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Reducing the cytotoxicity of ZnO nanoparticles by

a pre-formed protein corona in a supplemented
Cite this: RSC Adv., 2015, 5, 73963
cell culture medium
Hong Yin,†*ab Rui Chen,†c Philip S. Casey,a Pu Chun Ke,b Thomas P. Davisbd
and Chunying Chenc
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The safety of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) remains a critical concern considering that they are a
common constituent in cosmetics and sunscreen formulation. In our study, the cytotoxicity of pristine
ZnO NPs in a human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line was found to be significantly reduced
when the NPs were pre-incubated in a supplemented cell culture medium for 24 h prior to actual cell
exposure. These pre-coated particles developed a stable protein layer on their surfaces, which facilitated
further protein adsorption during the cell culture process. The amount of proteins adsorbed on pre-
coated NPs was significantly larger and the affinity between the NPs and proteins was stronger, which
inhibited both ROS generation and ZnO dissolution and resulted in lower cytotoxicity compared to
Received 27th July 2015
Accepted 25th August 2015
pristine NPs. Our studies on the continued evolution of a hard protein corona on ZnO NPs in a
supplemented cell culture medium and its effects on cytotoxicity demonstrate an effective and
DOI: 10.1039/c5ra14870g
convenient way to achieve safe biomedical and environmental applications of ZnO NPs and may be
www.rsc.org/advances extrapolated to other classes of engineered nanomaterials.

of ZnO NPs has been proved to be an effective strategy in

1. Introduction mitigating the toxicity of the NPs. For example, coating ZnO
Nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly being utilized in a variety surface with a silica (SiO2) shell could moderate the toxicity to
of elds such as catalysis, gas sensing, electronics, and envi- human skin dermal broblast neonatal (HDFn) cells.7 Likewise
ronmental remediation, and are integrated into commercial PEGylation of ZnO NPs reduced their cytotoxicity to human
products and biomedical applications due to their unique immune cells.8 Compared with the highly toxic pristine ZnO
physicochemical characteristics. Zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs, for NPs, minimal cytotoxcity and genotoxicity of the NPs to human
example, are a common constituent of personal care products lymphoblastoid (WIL2-NS) cells was achieved by coating these
including cosmetics and sunscreens, because they efficiently particles with the components from supplemented cell culture
absorb ultraviolet radiation and are also highly transparent to medium. The coating in the above study was attained by soak-
visible light. Submicrometer- and micrometer-sized ZnO parti- ing pristine ZnO NPs in supplemented cell culture medium
cles, however, do not possess this combination of advantageous consisting of RPMI 1640 medium, 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS),
properties.1 Some recent studies have shown that ZnO NPs can 1% L-glutamine and 1% penicillin/streptomycin for 168 h at
be toxic to a wide variety of biological systems, including 4
C, and the obtained NPs showed distinct adsorption of
epidermal cells,2 bacteria (Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphy- proteins on their surfaces.9 However, the detailed structure of
lococcus aureus),3 zebra sh (Danio rerio),4 and mice.5 Moreover, these pre-soaked NPs and the mechanism of their reduced
ZnO was more toxic to Escherichia coli than other metal oxide toxicity are not fully understood or correlated.
NPs such as Fe2O3, Y2O3, TiO2, and CuO.6 Surface modication For pristine ZnO NPs co-cultured with cells, one of the most
signicant interactions is in situ formation of a NP-protein
a
Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO),
corona as a result of protein adsorption (from supplemented
Manufacturing Flagship, Private Bag 33 Clayton, Victoria 3169, Australia. E-mail: cell culture medium) onto the NP surface. The protein corona
hong.yin@csiro.au imparts a unique physicochemical character to NPs that
b
ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, Monash consequently denes the biological identity of the particle.10,11 It
Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, is believed that within the rst seconds or minutes aer
Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
c
immersion of NPs into cell culture medium containing serum, a
CAS Key Laboratory of Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, National
Centre for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing, China
so corona is formed involving proteins with the highest
d
Department of Chemistry, Warwick University, Gibbet Hill, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK mobility. Subsequently, the so corona is replaced within hours
† These authors contributed equally to this work. by less mobile biomolecules that have a higher affinity for the

