Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 47, 2012

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 47, 2012
EDUCATION IN A CHANGING
SOCIETY – 2012
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

the associated member of Lithuanian Scientific Society and ICASE
(International Council of Associations for Science Education)
The articles appearing in this scientific collection are indexed and abstracted in EBSCO: Education Research
Complete (http://search.ebscohost.com), Copernicus Index (http://www.indexcopernicus.com), the Asian
Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/education_journals_index_P.php), SOCOLAR,
China Educational Publications Import & Export Corporation (http://www.socolar.com/?ver=en), Cabell
Publishing, Inc., Directories of Academic Journals (http://www.cabells.com/index.aspx), Contemporary
Science Association/AAP databases (http://www.contemporaryscienceassociation.net/journal/view/1190),
and list of Science Education Journals (http://homepages.wmich.edu/~rudged/journals.html)
Publisher
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the Associated Member of Lithua-
nian Scientific Society, the Association of Lithuanian Serials, European Society for the History of
Science (ESHS) and International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE)
Editor-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, Commission for the Publication of the National Edition of Federigo Enriques’s
Works, Italy
Dr. Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Harun Yilmaz, Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Masaryk University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State M.Tank Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Karelian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, International University of Economics and Humanities named after
Academician Stepan Demianchuk, Ukraine
Dr., Raffaele Pisano, Cirphles École Normale Supérieure, France
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Copyright of this volume entitled Education in a Changing Society – 2012 is the property of Scientific
Methodical Centre “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania. All rights reserved. No part of this volume may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
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holders.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal,
issued by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“ in Cooperation with Scientia Socialis.
Address: Scientific Methodical Centre “Scientia Educologica”
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ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2012

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Contents 3
Editorial
A DILEMMA IN UPPER SECONDARY TEACHER EDUCATION

Muammer Çalık ........................................................................................................ 5
Articles
TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING THROUGH ROBOTICS: SCIENCE

& ART FORM
Andrea C. Burrows, Mike Borowczak, Timothy F. Slater, J. Chris Haynes .................................... 6
PORTUGUESE HIGHER EDUCATION STUDENT’S COSTS:TWO LAST DECADES VIEW

Luisa Cerdeira, Tomás Patrocínio, Belmiro Gil Cabrito, Lourdes Machado, Rui Brites ..................... 16
A PROPOSAL TO TEACH LIGHT IN A UNIFIED FRAMEWORK USING THE FEYNMAN

METHOD
Maria de los Ángeles Fanaro, Maria Rita Otero, Marcelo Arlego ............................................... 27
DISTANCE, REMEMBRANCE, TOLERANCE: EUROPEAN REMARKS ON CONTEXTUAL

CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
Geert Franzenburg ..................................................................................................... 40
ANALYTICAL STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE PREFERENCE USING THE PEDAGOGICAL

EPISTEMOLOGY OF EDUCATION FRAMEWORK OF QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE,
AND PERFORMATIVE KNOWING AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN
THAILAND
Sudgasame Jantaraweragul, Noy S. Kay ........................................................................... 50
HOW DO ANIMALS SPEND THE WINTER? A FINNISH STUDY ON THE USE OF VEE
HEURISTICS IN A BIOLOGY UNIT FOR EIGHTH GRADERS
Sirpa Kärkkäinen ...................................................................................................... 69
CRAFT AS A BOUNDARY TOOL FOR MULTI- AND INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION: A

CASE IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Tarja Kröger ............................................................................................................ 91
EFFECTS OF GENDER ROLE PORTRAYAL IN TEXTBOOKS IN KENYAN PRIMARY

SCHOOLS, ON PUPILS ACADEMIC ASPIRATIONS
David N. P. Mburu, Grace Nyagah ..................................................................................100
PROPOSIONAL COURSES OF TEACHER EDUCATION: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Joana Paulin Romanowski, Pura Oliver Martins, Simone Manosso Cartaxo ................................. 110
PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNCHRONOUS VIRTUAL EDUCATION: THE

ELLUMINATE LIVE CASE AT THE FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL AND LANGUAGE
STUDIES (THE OPEN UNIVERSITY)
Sonia M. Santoveña Casal ............................................................................................ 126
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4 TEACHER CAREERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION : A BRAZILIAN DILEMMA

Hustana Maria Vargas ................................................................................................ 144
AN EARLY UNDERSTANDING OF MECHANISM OF RAINFALL: A STUDY

EXAMINING THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOUNG MINORITY IMMIGRANT
AND NATIVE-BORN CHILDREN
José Domingo Villarroel ............................................................................................. 152
COST AND BENEFITS OF RUNNING A TEA-BASED FARMER FIELD SCHOOL IN KENYA

Stephen Wambugu Maina, John Gowland-Mwangi, Dave Boselie ............................................. 165
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................ 178
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A DILEMMA IN UPPER SECONDARY 5
TEACHER EDUCATION
Muammer Çalık
Karadeniz Technical Unıversity, Turkey
E-mail: muammer38@hotmail.com
There is a consensus about primary and lower secondary teacher education in that Fac-
ulty of Education is actively responsible for preparing them for their future teaching careers.
However, a struggle between Faculty of Science and Faculty of Education has still been con-
tinuing to come up with an agreement for upper secondary teacher education. For example,
the undergraduate students attend subject matter courses in Faculty of Science and then take
pedagogical (content knowledge) courses in Faculty of Education at most of the developed
countries, i.e. USA, Germany, England. Despite the fact that this program seems to have been
time efficient for pedagogical courses, this has lacked of motivating them to become the upper
secondary teachers. In fact, motivation and enthusiasms to be a teacher play a significant role
to learn how to teach.
On the other hand, a combined (blended) upper secondary teacher education is available
in developing countries, i.e. Turkey. Moreover, the undergraduate students from Faculty of Sci-
ence may also attend a short-time weekend courses and get teacher training certificate in such
countries. Unfortunately, this type of short alternative way to be an upper secondary teacher has
arised a mission confusion between Faculty of Science and Faculty of Education. For instance,
Faculty of Science’s mission still possesses very dominant idea ‘if someone knows subject mat-
ter knowledge, (s) he transmits this knowledge to the students as well’. Indeed, its mission
does not include supplying the upper secondary teacher education because they principally
concentrate on educating scientists concerning specific research areas. That is, the undergradu-
ate students from Faculty of Science generally see this issue as a second chance to become the
upper secondary teachers. For this reason, prior to decision making of upper secondary teacher
education, competencies of the faculties and their patterns should be checked.
Even though the students at upper secondary teacher education spend much more time
with subject matter courses taught by the lecturers at Faculty of Science - whatever type of the
foregoing models is tracked, Faculty of Education is generally blamed by the teacher quality
if a lack of teaching competency in upper secondary teachers appears. Let’s start to identify
teacher competencies and stakeholders from different countries in Problems of Education in the
21st Century Journal. Later on, why don’t we discuss who is responsible for the upper second-
ary teacher education. Indeed, we now have this journal as a correct place to do the foregoing
issues.
Received: October 23, 2012 Accepted: November 02, 2012
Muammer Çalik PhD, Associate Professor of Chemistry Education, ��

Karadeniz Technical Uni�
versity, Fatih Faculty of Education, Department of Primary Teacher Education,
Trabzon, Turkey.
E-mail: muammer38@hotmail.com
Website: http://ktu.academia.edu/MUAMMERCALIK
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TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE &
ENGINEERING THROUGH ROBOTICS:
SCIENCE & ART FORM
Andrea C. Burrows
University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
E-mail: aburrow1@uwyo.edu
Mike Borowczak
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
E-mail: mike@mborowczak.com
Timothy F. Slater, J. Chris Haynes

University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
E-mail: tslater@uwyo.edu, jhaynes4@uwyo.edu
Abstract
Is the field of computer science and engineering a strict discipline or an art form? The answer is
both. Computer science and engineering concepts are typically found almost exclusively in collegiate
engineering and technology programs. Given its importance across the 21st Century workforce, arguably
these concepts should be taught at all pre-collegiate grade levels. This study, specifically focused on
pre-collegiate teachers’ increased confidence and subsequent use of robotics, indicates that designed
professional development (PD) focused on simple computer programming approaches (e.g. LEGO
MindStorm® kits) can propel pre-collegiate teachers to integrate new, challenging computer controlled
robotics into their instruction. Surveys, content knowledge quizzes, and artifacts show teachers
readily developed sufficient confidence and knowledge in producing lessons embedded with computer
programming and robotics. Targeted classroom-ready instruction and modifiable computer programs
appear to enhance pre-collegiate teacher knowledge of and confidence in robotics use. Considering
overall self-rankings and content, pre-collegiate teacher pre-post scores increased. With these results,
the authors argue why approaching computer science as both a strict science and art form is essential
in PD.
Key words: computer science, education, engineering, robotics and teaching.
Introduction
Pre-collegiate teacher confidence has been established as a necessary condition to

