Steam Boiler

All of About Steam Boiler, Heat Exchanger, Energy and Power Generation

Boiler Rating
Boiler rating is a rating that shows performance and productivity of boiler. There are 3 forms unit to show boiler rating which are
generally applied; Boiler horsepower (BOHP), kW rating, and ‘From and at’ rating.

1. Boiler horsepower (BoHP)

Boiler horsepower (BoHP) is one of unit to show boiler rating, BoHP is commonly applied exclusively in the New Zealand,
Australia, and USA. At New Zealand, BoHP rating is formula of area of heat transfer and applies to heating surface of 17 ft2 in
the boiler, seeing that shown in the following equation:

Boiler Horsepower (BoHP) = area of heat transfer (ft2) x (1/17)

Boiler horsepower (BoHP) isn't normally acknowledged conversion component of 1 horsepower = 746 Watts and also the
frequently recognized 550 ft lbf/s doesn't use.

2. kW rating
Several boiler makers can express boiler rating in form of kW. kW rating isn't the rate of evaporation and also this rating be more
responsive to similar aspect of ‘from and at’ rating. To determine the exact evaporation by way of mass, it can be earliest
important to recognize the steam pressure which is generated and the feedwater temperature, to be able to determine the
amount of energy is put in to each one kg of water. Boiler rating with kW form can be calculated by using following equation:

Boiler rating (kW) = Steam output (kg/h) / ((3600 s/h) / (added energy in kJ/kg))

3. “From and at” rating

This rating is commonly applied as a datum simply by steam boiler makers to provide boiler rating that indicates the quantity of
steam in kilo gram per hour (kg/h) that boiler may generate at atmospheric pressure, “from and at 100°C”. Each one kilogram
of steam could subsequently has obtained heat 2.257 kJ.

Steam boiler is frequently run by using temperature of feedwater  under 100°C. Therefore boiler is needed to provide enthalpy
to deliver water upward to boiling stage. A lot of steam boilers operate at pressures greater compared to atmospheric pressure,
due to the fact that steam at an increased pressure provides extra heat energy compared to steam at temperature of 100°C. The
following requires more enthalpy of water in saturation temperature. When the pressure of steam boiler increases, the
temperature of saturation will be enhanced, requiring extremely enthalpy previous to feedwater is delivered around boiling
temperature.

Boiler Peak Rating

Peak rating is definitely the actual evaporation which could be suffered by steam boiler for a specific time of, such as, two or
four hour in a day, to fulfill a greater need for power plant, industries or process. The following below some attentions related to
peak rating:

 Operating steam boiler continually on peak rating is better prevented simply because the lifetime of steam boiler is
influenced as a result of continual increased temperatures insuperheater, reheater and furnace areas, leading to erosion, fouling
and slagging troubles in addition to a greater loss.
 Nevertheless, when length of time of peak rating is increased, the steam boiler needs to be resized surely having the
productivity optimized at normal continuous rating or maximum continuous rating and its components measured to match the
peak rating. Usually within power plant the peak responsibility is additionally to fulfill the condition of VWO (valve wide open of
turbine), which can be commonly 5–10% of the maximum continuous rating flow of turbine. This can be maximum flow if most of
control valves in chest of steam turbine inlet tend to be totally open. This situation can provide extra power by using a new
steam turbine and also could protect against probable power loss in the next years because of aging reasons.
 Commonly the peak work will not exceed or meet 110% maximum continuous rating (MCR) and four hours in one day,
and also the peak rating is generally achieved by generating utilization of design and examination block borders of steam boiler
without needing to oversize its components.
 Peak work is usually attained at lowered efficiency, when the exit temperature output of gas from steam boiler will be
far more compared to that at maximum continuous rating condition (when the flow of fuel is increased), resulting in greater
losses in stack.
The principle of peak rating doesn't implement to Heat Recovery Steam generator (HRSG). Gas turbine generator rating is
provided at its ideal conditions and Gas turbine generator is not possibly run at higher temperature as compared to design loads
with regard to the concern of serious shortening of hot component's lifetime

Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR)

Maximum continuous rating (MCR) is the capability of steam boiler to produce and provide the stated quantity of steam
continually and easily with no all kinds of deficit or unwanted effects (for example overloading, slagging or  overheating) upon
the principal steam boiler and its components.