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NP surface (hard corona) due to the Vroman effect.12 The within the whole range of tested NP concentrations (up to
normal cell culture duration (i.e. 24 h used in most cytotoxicity 100 mg L1). This suggests that pre-incubation of ZnO NPs in
studies) is sufficiently long for the hard corona to develop.13,14 supplemented cell culture medium signicantly mediated the
The composition of the hard protein corona is very stable and as toxicity of pristine NPs. This observation is consistent with our
a result of its long residence time, the hard corona remains previous report that ZnO NPs coated with components from cell
adsorbed to the NPs during biophysical events such as endo- culture medium elicited low cytotoxicity to WIL2-NS cells.9 To
cytosis15 and is therefore more relevant for determining the understand the mechanisms leading to the reduced toxicity of
physiological response of cells to NP exposure. It has been pre-coated ZnO, NP dissolution, cellular uptake and ROS
reported that the rapid formation of the hard corona within the generation, that are three key determinants of the toxicity
cellular response time mitigates the toxicity of the original NP paradigms of ZnO NPs were measured for both pristine and pre-
core.16–18 However, in our previous study, pristine ZnO NPs with coated ZnO NPs.
in situ formed hard corona exhibited higher toxicity to WIL2-NS Fig. 1b presents the dissolution kinetics (release of ionic Zn
cells than NPs with a pre-coated protein layer.9 from ZnO particles) in supplemented RPMI 1640 cell culture
The composition of protein corona and its binding kinetics medium at 37
C. Both pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs
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strongly depend on the physicochemical properties and exhibited similar dissolution proles, i.e. a fast dissolution rate
concentration of the NPs.19 Hence, the protein coating of NPs within the rst 6 h followed by an equilibrium plateau. The
plays a primary role in determining the effective size, surface equilibrium solubility of pre-coated ZnO NPs (0.9 mg L1,
charge, and aggregation state of the newly formed bio- 1.8 wt%) is signicantly lower than that of pristine ZnO NPs
nanomaterials, inuencing the biodistribution and triggering (1.7 mg L1, 3.4 wt%), suggesting that pre-coated particles had
benecial or adverse effects on the host system.20,21 The protein higher stability in supplemented RPMI 1640 cell culture
structure varies when the surface functionalization of the NP is medium and released less Zn ions to the solution. The low
different. For example, native, amine (–NH2) and carboxy weight percentage of dissolved species also implied that the
(–COO–) modied SiO2 NPs were examined following incuba- majority of ZnO was present in the form of NPs. Different
tion in mammalian growth media containing FBS. The reports have shown that NPs exposed to cells in serum-free
composition of the protein corona for each of the three types of conditions can enter cells with higher efficiency than when
NPs was unique, indicating a strong dependence of corona they are covered by a corona in biological uids.13,23 In our
development on NP surface chemistry.22 Such understanding study, we used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in an
hints the possibility that ZnO NPs with a pre-coated protein attempt to locate and quantify the numbers of particles in each
layer behave differently from pristine NPs in protein adsorption, cell. However, the contrast between ZnO particles and biological
thus rendering lower cytotoxicity. matrix is too low to enable identication. Recently, some new
In this paper, the cytotoxicity of pristine ZnO (uncoated) and strategies involving synchrotron radiation analytical techniques
ZnO NPs with pre-coated protein layer were investigated. The have been developed to directly probe and quantify particles
latter was prepared by incubating uncoated ZnO NPs in RPMI distributed throughout the cellular interior.24,25 The study on
1640 cell culture medium supplemented with 10% FBS at 37
C how to employ these new methods to our cellular system is on-
under a humidied atmosphere with 5% CO2 for 24 h, then going and beyond the scope of this paper.
isolated and dried. The production of reactive oxygen species Using antioxidant response element (ARE) reporter cells is
(ROS) and dissolution of the two types of NPs were measured to one of the reliable and sensitive in vitro methodologies to
understand their toxicological responses. The physicochemical measure the oxidative stress response in cell models based on
variations between pre-coated and pristine ZnO NPs were the mechanism of mRNA transcription regulation by Nuclear-
studied in both dry state and in supplemented cell culture factor-E2-related factor (NRF2).26,27 According to our previous
medium. The in situ protein corona and pre-coated protein layer report, transcriptional level usually had a quick response from
on the ZnO NPs were compared and their effects on cytotoxicity 4 h to 12 h and the signal peak was found at 8 h for NRF2
were discussed. To our knowledge, this is the rst study on the luciferase reporter test.28 Therefore HepG2-ARE cell line was
continued evolution of hard protein corona in the supple- used to assess the ability of ROS production aer exposure to
mented cell culture medium. NPs for 8 h. The correlation between luciferase activities (an
indicator of oxidative stress and ROS level) and NP concentra-
2. Results tion is shown in Fig. 1c. The oxidative stress induced by pristine
NPs increased with the increase of NP concentration and
2.1 Cytotoxicity, NP dissolution and oxidative stress reached a maximum when the NP concentration was 25 mg L1.
Fig. 1a shows the dependence of human hepatocellular carci- At higher NP concentrations (50 mg L1 and 100 mg L1),
noma (HepG2) cell viability on NP concentration (0–100 mg L1) detected luciferase activities decreased signicantly as a result
in the presence of pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs. For pristine of dramatic cell death (shown in Fig. 1a). Comparatively, pre-
ZnO NPs, the cell viability reduced signicantly (from 90% to coated ZnO NPs triggered modest luciferase activities up to
20%) when particle concentration increased from 20 mg L1 100 mg L1, suggesting no accumulation of intracellular ROS
to 50 mg L1 and further dropped to 15% when the concen- level within the range of tested NP concentrations. In order to
tration increased to 100 mg L1. In contrast, the cell viability in reveal the possible reasons leading to variations in dissolution
the presence of pre-coated ZnO NPs remained high (85%–95%) and ROS generation between pristine and pre-coated NPs, the