successfully deliver engaging science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
lessons (Cantrell, Young & Moore, 2003; Enochs & Riggs, 1990). In the scope of this work, a
pre-collegiate teacher is defined as someone who instructs students who have not yet entered
the university system. With computer science and engineering becoming an ever more common
part of contemporary standards, teachers are under significant pressure to increase the amount
of integrated STEM taught to students (NRC, 2012). As successful instruction in STEM is an
important component in motivating students to pursue collegiate level studies in STEM, there
exists an urgent need to rapidly upgrade the knowledge and confidence of teachers helping move
students into collegiate STEM career pursuits. Our experiences, supported by research results
presented later in this paper, confirm long held community suspicions that in a professional
development (PD) workshop environment, PD leaders can highlight what initially appear to be
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Andrea C. BURROWS, Mike BOROWCZAK, Timothy F. SLATER, J. Chris HAYNES. Teaching Computer Science & Engineering
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nuances of computer science and engineering as both a science and a vitally important creative 7
endeavor - an art form - after pre-collegiate teacher confidence increases. Additionally, the
authors view the education and learning of pre-collegiate teachers through a social constructivist
lens where the pre-collegiate teachers engage in an active process, build meanings with each
other, create products, and implement content. The field of computer science and engineering
embraces artificial intelligence, computational biology, computer architecture, and graphics
among many other domains, which are ubiquitous across 21st Century society. Our thesis is
that pre-collegiate lessons involving computer science taught through engineering education
design could enhance and promote broad-based student success across STEM classes. This
is consistent with the long held notion that “engineering is an integrative process and thus
engineering education… should be designed toward that end” (Bordogna, Fromm, & Ernst,
1993, p. 3).
Problem of Research
Denning (2005) asserts that computer science “studies information processes both
artificial and natural” (p. 28) whereas “programming, design, software/hardware engineering,
building and validating models, and building user interfaces are all ‘computing arts’” (p. 29).
But whether it is a science or an art form, few pre-collegiate teachers in STEM disciplines have
had significant opportunities to learn the computer science and engineering knowledge base
needed to create and implement contemporary lessons, which integrate STEM concepts for
pre-collegiate students. As much of the current STEM workforce is being trained to be more
flexible and proficient in computer programming and computer science, one could reasonably
argue that school-based STEM should mirror these new focal points. While innately attractive
for pre-collegiate teachers, the typical usage and assignment of the new generation of kit-based
lessons (e.g. LEGO MindStorms®) often revolves around computer programming rather than
a more traditional definition of computer science. The distinction between the two roughly
parallels the usage of calculators to promote arithmetic over mathematics. This is similar to an
aerospace engineer designing a new and untested airplane wing. In theory it might fly, but the
aerospace designer does not have to fly a partially working plane in order to create the wing.
In much the same way, a computer scientist can generate an algorithm or computer code that
can solve a problem in theory, but a computer scientist does not have to work on a computer to
produce successful code.
The impediment to creating and implementing novel, interesting, and applicable
computer science (e.g. robotics) and engineering lessons for students is not the teachers use
of computers, but rather their lack of confidence in tackling the broad knowledge base that
currently exists in the field of computer science and engineering. To expose and examine this
problem in the context of a teacher professional development workshop, the authors gave pre
and post STEM confidence surveys, pre and post content quizzes, and collected artifacts to
highlight a way for teachers to focus on computer programming and computer science to better
accomplish integrated STEM lesson development. The answer to this research problem can
directly inform how PD programs can be most efficient in upgrading teachers’ knowledge,
skills, and confidence in this rapidly growing domain.
It can be argued that the field of computer science and engineering has a growing identity
issue among STEM disciplines. In many circles it is considered a pure subject with its own
disciplinary structure and hierarchy, like traditional biology, chemistry and physics – in others
computer science is considered applied subject matter in lines with other engineering disciplines.
Regardless, a “programming-first” approach is used most often when teaching students computer
science across North America (Cooper, Dann, & Pausch, 2003). In contrast, the authors in
this study used a primary hands-on, trial and error method, also known as bricolage (Ben-Ari,
2001), to expose beginners to computer programming using off the shelf robotics kits.
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8 Research Focus
Recommendations by Bordogna, Fromm, and Ernst (1993) to integrate engineering

include: (a) focusing on the broad educational experience where individual concepts are
connected and integrated, and (b) viewing students as professionals to make engineering more
attractive, exciting, and fulfilling so they connect with the materials. Furthermore, to enhance
the preparation of students to engage in engineering, there is a trend towards increasing the
design component in the curricula (Dutson, Todd, Magleby, & Sorensen, 1997). However,
“design thinking is complex” (Dym, Agogino, Ozgur, Frey, & Leifer, 2005, p. 103). Yet there is
hope for the students of today and tomorrow. Pre-collegiate teachers can increase the numbers
of students interested in STEM and steer students towards STEM careers. Pre-collegiate
teachers now have access to the background and research to bring STEM and thus engineering
design with computer science programming into their classes. As a generalization, “above all,
recognize that more effort needs to be expended on strategies to promote the adoption and
implementation of STEM reforms…” (Fairweather, 2008, p. 28). The authors propose that
lesson plans with strong engineering and computer science content will promote pre-collegiate
teacher use of computer science/engineering lesson development as well as increase confidence
in using computer science and engineering.
The authors used a mixed method methodology, containing quantitative surveys (pre
and post for confidence and content during an intensive, two-week, summer PD intervention)
and qualitative artifacts, and investigated if pre-collegiate teacher confidence in STEM, in
particular computer science and engineering, could be increased through instruction in specific
content where pre-collegiate teachers utilized robotics kits as a connection to engineering design
problems. The authors administered pre-collegiate teacher pre and posttest content quizzes on
a daily basis to track the increase in STEM knowledge as well as collected lesson plan artifacts
to examine for the content presented. With a focus on pre-collegiate teacher confidence, the
authors pursued the following research question: Does confidence level of pre-collegiate
teachers impact their ability to create and implement lessons that use computer programming
and robotics kits as a mechanism to introduce computer science and engineering in classroom
instruction?

Methodology of Research
General Background of Research
In the 2012 summer, 13 pre-collegiate teachers (five elementary, five middle, and three
high) met in a rural western city of the United States for two weeks of intensive PD. The daily
eight-hour PD intervention included pre-collegiate teacher content refresher sessions as well
as laboratory time (Figure 1). First, the content sessions included the following general topics:
astronomy/data encoding, technology/reactions, mathematics/web software, science/GPS,
agriculture/pH, engineering/water quality, engineering/structures (e.g. aviation), engineering/
biomedicine. The PD facilitator experts (the authors of this paper) highlighted STEM integration,
real-world applications, career connections, and societal impacts for computer science and
engineering during each of the content sessions. Second, the laboratory sessions involved the
pre-collegiate teachers building off-the-shelf robotics kits (e.g LEGO MindStorms®) and then
programming the robots on teacher self-determined novice, intermediate, and/or expert levels.
Examples of tasks included making the robot perform the following functions: move, loop, sense
light/sound, track a line, turn around, navigate a maze, and problem solving (e.g. hitting a wall).
The PD facilitator experts were available during laboratory time to assist with programming.
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The facilitators encouraged program development without providing the answers to the pre- 9
collegiate teacher programmers. Consequently, the pre-colligate teachers engaged in content
and programming explanation, discovery, analysis, invention, synthesis and construction which
fall into both science and art form categories according to Denning (2005).
Figure 1: Daily professional development content and laboratory sessions.
Instrument and Procedures
In order to assess the confidence level of pre-collegiate teachers and their ability to
create and implement lessons that use computer programming and robotics kits, the authors
collected three data sets. First, a pre and post STEM confidence survey was administered at the
beginning and ending of the two-week PD intervention. Second, a daily pretest and posttest was
given to the pre-collegiate teachers to determine their STEM content knowledge. Finally, the
authors collected artifacts that included lesson plans and completed robotic programs during the
two-week session. These artifacts are most easily characterized as teacher created material that
fell into three themes, which along with the other two instruments are detailed in subsequent
sections.
Data Analysis
Pre PD intervention and post PD intervention STEM survey data (seven questions)
contained 13 individual responses. Of the seven questions, one focused on self-reported
confidence, four measured perceived self-confidence, and two focused on perceived impact to
student ability. For the pre and post STEM confidence survey data a mean was tabulated with
standard deviations. A set of t-test comparisons determined strong statistical significance (99%
confidence) in self-reported pre-collegiate teacher confidence, while the remaining six pre-post
data sets showed slightly weaker statistical significance (85%-90% confidence).
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10 Pre and post STEM content knowledge quizzes (approximately five content and three
pedagogy questions per quiz) contained 13 individual responses on a daily basis. A mean was
tabulated with standard deviations. A t-test shows with greater than 99% confidence that the
two pre and posttest content knowledge quiz scores data sets are statistically different. Although
the number of participants was small, the number of data points compared was large and the
apparent relative normal distribution among the responses suggests that a t-test is a reasonable
measure, particularly when used as part of a triangulation with other artifacts. Artifacts contained
at least 13 individual lesson plans and final LEGO MindStorm® robotic programs. Some of
the pre-collegiate teachers wrote several lessons and several final robotic programs. In relation
to the artifacts (lesson plans and robotic programs) themes were inductively generated based
on repetition of words for the lesson plans and success of the program for the robots. This
approach, used in grounded theory, is consistent with the analysis methods advocated in the
seminal work by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Emerging major lesson plan themes included:
STEM integration, engineering and design, and encoding.
Results of Research
Pre STEM confidence survey data (Figure 2) shows that nine of the 13 (69%) pre-
collegiate teachers ranked themselves as a novice and four of the 13 (31%) ranked themselves as
an intermediate in STEM and computer programming. None of the teachers ranked themselves
as an expert. After the two-week PD, eight of the 13 (62%) pre-collegiate teachers ranked
themselves as an intermediate and five of the 13 (38%) ranked themselves as experts in STEM
and computer programming within the LEGO MindStorm® platform. It is worth pointing out
that, at the start of the PD, the elementary and high school teachers (data points E1-E5 and
data points H1-H3, respectively) tended to rank themselves as novices, whereas the middle
grades teachers (data points M1-M5) ranked themselves between novice and intermediate, but
after the two weeks there were more self-reported experts in the elementary and high school
teacher groups. The t-test performed between the data sets shows them as statically different (p
< 0.001).
Figure 2: STEM self-reported confidence pre and post-survey data.
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While the self-reported confidence data (the first survey question) shows statistically 11
significant results, the Likert-based STEM confidence results (Figure 3) are not as clear (p <
0.15). Of the other six Likert-based questions answered by the teachers, four focused on their
own confidence with particular STEM concepts while two focused on their perception of their
students’ abilities. A consistent half point bias exists between the teachers’ confidence level and
their perception of their students’ abilities in both the pre and post-survey data.
Figure 3: STEM pre-collegiate self (PC) and student centered (SC) confidence.
Pre and post STEM content knowledge quiz data (Figure 4) show that there was significant
improvement each day as based on t-test values where p < 0.001 (with one exception: data
encoding having a p < 0.015). The content with the greatest percent increase (117%) was pH,
followed by structures 91%, and then water quality at 83%. The least percent increase (17%)
dealt with biomedicine content. The two-week average pretest scores were 57% whereas the
average posttest scores were 88%.
Artifacts including lesson plans (Table 1) show that three major themes emerged including:
STEM integration, engineering and design, and encoding. Robotic programs implemented on
the LEGO MindStorm® platform by the pre-collegiate teachers accomplished the goals of each
level (novice, intermediate, expert). The artifacts consistently reveal that the pre-collegiate
teachers first learned by using facilitator guidance through trial and error (also called bricolage)
and then moving into the logic used by intermediates and experts, although trial and error was
still a part of their learning process.
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Figure 4: STEM content knowledge quiz data showing week (W) and day (D).
Table 1. Lesson plan topics divided into themes (artifact data).

