MAKERERE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

Course Title: INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT: ICH 3235

Number of Units: 3
Course Duration: 2 hrs per week

Brief Course Description

Sources and types of industrial wastes, integrated approach for waste management, industrial
wastewater treatment techniques, sample analysis and determination of wastewater
characteristics, sustainable monitoring systems, implementation tools and instruments.
⚫ Industrial solid waste generation, handling and management
⚫ Industrial Liquid waste, generation, handling and management
⚫ Industrial emissions generation, handling and management.

Course objectives: This course introduces students to the area of industrial waste treatment.
The course provides knowledge and skills in industrial waste treatment technologies and
integrated waste management strategies and best practices in key industries. At the completion
of this course, students should be able:
• To understand the impact of waste to the environment.
• Minimize waste generation, and be in position to treatment solid, liquid gaseous/
emission and Radioactive wastes.
• Have a working knowledge of integrated industrial waste management strategies
and best practices and apply it to reduce environmental pollution
• Describe Environmental management techniques.
• To be aware of how effective waste handling improves health, sanitation and
safety in the community.
• Have a sound understanding of waste characteristics in key industries;
• Have some awareness of the latest advances in research and development in the
area of industrial water and wastewater treatment and management

Course assessment:
Mode of Delivery: Lectures, assignments, tests, group presentations and Practicals
• Coursework 40%

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 o Course Tests/ Quizzes
o Project/ Semester paper/ Industrial visit
• Final examination 60% (You cannot pass any course without passing the final exam)

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Detailed course outline:
1. Introduction:
• Key definitions such as waste, pollutant, pollution, industrial waste etc.
• Sources of pollutants i.e. point and non-point sources
o Types and origin of industrial wastes
o Integrated Approach for Industrial Wastewater Management
• Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases
• Sanitation and cleaning
2. Industrial solid waste: generation, handling and disposal
3. Treatment of solid waste: separation, incineration, composting.
• Separation
• Incineration
• Other methods for disposal of solid waste (e.g. composting and land filling)
• Treatment and use of ash-products.
4. Industrial liquid waste: generation, Handling and disposal
• Sanitation and cleaning as a source of wastes
• Treatment of liquid waste streams: mechanical, biological and chemical
methods.
• Industrial Wastewater Treatment Techniques
• Preliminary Treatment
• Primary Treatment
• Chemical Pretreatment
• Biological Wastewater Treatment
▪ Activated Sludge Process
▪ Trickling Filters
▪ Stabilisation Ponds
• Production of bio-gas. Anaerobic digestion and other stabilization methods.
• Final Treatments- Dewatering, Drying, Final disposal, Disinfection
5. Sample analysis and determination of Wastewater Characteristics
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• Total Organic Carbon

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 • Nutrients
• Solid Content
6. Industrial emissions: generation, handling and disposal
7. Radioactive waste generation and management
8. Ecologically sustainable development.
• Cleaner technology by process-integrated approach, economic benefits, case
studies: recovery of foundry dust, water treatment in sugar factory, cement
kiln pollution and waste reduction by improved process control.
9. Environmental Management systems
• ISO 14001, Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
• Responsible Care, Environmental Policies & regulations.
• Different types of ecolabelling
10. Waste water analysis Practicals (COD and BOD)
11. References:
1. Cheremisinoff, “Handbooks of water and waste water treatment
technologies”,2000
2. Arundel John 2000. Sewage and Industrial Effluent Treatment. Second Edition.
Blackwell Science.
3. Pandey, G.N. 1994. A textbook of Chemical Technology, Vol. II, Vikas
Publishing House Ltd., New Dehli.

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Lecture Notes:

1.0 INTRODUCTION: DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Waste
Waste can be described as any matter, whether gaseous, liquid or solid originating from any
residential, commercial or industrial area, which is superfluous to requirements and has no
further intrinsic or commercial value, and is therefore disposed of.
• An industry
Industries are defined by the processes they use to produce goods and services. Workers in
Uganda produce and provide a wide variety of products and services and, as a result, the types
of industries in Uganda economy range widely from agriculture, forestry, and fishing to
manufacturing. “An industry is a group of manufacturers or businesses that produce a
particular kind of goods or services. Any general business activity or commercial enterprise
that can be isolated from others”.

• Industrial waste is waste arising from industrial activities and does not include
construction waste and chemical waste. It is usually collected by private waste collectors.
However, some industries may deliver their industrial waste directly to landfills for
disposal.
• A pollutant is a substance present in greater than natural concentration as a result of human
activity that has a net detrimental effect upon its environment or upon something of value
in that environment.
• Contaminants, something whether physical, chemical, biological or radiological
substance that is unwanted constituent. They are not classified as pollutants unless they
have some detrimental effect, cause deviations from the normal composition of an
environment. Every pollutant originates from a source. The source is particularly important
because it is generally the logical place to eliminate pollution. After a pollutant is released
from a source, it may act upon a receptor.
• The receptor is anything that is affected by the pollutant. Humans whose eyes who get
oxidants in the atmosphere are receptors. Trout fingerlings that may die after exposure to
dieldrin in water are also receptors.
Eventually, if the pollutant is long-lived, it may be deposited in a sink, a long-time
repository of the pollutant. Here it will remain for a long time, though not necessarily

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 permanently. Thus, a limestone wall may be a sink for atmospheric sulfuric acid. through
the reaction:
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
which fixes the sulfate as part of the wall composition.
• Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause
adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as
noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign
substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point
source or nonpoint source pollution.
• What is Industrial waste management?
Waste management is an integral part of public health and environmental control, being of
importance in highly populated urban and industrialised areas. It involves the collection,
transport, processing, recycling and/or disposal of waste materials. It is basically carried
out in order to reduce the effect of waste in the environment. If it's left unattended it can be
hazardous to life of human beings. So, care should be taken to dispose industrial waste properly.

1.1 Waste Categories

The waste that is generated can be divided into various categories: However, for land filling
purposes, waste is typically separated into hazardous and general (non-hazardous waste) as
this determines whether waste may be disposed of at a general landfill or not.

Types of industry wastes

Industries generate enormous volumes of waste while producing large amounts of products for
both local and global consumption which are generally discharged into water bodies. With
more stringent environmental regulations, ever increasing waste treatment and disposal costs,
and more intense public scrutiny, industrialists have been forced to examine waste
management. The first step to any management programme is to quantify the problem. In
industries, wastes are broken into two basic categories (i) direct and (ii) indirect.

Direct wastes

Direct wastes are wastes that can be accounted for in the dumpsters and inedible bins. These
wastes occur as raw materials which are stored, are transferred or processed and can be
classified as intentional or unintentional.

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Intentional wastes are expected wastes such as peelings and pits from vegetable processing,
blood and bones from meat processing, bread and dough bakeries and process wash-down
water from all processes.

Unintentional wastes are those wastes resulting from poor inventory control, improper
employee management and improper maintenance. Some examples include losses due to
spoilage while in storage, improper handling and transfer, improper maintained production
equipment and improperly supervised clean-up activities. Can be reduced with proper
operation, maintenance and clean-up practices

Indirect wastes

Direct waste lost down the process drains, results in the creation of the indirect waste. Food
products lost in the drains can be directly related to elevated levels of BOD, suspended solids
and fats, oils and grease.

1.2 What is sanitation?

The science and practice of effecting healthful and hygienic conditions; study and use of
hygienic measures such as drainage, ventilation, pure water supply, etc. Drainage and disposal
of sewage.
1.2.1 Principles of cleaning and sanitation
In this era of emphasis on food safety and security, food processing and preparation operations
have increased the need for improved cleaning and sanitary practices from processing to
consumption. This trend presents a challenge for the food processing and food preparation
industry. The operations of cleaning and disinfection are essential parts of food production and
the efficiency with which these operations are performed greatly affects final product quality.
The surfaces of the equipment used in the manufacture of foods inevitably become soiled and
require cleaning. How this cleaning is done depends principally on:

(i) Nature of the soil or contamination to be removed;

(ii) Type of surface to be cleaned;
(iii) Materials used for cleaning;
(iv) Degree of water hardness; and
(v) Standard of cleanliness required

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Definitions

• Bactericide: A chemical agent which, under defined conditions, is capable of killing

vegetative forms of bacteria but not necessary bacterial spores.
• Bacteriostat: A chemical agent which, under defined conditions, is capable of
preventing the growth of bacteria.
• Clean surface: One that is free from soil of whatever form and is odorless. Thus, it is
one from which food debris, detergents and disinfectants have been removed. It will
not contaminate foods in contact with it and has residual numbers of microbes, if any,
that could not undermine product quality during subsequent production. A clean surface
is not necessarily sterile.
• Cleaning: covers all processes concerned with the removal of soil from surfaces but
not those concerned with sterilization.
• Detergent: A substance which assists in cleaning when added to water.
• Disinfectant: Originally defined in medical terms as a chemical agent which destroys
disease producing organisms; now more correctly defined as an agent capable of
destroying a very wide range of microorganisms but not necessarily bacterial spores.
• Disinfection: Covers those processes concerned with the destruction of most
microorganisms, but not necessarily bacterial spores, on surfaces and in equipment.
Any viable microorganisms remaining are not capable of affecting the microbiological
quality of foods coming into contact with the disinfected parts.
• Fungicide: A chemical agent which, under defined conditions, is capable of killing
fungi including their spores.
• Sanitizer: A substance that reduces the numbers of microorganisms to an acceptable
level.
1.2.2 Cleaning
1.2.2.1 Wet cleaning
In the food industry, cleanliness is a number one priority. It guards against disease, spoilage
and guarantees quality. However, it very important to point out that no matter how clean a plant
is, personal hygiene and cleanliness is a deciding factor in product safety. It is easier said than
done especially on an industrial level. In the event that cleaning with use of water is preferred,
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knowing the water source available to a food processing plant is a must. An analysis of the raw
water should be regularly conducted two to four times a year. The analysis should include total
alkalinity, calcium hardness, color, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, presence of toxic metals (such
as mercury, iron, chromium), taste, odor, temperature, pH, total dissolved solids, and standard
plate count. In addition, selection of the chemical compounds used for proper equipment
cleaning is

influenced by the constituents of the plant raw water supply. For instance, if there are 10 high
levels of calcium hardness in the water a regular acid rinse may be desired to prevent mineral
film build up. If iron is present, chelants (binding up compounds) may be needed to prevent
equipment staining. Often problems in plant cleaning and sanitation programs are a direct result
of the raw water supply. These problems can be prevented or minimized through advanced
knowledge of the raw water quality. When water has permanent hardness additional cleaners
are required because minerals precipitate out with the alkali cleaners and will require more
cleaners. A water softener may be used in hard water areas to reduce the amount of cleaners
needed. If the raw water is not considered, films can manifest over a long period of time,
making removal very difficult. In fact depending on the food product being manufactured and
the process equipment used, varying degrees of food residues will be deposited on the
equipment during production. These food residues will require complete removal during the
cleaning process and will affect the cleaning compound used, along with the method of
cleaning.