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mainly present in agglomerates. The specic surface area of pre-

coated ZnO NPs (25.7 m2 g1) was very similar to that of pristine
ZnO NPs (25.9 m2 g1), implying that their agglomeration states
did not change due to the contact with cell culture medium. The
pristine ZnO NPs (Fig. 2a) were pseudo-spherical with an
average size of 29  10 nm. The enlarged image of a single
particle shows its well dened surface (Fig. 2a inset). For pre-
coated NPs, surface coating was clearly visible (Fig. 2b),
although such coating was not uniform and appeared depen-
dant on the curvature and local environment of the individual
NPs. The Fig. 2b inset shows a NP with a full coverage of surface
coating and the thickness of the coating layer is about 5–8 nm.
The nature of the surface coating acquired from cell culture
medium and its interaction with the ZnO NPs were further
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identied using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectros-

copy (Fig. 2c). For pristine ZnO NPs, only one specic absor-
bance peak was observed at 3430 cm1 and this peak was
attributed to surface hydroxyl groups (–OH). The spectrum of
pre-coated ZnO NPs showed peaks at 1653 cm1 and 1538 cm1
that are distinct vibrational modes of amide I (C]O) and amide
II (asymmetric stretch of COO), most likely due to surface-
adsorbed amino acids from original RPMI 1640 formulation
or bovine serum albumin (BSA) from supplemented FBS. Based
on the structure of –CO–NH– and the properties of hydroxyl
groups on the ZnO surfaces, the interactions between adsorbed
species (amino acids or BSA) and ZnO NPs are most likely
mediated by hydrogen bonding and electrostatic forces. As
reported by Yu et al.,29 such interactions can result in a shi for
the hydroxyl absorbance to a lower wave number in the FTIR
spectrum. Indeed, as shown in Fig. 2c, a shi was observed from
3430 cm1 in the uncoated NPs to 3350 cm1 in the pre-coated
NPs. The thickness of the protein layer on the NPs is in agree-
ment with the size of BSA, which is known to be 6 nm.
To quantitatively determine the percentage of adsorbed
species in the pre-coated ZnO NPs, thermal stability of pristine
and pre-coated ZnO NPs was measured and the thermogravi-
metric analysis (TGA) results are shown in Fig. 2d. Specically, the
pristine ZnO NPs were thermally stable upon the rise of temper-
ature and negligible changes in mass were observed till 600
C. In
contrast, the weight of pre-coated ZnO NPs decreased with the
Fig. 1 Cytotoxicity, dissolution and ROS generation ability of pristine
increase of temperature and a total weight loss of 13% was
and pre-coated ZnO NPs. (a) dependence of HepG2 cell viability on
the NP concentration (0–100 mg L1) after incubation with particles observed in the heating process. There are two plausible stages of
for 24 h; (b) dissolution kinetics (release of ionic Zn from ZnO NPs) in decomposition for pre-coated ZnO NPs. The rst stage involved a
supplemented RPMI 1640 cell culture medium at 37
C; (c) ROS weight loss due to evaporation of adsorbed water, about 5 wt%
generation using HepG2-ARE stable cell line after incubation with NPs that ended around 150
C. The second stage showed a sharp
for 8 h. Two-folds of the untreated control luciferase signal were
gradient resulting from loss of adsorbed proteins on particle
defined as the positive threshold in the test. A one-way analysis of
variance following a post hoc least-significant difference multiple surface, which was around 8 wt% of the total weight of the NPs.
comparison test was used in the statistical analysis to comparing the The surface chemistry of pre-coated ZnO NPs was studied
two groups of the same treatment concentration. **P < 0.01. using XPS in comparison with that of pristine NPs. As shown in
the survey spectra (Fig. 3a), only Zn, O and C were detected in
pristine ZnO particles, while a variety of components, including
characteristics of these two types of NPs were studied in the
nitrogen (N), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P)
absence or presence of supplemented cell culture medium.
were detected on the surface of pre-coated NPs. The quantitative
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results (Table 1) indi-
2.2 Pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs in dry state cate that the ratio of Zn to O is not stoichiometric with 18% of
As presented in Fig. 2a and b, TEM images of pristine ZnO NPs oxygen deciency. The amount of C is much less than that of Zn
and pre-coated ZnO NPs suggest that both types of the NPs were and O and could be due to adventitious carbon (a thin layer of

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In summary, the above physicochemical characterisations of

pre-coated ZnO NPs in dry state revealed formation of a hard
protein corona during 24 h pre-incubation, which modied the
surface of NPs. We also detected Ca, Na, K, and P on the
surfaces of pre-coated ZnO NPs which were originated from the
formulation of supplemented cell culture medium. This may
indicate the development of an ion corona which decorated the
protein layer and both of these ion and protein coronas could
inuence the cellular response to the NPs.30

2.3 Pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs dispersed in liquid

The surface charges and hydrodynamic sizes of the pristine and
pre-coated ZnO NPs were measured in deionised water. The zeta
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Fig. 2 Characterization of pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs in dry

state. (a) TEM image of pristine ZnO NPs, where the inset shows a
single particle with well-defined surfaces; (b) TEM image of pre-coated
ZnO NPs. The inset shows a single particle with full coverage of surface
coating; (c) FTIR spectra of pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs; surface
hydroxyl groups (–OH) were observed at 3430 cm1 in pristine NPs.
Pre-coated ZnO NPs show peaks of amide I (C]O) at 1653 cm1 and
amide II (asymmetric stretch of COO) at 1538 cm1 due to surface-
adsorbed amino acids or BSA. (d) TGA curves of the weights of pristine
and pre-coated ZnO NPs versus increasing temperature. The pristine
ZnO was thermally stable upon the rise of temperature while pre-
coated ZnO NPs lost a total 13% of weight in the heating process.

carbonaceous material usually found on the surface of air

exposed samples). For pre-coated ZnO NPs, the relative
concentration of carbon increased signicantly compared with
Zn; the oxygen concentration also increased compared with that
of pristine ZnO. Fig. 3b and c show the XPS spectra of the C1s
and N1s edges for pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs, respec-
tively. The carbon species of hydrocarbon (C–H: 285.0 eV),
carbon bounded to nitrogen (C–N: 286.5 eV), amide carbon
(N–C]O: 287.9 eV) and carbon bounded to oxygen (C]O:
290.0 eV) were distinct in pre-coated NPs. The N1s high reso-
lution XPS spectrum also species the presence of C^N and
Fig. 3 XPS spectra of pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs: (a) survey (b)
N–H characteristic protein functional groups at 399.9 eV. C1s edge, (c) N1s edge.