Brief definitions and examples highlight the three main uncovered themes of STEM
content integration, engineering design, and encoding. To the authors of this paper, STEM
content integration implies the linkage of two to four STEM components in a created lesson. For
example, Making Tracks, a middle level lesson employs mathematics through spatial reasoning,
investigates science through ecology and geography, and showcases technology through GPS
and web based tools. To meet the criteria for the second theme of engineering design, a lesson
must include a complete design process from planning, through prototype building, and
iterations of testing. One lesson for high school students, Salt Water to Fresh Water, includes
science as inquiry where students identify a water problem, conceptualize a solution, design a
prototype, build a prototype, and then iteratively test and refine a solution for creating potable
drinking water from salt water. Lastly for the authors, encoding is representing information in
another mode. Arithmetic and Secret Messages, an exemplar lesson from the encoding theme,
captivates elementary students by having them solve basic operations by encoding a message
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for another student and then decoding one that they are given. The authors categorized all of the 13
lessons that the pre-collegiate teachers created using the constructed definitions above. These
lessons are available at http://www.uwrobotics.com.
Discussion
Taken together, these results illustrate that teacher confidence and knowledge can be
enhanced, even when they have little to no formal collegiate experience in these domains. Does
confidence level of pre-collegiate teachers impact their ability to create and implement lessons
that use computer programming and robotics kits as a mechanism to introduce computer science
and engineering in classroom instruction? Simply put, yes it does. As such, this data lends
weight to the ongoing plea to policy makers to provide continued opportunities for high quality
PD for pre-collegiate teachers, particularly in areas that will be new in the Next Generation
Science Standards, which are based on the Framework for K-12 Science Education (NRC,
2012). This research motivates us to pursue more deeply, questions surrounding supporting
teachers’ understanding and implementation of computer science concepts. The recurring core
computer science concepts found in this study are STEM content integration, engineering
design, and encoding.
To inform future pre-collegiate PD programs involving computer science concepts, the
teacher education community needs to consider systematic analysis of the following: (a) gender
in these PD settings, (b) elementary versus high school teacher confidence and content, (c)
elementary versus high school teacher lesson implementation, (d) amount of teacher experience
with computer science versus confidence and implementation of lessons, and (e) a longitudinal
study of these pre-collegiate teachers after a PD like the one described. A clearer distinction
between computer science and computer programming in education should also be highlighted.
Another interesting topic to explore was exposed earlier in the confidence section; elementary
and high school teachers tended to rank themselves as novices (with STEM and computer
programming) in the beginning whereas the middle grades teachers ranked themselves as
intermediate, but after the two weeks there were more self-reported experts in the elementary
and high school teacher groups. Collecting and analyzing data from specific PD experiences
that incorporate computer science would allow researchers to build upon the best practices
that have already been established such as focusing on content, promoting active learning,
fostering coherence with other learning activities, planning time for implementation, and
providing technical support (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Penuel, Fishman,
Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, 2007). Is computer science a strict science or an art form? It is both,
and “its ultimate significance has little to do with computers” (Denning, 2005, p. 29). This
is consistent with what Ben-Ari (2001) states, “Teaching how to do a task can be successful
initially, but eventually this knowledge will not be sufficient” (p. 48). The science of computer
science must be blended with the art form of creativity.
Conclusions
The literature clearly suggests that computer science is in the midst of an identity crisis.
The subject has two distinct ways to advance. One is through strict instruction of the theory
and the other is trial and error innovation. The thesis, related earlier in this paper, stated that
pre-collegiate lessons involving computer science taught through engineering education design
could enhance and promote broad-based student success throughout STEM classes. The results
presented in this paper provide evidence that this can be accomplished. We know that engineering
is a process that integrates STEM subjects, and thus instructors should approach teaching
computer science, which is based both on technique and inventiveness, as a combination of
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14 both strict science and an art form. One without the other is not sufficient. Instructors using this
integrated approach could enhance teachers’ knowledge, skills, and confidence in computer
science. Incorporating real-world applications, like the ones presented in this paper, treating
pre-collegiate teachers as professionals, and offering ways for pre-collegiate teachers to practice
both the science and art form of computer science could create fertile ground for students in
regards to future computer science exploration. Each piece of the knowledge puzzle that includes
content, applicability, perceptions, and practice are essential. The authors asked if confidence
level of pre-collegiate teachers impact their ability to create and implement lessons that use
computer programming and robotics kits as a mechanism to introduce computer science and
engineering in classroom instruction. Yes confidence matters, but practicing computer science
as a technical domain and an art form does as well.
Computer science is based on hierarchical principles as much as it is creative trial and
error practice. It is possible to lead pre-collegiate teachers through the fundamental processes of
the science and art of computer science. With increased confidence and content knowledge the
pre-collegiate teachers are more likely to create and implement computer science lessons with
their students. Thus, the pre-collegiate teachers should be able to create higher quality lessons
with a higher level of computer science complexity to engage their students.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge that this PD was funded by a federal grant
under No Child Left Behind (NCLB) [P.L. 107-110, Title II, Part B] and administered by the
Wyoming Department of Education. Additional funding came from the Wyoming’s Excellence
in Higher Education Endowed Chair Endowment. Special appreciation goes to Richard Sanchez
of Johnson County School District #1 in Buffalo, Wyoming and Donna Governor from the
University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia for their support of this research.
References
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Journal of Engineering Education, 82 (1), 3-8.
Cantrell, P., Young, S., & Moore, A., (2003). Factors affecting science teaching efficacy of pre-service
elementary teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 14, 177-192.
Cooper, S., Dann, W., & Pausch, R. (2003). Teaching objects-first in introductory computer science.
Proceedings of the 34th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer Science Education. New York:
New York, 191-195.
Denning, P. (2005). Is computer science science? Communications of the ACM, 48 (4), 27-31.
Dutson, A., Todd, R., Magleby, S., & Sorensen, C. (1997). A review of literature on teaching engineering
design through project-oriented capstone courses. Journal of Engineering Education, 86 (1), 17-
28.
Dym, C., Agogino, A., Ozgur, E., Frey, D., & Leifer, L. (2005). Engineering design thinking, teaching,
and learning. Journal of Engineering Education, 94 (1), 103-120.
Enochs, L., & Riggs, I. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief
instrument: A preservice elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90, 694-706.
Fairweather, J. (2008). Linking evidence and promising practices in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) undergraduate education. Status Report for the National Academies National
Research Council Board of Science Education. Retrieved from http://www7.nationalacademies.
org/bose/Fairweather_CommissionedPaper.pdf
Garet, M., Porter, A., Desimone, L., Birman, B., & Yoon, K. (2001). What makes professional development
effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38
(4), 915-945.
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Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. 15
New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction Press.
National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practice, crosscutting
concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Penuel, W., Fishman, B., Yamaguchi, R., & Gallagher, L. (2007). What makes professional development
effective? Strategies that foster curriculum implementation. American Educational Research
Journal, 44 (4), 921-958.
Advised by Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Received: September 29, 2012 Accepted: November 11, 2012
Andrea C. Burrows Ed.D. Curriculum and Instruction with Science Specialization, Assistant
Professor of Secondary Science Education,
University of Wyoming
1000 E. University Ave., Dept. 3374, Laramie, WY, 82071, USA.
E-mail: aburrow1@uwyo.edu
Website: http://www.uwyo.edu/seced/faculty-staff/andrea-burrows.html
Mike Borowczak Ph.D. Candidate Computer Science and Engineering, Computer Science
and Engineering Graduate Research Assistant, University of Cincinnati, P.O.
Box 19233, Cincinnati, OH 45219, USA.
E-mail: mike@mborowczak.com
Website: http://secs.ceas.uc.edu/~borowcm
Timothy F. Slater Ph.D. GeoSciences, Endowed Chair of Science Education,