1.2.2.2 Factors influencing cleaning

There are four interrelated factors which affect the overall cleaning process. When designing
cleaning procedures these factors need to be carefully considered.

1. Time. The longer a cleaning solution remains in contact with the equipment surface, the
greater the amount of food residue that is removed. Increasing time reduces the chemical
concentration requirements.

2. Temperature. Residues are affected to varying degrees by temperature. In the presence of

a cleaning solution most soils become more readily soluble as the temperature

is increased.

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3. Chemical concentrations. Chemical concentrations vary depending upon the chemical
itself, type of food residue, and the equipment to be cleaned. Concentration will normally be
reduced as time and temperature are increased.

4. Mechanical Force. Mechanical force can be simple hand scrubbing with a brush or as
complex as turbulent flow and pressure inside a pipeline. Mechanical force aids in residue
removal and typically reduces time, temperature, and concentration requirements.

1.2.2.3 Methods of cleaning

1. Foam cleaning. Foam is produced through the introduction of air into a detergent solution
as it is sprayed onto the surface to be cleaned. Foam cleaning will increase the contact time of
the chemical solutions, allowing for improved cleaning with less mechanical force and
temperature.

2. High pressure cleaning. High pressure cleaning is used to increase the mechanical force,
aiding in food residue removal. In high pressure cleaning chemical detergents are often used
along with increased temperature to make food residue removal more effective.

3. Clean in Place (CIP) cleaning. CIP cleaning is utilized to clean interior surfaces of tanks
and pipelines of liquid process equipment. A chemical solution is circulated through a circuit
of tanks and/or lines then returned to a central reservoir allowing for reuse of the chemical
solution. Time, temperature, and mechanical force are manipulated to achieve maximum
cleaning.

4. Clean Out Of Place (COP) cleaning. COP cleaning is utilized to clean tear down parts of
fillers and parts of other equipment which require disassembly for proper cleaning. Parts
removed for cleaning are placed in a circulation tank and cleaned using a heated chemical
solution and agitation.

5. Mechanical cleaning. Mechanical cleaning normally involves the use of a brush either by
hand or a machine such as a floor scrubber. Mechanical cleaning uses friction for food residue
removal.
1.2.2.4 Fundamental wet cleaning procedure
The following is the typical procedure used when cleaning food processing equipment.

1. Pre-rinse. The purpose of pre-rinsing is (i ) to prevent drying of the food residues on the
surfaces and (ii ) to moisten the food residues and the surfaces to loosen and collect a small
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amount of solid waste. Pre-rinsing can be carried out with water supplied from a water hose
water tap) or from a low pressure cleaner. Water temperature should be adjusted to the
remaining cleaning programme and the types of food residues on the specific areas. Hot water
can only be recommended for pre-rinsing where the dirt types mainly consist of fat. Cold water
for pre-rinsing will be sufficient on most surfaces if the remaining cleaning programme is
optimal. If large amounts of solid waste have been collected by pre-rinsing, it must be removed
before application of detergent.
2. Application of detergent. The purpose of applying detergent is to decompose and loosen
the soil from surfaces and prevent the soil already loosened redepositing. This principle will be
the same for all detergents but the systems for application of detergents may differ. The choice
of detergent depends on:
• type of soil
• hardness of water
• type of surfaces
• system for application of detergent
• remaining cleaning programme (water temperature, mechanical force etc.).
A good detergent should have the following properties. It should be:

(a) able to soften water completely

(b) completely soluble in water
(c) non-corrosive to surfaces (metals and buildings)
(d) non-toxic and biodegradable
(e) economical in use
It should have:
(a) good wetting or penetrating ability
(b) emulsifying ability on fat
(c) dissolving ability on food solids
(d) deflocculating, dispersing or suspending ability
(e) good rinsing properties
(f) scale and rust removing properties
Application of detergent as foam may be recommended if the rinsing which follows is carried
out by a low pressure system. The low pressure system will add less energy to the cleaning
system than high pressure cleaning or manual cleaning. It will therefore be necessary to utilize

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chemical energy as far as possible. Warm water will normally be recommended for application
of detergents but cold water may be sufficient if the detergents are soluble in cold water. Water
anyway reaches the temperature of the environment when applied.
3. Rinse. Decomposed and suspended soil residues should be removed by rinsing with water.
Rinsing can be carried out with water under pressure (low or high) or with water and manual
force. The optimal water temperature for rinsing will depend on
• which types of soil have to be removed
• which surfaces have to be cleaned
• which amounts of water are available
• which cleaning system (manual/pressure systems) is used.
To prevent deposits of suspended soil warm water is recommended for rinsing. In nearly all
cases a temperature of 40oC will be sufficient. If pressure systems are used for rinsing, pressure
should not be more than 30 bar.
4. Disinfection. The purpose of disinfection is destruction of microorganisms by the use of
chemical or physical agents or processes. The number of microorganisms should be reduced to
a level that will not cause the harmful contamination of food. Choosing the correct disinfectant
and method will depend on
• surface materials
• type of processing area (heat treated or non-treated products)
• remaining cleaning programme
• disinfection method.
The application of disinfectant has to be carried out by low pressure. Sprays (manual sprays or
sprays carried on the back, mobile pressure containers etc.) are recommended for disinfection
purposes. Low pressure and high-pressure systems may be uneconomical in use because the
consumption of water and disinfectant will be larger than when using the previously mentioned
sprays.
The amount of disinfectant when using the pressure systems may be unnecessarily large. When
using the spray system, the intensity of disinfection may differ from area to area, depending on
the demand for disinfection. There may be restrictions through legislation on the use of
disinfectants.
and approval may be necessary. A disinfectant with a broad spectrum is recommended for most
purposes. Disinfectants restricted in effect against microorganisms may be used for specific
purposes and hypochlorite and peracetic acid can be used for all purposes. Quarternary
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ammonium compounds and amphoteric compounds may be used on areas where heat treated
products are produced.
5. Post rinsing. To avoid residues of disinfectants on surfaces and to counteract corrosion post
rinsing after the disinfection procedure may be required. Post rinsing should be carried out
using water from a water hose or from a low-pressure system. It is important to assure that
surfaces will not be re-contaminated by post rinsing, i.e. water must be of potable quality. As
such, the basic steps in cleaning can be summarized as: (i) the removal of gross soil or dirt; (ii)
the removal of any residual soil with detergent; and (iii) rinsing to remove detergent and soil.
But cleaning often needs to be followed by disinfection (sanitizing) or sterilization which
involves two further steps: the disinfection or sterilization of surfaces with suitable agents to
destroy microorganisms and the rinsing off of these agents.
1.2.2.5 Cleaning compounds
There are two classes of cleaning compounds, alkaline and acid.
1. Alkaline compounds
• Sodium or potassium hydroxide. Hydroxides provide the largest portion of alkalinity
and effectively saponify fats and peptize proteins for removal.
• Sodium metasilicate. Aids in emulsifying and soil suspension along with protecting
against metal corrosion.
• Complex phosphates. Phosphates primary function is to soften the water by chelating
(binding up) the calcium and magnesium hardness. This allows for better cleaning
effectiveness and reduces mineral deposits. Phosphates will also aid in emulsifying
food residues.
• Surface active agents (Surfactants). Surfactants help break down the surface tension
of residues to improve removal. Once the food residue is removed the surfactant forms
a colloidal suspension with the residue, keeping it water soluble to prevent it from
redepositing on the equipment surfaces.
• Chlorine. Chlorine is added to many chemical formulations to help in peptizing
proteins. It is important to mention that contrary to people's belief, chlorine does not
kill all microorganisms in water.
1. Acid cleaners
• Phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid provides the bulk of the acidity in most acid cleaners.
Phosphoric solubilizes minerals well and is less corrosive to metals than most other
acids.
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 • Other acidulants. Acetic, hydroxyacetic, citric, and nitric acids are also used in many
cleaners to a varying degree. Nitric acid use has expanded greatly due mainly to cost.
Moreover, nitric acid is very effective in the removal of tough mineral deposits in heat
exchangers and evaporators.
• Surface active agents. These work on the same principle as alkaline surfactants.
The type of metal and building materials (including paint) used in the area to be cleaned
severely limits the choice of cleaning compound. Aluminium and galvanized iron, which are
frequently used, corrode rapidly in strongly alkaline or acid cleaners. Although cleaning
compounds can be formulated so that they do not corrode these metals, their effectiveness as
cleaning agents is usually reduced. Where it is suitable to clean by hand only mild detergents
should be used. In most instances the choice of a suitable cleaning compound must be a
compromise between the efficiency of the detergent, the need to protect metals, building
materials and personnel, the cleaning methods, the frequency of cleaning and economics.

The cost of the detergent is not a guide to its efficiency. Only actual tests with a particular
cleaning compound during a specific cleaning operation will give some indication of its
efficiency.

1.5.3 Mechanisms of surface activity

Most soils associated with food processing can be removed with pure water provided a contact
stream of sufficient volume, temperature and pressure can be directed at them. In this situation,
physical forces removes insoluble soil, which is the dispersed and carried away by the water
stream.