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Table 1 Quantitative XPS results showing atomic ratio of detected

elements proportional to Zn in pristine and pre-coated NPs. ND: not
detected

Detected element Pristine NPs Pre-coated NPs

Zn 1.00 1.00
O 0.82 1.68
C 0.34 1.36
N ND 0.29
Na ND 0.01
Ca ND 0.03
P ND 0.10

potential of pristine ZnO NPs in water was +16.3 eV, consistent

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with the literature.1 In contrast, the surface charge of pre-coated

NPs dropped to 13.1 eV due to the adsorption of negatively
charged species, such as BSA. The hydrodynamic size of pre-
coated NPs (364  22 nm) in water was slightly smaller than
that of pristine ZnO NPs (409  73 nm). This could be caused by
the presence of adsorption species that afforded a steric barrier
for preventing NP agglomeration.
To quantitatively investigate the adsorbed biomolecule
species and their affinity for the NP surfaces, sodium dodecyl
sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) was used
to analyse the gel of proteins from NPs and from the superna-
tant containing soly bound proteins. As shown in Fig. 4a, there
are two columns for each sample, the le one is the gel of the
proteins from the supernatant and the right column is the gel of
the proteins from the NPs. As expected, no proteins were
detected in either the supernatant or pristine ZnO NPs which
had no contact with any protein molecules. For pre-coated ZnO
NPs, proteins were detected on the NPs but not in the super-
natant, implying that no desorption was found during the
washing process. This suggests that a hard protein corona was
developed, which remained stable aer the isolation and puri-
cation processes. Quantitatively, the relative amount of the
proteins in the hard corona calculated by densitometry for the Fig. 4 SDS-PAGE on adsorbed protein species and their affinity for
protein adsorbed on the NPs was shown in Fig. 4b. The presence ZnO NPs, (a) gel of proteins adsorbed on pristine and pre-incubated
of proteins on the NPs was conrmed by gel electrophoresis of NPs (NP) and from supernatant (S) which contained softly bound
NPs with the 60 kDa band as the most abundant proteins proteins; (b) amount of proteins calculated by densitometry for the
adsorbed. This is because that both BSA (67 kDa) and hae- proteins adsorbed on pre-coated NPs; (c) amount of proteins detected
in the supernatant in the most abundant protein bands (60 kDa).
moglobin (64 kDa) are major components of FBS. In Fig. 4c,
no desorption of protein was detected in the supernatant in the
most abundant protein bands (60 kDa). Above results indi-
evolution in the physicochemical properties of pristine and pre-
cated that proteins on the pre-coated NPs were stable and they
coated NPs aer interacting with supplemented cell culture
were robust enough to maintain their affinity over an extended
medium for 24 h was studied in the absence of cells. Whenever
period of time in air during storage and in protein-free solution
possible, the NPs were analysed as their state in supplemented
during the washing process.
cell culture medium without further isolation and purication.
The surface charge of pristine NPs aer incubated in sup-
plemented medium for 24 h is negative (11.8 eV) due to the
2.4 Pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs aer co-cultured with
formation of protein corona. And the surface charge of pre-
supplemented cell culture medium for 24 h
coated NPs was very similar, at 11.2 eV. Fig. 5 shows the
In the process of cell culture, pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs morphologies of the NPs at 50 mg L1 in supplemented cell
were co-cultured with cells in supplemented RPMI 1640 cell culture medium aer 24 h incubation. Both pristine and pre-
culture medium for 24 h, where they demonstrated signicantly coated NPs maintained as individual particles without
different cytotoxic behaviours to HepG2 ells. In this section, the

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As indicated above, both pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs

developed protein coronas while interacting with supplemented
medium during the cell culture process. The surface charge and
morphology of the protein coronas developed are very similar,
yet they elicit drastically different toxicities in HepG2 cells. To
further investigate NP-protein interactions, the XPS spectra of
pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs aer incubating in supple-
Fig. 5 TEM images of ZnO NPs at 50 mg L1 in supplemented cell mented cell culture medium are presented in Fig. 6 in survey
culture medium after 24 h incubation without the presence of cells. (a)
Pristine ZnO NPs; (b) pre-coated ZnO NPs.

agglomeration. The surfaces of pristine ZnO NPs were mottled

and their edges were less well-dened (Fig. 5a), and it is difficult
to measure accurately the average sizes of the NPs. But in
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general, the average particle size was smaller than that in Fig. 2a
which is most likely due to limited ZnO dissolution. A close
observation of single particles suggests the presence of cloud-
like protein that adsorbed on the NP surfaces. The particle
size and shape of pre-coated ZnO NPs aer another 24 h incu-
bation (Fig. 5b) were very similar to those of pristine ZnO NPs
(Fig. 5a), but the outlines of the NPs were even more blurred. A
higher magnication image showed a similar cloud-like protein
corona on the NP surface. And overall, the NPs were covered by a
protein layer, which may include previous protein coating
during pre-incubation and newly formed protein corona.