University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Ave., Dept. 334, Laramie, WY,
82071, USA.
E-mail: tslater@uwyo.edu
Website: http://www.uwyo.edu/seced/faculty-staff/timothy-slater.html
J. Chris Haynes Ph.D. Agricultural Education, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education,

University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Ave., Dept. 3374, Laramie, WY,
82071, USA.
E-mail: jhaynes4@uwyo.edu
Website: http://www.uwyo.edu/seced/faculty-staff/chris-haynes.html
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16
PORTUGUESE HIGHER EDUCATION
STUDENT’S COSTS: TWO LAST DECADES
VIEW
Luisa Cerdeira, Tomás Patrocínio, Belmiro Gil Cabrito

University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
E-mail: lcerdeira@reitoria.ul.pt, tpatrocinio@ie.ul.pt, b.cabrito@ie.ul.pt
Lourdes Machado
CIPES, Matosinhos, Portugal
E-mail: lmachado@cipes.up.pt
Rui Brites
Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
E-mail: rui.brites52@gmail.com
Abstract
Based on the Cost-Sharing theory (Johnstone, 1986, 1991, 1992, 2002, 2003), the research on student
costs in higher education (HE) plays an important role in the educational policy, namely concerning
the equity in cost distribution among students, the State and stakeholders. This study is focused on
the socioeconomic characterization of Portuguese HE students and on the research of the costs these
students support, as well as the remaining stakeholders (families, governments/ taxpayers and others),
according to Johnstone’ cost-sharing theory and mobilized the analysis of the results of three nation-
wide surveys in the academic years of 1994-1995 (Cabrito, 2000); 2004-2005 (Cerdeira, 2009) and
2010/2011 (Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012) to three higher education’s students
representative samples (universities and polytechnics, public and private institutions).
The study 1) discusses the contribution of Portuguese higher education students for the HE funding; 2)
analyses the findings coming from a nationwide study concerning the student’s role on HE funding, in
Portugal; 3) places those results in a European perspective.
From the comparison undergone between the data coming from the studies on the higher education
costs in Portugal, it can be verified that on the period 1994-2010 there was a change on social strata
recruitment to HE. In fact, it is possible to realize that the percentage of students coming from rich
strata had increased along the period analyzed, fact that can allow us to question about the equity of
the Portuguese HE System. On the other side, the studies also allow to conclude that the affordability of
Portuguese HE students is minor that homologous indicators taking into account some of the EU and
OECD members.
Key words: accessibility, affordability, financing, HE costs.
Introduction
Higher education (HE) is part of the political agenda of most countries. The main
problems concerning to this education level relate particularly to the social background of
students enrolled and their living conditions as well as its financing. Sociologists such as
Bourdieu & Passeron (1964, 1970) and Bowles & Gintis (1974) call attention to the fact that the
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Luisa CERDEIRA, Tomás PATROCÍNIO, Belmiro GIL CABRITO, Lourdes MACHADO, Rui BRITES. Portuguese Higher Education
Student’s Costs: Two Last Decades View
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school plays social inequalities, by which higher education will tend to be an education for the 17
elite. On the other hand, Boudon (1973) demonstrates the influence of individual heritage on
decision making with strong influence on educational choices. Willis (1977) refers the role that
social origin plays on children futures. Bernstein (1996) turns evident the role of the language
in students‘ success. Prost (1992), in turn, although in another political point of view, refers
that the democratization of education transfers social inequalities from basic and secondary
education to higher education. On the other hand, and bearing in mind the financial difficulties
that governments struggling in recent times, the idea that funding for higher education should
compete the state, students and families, businesses, philanthropists and other stakeholders is
increasing, namely with the Cost-Sharing theory (Johnstone, 1986, 1991, 1992, 2002, 2003)
in Europe. This new thinking about funding higher education is something new in European
countries once the ideas tied to the Providence State stressed education financing to the State
and the taxpayers, through taxation.
In order to understand Portuguese situation concerning the role of the school and
education, particularly Higher Education towards the democratization of the country, namely
to understand changes occurred on higher education some researches had been realized which
aiming to answer to a lot of questions, namely the three following ones: Who are the Portuguese
higher education students? What are the costs of education and life that those students have to
endure? and What is their situation in an international context? The answers to these questions
allow assessing the social composition of Portuguese HE students, education accessibility and
affordability of the system/ATP (ability to pay) and highlight HE student’s situation compared
to their counterparts in other EU countries. Thus, repeating the previous studies by Belmiro Gil
Cabrito in 1994/1995 (Cabrito, 2002) to a representative sample of university students in higher
education, consisting of 2026 students and by Luisa Cerdeira in 2004/2005 (Cerdeira, 2009) to
a representative sample of students of university and polytechnic, consisting of 1040 students,
in order to know who are Portuguese higher education students and to meet the expenses of
the Portuguese students with education, the authors of this article, applied a new questionnaire
between May and June 2011, to a representative sample of students in higher education, a total
of 1040 questionnaires (Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012).
The three researches mentioned above settled down on three samples representative of
students in higher education. All samples are stratified by the variables: type of education (public
university, public polytechnic institute, private university and private polytechnic institute),
course attended, age and gender.
Firstly it has been determined the total number of the students enrolled with at least 2
registrations (otherwise it wouldn´t be possible to have data from the students) distributed by
the institution frequented, the course chosen, age and gender. After this it has been defined
about 20% of the universe. The sample respects for each variable its weight in the universe.
After this, all Portuguese higher education institutions were contacted in order to have
permission to go there and administer the questionnaires.
In order to administer the questionnaires, the researchers displaced to each institution.
In each institution its “sample” was of random composition. The questionnaires were filled
in classes, libraries, or canteens. The questionnaires were always filled in the presence of the
researchers.
In order to determine students social and academical background they are asked to indicate
academic background of their parents as well as their jobs. On the other hand, to determine
higher education costs and their weight in household budgets, and based on Johnstone (1986),
respondents were asked to indicate, according Johnstone education costs’ typology (1986):
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18 - The income of the household;

- The annual costs of living (housing, food, telephone, health, transportation and
personal expenses such as clothing, footwear, health, leisure, etc.);
- The annual costs of education (tuition, enrollment, books and teaching
materials, didactical equipment, field trips).
Social and Economic Composition of Students in Higher Education in Portugal
In the three empirical studies reported it has been included a set of questions that allow
to understand the social structure of Portuguese students in higher education and its evolution.
This set of questions concerned the educational attainment level of parents of students, their
occupation and income. Based on the analysis of the responses social/wealthy composition of
students can be seen in Figure 1.
Source: (*) Cabrito, 2002. (**) Cerdeira, 2009. (***) Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012
Figure 1: Economic background of students in higher education.
Firstly, it should be noted that between 1994/1995 and 2004/2005 there has been an
increase of young people from middle class to do higher studies at the expense of young people
from disadvantaged strata of society. Simultaneously, the strata High/Medium High continued
strongly represented among the student population. These two facts show a strong process of
gentrification of higher education in Portugal, after the attempt of democratization of higher
education that occurred after the Revolution of April 25, 1974, which ended the dictatorship that
dominated the country for almost 50 years. On the other hand, the social structure of students
in higher education has changed dramatically between 2004/2005 and 2010/2011. During this
period, the participation of students from the wealthiest strata of society has more than doubled,
indicating a real process of gentrification of the education system and of the country once the
income gap between the poorer and richer Portuguese people is the bigger among EU members.
Simultaneously, there has been a spectacular decline of youth participation coming from strata
of middle-income students in benefit either richer or poorer students. This situation, which
witnesses the downsizing of the medium strata, is the consequence of disruption of an economic
nature of the country that launched thousands of individuals belonging to medium income strata
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to unemployment (IEFP, several years). Thus, what we really can state is that high and medium 19
high strata is overrepresented in HE students and that higher education is turning more and
more with an elite education (Cabrito, 2004; Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites,
2012).
So what can be said is that the Portuguese higher education is undergoing a significant
decrease in its process of democratization and of building a more equitable system, considering
that students of the strata High / medium high reach more than a third of the total number of
higher education students.
Costs of Education and Life of Portuguese Students in Higher Education
A significant increase in the costs that HE students must do to be enrolled on HE can be