In fact, a pure water washing system would not be very practical because of safety and cost
limitations associated with delivering water at the correct temperature and pressure to soiled
surface. To assist in the cleaning operation, therefore, wetting or surface-active agents are
added to the water, which passively reduce the interfacial tension (adhesion) between surfaces
and soils and suspends them for efficient removal. These processes work most efficiently when
the surfactant has formed micelles. Micelles are ordered aggregates of surfactant molecules
that surround soils and suspend it in the aqueous phase. The concentration of surfactant at
which micelles begin to form is called the Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC). At this point,
interfacial tension is at its minimum level and cleaning efficiency is greatest. Further decreases
in interfacial tension will not occur when surfactant levels are increased beyond the CMC,
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however, an excess of surfactant molecules is then needed in order to maintain CMC as
surfactant is consumed by the suspended soil.
Both soaps and synthetic detergents clean and free soil from a surface in a similar manner. The
surfactant molecule has a hydrophilic polar head and non-polar hydrophobic tail. In lifting or
suspending soil or dirt, the hydrophobic end is attracted to or becomes dissolved in the oil-
containing soil. In effect, the soil becomes surrounded by the protruding, hydrophilic polar
ends of the surfactant molecule and in so doing appears like a micelle. The entire droplet
becomes miscible in water. Since micelles are similarly charged, they repel each other
resulting in their dispersal throughout the water. This collection of dispersed micelles or
emulsified oily droplets can then be washed away. Because the oily soils are dispersed in the
water, they will not coil to the surfaces being cleaned. Cleaning normally ceases when
surfactant molecules become fully deployed in typing up oily soils. Maintaining sufficient
concentrations of surfactant molecules to create micelles is an important key to good cleaning.
This concentration varies considerably with the various types of surfactants. Since soil
consumes surfactants cleaning solutions are always prepared at concentrations well in excess
of the CMC.
1.5.4 Challenges related to cleaning
Significant challenges related to cleaning in the food manufacturing setting include the
following.
1. Removing baked-on residues e.g., in ovens as well as uncooked product from mixing
equipment.
2. Cleaning where water cannot or should not be used; where water often creates worker
safety hazards on the floor or around electrical components.
3. Labor intensive manual scrubbing using wire brushes and caustic chemicals that are
expensive.
4. Conveyor belt wear. Depending on the size of production, this can translate into a financial
constraint.
5. Expertise to disassemble complicated machinery. This could be a herculean task especially
if the machinery is heavy.
6. Accumulation of allergens that along with other contaminants slow down production and
pose safety risks.
7. Minimal Education about food hygiene and safety.

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1.4.3.2 Dry cleaning
Processes for many types of foods are not amenable to wet cleaning simply because wetted
residues can support bacterial growth. In fact, a majority of cleaning requirements can be
effectively met by dry cleaning. This type of cleaning is especially applicable in situations in
which the soil is dry and relatively ¯ne and where hydrating this soil could be wet it to the point
where microorganisms could grow. The most satisfactory means of dry cleaning is vacuuming
the offending material. Special industrial duty vacuum cleaners, some of them self-propelled,
are available for this purpose. Sweeping is a much less desirable means of dirt removal because
dusts are created which merely re-distribute the soil.
1.4.3.3 Foam cleaning
For many purposes, for example, jar and bottle washing, the presence of foam may interfere
with efficient cleaning; therefore, in these instances anti-foaming agents are incorporated in
the detergent formulae. Foam also may be difficult to manage in CIP systems where it causes
circulation problems.
Foam cleaning has become popular in recent years for walls, floors, inaccessible areas, vehicles
and equipment with large food contact surface areas. In this form of cleaning, a foam agent is
added to the detergent formulation to produce a long-lasting thick foam which enables the
cleaning agents to have an extensive contact time with the soil; this is enhanced by the adhesive
qualities of the foam which is even retained on vertical surfaces provided they are dirty. The
limitation of this form of cleaning are the need for a pressure generating system, the necessity
to ensure that the foam remains wet and the need to use somewhat higher detergent
concentrations since the foams are used at room temperature.
1.4.3.4 Use of heat
Heat alone can be used to disinfect food plant and it can be supplied in the form of steam, hot
water or hot air. Heat in the form of steam is the most effective method of sterilization; moist
kills microorganisms at relatively low temperatures by denaturation of the proteins but proteins
are far more stable in dry conditions so that far higher temperatures and/or longer times are
necessary to effect a kill using hot air. Moist heat is a favored disinfecting or sterilizing agent
because it is non-corrosive, economical, has excellent penetration powers, leaves no residue
and is active against the large majority of microorganisms.

• Steam

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Saturated steam is a good disinfecting agent and has the potential to destroy all but the most
heat-resistant bacterial spores. However, it is essential that heat is applied to surfaces, long
enough to heat them to a temperature of approximately 85oC for 1 min; under these conditions
all but bacterial spores should be killed. To achieve these conditions, it may be necessary to
preheat with steam for many minutes before the treatment temperature is reached.
Unfortunately steam guns of one form or another are frequently misused and the short-term
blowing of steam against equipment may do more harm than good by supplying warmth and
moisture to bacteria enabling them to thrive, especially in the presence of food debris; it must
always be remembered that steam per se is not a cleaning agent and it should therefore only be
used to treat clean surfaces.

• Hot water
Hot water at 80 - 90 °C can be used to disinfect food plant. It is used at these temperatures in
cleaning-in-place systems where it usually acts as a detergent carrier rather than as the
disinfecting agent; contact times of 5-15 mins are desirable when it is used in the latter capacity.
Small items of equipment can be disinfected by immersing them in water which is then heated
to say 80 °C for 10 mins when all but bacterial spores should be killed. High pressure cold
water jets and hoses cannot used for disinfecting operations; the same can be said of water at
temperatures below a minimum of 60 °C and even at this temperature a contact time of
approximately 30 mins will be necessary if the majority of vegetative bacteria are not to be
destroyed.

2.0 SOLID WASTES

2.1 Management of solid waste Should be compatible with the following achievable
principles:
• public health –decrease in diseases
• environmental well-being –to ensure more hygienic and pollution-free living
conditions
• effective use of technologies –adaptation to cost-effective and environmentally clean
technology
• responsiveness of stakeholders –involvement of the whole community
• costs –optimization of resources.

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2.2 The Waste Management Hierarchy
The concept of a waste hierarchy was enshrined in legislation internationally. The following is
an interpretation of this hierarchy.

• Waste prevention
• Waste reduction
• Re-use
• Materials recycling
• Waste recovery
Task: A range of waste minimisation programmes have already been implemented by industry.
During Visit to an industry look for examples of avoidance, reduction, reuse and recycling.

The Waste Management Hierarchy, Adopted from DEAT, 2001

2.3 Integrated waste management is a holistic and integrated course of action that
incorporates:

Waste avoidance, the minimisation of waste generation at source (reduce, cleaner production),
Recycling (re-use), Waste collection and transportation, Waste treatment and/or waste disposal.
It moves away from end of pipe waste treatment approach and concentrate onto waste reduction
(Cleaner production). With the objective to optimise and maximise the efficiency of waste
management with the minimum adverse effect on the environment.

• WASTE MINIMISATION

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• Why have Waste Minimisation? Each year many tonnes of solid domestic, commercial
and industrial waste go into landfills. As well as solid industrial wastes taken to special
landfills and treatment works. The cost involved in such management processes is
enormous, thus this can help as an abatement.
• What is waste minimisation? This involves the efficient use of resources, Waste
minimisation thus involves changing production, consumption and disposal activities so
that resources can be used more efficiently, less wastes are generated, and we reuse and
recycle more wastes. The term 'waste minimisation' is capable of a variety of meanings. As
an overall management strategy, it has been associated with a range of techniques and/or
process activities targeted at different points in the production chain. As such, it involves
resource use, production techniques and product design, "Prevention and/or reducing the
generation of waste, improving the quality of waste generated, including reduction of
hazard, and encouraging re-use, recycling and recovery".
• Policy Options and Implementation
Whilst waste minirnisation as a concept occurs at the top of the waste management hierarchy,
it is obvious that it should be promoted throughout the waste management chain. Within the
waste management chain, it is becoming increasingly important to identify, and allocate
responsibilities for, the production, consumption, generation and disposal of waste.

• Waste minimisation by Industry

Waste minimisation by industry and commerce, including source reduction, may involve a
number of different operational activities. This approach to waste management considers the
internal flow of resources, materials and waste through the production chain in three key areas:
resource inputs, the manufacturing process and product design/marketing. Preventing waste in
industry avoids wasting resources, energy and money.

• Types of Waste Minimisation Through Source Reduction by Manufacturing Industry.

Input Changes: - "Resource Management"

• using less raw materials for the same output,

• using higher quality raw materials, resulting in less waste,
• using different materials, i.e. input substitution which may be related to changing
prices and or process modifications,
• using fewer and/or more homogeneous raw materials,

15
 • using less hazardous or toxic materials as inputs,
• using input materials which are more easily recyclable.
• Process Changes: - "Design & Manufacturing Management"
• clean processes and clean technologies,
• cost and compatibility of any new equipment,
• producing less waste during the production process,
• good housekeeping:
• materials handling and logistics,
• equipment maintenance,
• prevention of emissions,
• waste segregation and storage.
• more in-house recycling of waste materials,
• processing and/or sale of waste as by-products.
• Product changes: - "Product Management & Marketing"
• light weighting,
• product substitution, e.g. plastic for glass, steel for aluminium in beverage cans,
• single material construction as opposed to composite products,
• larger containers, economy-size items, bulk purchases,
• less sales packaging, especially double packaging,
• ease of recycling:
• extraction by recyclable category,
• ease of disassembly.
• re-usable, returnable products,
• better quality longer life and more reliable products.
• Advantages in using waste minimisation during production.
• reduction of resource losses and costs associated with the generation, treatment and
disposal of wastes.
• highly profitable and the profit is returned in a quick time
• conservation and cost recovery of raw materials and energy requirements
• reduced risk of adverse environmental impact
• reduced exposure to cost increases from future waste handling, disposal and
treatment.
16
The first priority is to use less raw materials, which is consistent with moves towards
sustainable development. Using more recycled materials, or materials which can be easily
recycled, instead of raw material inputs per se must be a key policy objective in 'closing the
loop' for recycling within the context of waste management as a whole, and facilitating the
concept of "sustainable recycling". Avoiding and/or using less hazardous raw materials such
as CFCs and PCBs also fit within such an approach.

The development of new cleaner technologies and new techniques may result in the use of less
raw materials and/or more efficient use of such raw materials and/or the use of recycled
materials. Any gains from such raw material substitution must be weighed against the cost of
installing new equipment, and any production inconvenience caused through the installation of
new machinery and any changes in production management. For several years companies have
been encouraged to use equipment and techniques which will minimise environmental impact
- BATNEEC (Best Available Technology/Technique Not Entailing Extra Cost) - and it is likely
that major improvements will continue to occur in this area of waste minirnisation, although
implementation of such new techniques will also involve time constraints.

In offices, with paper representing at least 90% of waste, dispensing with unnecessary memos,
printing and/or using both sides of paper are further examples of (potential) waste reduction to
complement any paper segregation and recycling programme.

• Waste Prevention
This means avoiding the potential for waste generation in the first place. Refraining from the
use of certain raw materials in a production process is an example, and the focus may be on a
broad range of inputs or those specifically deemed to be hazardous. It is usually linked with
manufacturing industry, and is synonymous with:
• reductions in resource use,
• selectivity in resources actually required,
• avoiding certain types of resources, especially hazardous wastes. A preferable
interpretation would include behaviour changes, in people refusing to purchase certain
goods or packaging, thus preventing waste generation in the household.
• Waste Reduction

17
When waste generation has been quantified, baseline data is available and waste reduction may
be measured as a result of specific policy options. The term 'waste reduction' can thus be used
to monitor and validate waste management policies.

