, it can hardly be amiss to devote some
part of a college course to thinking it out.
There are many examples of social ethics. When going into someone else‟s
house, we have to knock on the door and greet or ask for permission. A visit should
not be at night. The goal is to respect privacy and not to disturb those who are
resting at night. In the area of Java, we have to bow when passing by or walking in
front of others, especially older ones. It is a symbol of respect. People who are
getting advice or warning from parents should be lowered face. It is again respect
and obedience.
Social Ethics Touches All Interest: social ethic compares all these desires and
traces result so far as is necessary for a man to orient himself among them and to
decide what he, individually and in his group, intends to do about it.
Helps Toward Making Decision : Social ethics leads us to organize our interests,
in view of their meaning and their consequence. So to decide what we want most.
Aims to solve Human Problems: Social ethics are the philosophical or moral
principles that, in one way or another, represent the collective experience of people
and cultures. This sort of ethics often act as a sort of “code of conduct” that governs
what is and is not acceptable, as well as providing a framework for ensuring that all
members of the community are cared for.
Standard ethics are typically driven by individual morals that determine right
or wrong. Within a society, the focus is usually more on what may be considered
appropriate behavior for people as a whole. People perceive things differently,
however, and various cultures share often widely opposing beliefs; as such, what is
deemed “right” for one group may not necessarily be consistent universally- and
defining social ethics as an absolute is often very difficult.
Social ethics encompasses a code of conduct created by a society in order to

ensure a smooth functioning of the said society. Social ethics may differ with

different societies and cultures and hence what may be considered right and good for
one society may be perceived differently by another. However certain behaviours or
moral principles have universal appeal and people are expected to possess them
while interacting with fellow human beings. For example lying may be considered a
vice not only on an individual basis but can be applied to people of different
societies in their interaction with others at various levels.
Social ethics are the philosophical or moral principles that, represent the
collective experiences of people and cultures. This kind of ethics often acts as a sort
of „code of conduct and ethics‟ that governs what is and what is not acceptable, as
well as providing a framework for ensuring that all members of the community are
cared for. Standard ethics are typically driven by individual morals that determine
right or wrong. Within a society, the focus is usually more on what may be
considered appropriate behavior for people as a whole. People perceive things
differently, however, and various cultures share often wildly opposing beliefs. As
such, what is deemed right for one group may not necessarily be consistent
universally, and defining social ethics as an absolute is often very difficult.
25. HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS AND SOCIAL DISPARITIES
Human Right Violations
Human rights violations are actions that violate the personal freedom and
rights of a human being. These violations may be caused by another individual who
is acting on his or her own accord under the influence of a group. Human rights
violations may also be driven by a larger authority, such as a government or dictator.
There are a number of activists and organizations that work together to fight
violations against humans. Many of these organizations have missions to prevent
specific violations, such as human trafficking.
There is now near-universal consensus that all individuals are entitled to

certain basic rights under any circumstances. These entitled to certain civil liberties
and political rights, the most fundamental of which is the right to life and physical
safety. Human rights are the articulation of the need for justice, tolerance, mutual
respect, and human dignity in all of our activity.

Violation of the most basic human rights, on the other Human Rights
Violation hand, is to deny individuals their fundamental moral entitlements. It is, in
a sense, to treat them as if they are less than human and undeserving of respect and
dignity. Examples are acts typically deemed “crimes against humanity”, including
genocide, torture, slavery, rape, enforced sterilization or medical experimentation,
and deliberate starvation.
Some of the gravest violations of the right to life are massacres, the
starvation of entire populations, and genocide. Genocide is commonly understood as
the intentional extermination of a single ethnic, racial or religious group killing
group members, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, imposing measures to
prevent birth, or forcibly transferring children are all ways to bring about the
destruction of group. Genocide is often regarded as the most offensive crime against
humanity. The term “war crime” refers to a violation of the rules of jus in bello
(justice in war) by any individual, whether military or civilian.
Other war crimes include taking hostages, firing on localities that are
underfunded and without military significance, such as hospitals or schools,
inhuman treatment of prisoners, including biological experiments, and the pillage or
purposeless destruction of property. Women and girls are often raped by soldiers or
forced into prostitution. For a long time, the international community has failed to
address the problem of sexual violence during armed conflict.
Torture is used in some cases as a way to carry out interrogations and extract
confessions or information. Today, it is increasingly used as a means of suppressing
political and ideological dissent or for punishing political opponents who do not
share the ideology of the ruling group. In addition to torture, tens of thousands of
people detained in connection with conflicts “disappear” each year, and are usually
killed and buried in secret
In addition, women are uniquely vulnerable to certain types of human rights