observed between 2004/2005 (Cerdeira, 2009) and 2010/2011 (Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio,
Machado & Brites, 2012). Table 1 shows the waste in euros, of the costs of living, cost of
education and total costs students in higher education in 2004/2005 and 2010/2011 did and the
evolution of total costs in the period, measured in percentage, of total costs.
Table 1. Average total annual costs of higher education students (life, education
and total) in euros and growth of total expenditure as a percentage, in
the period.
2004/2005 (*) 2010/2011 (**) Increase
Type of Institution Education Living Education for total
Living costs Total Total costs (%)
Costs costs Costs
Public University 4.297,30 1.207,80 5.505,10 4.679,00 1.263,00 5.942,00 7,9
Public Polytechnic 4.011,70 1.040,20 5.051,90 4.505,00 1.214,00 5.719,00 13,2
Private University 5.048,10 3.660,20 8.708,30 4.618,10 4.225,00 8.843,10 1,5
Private Polytechnic 4.258,20 3.512,00 7.770,20 5.800,00 4.608,00 10.408,00 33,9
Total 4.286,00 1.841,20 6.127,20 4.690,00 1.935,00 6.624,00 8,1
Source: (*) Cerdeira, 2009. (**) Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012
Private education, both university and polytechnic is more expensive than public
education for different reasons. However, the most important of those reasons is the value of the
fee students must pay in each kind of institution being public ones cheaper than private ones.
Nevertheless, from 2004/2005 to 2010/2011 the situation of all students in higher education
in general has deteriorated, but the increase of total costs has been more visible in polytechnic
education, particularly in the private polytechnic.
Expenditure on Education and Life for Portuguese Students of Higher Education

– Accessibility and Affordability: Implementation of Concept
Firstly let’s explain the concepts used, the concepts of affordability and accessibility.
Accessibility refers specifically to the ability of individuals from any social background have
to get the education they want. Consequently, accessibility is strongly linked to issues of equal
opportunities, fairness and social stratification as mentioned, among others, Usher & Steele
(2006).
Quoting Hill (2003), Usher (2005); Usher (2010), talk about affordability (Ability to pay
- ATP) is to affirm the student’s ability to pay for their education. In practice, the affordability
is related to social, economic and financial conditions of youth and social support provided to
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20 them, since the ability to pay for studies depends crucially on the nature of income sources and
amounts.
Many studies on the accessibility and affordability use GDP as the indicator for the
possible comparability, given the difficulty in finding information on individual or household
income that is capable of international comparison. In fact, GDP and GDP per capita indicators
have been preferentially used in international economic comparisons, because, on the one hand,
cover the entire production produced in a country (though not giving importance to the parallel
economy), partly because indicators are easier to determine and common to all countries. The
use of GDP per capita was then used by Cervenan & Usher (2005) in their study HE Rankings,
Affordability and Accessibility in Comparative Perspective, conducted under the Educational
Policy Institute by Usher & Cervenan in 15 countries.
However, the use of these indicators have been always done with some caution, because,
on the one hand, do not include the richness created in parallel production, which in some
countries are very close to GDP; on the other hand because they represent average values which
are poor indicators particularly in countries with large disparities in income distribution.
Living Conditions of Students in Higher Education
Having made this realization and contextualization of the concepts of accessibility and
affordability, we present the living conditions of Portuguese students in higher education. For
the analysis that follows we note, however, information of a methodological nature. In the
analysis we present, the years taken by reference are not always the same. For most indicators,
the values refer to 2010/2011 year to which they relate the data obtained by questionnaire
application. However, GDP per capita for every country but Portugal is the value for year 2008,
once it is the year of reference in the study by Medow & Usher (2010). For Portugal we always
use 2010 data, because official data is known as well as students’ costs. The use of values for
different dates does not invalidate the analyzes on the one hand because of the proximity of the
dates, and on the other, because the importance of the analysis lies not so much on the absolute
values of different variables, but on their percentage weights in total.
Table 2. Accessibility of Portuguese students in higher education (public and

private, university and polytechnic): costs versus-GDP per capita, in
Euros, net values, 2010.
  Value € % GDPpc
(1) GDP per capita 19198,7 (*)  
(2) Education costs 1.934,83 10.1
(3) Life costs 4.689,62 24.4
(4) = (2) + (3) = Total costs 6.624,45 34.5
(5) Scholarship by student (a) 425,64  
(6) = (4) -(5) = Net cost 6.198,61 32.3
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21
(7) Net Tax deductions (b) 760,00  
(8) = (6) -(7) =Net cost after tax deductions 5.438,61 28.3
(9) Loan by student (c) 0,00  
(10) = (4) -(5) -(9) Total Costs (out of pocket) 6.198,61 32.3
(11) = (10)-(7) Total Costs after tax deductions 2010 5.438,61 28.3
Source: Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012

(*) Corresponding to 25444 USD ppp, the value of PIB per capita in 2010, quoted in OECD. Stat, 19/10/2012,
with 1 USD ppp. = 0.75455€ according to OANDA Currency calculator Rates tm, access on 31/12/2010.
(a) PORDATA.pt access 22/10/2012
(b) In 2010, the government sets family tax deductions in € 760 per child to study.
(c) The existence of a policy loan to study dates back to 2007/2008 with the Mutual Guarantee Loan that the
amounts borrowed in 2010 still did not reach significance values in the real living conditions of students
in higher education. Furthermore, there are no official data about public subsidization on loans borrowed
to the students.
The analysis of figures in the table is very instructive of the effort that students of higher
education and their families need to do to keep studying. In fact, for a family to have an element
to study in Portugal need to spend about 34,5% of GDP per capita. Studying means expenditure
which turns difficult low-income families to make higher education. This explains why in
2007/2008 has been introduced as a policy of social support the Mutual Guarantee Loan. It is a
type of mortgage loan offered by six private banks and a public bank, with subsidized interest
rates and whose guarantor is the State itself. This initiative follows the policy of awarding
scholarships to young people most in need, whose value varies with the level of household
income of the student. It is noted that these grants, because of its low value, represent only a tiny
contribution to the creation of conditions that ensure accessibility and affordability to higher
education in Portugal.
Comparing the Costs of Portuguese Students in Higher Education with those of

Some EU and OECD Counterparts
The tables below compare the situation of Portuguese students in higher education to
students in some OECD countries, according to Usher & Medow (2010) taking into account the
costs that students must do to study and GDP per capita, USD$, current prices.
The analysis of the data in Table 3 allows you to create four sets of countries: the
Scandinavian countries, the countries in continental Europe, the countries of Anglophone
influence and the set of countries consisting of Latvia, Japan and Mexico, among which there
are no apparent links. When we investigate the situation of Portuguese students we can see
that their position is better than New Zeland (9th), England and Wales (10th), Canada (11th),
Australia (13th) and USA (14th) is much worse than the European students, in general, and
particularly the Scandinavian countries.
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22 Table 3. Comparison of costs of education and GDP pc, USD$, current prices
(*).
  Education costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

Norway 596 61332 0,97 1st
Denmark 530 39841 1,3 2nd
Sweden 600 39613 1,5 3rd
France 585 34167 1,7 4th
Germany 933 37115 2,5 5th
Finland 1.243 38080 3,3 6th
Netherlands 3.125 42929 7,3 7th
Portugal 2.564(3) 25444 9,6 8th
New Zeland 3.118 29077 10,7 9th
England and Wales 5288 36059 14,7 10th
Canada 5.974 38985 15,3 11th
Latvia 3.299 17300 (4) 19,1 12th
Australia 7.692 38964 19,7 13th
USA 13.856 46647 29,7 14th
Japan 11.865 33592 35,3 16th
Mexico 5.077 15267 32,3 15th
Source:.(1) Usher & Medow, 2010; (2) OECD.Stat 2011, access on 19/10/2112; (3) Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio,
Machado & Brites, 2012; (4) CIAWorld Factbook (www.indexmundi.com access on 21/08/2012)
(*) with 1 USDppp. = 0.75455€ according to OANDA Currency calculator Rates tm, access on 31/12/2010
With regard to expenses that students perform to their livelihoods (cost of living expenses),
Table 4 clearly shows the terrible situation of Portuguese students among the countries under
review, as only Australia and Japan accuse worse. This indicator reveals indisputably the strong
tension that are Portuguese students in higher education with regard to weight the cost of living
represent the family finances.
However, to better understand the situation of Portuguese students in an international
context we see the figures in Table 5 which compares the total costs of education (education +
life) in different countries and their relationship with their GDP per capita.
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Table 4. Comparison between the costs of living and GDP pc, USD$, current 23
prices (*).
  Living costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