• Waste Re-Use
In definition terms, this refers to the re-use of discarded items without any additional
processing. In manufacturing industry, for example, this may refer to packaging materials such
as wooden pallets or cardboard boxes used to transport products from factory to warehouse to
retail outlet. In office or household terms it may involve the use of china cups rather than
paper/plastic cups, the backs of paper. Refillable bottles, perhaps supported by deposit
schemes, may be reused many times and are not technically waste until finally 'discarded'.

• Waste Recycling
This is usually interpreted as being 'materials recycling', it refers to the recovery of waste
materials for the original purpose, or for other purposes excluding energy recovery. This
includes both in-house recycling by industry, and post-consumer recycling by households. One
method which is operational and could be expanded is that of waste exchange, or waste
brokerage. A waste exchange would handle waste materials which have the potential of being
utilised as raw materials by another party. This sort of scheme depends on the value of the
waste product, its purity, locality and the cost of transportation, as well as the quantities and
rate generated. The most commonly exchanged wastes are solvents, oils, acids and alkalis,
catalysts and precious metals.

• Waste Recovery
Operations including recycling, reclamation of organic substances, metals and other inorganic
materials. Also includes oil re-refining, and the use of waste principally as a fuel or other means
to generate energy. This is too broad a definition, and needs to be modified to focus on 'energy
recovery' from waste. It would thus include energy from waste proposals including anaerobic
digestion (and methane capture), incineration (with heat and/or energy recovery) and landfill
(with energy recovery from methane).

Activity: The following key materials have been selected which need to be subjected to
specific management action. Think about them and discuss how best you can manage
them.

18
 • building and demolition wastes
• mining and agricultural wastes
• used tyres
• plastics
• waste oil
• batteries
• organic wastes
• intractable wastes
• wastes in the marine environment
• packaging
For example, building wastes - the establishment of criteria to allow recycled material
Mining & Ag wastes - More information required - Used tyres - possible levy system for
recovery and reuse and changes to current management practices.

3.0 WASTEWATER

• Wastewater: The remaining spent water that has been used by humans in homes,
commercial establishments, industries, public institutions, and similar entities for various
purposes. Wastewater: is simply that part of the water supply to the community or to the
industry which has been used for different purposes and has been mixed with solids either
suspended or dissolved. Wastewater is 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. The main task in treating
the wastewater is simply to remove most or all of this 0.1% of solids. Wastewater enters the
environment through either ‘point ‘or ‘non-point’ sources.
• Point sources are finite locations, such as pipes, where wastewater enters water bodies. On
the other hand, wastewater that comes from diffuse sources such as the runoff from agricultural
fields or parking lots are defined as non-point. Wastewater collected in municipal sewer
systems is comprised of domestic or ‘sanitary’ wastewater, industrial wastewater, infiltration
and inflow into sewer lines.
3.1 Sources and variations of wastewater

The main sources of water pollution may be considered as:

• Domestic waste
• Agricultural runoff
• Urban runoff
19
 • Recreational
• Industrial waste (including runoff)

The composition of these wastes varies but there are well-established categories in which the
components are grouped and which allow comparison from one waste to another (e.g. pH
alkalinity, metals, BOD, COD etc.)

• Industrial Pollution Discharges

The problem of adequately handling industrial wastewater is more complex because industrial
wastewaters vary in nature from relative clean rinse waters to waste liquids that are heavily
loaded with organic or mineral matter or with corrosive, toxic, inflammable or explosive
substances. Some industrial wastes are so objectionable that they should not be added to the
public sewage system while others contain so little such objectionable matter that it is safe to
discharge them into a storm drain or directly into a natural body of water such as stream, lake,
rivers, etc.

3.1.1 Problems of industrial wastewater

1. Organic compounds constitute a large proportion of these wastes which are destroyed only
slowly by bacteria and unpleasant odours and tastes are produced.
2. Some industrial wastes adhere to sewers and clog them.
3. Constituents of industrial wastes like acids and hydrogen sulphide destroy cement, concrete
or metals while hot wastes may cause cracking of tiles and concrete.
4. In addition to immediate danger to human beings, some poisonous chemicals may also
interfere with biological treatment processes by killing the microorganisms that normally
populate the receiving waters.
5. Inflammable or explosive substances may endanger the structure through which sewage
flows.
6. Toxic gases and vapours create hazards to workers and operators of sewage works. When
permitted to enter the public sewage system, the industrial wastes become a part of sanitary
sewage.

3.1.2 Contemporary problems of industrial waste management in Africa

Urbanization has led to increase in waste generation

20
 • Increased production units and products
• Consumption patterns have changed
• Transport and technology have led to more production, distribution and consumption
The number of people living in developing countries and the inevitability that their standards
of living will improve suggests that in the third millennium, the considerable waste problem
will appear in these countries. It is beginning to show and the countries should prepare
themselves to handle the problem. The techniques required to handle and treat wastes have
changed. Industrial development has also increased the problems (more people, need to treat
all wastes) It is important to recognise that polluting materials cannot really be destroyed - all
that can be achieved is to convert them into something innocuous or, at least, much less
polluting! Thus, wastewater treatment processes are directed to producing a much cleaner
liquid but, as an inevitable by-product, significant quantities of sludge are produced for separate
treatment and disposal. This sludge may contain many of the original pollutants - inc1uding
pathogens and toxic chemicals.

3.1.3 Management and economic issues of wastewater discharges

The main objective of all control legislations and management of waste discharges is, to
achieve and maintain water quality at acceptable levels. The main concern is:

• How pure should the water be?

• To what extent should water quality be improved?
• How do you prohibit the effluents and discharge into waters?
The requirements to achieve improved water quality have led to a number of different
approaches to achieve acceptable water quality at the least cost as well as sharing expenses
equitably e.g. establishment of standards, licensing of discharge effluents, economic
incentives, taxes, tariffs, permits and consent buildings.

4.0 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES

4.1 The objectives in the treatment of wastewaters:

1. Removal of suspended matter, either settleable or floatable, which might cause visual or
other sensory nuisances if discharged, it is achieved by Primary treatment during which
suspended materials are separated either as sludge or as skimmings that may be withdrawn
and disposed of appropriately.

21
2. Reduction in the concentration of oxidisable organic matter, which might cause excessive
depletion of oxygen or anaerobic conditions in receiving water. By use of Secondary
treatment (biological treatment) which involves microbiologically accelerated oxidation
and flocculation of organic matter under aerobic conditions, usually followed by
sedimentary separation of flocculated material
3. Removal of highly toxic metal ions or other poisonous substances to levels that would not
cause acute toxic conditions (restricted mainly to special industrial waste waters). Removal
of toxic materials is accomplished either by segregation from main waste streams or by
specially developed chemical oxidations and precipitations and this would constitute part
of Tertiary treatment. Treatment of hazardous wastewater involves any method,
technique, or process (including neutralization) designed to change the physical, chemical
or biological character or composition of any hazardous waste so as to: Neutralize, Recover
energy or material resources, Render the waste non-hazardous, safer to transport, store or
dispose of, amenable for recovery, amenable for storage and reduced in volume.
Such terms include any activity or processing designed to change the physical form or chemical
composition of hazardous waste so as to render it nonhazardous. Examples of the different
methods for treatment of wastewaters are summarised in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Unit processes in Wastewater Purification

Mechanical Biological Physico-chemical

Screen Activated sludge Adsorption

Grit Trickling tank/filter Neutralisation
Sedimentation Land treatment systems Oxidation
Flotation Flocculation
Precipitation
Filtration
4.2 Preliminary Treatment

This stage is directed to remove those readily separable components such as coarse solids and
grit, which could adversely affect subsequent treatment processes. Grit is a mixture containing
sand, gravel, ash, fruit stones and other dense materials, is usually separated from wastewater
by short period sedimentation which should be of sufficient duration to ensure most of the
"grit" is removed from the wastewater flow. Inevitably, the grit may be contaminated with
organic matter and a variety of plant designs have been developed to reduce the amount of

22
organic matter intercepted by the grit tanks and/or clean the separated grit, so that the organics
can then pass to subsequent treatment and the grit be disposed of without nuisance.

4.2.1 Common Types of Treatment Alternatives

5.0 Physical treatment: Solid liquid separation processes (screening, sedimentation,
flotation, filtration and centrifugation), membrane separation processes (dialysis, reverse
osmosis, ultra-filtration and electrodialysis), distillation/steam stripping, evaporation, solvent
extraction and adsorption;
6.0 Chemical treatment: neutralisation, precipitation, ion exchange, dechlorination and
solidification/fixation
7.0 Biological treatment: activated sludge, trickling filter, aerated lagoons, waste stabilisation
ponds and anaerobic ponds
8.0 Thermal treatment: calcination, pyrolysis, open burning and incineration (rotary kiln,
fluidised bed, multiple hearth).
When the incoming wastewater contains significant concentrations of oil, it might be desirable
to provide floatation and separating tanks at this stage of treatment, although incorporation of
oil/scum separation within the sedimentation stage is a more economic method. The different
physical methods of pre-treatment are presented in Table 2. It should be noted that, these
methods can be repeated in other stages of treatment to achieve the desired quality.

Table 2: Physical methods of pre-treatment

Process Aim Examples
Screening Removal of solids Paper mills
Centrifuging Concentration of solids Chemical industry
Filtration Concentration of fine solids Sludge dewatering
Ore extraction, Sewage treatment
Sedimentation Removal of settleable materials
plants
Floatation Removal of low density materials Oil separation

Freezing Concentration of liquids and sludges Non-ferrous metallurgy

Coal carbonising, soluble coffee

Solvent extraction Enrichment of valuable materials
processing

Ion exchange Separation of ions Metal processing

Reverse osmosis Separation of dissolved solids Water desalination

Adsorption Removal of impurities Dyestuff industry

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8.1 PHYSICAL PRIMARY TREATMENT

• The overall objectives of primary treatment are:

1. To take out the most easily separated contaminants such as readily settleable solids, oil
films, etc.
2. Provide a waste stream suitable for biological degradation in traditional advanced
biological wastewater treatment systems. There is a wide range of-particulate matter which
varies in size, concentration and are a function of the waste water.
When planning primary treatment, pertinent questions to be asked include:
1. Is it possible to remove all the solids at the front end of the process?
2. Is it desirable to remove all the solids at the front end?
3. Is it economically feasible to remove all the solids at the front end?
Primary treatment can be by both physical (such as flotation, sedimentation, filtration) and
chemical (such as neutralisation, chemical addition and coagulation) means. Most of the lighter
flocculent solids are removed from the wastewater in a continuous flow primary settling tank.