It can be, actually, the minimal guaranteed evaporation within described circumstances. By using the examination of block
margins obtainable throughout the different auxiliaries, it is doable to attain 8–10% extra steam coming from the steam boiler if
it really is new. Certainly, with getting older, a substantive percentage of the following overcapacity could be lost, generally
when components wear out and the surfaces break down. When the fuels that the steam boiler is made, tend not to degrade and
the steam boiler doesn't experience any severe damages such as explosions, and the operation and  maintenance routines are
beneficial, a properly designed steam boiler by using good margins complies with the maximum continuous rating (MCR) possibly
by the end of the designed lifetime of commonly 30 (thirty) years.

During the time of assortment and purchasing of steam boiler in case the several situations on fuel and load are obviously
designed, including additional capacity to prevent a doable derating eventually is wasteful and unwanted. When the producing
extra-large boiler will run at under the rated condition, the operating costs are most gonna be increased, besides the primary
cost.

Normal Continuous Rating (NCR)

Normal continuous rating (NCR) is a little bit lower compared to maximum continuous rating (MCR) and shows the situation in
which steam boiler will be run quite often; and of course it really is the situation in which the performance requires to be
optimized. Normal continuous rating (NCR) is commonly at 90% maximum continuous rating (MCR). In the practical application of
power plant, NCR typically refers to MCR of steam turbine and MCR to valve wide open affliction or more.

Boiler Efficiency Calculation

According to PTC (Power Test Code) 1.4 ASME (American Standard of Mechanical Engineering) there are two methods for boiler
efficiency calculation namely: input output method and heat loss method. The following below is further explanation of the
boiler efficiency calculation methods:
1. Input-output method

η = Output / Input
Output is defined as the heat that is absorbed by working fluid. Input is defined as the chemical heat of fuel plus the heat that is
added to working fluid, air, gas and other fluid circuit in which the fluid circuit across thin layer.

2. Heat Loss Method

Heat loss method is the method that is used to calculate the percentage amount of heat which is not useful. This method is very
effective used in an attempt to find potential savings of boiler with heat balance.
 There are several factors act as the source of heat loss combustion. These factors will be used to calculate boiler efficiency
based on heat loss method. The source of heat loss can be seen as following below:
a.       Heat loss due to dry flue gas
Heat loss due to dry flue gas is the heat loss which is contained in dry flue gas such as CO2, O2 and N2. These gases are one of
causes of heat loss in combustion process. The high temperature of flue gas coming out from boiler affect amount of heat loss.

The weight and heat loss of dry flue gas of combustion of coal can be calculated as following formula:
Wdfg = mCO2 + mSO2 + mO2 + mN2
Eloss dfg = Wdfg x Cp x (To - Ts)
Where:
Wdfg          = weight of dry flue gas (kg/kg coal)
Eloss dfg        = heat loss in dry flue gas (kJ/kg)
To              = temperature of dry flue gas coming out from boiler
Ts              = temperature of surrounding air

b.      Heat loss due to steam in flue gas

There are two sources of steam contained in flue gas. It is steam from burning H 2 and steam from fuel moisture coupled with
steam present in combustion air.

-          The calculation formula of heat due to steam from burning H2 is:

WH2O = 9 x H2
Eloss H2 = WH2O x (hg - hf)
Where:
WH2O = weight of water content (kg/kg coal)
Eloss-H2O = amount of heat loss due to steam from burning process of hydrogen (kJ/kg)
Hg = enthalpy of steam at the temperature of flue gas coming out from boiler
hf = enthalpy of water at surrounding air temperature.

hg and hf can be seen in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Saturated Water and Saturated Steam

-          Steam from fuel moisture and combustion air

Calculation of heat loss due to steam from fuel moisture and combustion air: can be seen in the following formula:
Eloss-H2O = (WH2O-coal + WH2O-air) x (Hg - Hf)
Where:
Eloss-H2O = amount of heat loss due to steam from fuel moisture and combustion air