Norway 7.499 61332 12,2 1st
Germany 5.317 37115 14,3 2nd
Netherlands 7.223 42929 16,8 3rd
Latvia 2.924 17300 (4) 16,9 4th
Finland 6.734 38080 17,7 5th
Canada 7.033 38985 18,0 6th
Mexico 3.032 15267 19,9 7th
USA 9.759 46467 21,0 8th
France 7.462 34167 21,8 9th
Sweden 8.665 39613 21,9 10th
Denmark 9.413 39841 23,6 11th
Portugal 6.215 (3) 25444 24,4 12th
New Zeland 7.552 29077 26,0 13th
England and Wales 9.556 36059 26,5 14th
Australia 11.660 38964 29,9 15th
Japan 12.936 33592 35,5 16th
Source: (1) Usher & Medow, 2010; (2) OECD.Stat 2011, access on 19/10/2112;
(3) Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012; (4) CIAWorld
Factbook (www.indexmundi.com access on 21/08/2012)
(*) with 1 USDppp. = 0.75455€ according to OANDA Currency calculator Rates tm, access on
31/12/2010
Table 5. Comparison between the total costs of education (education + life) and
GDP pc, USD$, current prices (*).
  Total costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

Norway 8.096 61332 13,2 1st
Germany 6.250 37115 16,8 2nd
Finland 7.977 38080 20,9 3th
Sweden 9.265 39613 23,3 4th
France 8.047 34167 23,6 5th
Denmark 9.443 39841 23,7 6th
Netherlands 10.348 42929 24,1 7th
Canada 13.007 38985 33,4 8th
Portugal 8.779 (3) 25444 34.5 9th
Latvia 6.223 17300(4) 36,0 10th
New Zeland 10.670 29077 36,7 11th
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24 England and Wales 14.844 36059 41,2 12th

Australia 19.352 38964 46,7 13th
USA 23.615 46647 50,6 14th
Mexico 8.108 15267 53,1 15th
Japan 24.802 33592 73,8 16th
Source: (1) Usher & Medow, 2010; (2) OECD.Stat 2011, access on 19/10/2112; (3)
Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012; (4) CIAWorld Factbook (www.
indexmundi.com access on 21/08/2012)
(*) with 1 USDppp. = 0.75455€ according to OANDA Currency calculator Rates tm, access on 31/12/2010
As might be expected taking into account the expenses that Portuguese students perform
either with education itself or with their everyday life, its position in the international context
is close to the root of the countries of Anglo-Saxon. It appears that the situation of Portuguese
students in relation to its affordability, is in 9th place, and behind Anglo-Saxon countries and
Japan and Mexico, countries highly competitive and with a great weight of private higher
education.
Finally, paying attention to the total expenses of the students/families with their
education, after tax deductions and grants received, it can be noticed that the real situation of
Portuguese students is also only better than their Anglo-Saxon countries, Japanese and Mexican
counterparts (see Table 6).
This last indicator that represents all the costs incurred by higher education students have
already been taken into account the grants and tax breaks is one that takes a more global nature.
Consequently, we can affirm that among the countries under review, the ranking of Portuguese
students in relation to their ability to pay the costs of higher education is the worst revealing a
highly inappropriate with regard to a lot of their colleagues.
Table 6��
. Comparison of the total expenditure of the students received scholar-
ships and the tax deductions, and GDP pc, USD$, current prices (*).
  Net Costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

Norway 6.276 61332 10,2 1st
Denmark 5.229 39841 13,1 2nd
Finland 5.641 38080 14,8 3rd
Sweden 6.056 39613 15,3 4th
Germany 5.821 37115 15,7 5th
Netherlands 8.111 42929 18,9 6th
France 7.274 34167 21,3 7th
Portugal 7208 (3) 25444 28,3 8th
Canada 11.632 38985 29,8 9th
Latvia 5.258 17300(4) 30,4 10th
New Zeland 9.328 29077 32,1 11th
England and Wales 13.772 36059 38,2 12th
USA 19.059 46647 40,9 13th
Australia 17.630 38964 45,2 14th
Mexico 8.020 15267 52,5 15th
Japan 24.802 33592 73,8 16th
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Source: (1) Usher & Medow, 2010; (2) OECD.Stat 2011, access on 19/10/2112; (3) 25
Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012; (4) CIAWorld Factbook
(www.indexmundi.com access on 21/08/2012)
(*) with 1 USDppp. = 0.75455€ according to OANDA Currency calculator Rates tm, access on
31/12/2010
Thus, being in 8th position, the Portuguese higher education students are in a very
disadvantaged situation in the international context, particularly when compared with their
most European colleagues.
Conclusions
Among the various indicators calculated the share of expenditure on education for GDP
per capita shows, for Portuguese students of higher education values close to those encountered
in other EU countries. This can be explained by the fact that two thirds of students in higher
education in Portugal attending public institutions practicing fees relatively low. However, for
other indicators of affordability, which depend fundamentally on the public policies of higher
education funding policies of countries and social in nature, the position of the Portuguese
students is far below that of his colleagues, particularly the Europeans. This situation is quite
the testimony of minor Portuguese governments are giving to higher education.
Indeed, in recent years the policy of financing higher education in Portugal has assumed
an ultra-liberal nature which translates into a decrease in the value of scholarships and the number
of grantees and tax deductions together with the sharp rise of tuition fees in public schools or
either in private education, as well as the price level of goods and services in general. The
analysis showed a very unfavorable situation of Portuguese students in higher education with
regard to the degree of accessibility and affordability, because that sets up an unfair situation in
accessing and staying power of the Portuguese higher education which demonstrates, moreover,
the high degree of social injustice of higher education in the country.
Acknowledgements
The authors deeply thank the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (Fundação Calouste
Gulbenkian) that has funded Project CESTES (a nationwide research on Portuguese higher
education student’s costs in 2010/2011).
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26 Cerdeira, L. (2009). O Financiamento do Ensino Superior Português. A Partilha de custos. Lisboa:

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Advised by Laima Railienė, University of Siauliai, Lithuania
Luisa Cerdeira PhD, Vice-Rector, University of Lisbon, Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013

Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: lcerdeira@reitoria.ul.pt
Tomás Patrocínio PhD, Assistant Professor , University of Lisbon, Alameda da Universidade,

1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: tpatrocinio@ie.ul.pt
Belmiro Gil Cabrito PhD, Associate Professor , University of Lisbon, Alameda da Universidade,
1649-013 Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: b.cabrito@ie.ul.pt
Lourdes Machado PhD, Researcher, CIPES – Centre for Research on Higher Education Poli�
cies, Rua 1 de Dezembro, 399 4450 Matosinhos, Portugal.
E-mail: lmachado@cipes.up.pt
Rui Brites PhD, Invited Associate Professor , Technical University of Lisbon, Rua do
Quelhas, 6 , 1200-781 Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: rui.brites52@gmail.com
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A PROPOSAL TO TEACH LIGHT IN A 27
UNIFIED FRAMEWORK USING THE