8.1.1 Screening

This is the first technique employed in primary treatment, which is the first step in the
wastewater treatment process.

The objectives of screening are to:

1. Remove coarse solids, rags, etc.

2. Protect pumps, valves, nozzles, channels, pipelines, etc. from damage and/or
clogging.
3. Reduce solids loading on settlers.

8.1.2 Grit removal

Characteristics of Grit

• Grit is the heavy mineral material in raw sewage, and may contain sand, gravel, silt, cinders,
broken glass, seeds, small fragments of metal, and other small inorganic solids. It is
generally nonputrescible.
• Grit settles more rapidly than organic or putrescible material in sewage, allowing a
reasonably clean separation from the waste stream under normal conditions.
24
• Grit is an inert material. Once drained of most of its water, it can be spread on the ground
and used on roadways and sand drying beds. Ideally, clean grit contains less than 3%
putrescible material. If it is not washed and cleaned, it presents a nuisance problem by
causing foul odors, which attract rodents. Grit with high-putrescible levels must be buried
after being removed from the grit.
Removing grit from waste treatment plant influent prevents wear and abrasion of pumps and
other mechanical machinery in the system. High-speed equipment, such as centrifuges, requires
the elimination of practically all grit to prevent rapid wear and reduce maintenance. Removing
grit from the incoming waste flow also reduces the potential for pipe plugging. Heavy grit loads
can also lead to deposition in settling tanks, aeration units, and digesters, which can require
frequent tank draining for cleaning. The different types of screens include static screens,
rotary drum screens, vibrating screens and bar racks with mechanical or manual cleaning.

The main objectives of grit removal are:

To remove grit (sand, cinder, seeds, eggshells, etc.) that have fast settling rates. Generally,
particles with particle density greater or equal to 2000 kg m-3, particle diameter greater or
equal to 0.15 - 0.21 micron.

1. To protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and wear.

2. To reduce heavy deposits in pipelines, channels and digester.
3. In proper design, prevent removal of organic material with the grit thus not
complicating grit disposal.

8.1.3 Sedimentation

Sedimentation, sometimes called clarification, is generally used in combination with

coagulation and flocculation to remove floc particles and improve subsequent filtration
efficiency. Sedimentation is sometimes used at the head of a water treatment plant in a pre-
sedimentation basin, which allows gravity settling of denser solids that do not require
coagulation and flocculation to promote solid separation. Sedimentation normally will remove
50-75% of suspended matter and 25-50% of the oxygen demand of industrial wastewater.
Sedimentation is widely applied in wastewater treatment for:

• Grit removal in degritting chamber

• Settleable suspended matter removal in primary clarifier
25
 • Biological/chemical flocculated sludge removal in secondary and tertiary clarifiers

8.1.4 Clarification

The purpose of clarification is to remove the settleable suspended solids. Normally, a primary
clarification facility will remove 50-70% total suspended solids and 30-40% BODs. In primary
clarification, oil, grease and other floating materials are skimmed from the surface, the eft1uent
is discharges over weirs into a collection trough and the settled solids are collected by
mechanical scrappers into a hopper from which they are pumped to a sludge digester for further
treatment. A number of modifications of clarifier designs have been employed and these
include solids contact clarifier, parallel inclined plates and tube settlers.

8.1.5 Flotation and Foaming

Flotation is a unit operation which removes solid or liquid particles from a liquid (such as oil
droplets removed from water). Adding a gas (usually air) to the system facilitates separation.
Rising gas bubbles either adhere to or are trapped in the particle structure of the SS, thereby
decreasing its specific gravity relative to the liquid phase and affecting separation of the
suspended particles. Methods of floation include dispersed and the dissolved- gas flotation.
Dispersed-gas flotation, commonly referred to as froth flotation, is not widely used in
wastewater treatment. Although many design criteria and removal mechanisms apply to both
dispersed and dissolved- gas flotation, this section emphasizes dissolved-gas flotation.

8.1.6 Grease Removal and Skimming

The terms grease and oil as used in wastewater treatment denote a variety of materials,
including fats, waxes, free fatty acids, calcium and magnesium soaps, mineral oils and other
non-volatile materials that are soluble in and can be extracted by hexane from an acidified
sample. In average domestic waste, grease constitutes 10 percent of the total organic matter.
Meat packing, dairy, laundry, garage-machine shop and oil refinery wastes also have high
grease-oil content. It is usually required to reduce the grease content of the industrial wastes
below 100 mg per liter before it is discharged to a municipal system. Under quiescent
conditions, some portion of the grease settles with the sludge and some floats to the surface,
where it may be removed by skimming. The term scum, as used in wastewater treatment,
denotes all floating material collected or collectable by skimming, including floating grease,
septic sludge raised to the surface, wood pieces, rubber and plastic bottles. Usually, however,
26
floating grease constitutes the bulk and is the most putrescible part of the scum. The terms
grease, grease and oil, or scum are often used interchangeably.

Free or floating oily materials are separated by gravity. This requires that the oil globules be of
sufficient size that they will readily separate in an adequate retention time. Air flotation is often
used to enhance this process. If highly dispersed, some form of coalescence is often introduced
before the gravity separator where the oil will then settle.

The commonly used gravity separator is the Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) whereby the
separation of two phases is achieved by increasing the specific gravity difference of the two
phases. Dissolved air flotation is a water treatment process that clarifies wastewaters by the
removal of suspended matter such as oil or solids. The removal is achieved by dissolving air in
the water or wastewater under pressure and then releasing the air at atmospheric pressure in a
flotation tank basin

8.2 CHEMICAL PRETREATMENT

This involves adding chemicals to ensure precipitation and other chemical reactions take place.
It enhances the separation process of dissolved air flotation (DAF). It is necessary, in some
applications, to choose the chemical agents carefully as worse waste problems can be caused
by indiscriminate use of the chemicals.

Table 3: The commonly used chemicals in industrial wastewater treatment

Chemical Purpose
Calcium hydroxide pH adjustment, precipitation, flocculation
Sodium hydroxide pH adjustment
Sodium carbonate pH adjustment, metal precipitation
Carbon dioxide pH adjustment, precipitation
Aluminium sulphate Solids separation, flocculation
Ferrous sulphate Flocculation
Chlorine Chlorination, disinfection
Hydrogen peroxide Oxidation
Activated carbon Adsorption

8.3 BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT

8.3.1 The Activated sludge process

27
Expanding industrialization has culminated in a dramatic increase of the volume of industrial
wastewater produced worldwide. This wastewater contains a great variety of chemicals and
substances. Moreover, rain water and its contact materials also contribute to this composition.
As a result, the constituents of the wastewater discharged into the sewer system are a mirror of
our civilization.
The Activated Sludge Process (ASP) is the most vital wastewater treatment process today.
The process is more than simply a refinement of the percolating filter process; it is conceptually
a very different treatment system. While in the percolating filter process, a layer of
microorganisms that grows over the surface of stones is utilized to break down pollutants in
wastewater, in contrast in the ASP, it is the dispersed bacteria and other free-living
microorganisms which is an analogy of the self-purification process in rivers and streams.

As it is known now, the activated sludge system is rather a unique biotechnological process
which consists of an aerated suspension of mixed bacterial cultures which carry out the
biological conversion of the contaminants in wastewater. At this point in time, the activated
sludge process has proven itself to be a durable technology in an era where most engineering
methods lapse into obsolescence only decades, if not years, after their original development.
The process' supremacy to this day is supported by not only its flexibility and robustness but
also its capability to fulfil the most stringent effluent criteria if bad operating strategies or
poorly designed clarifiers are avoided.

Figure 1: Archetypal flow scheme of a conventional activated sludge plant.

The activated sludge process has been the most extensively employed biological wastewater

28
treatment method throughout the world in its conventional form and modified forms, all of
which are capable of meeting secondary treatment effluent norms (for carbon removal). Figure
1 presents a schematic of a typical activated sludge process configuration which encompasses
biodegradation and sedimentation processes which take place in the aeration and
sedimentation tanks, respectively.
Often the wastewater is first led through a grit chamber to remove crude solids (not shown in
Figure 1). The aeration tank, while having many possible configurations, basically retains well
mixed aerated wastewater for a number of hours (or days) thereby providing an environment
for biological conversion of dissolved and colloidal organic compounds into stabilized, low-
energy compounds and new cells of biomass. This biodegradation is performed by a much
diversified group of microorganisms in the presence of oxygen. The influent wastewater
provides the basic food source for the microorganisms in the aeration tank. If removal of
nutrients, i.e., nitrogen and phosphorus components is contemplated, anoxic and anaerobic
zones must be provided in addition to the aerated zones.
Aeration of Activated Sludge Tanks has two Objectives
• To supply the flocs with sufficient oxygen;
• To introduce enough kinetic energy to keep all the activated sludge in suspension and
prevent it from settling. The turbulence associated with the introduction of kinetic energy
promotes the removal of the surface boundary layer of activated sludge flocs and rapidly
transports the dissolved oxygen to the cell surface. Normally the average oxygen content
of an activated sludge tank should amount to 2 mg/L. In low rate plants with extended
aeration a still lower oxygen content is sufficient. The elimination of 1 kg BODs only
requires 0.2 kg O2 with a high sludge loading rate and 0.32 kg O2 under low sludge loading
rate.
The mixture of microorganisms (living biomass) together with inorganic particles contained in
the suspended solids constitutes the so-called activated sludge. Activated sludge is kept moving
in wastewater by stirring produced by aerators, turbines or rotators, which simultaneously
supply the required oxygen for the biological reactions. Thereafter, the activated sludge
together with the treated water is collected in the secondary tank. The secondary tank provides
a quiescent environment which allows the activated sludge solids to separate by flocculation
and gravity sedimentation from the treated wastewater which is discharged to the open water
bodies. The performance of the secondary tank is influenced mostly by its design features

29
(surface area, depth, inlet and outlet configuration, hydraulic regimes and disturbances) and
sludge characteristics (its settleability and thickenability).

In regard to sludge characteristics functionality, the objective of a secondary tank is threefold;

(i) at the top of the tank where the solution is dilute it has to provide a clarified overflow called
the effluent (clarification process), (ii) below the sludge blanket where the sludge concentration
particles is much higher it has to allow a thickened underflow (thickening process), and (iii) at
the very bottom it has to allow compaction to take place. The majority of thickened and
compacted activated sludge is returned to the aeration tank and is called Returned Activated
Sludge (RAS). The returned activated sludge contains a high density of biomass so as to
maintain an active population of microorganisms in the aeration tank. Excess biomass and
influent particular inert matter is removed from the process as Waste Activated Sludge (WAS).