Fig. 7 SDS-PAGE results on adsorbed protein species on pristine and

pre-coated NPs after 24 hours incubating in supplemented cell culture
medium, (a) the gel of proteins adsorbed on pristine and pre-incu-
bated NPs (NP) and from supernatant (S); (b) the amount of proteins
calculated by densitometry for proteins immobilised on the NPs; (c)
Fig. 6 XPS spectra of pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs after incu- the amount of proteins detected in supernatant in the most abundant
bation in supplemented medium for 24 h: (a) survey, (b) C1s edge. protein bands (60 kDa).

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and C1s edge, respectively. No obvious differences were iden- 3.1 Protein adsorption and ROS generation
tied between the two survey spectra, i.e., except for Zn, O, and
In cellular mitochondria under normal conditions, ROS are
C, both spectra designate the presence of N, P, Na, and Ca
generated at low levels and are neutralized by antioxidant
components from the cell culture medium. In Fig. 6b, the
enzymes such as glutathione (GSH). When exposed to excessive
intensity ratio of the peaks (C–N: 286.5 eV, N–C]O: 287.9 eV,
levels of ROS resulting in depletion of GSH and accumulation of
C]O: 290.0 eV due to protein adsorption) to the hydrocarbon
oxidized glutathione (GSSG), e.g., under the conditions of
peak (C–H: 285.0 eV attributed to adventitious carbon)
oxidative stress, cells react by mounting further protective or
increased for the pre-coated NPs compared to the pristine NPs. injurious responses.32
This suggests that a large amount of proteins was detected in In this study, signicantly higher oxidative stress was
the pre-coated NPs.
detected when HepG2-ARE reporter cells were exposed to pris-
Detailed examination on adsorbed proteins was performed
tine ZnO NPs, which agrees well with our recent observation
using SDS-PAGE. Gels of proteins from pristine and pre-coated
using dichloro-dihydro-uorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA)
ZnO NPs (both incubated in supplemented cell culture medium
assay.33 ZnO NPs are able to induce ROS resulting from their
for 24 h) were shown in Fig. 7a. It is clear that some proteins
semiconductor properties. Unlike metals, which have a
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were detected on pristine ZnO NPs aer 24 h incubation and the

continuum of electronic states, the electrons in semiconductors
protein proles were very similar to that of pre-coated NPs. Aer possess energies only within certain bands. ZnO has a wide
the pre-coated NPs were incubated in supplemented cell culture band gap (3.3 eV), which corresponds to emission in the UV
medium for another 24 h, a signicantly increased amount of
region. Consequently, UV light contains sufficient energy to
proteins was detected in SDS gels (compared with Fig. 4a)
promote electrons (e) to the conduction band and create
indicating that extra proteins adsorbed on the surface of pre-
electron holes (h+) in the valence band. Electrons and holes
coated NPs. These results are consistent with the XPS observa-
oen recombine quickly, but can also migrate to the NP surface
tions. The relative amount of the proteins on NPs in the hard
where they react with adsorbed species.34 As ZnO particle size
corona calculated by densitometry was shown in Fig. 7b. Higher
decreases, more crystal defects are expected especially near the
band intensities were recorded for almost all protein bands
particle surface, which results in increased interstitial zinc and
(15, 60, 90, 115, 160, 200 kDa) for the pre-coated ZnO NPs.
oxygen vacancies, and possibly a large number of valence band
Fig. 7c shows the relative intensity of the protein band (60 kDa)
holes and/or conduction band electrons.35 As demonstrated by
of the supernatant obtained aer washing. The amount of
our XPS data, distinct oxygen deciency found in pristine ZnO
desorbed protein from pristine NPs was signicantly higher
NPs was very likely to be related to these crystal defects. The
than that from pre-coated NPs, indicating that more proteins
electron–hole pairs are available to serve in redox reactions even
were present as so corona on the pristine NPs.
in the absence of UV light.36 For example, electrons are good
In summary, the amount of proteins adsorbed on pre-coated
reducers and can move to the particle surface to react with
NPs was signicantly higher and the affinity of proteins in
dissolved oxygen molecules to generate superoxide radical
supplemented culture medium for pre-coated NPs was stronger
anions (cO2), which in turn react with H+ to generate (HO2c)
compared to that for pristine NPs. It has been reported that the
radicals. These HO2c molecules then produce hydrogen
adsorption of plasma proteins depends primarily on NP
peroxide anions (HO2) following a subsequent encounter with
hydrophobicity and surface charge.31 The surface charges of
electrons.37,38 Hydrogen peroxide anions can then react with
pristine NPs and pre-coated NPs aer incubated in supple-
hydrogen ions to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and other
mented medium for 24 h were very similar (11.8 eV and
ROS molecules in cellular environments.39,40 These ROS can
11.2 eV, respectively). Nevertheless, pre-coated NPs trend to be
trigger redox-cycling cascades in the cell, or on adjacent cell
more hydrophobic (due to the pre-existing protein layer) than membranes, leading to depletion of endogenous cellular
pristine ZnO NPs with hydroxyl (–OH) as surface function reserves of antioxidants so that irreparable oxidative damage to
groups (shown in Fig. 2c).
cells occurs.41
The pristine ZnO NPs were positively charged. FBS has a
number of protein and amino acid components, with BSA being
3. Discussion the most abundant. BSA is overall negatively charged and
therefore easily bound to ZnO NPs through electrostatic inter-
Our study suggests that the cytotoxicities of pristine and pre-
actions. The adsorption of proteins effectively shielded the ZnO
coated ZnO NPs were strongly dependent upon protein surfaces and blocked the transferring of ROS molecules to
adsorption in supplemented cell culture medium. Similar to cellular components, thus reducing intracellular oxidative
our ndings, Hu et al. also demonstrated that the cytotoxicity stress. Our ndings are consistent with the observations
of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets was largely attenuated reported by Casals et al. in which the production of ROS was
when GO was incubated with FBS due to the extremely high decreased in monocytic cell line (THP-1) cells when cobalt oxide
protein adsorption ability for the GO.17 As production of ROS NPs were incubated with serum for 48 h.42
and particle dissolution are identied as two key determinants
Both pristine and pre-coated ZnO developed protein layers
for the toxicity paradigms of ZnO, their correlations with
aer incubated in supplemented cell culture medium and the
protein adsorption on the two types of ZnO NPs are discussed types of the adsorbed proteins detected using SDS-PAGE were
below.