abuses, in addition to the sexual abuse mentioned above, entrenched discrimination
against women is prevalent in many parts of the world and leads to various forms of
political and social oppressions. This includes strict dress codes and harsh
punishments for sexual “transgressions” which impose serve limitations on women‟s

basics liberties. In addition, women in some regions (Africa for example) suffer
greater poverty than men and are denied political influence, education and job
training.
International humanitarian law has been enacted to preserve humanity in all

circumstances, even during conflicts. Such law “creates areas of peace in the midst
of conflicts, imposes the principles of a common humanity, and calls for dialogue”.
It rules out unlimited force or total war and seeks to limit the use of violence in the
hopes of maintaining the necessary conditions for a return to peace. Various
international committees are in place to monitor compliance with human rights
standards and report any violations. When breaches do occur, they are brought to the
attention of international tribunals or tried in an international court or war crimes
tribunal.
But, conflicts sometimes progress beyond the state at which international law
can help. As the number of victims grow and more individuals are taken as prisoners
tortured, or executed ,it becomes more difficult to resort to legal path. In addition, it
is often difficult to reconcile the safeguarding of human rights with conflict
resolution. Many peacekeeping forces and conflict-preventing initiatives have failed
both to protect human rights and help the parties towards conflict resolution. Hence,
in order to truly address human rights violations, we must strive to understand the
underlying causes of these breaches. It is only understanding and ameliorating the
root causes and strengthening civil society that we can truly protect human rights.
Social Disparities
Social disparities(or inequalities) occur when resources in a given society are

distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific
patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. It is the differentiation
preference of access of social goods in the society brought about by power. religion,
kinship, race, ethnicity, gender, age and class. The social rights include labor
market, the source of income, health care, and freedom of speech, education,
political representation, and participation. Social inequality is linked to economic
inequality, usually described on the basis of the unequal distribution of income or
wealth, is a frequently studied type of social inequality. Though the disciplines of

economics and sociology generally use different theoretical approaches to examine
and explain economic inequality, both fields are actively involved in researching this
inequality. However, social and natural resources other than purely economic
resources are also unevenly distributed in most societies and may contribute to
social status. Norms of allocation can also affect the distribution of right and
privileges, social power, access to public goods such as education or the judicial
system adequate housing, transportation, credit and financial services such as
banking and other social goods and services.
Social disparities are found in almost every society, social inequality is

shaped by a range of structural factors, such as geographical location or citizenship
status, and are often underpinned by cultural discourses and identities defining for
example, whether the poor are „deserving‟ or „undeserving‟. In simple societies,
those that have few social roles and statuses occupied by its members, social
inequality may be very low. In tribal societies, for example, a tribal head or chieftain
may hold some privileges, use some tools, or wear marks of office to which others
do not have access, but the daily life of the chieftain is very much like the daily life
of any other tribal members.
Social disparities can be classified into egalitarian societies, ranked society,

and stratified society. Egalitarian societies are those communities advocating for
social equality through equal opportunities and rights hence no discrimination.
People with special skills were not viewed as superior compared to the rest. The
leaders do not have the power they only have influence. Ranked society mostly is
agricultural communities who hierarchically grouped from the chief who is viewed
to have a status in the society. In this society, people are clustered regarding status
and prestige and not by access to power and resources. The chief is the most
influential person followed by his family and relative, and those further related to
him are less ranked. Stratified society is societies which horizontally ranked into the
upper class, middleclass, and lower class. The classification is regarding wealth
power, and prestige. The upper class are mostly the leaders and are the most
influential in the society. It‟s possible for a person in the society to move from one
stratum to the other. The social status is also hereditable from one generation to the
next.

