3.1.

1 Periodicity
Elements are arranged in increasing atomic number in the
periodic table

Elements in Groups have similar physical and Elements in periods showing repeating trends in
chemical properties physical and chemical properties
The atoms of elements in a group have similar
outer shell electron configurations, resulting in Period 2 = Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
similar chemical properties; Period 3 = Na, Mg, Al, Si, S, Cl, Ar

Classification of elements in s, p, d blocks

Elements are classified as s, p or d block, according
to which orbitals the highest energy electrons are in.

Periodicity is a repeating pattern across different periods Various properties such as atomic radius,
melting points, boiling points and ionisation
energy display periodicity

Atomic radius 0.18

0.16
atomic radius (nm)

Atomic radii decrease as you move from left to right

0.14
across a period, because the increased number of
0.12
protons create more positive charge attraction for 0.1
electrons which are in the same shell similar 0.08
shielding. 0.06
0.04
0.02
Exactly the same trend in period 2 0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

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 Ionisation Energies
Definition :First ionisation energy Remember these
definitions very carefully
The first ionisation energy is Energy needed to remove an electron from each
atom in one mole of gaseous atoms
The equation for 1st ionisation
This is represented by the equation: H(g)  H+ (g) + e- energy always follows the same
pattern.
It does not matter if the atom does
Always gaseous not normally form a +1 ion or is not
gaseous

Factors that affect Ionisation energy

There are three main factors
1.The attraction of the nucleus
(The more protons in the nucleus the greater the attraction) Many questions can be
2. The distance of the electrons from the nucleus answered by application
(The bigger the atom the further the outer electrons are from the nucleus and the of these factors
weaker the attraction to the nucleus)
3. Shielding of the attraction of the nucleus
(An electron in an outer shell is repelled by electrons in complete inner shells,
weakening the attraction of the nucleus)

Successive ionisation energies

The patterns in successive ionisation energies for an element give us important
information about the electronic structure for that element.

Why are successive ionisation energies always larger?

The second ionisation energy of an element is always bigger than the first ionisation energy.
This is because the ion formed, is smaller than the atom and the proton to electron ratio in
the 2+ ion is greater than in the 1+ ion. The attraction between nucleus and electron is
therefore stronger

How are ionisation energies linked to electronic structure?

Explanation
Ionisation The fifth electron is in a inner
energy shell closer to the nucleus and
therefore attracted much more
Notice the big strongly by the nucleus than the
jump between 4 fourth electron.
and 5. It also does not have any
shielding by inner complete shells
1 2 3 4 5 6 of electron
No of electrons removed

Example: What group must this element be in? Here there is a big jump between the 2nd and 3rd
ionisations energies which means that this
1 2 3 4 5 element must be in group 2 of the periodic table
Ionisation 590 1150 4940 6480 8120 as the 3rd electron is removed from an electron
energy kJ mol-1 shell closer to the nucleus with less shielding and
so has a larger ionisation energy

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The first Ionisation energy of the elements

The shape of the graph for periods two and

three is similar. A repeating pattern across a
Ionisation energy kJ mol-1

period is called periodicity.

2000

1500 The pattern in the first ionisation energy

gives us useful information about
1000 electronic structure
500
You need to carefully learn the
0 patterns
5 10 15 20
Atomic number

Q. Why has Helium the largest first ionisation energy?

A. Its first electron is in the first shell closest to the nucleus and has no
shielding effects from inner shells. He has a bigger first ionisation Many questions can be
energy than H as it has one more proton answered by application of
the 3 factors that control
Q. Why do first ionisation energies decrease down a group? ionisation energy

A. As one goes down a group, the outer electrons are found in shells
further from the nucleus and are more shielded so the attraction of
the nucleus becomes smaller

Q. Why is there a general increase in first ionisation energy across a period?

A. As one goes across a period the electrons are being added to the same
shell which has the same distance from the nucleus and same shielding
effect. The number of protons increases, however, making the effective
attraction of the nucleus greater.

Q. Why has Na a much lower first ionisation energy than Neon?

This is because Na will have its outer electron in a 3s shell further from
the nucleus and is more shielded. So Na’s outer electron is easier to
remove and has a lower ionisation energy.