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RSC Advances Paper

largely the same, with BSA being the most abundant. However, equilibrium of this complex therefore was stalled as the local
the quantities of proteins on pre-coated NPs were signicantly zinc ion concentration within the corona was high and stable,
larger than those detected on the pristine NPs. The pre-coated unlike the situation when zinc ions are released by pristine NPs
ZnO NPs have an existing stable hard protein corona, and its and then diluted by the vast volume of solvent without the
presence increased further adsorption of proteins during the presence of the corona. In addition to this, as aforementioned,
cell culture process. While for the pristine ZnO NPs, some released zinc ions could also play an essential role in protein
adsorbed proteins were loosely bound to NP surface (so tertiary structure, such as zinc ngers.51 In other words zinc ions
corona) and were easily washed off. The elevated protein could integrate with serum albumin and other proteins to
adsorption in the form of strongly bound hard corona on pre- stabilize or alter their structures. With the presence of more
coated ZnO NPs is likely to be a cause for their lower ROS proteins on pre-coated NPs, the likelihood for released Zn ions
generation compared with the pristine NPs. to be involved in above Zn ions–protein interaction is also
The protein corona consists of proteins and other biomole- higher, thus reducing the level of detected Zn ions in solution
cules, which adsorb onto the NPs to reduce their surface energy, and further impacting cytotoxicity.
thereby rendering a new complex unit interacting with cells.
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The interaction between NPs and proteins also induces

conformational changes to the adsorbed proteins. The NP
4. Conclusions
surface can also introduce thermal instability to the adsorbed We studied the effects of continued evolution and trans-
protein molecules, making them susceptible to chemical formation of protein corona on the cytotoxicity of ZnO NPs. Our
denaturation.43 ZnO NPs induced unfolding of the periplasmic results revealed that the pre-existing protein layer on ZnO NPs
domain of the ToxR protein of Vibrio cholera, rendering the (obtained by pre-incubating pristine ZnO NPs in supplemented
protein prone to denaturation by chaotropic agents.44 Interest- cell culture medium) facilitated further protein adsorption
ingly, ZnO NPs were able to stabilize the a-helical content of during the cell culture process. The formation of the corona
lysozyme against denaturing agents.45 The structure of plasma with more proteins and strong affinity for the pre-coated NPs
proteins aer binding on ZnO NP surface requires more enhances ZnO stability and inhibits ROS generation, leading to
detailed examination but is beyond the scope of this study. reduced cytotoxicity compared with pristine ZnO NPs. Reducing
the cytotoxicity of ZnO and other types of engineered NPs by
such pre-formed protein layer provides an alternative and
3.2 Protein adsorption and ZnO dissolution
convenient way to engineering nanomaterials for safe biomed-
The dependence of Zn ion release from NPs in Fig. 1b suggests ical and environmental applications.
that pre-adsorbed proteins also enhance the stability of NPs.
This observation agrees well with Kittler et al.'s study using
polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilized Ag NPs, in which the formation 5. Experimental
of Ag-protein coronas with BSA and fetal calf serum reduced the 5.1 Materials
cytotoxicity of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) by
The precursors used for ZnO NPs synthesis were purchased
inhibiting the release of free Ag ions from the NPs.46 The
from Sigma-Aldrich. Biological reagents used for the experi-
equilibrium solubility of pristine ZnO NPs (1.7 mg L1, about
ments with cells, such as RPMI 1640 medium, FBS were
26 mM) is much lower than the toxic level of Zn ions (100 mM),47
purchased from Gibco Life Technologies. L-Glutamine
suggesting that extracellular ZnO dissolution may not be an
(200 mM), penicillin/streptomycin (with 10 000 units penicillin
inuential factor of the observed cytotoxicity for pristine ZnO.
and 10 mg streptomycin per ml), phosphate-buffered saline
Several studies on ZnO NPs demonstrated that intracellular
(PBS, pH ¼ 7.4 biotechnology performance certied), were
dissolution aer NPs were internalized by cells would be more
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.
signicant. Muller et al. reported that ZnO nanowires were
comparatively stable at extracellular pH, whereas they dissolved
very rapidly in a simulated body uid of lysosomal pH (pH ¼ 5.2 NPs preparation
4.5).48 Shen et al. also demonstrated a strong correlation Pristine ZnO NPs. ZnO NPs are prepared using a proprietary
between ZnO NP-induced cytotoxicity and free intracellular zinc process developed by the CSIRO Materials Science and Engi-
concentration (R2 ¼ 0.945) in human immune cells.49 Reduced neering (Melbourne, Australia). Interested readers may contact
toxicity in the rodent lung and zebra sh embryos were achieved the corresponding author to discuss the supply of these ZnO
by doping ZnO NPs with iron, which distinctly enhanced NPs for academic research.
stability and decreased solubility of undoped ZnO NPs.50 Pre-coated ZnO NPs. Pristine ZnO NPs (3 g) were incubated
Therefore, the higher stability of pre-coated ZnO NPs shown in in supplemented cell culture medium consisting of RPMI 1640
Fig. 1b could be closely related to its lower cytotoxicity. medium, 10% FBS, 1% L-glutamine and 1% penicillin/
Protein corona forms immediately aer NPs are introduced streptomycin at 37
C under a humidied atmosphere with
to the cell culture medium. In the presence of a protein layer 5% CO2 for 24 h. Then NPs were then separated from supple-
bound tightly on pre-coated ZnO NP surfaces, zinc ions that mented cell culture medium by centrifuging at 10 000 rpm for
released from ZnO NPs are trapped by the corona due to their 10 min and dried under vacuum overnight at room
mutual electrostatic attraction with the protein. The dissolution temperature.