Types of Social disparities
There are five systems/types of social disparity which include wealth

inequality, treatment and responsibility inequality, political inequality, life
inequality and membership inequality. Political inequality is the difference brought
about by the ability to access federal resources which therefore have no civic
equality. In treatment and responsibility difference some people are more benefited
and can quickly receive more privileged than others. In working stations, some are
given more responsibilities and hence better compensations and more benefits than
the rest even when equally qualified. Membership inequality this is the number of
members in a family, nation or of faith. Life inequality is brought about by the
disparity of opportunities if presented they improves a person life quality. Finally,
the income and wealth inequality is the disparity due to what an individual can earn
on a daily basis contributing to their total revenue either monthly or yearly.
The major example of social inequality includes income gap, gender

inequality, health care and social class. The pay differential for while people their
earnings are compared to the blacks. In health care, some individuals receive better
and more professional care compared to others. They are also expected to pay more
for these services. Social class differential comes evident during the public gathering
where upper-class people given the best place to seat, the hospitality they receive
and the first priorities they receive.
There are a number of socially defined characteristic of individual that

contribute to social status and therefore, equality or inequality within a society.
Gender disparities
Gender as a social inequality is whereby women and men are treated

differently due to masculinity and femininity by dividing labor, assigning roles, and
responsibilities and allocating social rewards sex-and gender-based prejudice and
discrimination, called sexism are major contributing factors to social inequality.
Racial and ethnic disparities

Racial or ethnic inequality is the result of hierarchical social distinction
between racial and ethnic categories within a society and often established based on
characteristic such as skin color and other physical characteristic or an individual‟s
place of origin or culture
Age disparities
Age discrimination is defined as the unfair treatment of people with regard to

promotions recruitment, resources or privileges because of their age. It is also
known as ageism: the stereotyping of and discrimination against individuals or
groups based upon their age.
Disparities in Health
Health can be defined as differences in health status or in the distribution of

health determinants between different population groups. Health equalities are in
many cases related to access to health care. The economies of the world have
developed unevenly, historically, such that entire geographically regions were left
mired in poverty and disease while others began to reduce poverty and disease on a
wholesale basis.
Conclusion
Social disparities are impediments to growth and development and also to

the social well-being. Hence, these disparities should be narrowed down to the
possible minimum levels if not rooted out. Governments are striving for this through
many policies, programmes, plans and strategies. Yet, disparities exist. It needs
more commitment on the part of public authorities .On the other, the people at the
bottom levels should awaken and strive to move forward.

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HUMAN VALUES AND

(M.B.A. - S.V. University, Tirupati.)

Dr. M. Raghurama Reddy

SRI KALAHASTISWARA INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION AND

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 1

1. R. S. Naagarazan -A TEXT 1300K ON PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND

2. M. Govindarajan, S. Natarajan, V.S. Senthil Kumar- PROFESSIONAL

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 2

1. DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS

Ethics is “a system of moral principles or rules of behavior it consist of

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 3

There are three different types of ethics.

Participatory Ethics : Human beings have to participate in society in day to day

Branch of Philosophy : Philosophy is a quest for knowledge, to know the value of

A Science : Ethics is a science. Every science is concerned with a particular sphere

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 4

Normative Science : Ethics is a normative science. It is concerned with what ought

A Science of Value : Ethics is a science of values as it discovers the forms of

Both Science and Philosophical : Philosophies are becoming more scientific. As

Moral Judgement : Moral judgements of good or bad, right or wrong on our

Nature of Human Freedom : Ethics discusses the nature of human freedom. It

Meta Ethics : As a branch of philosophy, Ethics seeks clarification of terms used in

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 5

Ethics is important in following ways;

Creating credibility- right conduct builds confidence in others

Improving decision making- ethics enables right and improved decision

Ethics is an important of field of study. It importance extent to all sphere of

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 6

Ethics and Religion

Ethical explanations Beliefs customs and rituals

Religion is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, and world

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 7

Ethics and Politics

Ethics Politics Political ethics

Principles of Human Process of formation and Making decision in

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 8

Ethics, as a study, is a branch of philosophy which deals with judgemental

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 9

Law is a systematic set of universally accepted rules and regulations created

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 10

There are however, few differences between ethics and law.

1.Branch of moral philosophy that guides 1.Systametic body of rules that

3.Based on social norms 3.Created by the Government

4.Abstract and traditional 4.Expressed and published

5. Created to help people to decide what is 5.Created with an intent to maintain

7.No punishment for violation 7.Violation results in punishment

Ethics and Medicine

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 11

Medical Ethics is the field of study which emerges as a result of blending of

Ethics Medicine Medical Ethics

Principles of Method of treat Moral problems

As the above diagram shows, ethics provides ethical guidelines to be

Five Pillars of Medical Ethics

(iv). Confidentiality: This explains doctor-patient relationship. Confidentiality

Sri Kalahastiswara Institute of Information and Management Sciences (SKIIMS ) P a g e | 12

The influence of ethics on medicine is so much that the doctors and

Ethics and Environment

Environmental philosophy is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with

Environmental ethics is the philosophical discipline that considers the moral