8.3.2 The activated sludge floc

Upsets in process operations still remain quite common in activated sludge plants. Many
problems in activated sludge systems can often be traced to the microbial community. The
cornerstone of the ASP is the ability of microorganisms to form flocs that treat wastewater.
Floc-forming species share a characteristic of the formation of an Extracellular Polymeric
Substances (EPS) layer, also termed a glycocalyx. This material, which consists of
polysaccharide, protein and sometimes cellulose fibrils, cements the bacteria together to form
a floc. The floc structure enables not only the adsorption of soluble substrates but also the
adsorption of the colloidal matter and macro-molecules additionally found in most wastewater.
The adsorption capacity of flocs therefore facilitates the oxidation of this complex wastewater.
However, important also is their ability to settle in a relatively short time under quiescent
conditions, otherwise the biomass produced as a result of oxidation of the waste would pass to
the receiving watercourse exerting a large pollution load. Question is then how a well function
is built up. Different philosophies exist whose credibility depend on one's scientific
background. Without exaggerating the situation somewhat, two will be highlighted, i.e., the
polymer bridging theory and the filament backbone theory.
Polymer bridging theory. Microbial aggregates encountered in wastewater treatment systems,
such as activated sludge flocs are aggregates of suspended solids containing different groups
of microorganisms and organic and inorganic particles embedded in a polymeric network of

30
extracellular polymeric substances. The polymer bridging theory postulates that bridging of
EPS by means of divalent and monocations is essential for flocculation.
Filament backbone theory. In 1978, the filament backbone theory was suggested. The
filament backbone theory postulated that floc rigidity is provided by filamentous bacteria
which form a backbone around which exopolysaccharide producing organisms such as Zooglea
attach and form a gelatinous matrix to which colloidal material and other organisms adhere. In
other words, an ideal activated sludge floc is postulated to exist when there is a balance
between filamentous and floc-forming microorganisms.

8.3.3 Activated sludge sedimentation problems

There are six main phenomena documented in the literature that lead to a decrease of the
quality of the effluent due to the escape of flocs.
• Bulking sludge is due to an excessive growth of filamentous organisms. Filamentous
organisms extend from flocs into the bulk solution and interfere with compaction, settling
and thickening of activated sludge.
• Pinpoint flocs consist of small, compact, weak, roughly spherical flocs, the majority of
which are present in the supernatant after the sludge has settled. The pinpoint flocs occur
usually as a result of dispersed growth, e.g., insufficient production of glycocalyx due to a
low organic loading, however, there are also other reasons determining its presence in the
ASP: absolute absence of filamentous organisms and disintegration by shearing effect
(mechanical aerators).
• Dispersed growth is characterized by very small flocs (10 to 20 µm), because bacterial
cells do not aggregate and individual cells or small clumps are dispersed freely in the water.
This phenomenon is not a very typical problem for conventional activated sludge plants,
except maybe in start-up periods.
• Viscous bulking occurs when microorganisms (e.g., Zooglea sp., Acinetobacter sp.)
produce excessive extracellular biopolymers, which makes the sludge highly water
retentive with a slimy consistency, consequently resulting in low settling and compaction
velocities. All the causes have not been elucidated, but nutrient deficient conditions and the
presence of toxic compounds are often linked to this problem.
• Rising of the sludge can happen after settlement in the secondary tank due to nitrogen
produced in the denitrification process. Decreasing the nitrate concentration below the

31
 critical value (about 6 to 8 mgL-1NO3-1) is the most efficient way to prevent biomass from
escaping with the final effluent.
• Foaming sludge is (thought to be) attributed to the presence of Nocardia sp., Microthrix
parvicella, or Type 1863 and the nondegradable surfactants. Filamentous bulking as well
as foaming sludge are the phenomena which are of much greater complexity than rising
sludge or pinpoint flocs, since the factors promoting the formation and development of a
series of filamentous organisms and foams are not yet clearly determined.

8.4 TRICKLING FILTERS

The mechanism of a trickling filter is very simple. A rotary vane distributes the wastewater
continuously on the surface of the trickling filter. From here, it rinses (trickles through trickling
filter) through the filter. This contains filling substances such as coarse stones or bodies of
plastic, special in shape or size. The cleaned wastewater is pumped to the settling basin. On the
surface of each stone, a biological film grows. It consists of bacteria, fungi and protozoa by
means of these organisms; it is possible to eliminate the organic compounds from the
wastewater. As in the case of the activated sludge method, the organic matter is converted by
these organisms to CO2 and H2O.

If the filling substances are too small, there is a danger of clogging. This danger also arises
when the biofilm grows too thick. Then, water cannot freely pass the trickling filter any longer.
Thus, in case a highly-concentrated wastewater is to be purified in a conventional trickling
filter, the inflowing wastewater must be diluted down to such a degree that there is no danger
of clogging any longer. For dilution~ recycled effluent is used. This purification process - as
in the case of the activated sludge method - is an aerobic process. However, in this case, oxygen
is not supplied artificially by aeration but is simply contributed by the air surrounding the
installation. Within the wastewater film, oxygen transport takes place only by diffusion and
laminar flow.

Even with the highest possible oxygen concentration gradient between the inside of the
microbial film and the wastewater film, which is about 9 mg/l, the penetration depth of oxygen
within the film matrix is only about 0.3 mm. Usually the gradient is even smaller.

At the average hydraulic load of a trickling filter, the mean residence time of wastewater is
about 3 hours. In extreme cases, it is only 15 minutes. In times that short, only those substances
which can be absorbed very rapidly by the microbial cells can be removed from the wastewater.
32
 Therefore, a trickling filter is especially suitable for treating wastewater with a high proportion
of easily assimilated material. Examples are wastewaters from food industry.

8.5 STABILISATION PONDS

A stabilization pond (or lagoon) is a shallow body of water designed for the treatment of
wastewater. Ponds are very popular since they exhibit low construction and operational costs.
For stabilization ponds, no imported material is needed and no power required. Domestic and
industrial effluents can be treated by these lagoons to such a degree that they bring about
hygienically safe re-usable water for irrigation and nutrients for fertilization and re-utilization
in industrial processes such as cooling, gas scrubbing, washing, general maintenance, etc. Also
it is possible to remove pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Toxic materials may likewise be
eliminated. Such ponds can be designed, on one hand, for complete secondary biological
treatment and on the other hand, they can also serve to improve the effluent of high rate
wastewater treatment plants, such as activated sludge tanks and trickling filters.

8.5.1 Type of Stabilisation Ponds

1. Anaerobic Stabilisation Ponds:

These are deeper than aerobic ponds (2-4 m) and heavily loaded. Anaerobic ponds are often
used for treating highly concentrated industrial wastes or they are applied as primary units from
which wastewater passes to aerobic ponds for further treatment. In this later case these ponds
are called pre-ponds. Anaerobic stabilization ponds require cleaning (every 3-5 years) as it is
necessary to remove the sludge from the bottom.

2. Facultative Stabilization Ponds:

Both aerobic and anaerobic conditions exist in these ponds. They are the most common type in
use. All the oxygen is supplied by two sources:
• the process of photosynthesis,
• introduction of oxygen into the water by wind and convective overturn.
3. Maturation Ponds:
This type of pond is used as a second stage to facultative ponds. Its main objective is the
elimination of faecal bacteria (for combined industrial and domestic wastewater).

4. Polishing Ponds:
This is a type of pond employed for effluents of biological wastewater 1 treatment plants. In

33
this pond, bacteria, viruses and suspended solids are eliminated to a very high degree. In
addition, disintegration of resistant organic compounds takes place. A Series of Ponds for
Complete Treatment: Lagoons are very complex wastewater ecosystems. Normally, small
anaerobic ponds (pre-ponds) are operated in series with aerobic ponds to provide for complete
treatment. Such a sequence of anaerobic and aerobic ponds denotes a longitudinal separation
of food web. The pre-ponds (anaerobic stabilisation ponds) receive the highest organic load
and exhibit the shortest residence time of water. Thus, they are dominated by bacteria which
cause a substantial BOD reduction. Here, the conversion of dissolved organic matter into
bacterial biomass takes place giving rise to metabolites. Also NH3- stripping is possible. The
formation of methane is the most important.

8.6 Wetland Systems

Wetlands are defined as water bodies where the water surface is near the ground water table
long enough to maintain water saturation of the soil. These wetland systems are typically
characterised by emergent aquatic vegetation such as cattails, rushes, and reeds. They can also
contain floating and submerged plant species as well as plants rooted on the bank but growing
as floating mats over the water surface. Wetland systems are increasingly being used in
wastewater treatment.
• Wastewater can be applied to wetlands in four major ways:
1. Disposal of treated effluent into natural wetlands,
2. Use of natural wetlands for further wastewater treatment;
3. Utilisation of effluent or partially treated wastewater for the enhancement, restoration or
creation of wetlands;
4. Application of constructed wetlands as a water treatment plant.
These are some constraints to the utilization of many natural wetlands as functional
components of wastewater treatment systems. Therefore, constructed wetlands are regarded for
wastewater treatment processes. Typically, a constructed wetland should perform better than a
natural wetland of equal area and size. Reasons are that:

• Its bottom is usually graded

• The hydraulic regime in the system is controlled
• Process reliability is also improved because the vegetation and other system
components can be managed.

34
Besides municipal wastewaters, constructed wetlands have been used for a variety of industrial
applications.

• Wetland Components
The major system components have some influence in the treatment process in wetlands
include plants, soil, bacteria and animals. The function and the system performance are in turn
influenced by water depth, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen concentration.