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Paper RSC Advances

5.3 Cell culture, cell viability and oxidative stress tests Electron Microscope (TEM, JEOL, 100CX-II, Japan). The specic
surface areas of NPs were determined by the Brunauer–
HepG2 cells and their derivative ARE reporter cells (HepG2-ARE)
Emmett–Teller (BET) using a Micromeritics Tristar II 3020
were cultured at 37
C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere in RPMI 1640
instrument. Interactions between protein coatings and surfaces
medium supplemented with 10% FBS. HepG2-ARE was con-
of the ZnO NPs were investigated by Fourier Transform Infrared
structed from Cignal Lenti ARE reporter assay kit (SABio-
(FTIR) spectroscopy using a PerkinElmer FTIR 2000. The
sciences, Frederick, MD, USA) and maintained aer cellular
thermal stability of pre-coated ZnO NPs was studied using a
monoclonal process. This cell line was used to assess the ability
Setaram Setsys Evolution 1750 Thermal Analysis system. The
of ROS production induced by extrinsic toxicants as previously
surface chemistry of pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs was
described.28 All cells were seeded at a density of 5  103 cells per
quantitatively determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
well in a 96-well plate supplemented medium and incubated for
(XPS). Specically, powdered ZnO samples were placed in
24 h. The medium was then replaced with 100 mL of medium
individual wells of a sample holder and were irradiated with
containing various equivalent concentrations of NPs. Aer
X-rays under ultra-high vacuum using a Kratos HS spectrom-
co-cultured with NPs for 24 h, cytotoxicity was measured using
eter, tted with a monochromated Al Ka source. Wide scan
CCK-8 Kits (Dojindo Molecular Technologies, Tokyo, Japan)
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survey spectra were recorded to identify and quantify all