FEYNMAN METHOD
Maria de los Ángeles Fanaro, Maria Rita Otero
National University of the Center of the Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
E-mail: mfanaro@exa.unicen.edu.ar, rotero@exa.unicen.edu.ar
Marcelo Arlego
National University of La Plata, Argentina
E-mail: arlego@fisica.unlp.edu.ar
Abstract
The goal of this proposal is to teach the basic aspects of light from the point of view of quantum mechanics
at high school level. To this end, we have adapted Feynman´s Path Integral Method of Quantum
Mechanics. This is a continuation of previous works where we considered the quantum behaviour of
matter. The situations were to promote the conceptualization of the electron as a quantum system, the
probabilistic function and the transition quantum–classic. Now, the goal is to build a new proposal to
teach the behaviour of the light from an actual vision and from a unified model: the quantum mechanics,
from the reconstruction of a reference that also uses the approach Path Integrals of Richard Feynman. It
is adapted for secondary school students using vectors and sums, and it is inserted in a problems context
about the light. Careful and accurate language is used, avoiding terms like photon or expressions like
particles of light or wave-particle duality, because these ideas could present obstacles to understanding
key aspects of quantum theory. This proposal is an alternative to avoid historical approaches commonly
used so far and it is being implemented in two groups of students in secondary school (15-16 years old).
Key words: Feynman method, light, quantum mechanics, secondary school, teaching.
Introduction
Nowadays Physics teachers have the challenge of teaching the basic concepts of modern
Physics in secondary school. The syllabus of many countries (Lobato and Greca, 2005) and the
researches in physics education strongly recommend teaching Quantum Mechanics (Cuppari,
Rinaudo, Robutti, and Violino, 1997; Fischler and Lichtfeldt, 1992; González, Fernández, and
Solbes, 2000; Greca, Moreira and Herscovitz, 2001; Hanc and Tuleja, 2005; Paulo and Moreira,
2004, 2005, Paulo, 2006; Montenegro and Pessoa, 2002; Moreira and Greca, 2000; Müller and
Wiesner, 2002; Niedderer, 1997; Olsen, 2002; Osterman and Moreira, 2000; Ostermann and
Ricci, 2004; Osterman, Prado, and Ricci, 2006, 2008; Pessoa, 1997; Pinto and Zanetic, 1999;
Taylor, Vokos, O’Mearac and Thornberd, 1998; Taylor, 2003). Nevertheless, it is also known
that physics teachers are not well prepared to teach QM concepts. Moreover, textbooks usually
follow a historical line which we are trying to avoid.
The goal of this investigation is to build a proposal to teach the behaviour of light from
the point of view of quantum mechanics. This will range from the reconstruction of a reference
framework based on Feynman `s Path Integral approach to its adaptation for secondary school
students (Arlego, Fanaro and Otero, 2012, Fanaro, Otero, Arlego, 2012). The Feynman method
has been used in previous works for teaching quantum mechanics (Taylor, 1996, Taylor and
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28 Tuleja, 2004; Hanc, 2006, Hanc and Taylor, 2004; Hanc and Tuleja, 2005, Ogborn, Hanc and
Taylor, 2006). Unlike these approaches, the proposal presented here, does not use the term
photon or phrases like particles of light, wave- particle duality, dual behaviour, etc. In this way,
we avoid students interpreting light as “small” particles. The only model which describes all the
phenomena of light is quantum mechanics. The teaching proposal is structured in three parts:
Firstly, a series of experiments showing different characteristics of light is presented. Secondly,
the laws of quantum mechanics for light are introduced and adapted to the mathematical level
of high school students. Finally, the way the laws of quantum mechanics describe the observed
phenomena is analyzed.
Theoretical Frame
Secondary and university level teaching have forgotten that knowledge begins with
questions; as a result, only answers are taught. Therefore, it is essential to focus on teaching
questions and situations as complex tasks in order to teach a ¨living¨ science. To that end, some
conditions must be accomplished to study meaningful questions at school. These questions
should have:
• Cultural and social legitimacy: the questions must be related to the issues
considered relevant by society.
• Physical legitimacy: the questions must be related to basic situations in
Physics.
• Functional legitimacy: the questions must be related to other issues studied at
school, in physics or in other science courses (Bosch, García, Gascón, Ruiz
Higueras; 2006).
QM is transformed when it is taught at a given institution; this is the well-known
phenomenon of didactic transposition (Chevallard, 1992, 1997, 1999). In Physics, there
are many conceptual fields (Verganud, 1990) in which at least one Conceptual Structure of
Reference (CSR) can be distinguished and recognized (Otero, 2006). When a Physics teacher
invites their students to study a specific conceptual field, he or she adopts more or less explicitly
a particular CSR. A CSR is a set of concepts, the relationship between them, the principles, the
affirmations of knowledge and the explanations relative to a conceptual field accepted by the
scientific community of reference. Our investigation rebuilds a CSR based on Feynman’s Paths
Integral method (Feynman, 1965). The CSR adopted will be partially or fully reconstructed by a
class group or by someone who tries to study it in high school, or in basic and advanced courses
at university. Moreover, the researcher in science teaching needs to establish and rebuild a CRS.
On the one hand, he needs to analyze the knowledge that lies in the scientific community and,
on the other hand, the characteristics, constraints and possibilities offered by the institution
where this knowledge will be reconstructed (Otero and Fanaro, 2011).
Any attempt to reconstruct knowledge creates a different conceptual structure for the
components and the relationship between them. In a more or less explicit way, each teacher
of a certain group will reconstruct or select –based on an existing structure– one conceptual
structure to be taught, and, in the best of cases, he or she will invite his or her class to study it. We
coined the term Proposed Conceptual Structure for Teaching (PCST) (Otero, 2006) to describe
a set of concepts, the relationship between them, the affirmations of knowledge, principles and
situations related to a certain conceptual field that the teacher proposes to reconstruct based on
a CSR.
There are characteristic structures related to diverse conceptual fields that are alive,
adapted and accepted into certain institutions. They survive because they are viable. The design,
analysis and rebuilding of a PCST related to QM, viable at high school, is a specifically didactic
objective. The structures are systems (components + organization) that include key concepts,
like the relationships and fundamental principles that tie them together.
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When the Vergnaud ideas about concepts and conceptualization are adopted, the 29
operating and the predicative form of conceptualization both must be included. The implicit
aspects of knowledge are considered by the operating invariants involved in the conservation
of the forms to organize the action. This idea of concepts related to action in all their variations
makes possible to build a bridge to the underlying emotions and feelings, also included in the
conceptual structures. These structures are inseparable from the set of problems and situations
that give sense to them. The PCST has the following components:
Teaching Situations: The situations are formulated around strong, personally, socially,
scientifically, and institutionally relevant questions. The answers to give are provisional, not
immediate, they require a lot of time, and, above all, they do not finish in formal schooling. The
situations must be developed considering the scientific knowledge, the students´ knowledge
and the expected learning outcomes. The students´ knowledge cannot be ignored by the
designed situations. They are the result of a research activity which anticipates and controls
their functioning, adaptability and viability. Teaching situations have an explicit didactic
intention: they carry out activities concerning physical knowledge construction held by the
students and the teacher in the class. The design, implementation and validation of teaching
situations are complex processes, characteristic of the research activity in Physics didactic. In
these processes students’ activity and teachers´ activity are analyzed according to a didactic
framework, a cognitive framework, or both. In spite of this, it is necessary not to confuse the
two ways to evaluate the obtained results.
Key Concepts: These are the main concepts that must be built. They are produced in the
proposed situation and without them the posed problem cannot be resolved. The Vergnaud’s
ideas of concepts are assumed. Concepts are a short list of situations, OI and referents (symbolic
representations).
Key Questions: The situations proposed by the teacher are complex tasks. These situations and
their derived questions will be discussed by the CG. The situations resolution calls for specific
concepts that will be constructed answering the questions.
Emotions: Emotions are dynamic body dispositions determining our action domain (Maturana,
1995). Our conversations affect our emotions and our emotions affect our conversations. The
PCST invites the students to enter upon a knowledge domain, where the denial of the other one
is avoided, and an appropriate emotional dynamics to knowledge construction is built. One
of the main teacher actions comes from acceptance regarding the students´ knowledge, ideas,
conceptions, and room for students’ learning activities.
Actions: They comprise three dimensions: the biological, mental and acting dimension. In the
PCST the last dimension is stressed. The teacher and students’ actions related to knowledge are
of the interest of this research. It is necessary to anticipate which actions are suitable for the
knowledge domain that has been built. The different meanings of these concepts flow from the
system of actions related to them in every domain and situation.
Symbolic representations: They refer to the external representation, verbal and not, used in
language and the systems of symbols used to talk and write about scientific concepts of every
knowledge domain.
The PCST design is a complex process that requires multiple actions and decisions related
to the concepts and principles that could be studied. Which questions and problems would be
more suitable for the conceptualization? What kind of inferences could the students make?
What actions and activities does it hope that the students do? The PCST design involves:
• Analyzing and selecting the key concepts of the conceptual field that will be
reconstructed in the class group (CG);
• Creating the appropriate situations and situations that use software simulation
• Choosing the suitable parameters to avoid actions that could mislead the study.
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30 The teacher and his CG will indeed reconstruct the PCST in a certain and specific
institution generating the Conceptual Structure Effectively Reconstructed (CSER). The CSER is
a set of concepts, relationships between them, principles and affirmations of knowledge related
to a certain conceptual field reconstructed by the CG. The teacher and the students interact in
conversations characterized by an adapted emotional dynamic. Every member of the CG will
relate to a personal conceptual structure and a unique network of personal and private meaning.
Simultaneously, the conversation in the CG will result in the students creating a network of
public and shared meaning. This consensual product is also known as “the process of meaning
negotiation”. This negotiation process can be more or less explicit and conscientious, depending
on the professionalism of the teacher, and the distance between the CSR, the PCST and the
CSER.
Teaching Situations of the Proposed Conceptual Structure
In this part, the Teaching Situations are discussed. It is organized in three stages.
First part: experiments showing different characteristics of light
The aim of this part of the proposal is to expose the students to some familiar physical
experiences in which phenomena of reflection, refraction, and interference of the light
are observed. These are presented in a question context for students and simple classroom
experiments with mirrors, lenses and double slit experiment with semiconductor lasers.
After that a sequence of real images from the double slit experiment with light of very
low intensity is presented to the students. Unlike the previous experience of the double slit,
here it is possible to register individual events of detection; the light is detected on the screen
in discontinuous form. Initially, the individual events seem to be distributed randomly on
the screen. But as time goes the formation of a pattern of maxima and minima, similar to
the previous experience, occurs. In this case the light exhibits a behaviour different from the
previous experiences. In some aspects it seems to be granular, for instance the individual
detection of events on the screen (also the process of emission of the light from the source).
But others showing a wave-like character, as the final pattern of alternated maxima and minima
formed on the screen. This example shows that it is not possible to assign to the light purely
wave or corpuscular aspects, and therefore impossible to reconcile completely with the usual
concept of particle or wave. This characteristic of light is called “quantum behaviour” and it
also applies to what ordinarily it is consided matter (Fanaro, Otero, and Arlego, 2009).
Second part: the laws of quantum mechanics for light from Feynman approach
The approach that is proposed to describe the different aspects of light in a unified frame
is an adaptation of Feynman’s formulation of the sum of all alternatives of quantum mechanics
(Feynman, 1985). This method is presented in form of rules:
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1- Suppose an initial state I and a final state F and different possible paths connecting them, 31
as shown in Figure 1a.
Figure: 1a. Possible paths to connect I with F.
2- We associate each possible path with a unitary vector, called “Probability amplitude”,
whose direction is proportional to the time of travelling from I to F. The proportionality
constant is the frequency of the light, though we will avoid mentioning this term to the
students because it refers to a wave-like model of the light. We will only state that this
constant takes different values depending of “types” of light: red, green, etc.
3-All amplitude of probability vectors associated to different paths connecting I with F must
be added. We call the resulting vector “total probability amplitude”. In Figure 2 (right) the
sum is pictorically shown for selected paths (left)
Figure: 2: Associated vectors and their sum.