• Plants: A wide variety of aquatic plants has been used in wetland systems designed for
wastewater treatment. Emergent plants most frequently applied include cattail, reeds,
mushes, bulrushes and sedges.
• Influence of water level: Water level in the system and duration of loading are important
factors for selection and maintenance of wetland vegetation. Cattails grow well in
submerged soils and may dominate where standing water depth is more than 15 cm.
• Evapotranspiration (ET): Water losses due to evapotranspiration (ET) can affect the
feasibility of the various wetland designs that not only in arid climates but in other warm
climates. ET can also rule the performance in all locations. Evaporative water losses
decrease the water volume in the system. Therefore, the concentration of remaining
pollutants tends to increase even though treatment is very effective on a mass removal basis.
The decreased water volume also increases the detention time and may raise the potential
for anoxic or anaerobic conditions. This in turn will affect performance and may increase
the risk of mosquito development in wetlands with an exposed water surface.
• Oxygen transport: If wetland soils are submerged for prolonged periods, they will almost
certainly be anaerobic. However, all emergent plants have the capability of absorbing
oxygen and other needed gases from the atmosphere through their leaves and above-water
stems. They exhibit large gas vessels, which conduct these gases to the roots. As a result,
the soil zone in immediate contact with the roots or rhizomes (root stalks) can be aerobic
in an otherwise anaerobic environment. Wetland system utilising reeds can be more
effective in regard to oxygen transfer because the rhizomes penetrate the soil or support
medium, allowing the fluid to move more effectively and creating contact opportunities in
the biofilms and on the sediment. Perhaps, most important in the free-water-surface
wetlands are the submerged portions of leaves, stalks and litter, which serve as substrate
for attached microbial growth.
8.7 Upward flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor
35
The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor is more suitable for tropical countries as the
climate is more suitable for methanogenic activity. In UASB reactor, a feed inlet distribution
system is provided at the bottom of the reactor and a gas-solids-liquids separator at the top. The
wastewater is evenly distributed over the reactor bottom, by providing several inlet pipes,
which flows upwards through a bed of anaerobic sludge developed in the reactor. This sludge
blanket remains suspended and during passage, the organic matter is entrapped in the blanket
so formed. The anaerobic organisms present in the sludge blanket consume the organic matter.
The dissolved organic matter is converted into biogas by the methanogenic bacteria and a small
fraction into new bacterial biomass. The biogas produced provide gentle mixing in the reactor
and during its passage from down to upwards keeps the sludge in suspension. In the upper part
of the reactor, the biogas produced is collected in a gas collector. The remaining water sludge
mixture enters a settling compartment where the sludge settles and flows back into the digestion
compartment while the effluent is collected in the gutters and the gas discharged to flow
measuring chamber.

Fig: UASB
• Advantages:
1. Cheap (good quality wastewater, residual heat);
2. Simple to operate;
3. No sludge problem;
4. Delivers energy (biogas);
5. No need of nutrients;
6. High volume load;
7. Sludge can be kept;
36
 8. Installation is simple;
9. The size is limited;
10. Economical;
11. Complete removal process;
12. Environmentally friendly.
• Disadvantages of UASB reactor
1. High cost of investment;
2. Needs careful operation,
3. No nitrogen reduction;
4. Pre-purification/post-purification;
5. Low growth of bacterial mass;
6. Odour problems (H2S)
7.
• ADVANCED (TERTIARY) TREATMENT
Following biological (secondary) treatment, the waste may be considered to contain:
• Low COD/BOD with possibly some biodegradable components, some nutrients e.g.
nitrogen and phosphorus, some metal and inorganic salts and fine colloidal articles
(including dispersed biomass). Tertiary treatment basically involves treatment of the water
to render it either: Satisfactory for discharge and/or Satisfactory as a potable water supply.
Eutrophication of surface waters is a result of an excess of nutrients. These nutrients (nitrogen
and phosphorus) are still present in the effluent after secondary treatment. Therefore, it is
necessary to maintain the water content of phosphates and nitrogen at a minimum level.

Phosphorus compounds are introduced into the water by municipal and waste waters from
industry and agriculture. The origins of phosphorus include:
• Human wastes and food disposal
• Detergents containing phosphorus
• Corrosion and scale controllers

The average level of phosphorus in domestic raw wastewater is about 10 mg/L and discharge
standards range from 0.1 to 2.0 mg/L and hence, high overall reductions in phosphate levels is
necessary. First and secondary treatment already remove 10-20% of the inflowing phosphorus
via the usual biological need for this element by the participating microorganisms. Advanced
treatment only needs to be applied in case higher percentages have to be removed. This
37
additional elimination of phosphorus is possible by two methods:

1. Chemical phosphorus elimination;

2. Biological excess phosphorus elimination
• Chemical Phosphorus Elimination by chemical precipitation: Various chemicals are
used to precipitate phosphate, examples are: Al(S04)3, FeCl 3, ferrous chloride (FeCl2),
FeSO4 (iron compounds are corrosive) and lime. The precipitation chemicals, like
AI(SO4)3 and FeCl3 are added at the influent of the primary sedimentation tank.
Ferric Chloride:
FeCl3 + HPO42- FePO4(s) + H+ + 3Cl-
Alum:
Al2(SO4)3 + 2 HPO42- 2 AlPO4(s) + 2 H+ + 3 SO42-
Lime:
5 Ca(OH)2 + 3 HPO42- Ca5(PO4)3OH(s) + 3 H2O + 6 OH-

This not only removes the phosphate ions, but also a portion of the organic compounds.
It has to be noted that by adding the precipitation chemicals, the volume of sludge is
considerably increased (by 200-300%). This chemical method is very expensive and requires
a high degree of maintenance. Also, it has to be kept in mind, that the chemicals cause clean
water of high salinity.

Table 4: The major processes involved in tertiary treatment are summarized below:

Unit process Major elements removed Additional feature

Filtration - sand, diatomite Suspended solids Removal of BOD, COD,

or mixed media P04 in suspended form

Filtration plus coagulation - Suspended solids and As above plus colloidal

mixed media phosphate, colour and solids

turbidity
Coagulation Colour, turbidity and P04 Some COD and BOD

removed
Air stripping Ammonia High pH required

Nitrification and Nitrogen Ultimate BOD reduced

denitrification

38
Carbon adsorption COD or TOC Reduction in colour and

residual suspended solids

Ion exchange PO4, nitrogen, total Resins selected for specific

dissolved solids purposes

Reverse osmosis Organics and inorganics Pretreatment required to

avoid membrane fouling,

treatment or disposal of
residue
Electrodialysis Inorganic salts Pretreatment required to

avoid membrane fouling,

treatment or disposal of
residue

• Biological excess Phosphorus elimination: This method has nothing to do with the 10-
20% normal microbial uptake and assimilation (and thereby removal of phosphorus from
wastewater). Biological excess phosphate removal is an additional (advanced) system
following usual first and secondary treatment. It is based on a biological phenomenon: under
certain environmental conditions, various microorganisms take up phosphate in excess to what
is required for maintaining their metabolism. They store this phosphorus mostly in the form of
polyphosphates in their cells.

• Nitrogen Elimination using denitrification:

In waste waters, nitrogen occurs in a reduced form, i.e organically bound in proteins, urea and
ammonia Like with phosphorus, a portion of the N-compounds (about 30%) already becomes
eliminated by preceding operations of wastewater treatment like activated sludge process or
trickling filters. In these cases, the nitrogen is diminished by uptake into the microorganisms
of the activated sludge or the biofilm of the trickling filters due to their biological need. The
remaining about 70% is still present in the effluent of usual wastewater treatment plants. Out
of these, the ammonium compounds burden the 02-content of the accepting natural water. They
also can cause fish poisoning.
1. Secondary Treatment forms nitrate from ammonia:

NH3 + 2O2 NO3- + H2O + H+

2. Denitrification transforms nitrate to nitrogen gas:

39
 Organics + NO3- N2 + CO2 + H2O

Methods used for nitrogen elimination are based on microbial processes of nitrification as the
first step (i.e. the oxidation of ammonia into nitrate) and denitrification as the second step where
the nitrate is converted into atmospheric nitrogen. Infact, nitrification is not really the first
step. However, most often, the preceding treatment has already caused the reaction: organic-
N to NH4+. Thus, this so-called ammonification or nitrogen mineralization is not considered
part of the special N-elimination process.
Applying these techniques in the activated sludge processes, it is possible to achieve an 80-
90% elimination of nitrogen compounds. In this context, it must be noted that nitrogen is never
eliminated exclusively. As mentioned earlier, phosphorus is the principal factor limiting algae
growth and thereby eutrophication. Therefore, nitrogen removal is only carried out in
combination with phosphorus elimination.
A combined system for nitrogen and phosphorus elimination is called "Phoredox process".
Installations using this method need to provide suitable conditions for microorganisms carrying
out nitrification as well as those realizing denitrification. Otherwise, the result is not
satisfactory. Thus, a relatively complicated operation machinery is required. However, it is
crucial in all cases were water bodies have to be effectively protected against eutrophication.

2. The solids that have been produced during the wastewater treatment processes and those
which have been carried through the process to the final thickening process are now at the stage
where the final treatment processes necessary are:
• Dewatering
• Final disposal
• Centrifugation
• Vacuum filtration
• Pressure filtration
• Open or covered sand bed drying
• Heat treatment
Each of these must be evaluated for their suitability and economic efficiency.

•Final Disposal
The main goals are to always be able to minimise the wastes to be disposed:

40
Goals
• Recovery of a useful product;
• Segregated treatment to reduce hazardous mixtures;
• Toxicity reduction
• Incineration to reduce volume, toxicity and mobility.
After the waste minimisation process, final disposal of any remaining wastes may be
achieved by:
• Land disposal
• Incineration
• Wet oxidation (chemical oxidation in the liquid phase at elevated temperature and
pressure).
The various products from primary treatment can be handled in different ways:
• Screenings can be buried, incinerated (some cases) or undergo comminution (ground
into small pieces) and added to primary sludge.
• Grit can be buried or washed (to remove organics) and then dumped in a landfill.
• Skimmings can be buried, digested, dewatered/incinerated.
•Disinfection

After the waste treatment process, it is necessary to ensure that the products remaining are not
a risk to public health. This generally involves ensuring the liquid effluent that is most likely
to come in immediate contact with potable water supplies, recreational water or the like does
not contain levels of microorganisms considered to be detrimental to public health.

Revision questions

1. Draw a sketch of an activated sludge process and explain the functioning of the
mechanisms involved. What is the function of return sludge in an activated sludge
process?
2. Phosphorus and nitrates are required as plant nutrients. Why do they have to be
removed during wastewater treatment?
3. Discuss the various common types of treatment alternatives for wastewater.
4. What advice would you give to the manager of the sewage treatment plant for the best
method in treating the municipal sewage? Give reasons for your suggestion(s).
5. By which mechanisms are the wastewater components eliminated in a trickling filter?
41
 6. What final treatments are carried out at the local wastewater treatment plant to ensure
safe disposal of treated water?

5.0 WASTEWATER DISCHARGE MONITORING SYSTEM: WASTEWATER

COMPONENTS AND ANALYSIS

The characteristics of wastewater are broadly classified into physical, chemical, and biological
according to the type of measurement test that has to be performed.