according to the manufacturer's protocol. The absorbance was
elements present on the NP surfaces then ne scans on the C
measured at 450 nm with a reference at 600 nm using Innite
and N edges were performed.
M200 microplate reader (Tecan, Durham). In oxidative stress
5.5.2 NPs dispersed in liquid. The z-average hydrodynamic
test, HepG2-ARE cells were exposed to NPs for 8 h, then lysed in
diameter of the ZnO NPs in deionised water (Milli-Q, 18.2
100 mL 1  passive lysis buffer (Promega, USA). Luciferase
MU cm) was obtained by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) using
assays were carried out with 50 mL lysate using the luciferase
a Malvern Zetasizer Nano Z system. Reference standards (Duke
reporter assay system (E1501 kit, Promega, USA) in a chem-
polystyrene latex with a nominal diameter of 100 nm, and NIST
iluminescence analyzer with automatic injector system Innite
RM8013 gold nanoparticles with a nominal diameter of 60 nm)
M200 microplate reader (Tecan, Durham, USA). Luciferase
were used to verify the performance of the instrument.
activities (response signal of oxidative stress) were expressed as
Electrophoretic-mobility measurement of zeta potential
fold induction relative to values obtained from untreated
(surface charge) in deionised water was also performed using
control cells. The cellular viability and oxidative stress results
the Malvern Zetasizer Nano Z system.
represented the mean of at least three independent experi-
5.5.3 NPs aer co-cultured with supplemented cell culture
ments, each carried out in duplicate.
medium for 24 h. Whenever possible, the interested physico-
chemical characteristics were studied from the state in sup-
5.4 Dissolution of ZnO particles plemented cell culture medium without further isolation and
The solubility of the ZnO NPs was measured in the supple- purication. For example, TEM samples were prepared directly
mented cell culture medium without the presence of cells. from a dispersion containing 50 mg L1 ZnO NPs in supple-
Specically, ZnO NPs (5 mg) were put into 100 mL of supple- mented cell culture medium. The dispersion was ultrasonicated
mented RPMI 1640 cell culture medium in a plastic tube and for 10 min (Branson 3510, 100W, 42 kHz) and then a droplet of
the resulting ZnO concentration was 50 mg L1. The plastic tube the suspension was taken off and dropped onto TEM grids. For
was placed in a water bath shaker maintained at 37
C. At each the XPS study, one drop of ZnO dispersion (50 mg L1) in
time interval (0 h, 2 h, 6 h, 24 h, 48 h and 120 h), a 1.5 mL supplemented cell culture medium was placed onto individual
aliquot was taken out from the suspension and centrifuged at well of a sample holder and allowed to dry overnight. The
10 000 rpm for 30 min; 1 mL of the supernatant was added to process was repeated twice to ensure a dense coverage of the
9 mL of supplemented RPMI 1640 cell culture medium, and the NPs. The survey spectra and ne spectra were then collected on
resulting zinc solution was digested and followed by elemental the dried samples.
analysis using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (Varian 730 Axial ICP-AES) to determine the Zn
5.6 SDS-PAGE
concentration.
Pristine and pre-coated ZnO NPs were dispersed in PBS to a
concentration of 50 mg L1. Aer ultrasonication (Branson
5.5 Physico-chemical characterizations 3510, 100W, 42 kHz) for 10 min, a uniform dispersion was
5.5.1 NPs in dry state. A few milligrams of the ZnO NPs attained and then centrifuged at 10 000 rpm for 10 min to pellet
were dispersed in deionised water and briey sonicated or out the NPs. To wash off the organic species soly bound to the
10 min (Branson 3510, 100W, 42 kHz) to form a colloidal NP surfaces, the pellet was further washed twice using PBS and
dispersion. Carbon-coated grids (copper, 300 mesh) were glow centrifuged. Immediately aer the last centrifugation, the pellet
discharged in nitrogen for 30 s to render them hydrophilic. 5 mL and supernatant (collected aer each centrifuge) were respec-
of the dispersion was applied to the freshly-prepared grids. Aer tively re-suspended in protein loading buffer [62.5 mM Tris-
2 min, excess dispersion was wicked off using lter paper HCL pH ¼ 6.8, 2% (w/v) SDS, 10% glycerol, 0.04MDTT and
(Whatman 541) and the grids were dried in air for 15 min. The 0.01% (w/v) bromophenol blue], it was then boiled for 5 min at
morphologies of the NPs were studied using Transmission 100
C and equal sample volumes were loaded in 12% gel

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RSC Advances Paper

polyacrylamide gel. Gel electrophoresis was performed at 120 V, 12 T. Cedervall, I. Lynch, S. Lindman, T. Berggard, E. Thulin,
400 mA for about 60 min, until the protein neared the end of the H. Nilsson, K. A. Dawson and S. Linse, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
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were scanned using a Bio-Rad GS-800 calibrated densitometer 14 C. Ge, J. Du, L. Zhao, L. Wang, Y. Liu, D. Li, Y. Yang, R. Zhou,
scanner and gel densitometry was performed using image J. Y. Zhao, Z. Chai and C. Chen, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.,
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5.7 Statistical analysis 15 M. P. Monopoli, D. Walczyk, A. Campbell, G. Elia, I. Lynch,
F. B. Bombelli and K. A. Dawson, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2011,
The data were expressed as mean  standard deviation (mean 
133, 2525–2534.
SD). All the statistical analyses were implemented using SPSS
16 J. Shi, H. L. Karlsson, K. Johansson, V. Gogvadze, L. Xiao,
v19.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). A one-way analysis of variance
J. Li, T. Burks, A. Garcia-Bennett, A. Uheida,
following a post hoc least-signicant difference multiple
M. Muhammed, S. Mathur, R. Morgenstern, V. E. Kagan
comparison test was used to compare the uncoated and pre-
Published on 27 August 2015. Downloaded on 10/22/2020 11:34:45 PM.

and B. Fadeel, ACS Nano, 2012, 6, 1925–1938.

coated ZnO NPs in the study. Mean differences with P < 0.05
17 W. Hu, C. Peng, M. Lv, X. Li, Y. Zhang, N. Chen, C. Fan and
were considered signicant.
Q. Huang, ACS Nano, 2011, 5, 3693–3700.
18 H. Haniu, N. Saito, Y. Matsuda, Y. A. Kim, K. C. Park,
Acknowledgements T. Tsukahara, Y. Usui, K. Aoki, M. Shimizu, N. Ogihara,
K. Hara, S. Takanashi, M. Okamoto, N. Ishigaki,
This work was funded by the CSIRO Manufacturing Flagship, K. Nakamura and H. Kato, Int. J. Nanomed., 2011, 6, 3295–
the CSIRO Advanced Materials Transformational Capabilities 3307.
Platform, the National Natural Science Foundation of China 19 P. Rivera Gil, G. Oberdorster, A. Elder, V. Puntes and
(21477029 and 21277080) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences W. J. Parak, ACS Nano, 2010, 4, 5527–5531.
(XDA09040400). The authors would like to thank Ms Lynne 20 L. Wang, J. Li, J. Pan, X. Jiang, Y. Ji, Y. Li, Y. Qu, Y. Zhao,
Waddington, Dr Thomas Gengenbach and Dr Yong Peng, from X. Wu and C. Chen, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2013, 135, 17359–
CSIRO for their characterisation work using TEM, XPS, and 17368.
SDS-PAGE respectively. 21 A. E. Nel, L. Madler, D. Velegol, T. Xia, E. M. Hoek,
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