3. Heat loss due to unburned carbon

The calculation is assumed level of excess air is provided about more 20% and combustion that occurs only produces unburned
carbon about 1% of carbon content in fuel. Calculation of heat loss due to unburned carbon can be seen as following formula:
 Eloss-UC = WUC x HHVcarbon
Where:
WUC = weight of unburned carbon (kg/kg)
HHVcarbon = highest heating value (kJ/kg)
Eloss-UC = amount of heat loss due to unburned carbon

4. Heat loss due to radiation

The amount of heat loss due to radiation depends on the rate of heat which is released in combustion furnace. Based on the
ABMA chart (American Boiler Manufacturers Association), at big heat release rate, the amount of heat loss due to radiation tends
to constant. The heat radiation that occurs is estimated 0.2% calorific value of fuel.

5. Uncountable heat loss

There are several sources that can cause heat loss in combustion, where the value is too complicated to be calculated certainly.
This heat loss is called as uncountable heat loss. The amount of uncountable heat loss is about 0.3% of calorific value of fuel.
6. Heat losses in the boiler if the heat is used only for warming fluid only.

Total heat loss that may occur in boiler system can be calculated as formula below, so boiler efficiency calculation can be
determined.

Eloss total = Eloss-dfg + Eloss-H2 + Eloss-H2O + Eloss-UC + Eradiation + Euncountable

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME BPV Code) is a code that is published by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers which is used as standard for design, repair and maintenance, inspect, manufacture, and construct boiler and pressure
vessel. ASME code is first published in 1914, since 1954 it had been renewed in every 3 years and also ASME will issue addenda
every year. The latest edition now is ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code 2010 edition. This code had been accepted
internationally.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME BPV Code) consists of 12 sections. Each section consists of parts, divisions, and
subsections. The cost to buy complete ASME BPV code is approximately $6500 more. The following below are sections of ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code:
a)      ASME BPV Code Section 12 - Rules for the Construction & Continued Service of Transport Tanks
b)      ASME BPV Code Section 11 - Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
c)      ASME BPV Code Section 10 - Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
d)      ASME BPV Code Section 9 - Welding and Brazing Qualifications
e)      ASME BPV Code Section 8 - Pressure Vessels. This code consist 3 divisions as follow:
-         ASME BPV Code Section 8 Division 1
-         ASME BPV Code Section 8 Division 2 - Alternative Rules
-         ASME BPV Code Section 8 Division 3 - Alternative Rules for Construction of High Pressure Vessels

f)      ASME BPV Code Section 7 - Recommended Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers
g)      ASME BPV Code Section 6 - Recommended Rules for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers
h)      ASME BPV Code Section 5 - Nondestructive testing
i)      ASME BPV Code Section 4 - Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers
j)      ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Rules for Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Subsection NCA — General Requirements for Division 1 and Division 2
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 consists of:
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NB — Class 1 Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NC — Class 2 Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection ND — Class 3 Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NE — Class MC Components
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NF — Supports
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NG — Core Support Structures
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Subsection NH — Class 1 Components in Elevated Temperature Service
*        ASME BPV Code Section 3 - Division 1 Appendices
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 Division 2 — Code for Concrete Containments
-         ASME BPV Code Section 3 Division 3 — Containments for Transportation and Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High Level
Radioactive Material and Waste

k)      ASME BPV Code Section 2 – Materials

-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part A — Ferrous Material Specifications
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part B — Nonferrous Material Specifications
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part C — Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part D — Properties (Customary)
-         ASME BPV Code Section 2 Part D — Properties (Metric)

l)      ASME BPV Code Section 1 - Rules for Construction of Power Boilers

MCR is maximum continuous rating.

BMCR is the Boiler MCR, TMCR is the turbine MCR

VWO is valves wide open and at normal pressure allows the turbine to exceed TMCR by 5-10
percent

Full load is not fixed but means the turbine has reached it intended maximum

Base Load is also a flexible number and means the turbine will not be operated below that figure. It
is mostly used in power system scheduling where the cheapest plants run fully loaded and are
referred to as base load plants. Other plants are intermediate load or peak load and may shutdown
for part of the week as well as taking part in frequency control.

BMCR must be at least TMCR but could have allowance for loss of turbine efficiency which requires
more steam to reach TMCR.