1. Physical characteristics
The many properties of water which appeal to the natural senses are termed the physical
characteristics. The most important physical characteristics of wastewater:
1. Solids content as it affects the clarity and colour. The total solids are important since they
can plug pipes. A high total solid also allow microbial growth and create toxic conditions
for fish.
2. Temperature
3. Solids
4. Odors.
The total solids in a water sample is the residue on evaporation of the sample at 103 - 105oC.
It includes both suspended and dissolved solids. Any low-boiling compounds in the water will
be lost during this test. The total solids are composed of matter which is settleable, in
suspension, or in solution. Since it is the suspended solids that affect water clarity, we shall
focus on the total suspended solids.

• The total suspended solids level is determined by filtering wastewater through a 0.45-
micron membrane and measuring the dry weight of the material collected in mg L/1. If the
sample is the liquid from an activated sludge reactor, then the total suspended solids are
commonly called the Mixed Liquor Suspended solids (MLSS). If the MLSS is volatilized
at 600 oC, then the result is reported as Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS).
2. Chemical characteristics

Points of concern regarding the chemical characteristics of wastewater are: -Organic matter -
Measurements of organic matter -Inorganic matter
-Gases
42
-pH
Organic matter (CaHbOc)
.75% SS organic. (Suspended Solids)
40% FS organic. (Filtered Solids)
Organic mater is derived from animals & plants and man activities.
Proteins (40-60%)
.Carbohydrates (25-50%)
. Fats, Oils, and Grease (10%).
Measurements of organic matter:-
Many parameters have been used to measure the concentration of organic matter in
wastewater. The following are the most common used methods:

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

BOD5is the oxygen equivalent of organic matter. It is determined by measuring the dissolved
oxygen used by microorganisms during the biochemical oxidation of organic matter in 5 days
at 20oC

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

It is the oxygen equivalent of organic matter. It is determined by measuring the dissolved
oxygen used during the chemical oxidation of organic matter in 3 hours

Total organic carbon (TOC)

This method measures the organic carbon existing in the wastewater by injecting a sample of
the WW in special device in which the carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide then carbon
dioxide is measured and used to quantify the amount of organic matter in the WW. This
method is only used for small concentration of organic matter.

Theoretical oxygen (ThOD)

If the chemical formula of the organic matter existing in the WW is known the ThOD may be
computed as the amount of oxygen needed to oxidize the organic carbon to carbon dioxide
and a other end products.

The chemical characteristics of wastewater of special concern to the Utilities man are pH, DO
(dissolved oxygen), oxygen demand, nutrients and toxic substances.

The chemical characteristics of wastewater can adversely affect the environment in any
different ways: Soluble organics can deplete oxygen levels in streams, and give taste and odor
to water. Toxic materials can affect food chains as well as public health. Nutrients, namely,
nitrogen and phosphorus can cause eutrophication of lakes. The water hyacinth on Lake
Victoria is a point in a case. Although some chemical tests are specific, many determine broad
classifications due to variety of compounds found in wastewater.
43
• pH: Measures the acidic or basic nature of wastewater – most living things need to be near
neutral
• Organic matter. The principal categories of biodegradable organic matter in wastewater
are proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Proteins are high molecular weight compounds
composed of amino acids. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxylated compounds, such as sugars,
starches and cellulose. Lipids refer to a variety of organic substances such as fats, oils and
grease. There are several common tests for organic matter, all of which are non-specific and
none of which give a complete determination. If organic matter is present in the wastewater,
microorganisms in the wastewater or in the environment will oxidize the organic matter using
molecular oxygen as the oxidizing agent. This transformation may be represented by
Organic matter + O2 bacteria CO2 + waste products + NH3 + energy + new bacteria (1)

If the organic matter is untreated and discharged into a body of water, the bacteria in the water
will proceed to decompose it, and in the process remove the dissolved oxygen from the water.
If the reaeration capacity of the body of water is insufficient to supply the oxygen required by
the bacteria, the oxygen level will drop close to zero and the fish and other aquatic life will die.

• Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is used commonly as an indirect measure of organic

matter. BOD is a measure of that organic matter in the wastewater sample that can be degraded
biologically when incubated at a specified temperature (usually 20oC) for a fixed period
(usually 5 days). In practice, it is usually expressed in milligrams O2 per liter. After the organic
matter has been assimilated from the solution, the rate of oxygen uptake slows down as the
cells begin to metabolize their cellular mass and organic products. The carbon reactions
generally cease after 20-30 days and the organic matter is stabilized. It is important to mention
that after about 12 days, the nitrifying bacteria begin to oxidize the ammonia and exert a BOD
according to the following:
NH3 + 3/2 O2 Nitrosomonas H2O + HNO2

HNO2 +1/2O2 Nitrobacter HNO3 (2)

The long period before any results are obtained makes the BOD test of little value in process
control of the wastewater. In addition, there are many organic materials which are not
biodegradable and hence would not be recognized by a BOD test. A high BOD removal
efficiency in a treatment plant can mean little if the organic fraction is non-biodegradable.

44
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). In order to overcome the shortcomings of the BOD
test, a COD is performed.
COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic (and inorganic)
matter in wastewater using a chemically oxidizing agent under fixed laboratory conditions
(heat for 2 hours at 148oC). In practice, it is usually expressed in milligrams O2 per liter.

The reaction is represented as:

Organic matter + Cr2O72- CO2 + H2O + Cr2O42- 4 (3)

The COD of a waste is large than its BOD because more compounds can be chemically
oxidized than biologically oxidized.

3. Nutrients:
• Nitrogen. Both nitrogen and phosphorus are receiving increasing attention because their
compounds promote unwanted growth of algae and aquatic plants. Nitrogen and phosphorus
are commonly referred to as nutrients. Although the Kjeldahl method can be used to measure
organic nitrogen, now days, there are already made kits on the market.
• Phosphorus. Phosphorus enters wastewater through human wastes, primarily urine, and
through phosphate compounds used as builders in detergents formulations. Each of these
sources contributes significantly to the total amount of phosphorus. In industrial wastes, it may
be necessary to add nutrients to the wastewater to sustain the biological reactions.
The critical amounts of nutrients needed are commonly taken as BOD/N and BOD/P ratios of
20:1 and 100:1, respectively, although considerable deviations from these ratios is often
permissible.

4. Gases. Of all the gases present in water, oxygen is the most important. Dissolved oxygen
is necessary for the respiration of aerobic microorganisms and other life forms. If oxygen is at
too low a level, noxious odors result because the carbon waste products become methane
instead of carbon dioxide, the sulphur becomes hydrogen sulphide instead of sulphates, and the
nitrogen remains as ammonia or is possibly oxidized to nitrites. The dissolved oxygen level is
conveniently monitored using a polargraphic electrode. As a side note that is why addition of
water (contains oxygen) is limited during biogas production (methane).
5. Biological characteristics

45
Biological tests on wastewater determine whether pathogenic organisms are present by testing
for certain indicator organisms. Biological information is needed to assess the degree of
treatment wastewater before its discharge to the environment.

• Microorganisms of importance in wastewater treatment

Classification of microorganisms is difficult because there are exceptions to most schemes.
That aside, the common ones will be elucidated (Refer to your Microbiology Notes).

• Bacteria
Bacteria are single-cell microorganisms in which organic matter diffuses into the cell and is
consumed as food. If food and nutrients are in excess, the bacteria will multiply until the food
source has been depleted. They are shaped as either rods, spheres, or spirals with the rod being
the most common form. The cell range from 0.5 to 3.0 microns although certain spiral cells
can reach lengths of 15 microns. For this reason, a 0.45-micron filter is used when determining
suspended solids or for removing bacteria from a solution. It is also in order to mention that
autotrophic bacteria use carbon whereas heterotrophic bacteria use organic matter compounds
as their carbon source. Energy for both types of bacteria can be obtained from either chemical
reactions or light. They are classified as aerobic if dissolved oxygen is needed and anaerobic if
they oxidize organic matter in the absence of dissolved oxygen. Facultative bacteria such as E.
coli are able to function either in the presence or absence of dissolved oxygen.
• Fungi
Fungi are important in wastewater purification because like bacteria they metabolize dissolved
organic matter. Fungi are non-photosynthetic and can grow in low PH solutions where bacteria
cannot survive. In addition, fungi reproduce by spore formation while bacteria reproduce by
fission.
• Algae
Algae differ from bacteria and fungi in their ability to carry out photosynthesis and generating
oxygen during their growth. Algae are classified by the color of pigment which they contain,
the common being green, motile green, yellow green to golden brown, and blue-green. Being
autotrophic, algae respond to increased levels of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus in
the water and will overwhelm a body of water if unchecked, causing eutrophication. Algae are
valuable in long-term oxidation ponds but can be a nuisance in potable water supplies as they
often give undesirable tastes and odors.
• Protozoa
46
Protozoa are equally important in wastewater treatment. Protozoa ingest solid food particles
into the cell by either engulfing them or by sweeping them into an oral cavity. They eat colloidal
wastes, bacteria, each other and other small organisms. In all these functions, they contribute
to wastewater clarity. Protozoa have several classes among which are the Sarcodina (amoeba),
Ciliata (paramecium), Mastigophora (flagellates), Sporozoa and Suctoria. Aside from their
water purification capabilities, interest in the types of protozoa is high because certain types of
amoebas cause amoebic dysentery.

• Rotifers
Rotifers are aerobic multicellular organisms that feed primary on bacteria. There are two sets
of rotating cilia on its head which provide mobility and sweep food into its gullet. Since rotifers
require high levels of dissolved oxygen and are found in waters having low organic level, their
presence indicates water with a high level of biological purification. They are an important
source of food for fish and are commonly found in lakes and streams.

• Viruses
Viruses are small parasitic organisms that are not cellular in that they have no nucleus, cell
membrane or cell wall. They multiply only within living cells and are totally inert outside of
living cells. It means that to kill viruses, living cells must be destroyed. If viruses are not killed
in the treatment process and become diluted by the receiving stream to 0.1-1 viral infectious
units/100 ml, the low concentrations make it very difficult to determine virus levels in water
supplies. Since tests are usually run on samples of less than 1 ml, at least 1000 samples would
have to be analyzed to detect a single virus unit in a litre of water. For this reason, the viruses
are usually concentrated by filtration or ultracentrifugation prior to analysis. Viruses can be
controlled by chlorination at much higher levels than are necessary to kill the bacteria.

Review Questions

1. What characteristic of wastewater is measured by BOD?

2. Why is it important to know the total solids concentration in a wastewater?
3. What is the importance of monitoring industrial effluents?
4. Mention the common tests that are carried out on waste waters.
5. What are the main weaknesses in monitoring wastewater discharges in your country?

47
6. Suggest ways in which the monitoring can be improved and strengthened.

48