Q. Why is there a small drop from Mg to Al?

Al is starting to fill a 3p sub shell, whereas Mg has its outer electrons in the 3s
sub shell. The electrons in the 3p subshell are slightly easier to remove because
the 3p electrons are higher in energy and are also slightly shielded by the 3s
electrons
Learn carefully the
explanations for
Q. Why is there a small drop from P to S?
these two small
With sulphur there are 4 electrons in the 3p sub shell and the 4th is starting to doubly drops as they are
fill the first 3p orbital. different to the
When the second electron is added to a 3p orbital there is a slight repulsion between usual factors
the two negatively charged electrons which makes the second electron easier to
remove.
3p 3p
3s 3s
Two electrons of opposite spin in
the same orbital
phosphorus 1s2 2s2 2p63s23p3
sulphur 1s2 2s2 2p63s23p4
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Metallic bonding

Definition: Metallic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between

the positive metal ions and the delocalised electrons

The three main factors that affect the strength of metallic bonding are:
1. Number of protons/ Strength of nuclear attraction.
The more protons the stronger the bond
2. Number of delocalised electrons per atom (the outer shell electrons are
delocalised)
The more delocalised electrons the stronger the bond
3. Size of ion.
The smaller the ion, the stronger the bond.
sodium
Example
Mg has stronger metallic bonding than Na and hence a higher
melting point. The Metallic bonding gets stronger because in Mg
there are more electrons in the outer shell that are released to the
sea of electrons. The Mg ion is also smaller and has one more
proton. There is therefore a stronger electrostatic attraction
between the positive metal ions and the delocalised electrons
and higher energy is needed to break bonds.

magnesium

Macromolecular: diamond Macromolecular: Graphite

Planar arrangement of carbon

Tetrahedral arrangement of atoms in layers. 3 covalent bonds
per atom in each layer. 4th outer
carbon atoms. 4 covalent
electron per atom is delocalised.
bonds per atom Delocalised electrons between
layers.

Both these macromolecular structures have very high melting points because of strong covalent
forces in the giant structure. It takes a lot of energy to break the many strong covalent bonds

Bonding Structure Examples

Covalent : shared pair of Macromolecular: Diamond

electrons giant molecular structures. Graphite
Silicon dioxide
Silicon
Metallic: electrostatic Magnesium, Sodium
force of attraction between Giant metallic (all metals)
the metal positive ions and lattice
the delocalised electrons

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Only use the words molecules and intermolecular forces when talking about simple molecular substances

Property Macromolecular Giant Metallic

boiling and melting high- because of many strong high- strong electrostatic forces between positive
points covalent bonds in ions and sea of delocalised electrons
macromolecular structure. Take a
lot of energy to break the many
strong bonds

Solubility in water insoluble insoluble

conductivity when diamond and sand: poor, because good: delocalised electrons can move through
solid electrons can’t move (localised) structure
graphite: good as free delocalised
electrons between layers

conductivity when poor (good)

molten

general description solids shiny metal

Malleable as the positive ions in the lattice are all
identical. So the planes of ions can slide easily over
one another
-attractive forces in the lattice are the same
whichever ions are adjacent

Melting and boiling points

For Na, Mg, Al- Metallic bonding : strong bonding – gets 3000
stronger the more electrons there are in the outer shell that
Melting and boiling

2500
are released to the sea of electrons. A smaller positive 2000
points (K)

centre also makes the bonding stronger. High energy is

1500
needed to break bonds.
1000
Si is Macromolecular: many strong covalent bonds
500
between atoms high energy needed to break covalent
0
bonds– very high mp +bp
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Cl2 (g), S8 (s), P4 (S)- simple Molecular : weak London forces
between molecules, so little energy is needed to break them Similar trend in period 2
– low mp+ bp Li,Be metallic bonding (high mp)
S8 has a higher mp than P4 because it has more electrons B,C macromolecular (very high mp)
(S8 =128)(P4=60) so has stronger London forces N2,O2 molecular (gases! Low mp as
small London forces)
Ar is monoatomic weak London forces between atoms Ne monoatomic gas (very low mp)

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