4- Finally, the square module of the total probability amplitude gives the relative probability
of light to be detected at F, having been emited at I.
Figure 1: Feynman’s sum of all paths formulation of quantum mechanics for the
light, adapted for high school level.
In principle all paths connecting initial and final states must be considered in the
calculation of the resultanting vector to obtain the probability. This raises the problem of adding
infinite vectors. Nevertheless, it is possible calculate this sum aproximatelly in the following
way. Figure 2 shows some alternative paths and the graphical sum of the vectors. The resultant
vector (green) goes from the beginning of the first one to the end of the last one. As it can be
observed, only the paths around the one of least time (straight line D in the figute) make the
main contribution to the sum (paths C, and E in same figure). All the others tend to statistically
cancel to each other, and they do not contribute to the sum (A, B, F and G).
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32
Figure 2: Associated vectors to some possible paths, and their sum. It can be
observed that the shortest time and its souround are those which con-
tribute to the sum, and therefore to the probability.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
Total Amplitude (IF) = N (cos(2πf tmin ) ; sin(2πf tmin ) , (1)
where N “counts” the contributions of nearby paths to the straight path, and f is the frequency
of the light. A simulation with the software ModellusTM where students can choose different
possible paths connecting the initial point to the final point. For each path selected the simulation
shows the associated vector, and the students have to make the sum of them to conclude that
the most probable path for the light is the straight one, that is to say, the one of least time. Fig.
3 shows a screen captured from this simulation:
Figure 3: That shows the simulation for the Feynman method to the light travel-
ling form I to F.
Third part: the laws of quantum mechanics describe the observed phenomena
Here we describe how Sum of all alternatives method can predict the observed
phenomema associated with light, presented in the first part. We will focus on reflection on a
mirror, refraction and interference, but the method is applicable in more general and complex
situations.
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a) Reflexion of light 33
From Figure 4 it is possible to analyse with the students different paths connecting S with P. It
is simple to conclude that the most probable path is the one of minimal lenght (or least time).
For that path, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Figure 4: Analysis of some paths that could be reflected by the mirror, the as-
sociated vectors and the sum for the reflection in a mirror. With a red
oval, the contributions to the sum are stand out.
A second simulation was created with the software ModellusTM to analyze reflection.
Here students can choose different possible paths connecting the source with the detection
point, and add them to obtain the amplitude of probability. There are two relevant aspects to
consider.
Firstly the least time path is the most probable, since around this one neighboring paths
contribute with almost same phase (red ellipse in Figure 4). This is consistent with the Fermat
least time principle of geometrical optics.
Secondly, quantum mechanics go beyond Fermat principle, and states that the least time
path is the most probable but not the only one possible. In other words it predicts reflexion
at points that violate incidence angle = reflection angle. This was also analyzed with this
simulation, although it is not shown here.
b) Refraction law
From Figure 5 it is possible to analyse with the students the paths, the sums and to
conclude that the most probable path for the light crossing air to water is one whose time trip is
minimal. For that path, the angle of refraction varies with respect to the angle of incidence such
as the time is minimal, instead of the length of the path.
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34
Figure 5: Analysis of some paths, the associated vectors and the sum for the
refraction. With a red oval, the contributions to the sum were stand
out.
Here, another simulation with the software ModellusTM has been performed. The students
can choose different possible paths connecting the source to the detect point, when the light pass
from the air to the water. For each path selected the simulation shows the associated vector, and
the students have to make the sum of them for to find a description of the refraction phenomena
experimentally observed, using the framework of the alternative paths of Feynman.
c) Explaining the individual detections and the pattern of the double slit experience using the
Feynman method:
The proposal to the students is to analyze the double slit experience, considering the
individual detections of the light. Remembering that initially the detections of the light seemed
to be random, but with the time, one began to notice a distribution: there were some places
where there was a great quantity of detections, and places where it had not, or there were
very few ones, detections of light. The question asked to the students is: How calculate the
probability of detecting the light for every place of the screen? The method of considering
the alternative paths of the quantum mechanics must be used. The scheme of the experience
showed in Figure 6 allows calculating the probability of detecting light in a certain place of the
screen, to a certain distance, let’s say x, of the center of the screen:
Figure 6: The paths, the associated vectors and the sum for the double slit ex-
perience.
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The vectors contributing for the probability, are those identified with the direct paths 35
(which time is minimal) and a finite set of vectors associated with the nearby ways, let’s say
“n”. That is to say, in the calculus of the probability there will be necessary to consider n times
the vector which angle is proportional to the minimal time, to the square:
= N (1; k.t1)
Where k is a proportional constant (in fact, k = 2πf but with the students is better do not use the
term frequency because it is a term proper of the ondulatory model) and t is the time to
go from slit 1 to the detection screen. In Cartesian coordinates:
Analogous for the other slit:
Now, the sum of both vectors must be done for to obtain the total amplitude:
Realizing the sum of the vectors, and then raising the result to the square, the following
expression is obtained for the detection of the probability in certain place x of the center of the
screen:
 kt − kt 1 
P( x) ∝ cos 2  2 
 2 
Expressing the probability in function of the geometry situation,
and replacing the time for each case: t2=R2 /c y t1=R1 /c . Then, kt2 - kt1 = R2 /c - R1 /c = (R2- R1)/c
(see schema of the experience)
Then the final expression is:
 R − R1 
P( x) ∝ cos 2  2 
 2c 
Making more geometric considerations and expressing the
path difference R2 - R1 like a function of the separation between the silts (d) and the distance
between the screen D. Therefore, considering that D>>d:
x
R2 − R1 = d
D
Replacing this expression in the equation of P(x):
 kd 
P (x) ~ cos2  . x
 2cD 
This is the expression of the probability to detect light to a distance x to the
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36 centre of the screen. This is the prediction of the quantum mechanics. It must be analyzed if
it is the same that is obtained from the experience. The previous expression of P (x) allows
concluding that the probability function has maxima and minima, and so, these are the maxima
and minima noted on the screen.
Conclusions
An alternative method for teaching the basics and fundamental concepts of QM was
presented and a sequence of teaching situations focused on the behavior of the light was
designed. This sequence seems a good teaching strategy because the concepts and principles
of quantum mechanics are directly approached using physical experiences, questions and
problems. For instance, is very important to show that it is not possible to associate the light
with purely ondulatory or purely corpuscular aspects and therefore it is not possible to reconcile
the concept of light completely with everyday concepts of wave or particle.
This proposal has been successfully implemented with two groups of students of the
secondary school (15-16 years old), of two different schools. At the moment, the data are being
analyzed, but it is possible to conclude that the sequence of situations proposed was viable
because the students have reconstructed the fundamental notions of the quantum mechanics,
and they have well arrived at the end of the sequence. They accepted the challenges and the
proposed problems; they realized the experiences in the classes and they interpreted them;
they used the simulations supported by ModellusMT and they made adequate conclusions of the
nature of the light.
Notes
1- The Double slit experience with very low intensity light online is available in
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MbLzh1Y9POQ
2-The course is available at http://advancingphysics.iop.org/about_the_course/as_course.html

(Chapter 7. Quantum Behaviour)
Acknowledgments
National Council of Scientific and Technical Researches. (CONICET). http://www.conicet.gov.

ar/
Nucleus of Research in Education in Science and Technology (NIECyT). Faculty of Exact
Sciences, National University of the Center of the Province of Buenos Aires (UNCPBA).
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Chevallard, Y. (1997). Familière et problématique, la figure du professeur. Recherches en Didactique des 37
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Hanc, J., Taylor, E. F. (2004). From Conservation of Energy to the Principle of Least Action: A Story
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Ciencias, España.
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a Interpretação de Copenhagen e o Problema da Diversidade de Propostas de Inserção da Física
Moderna e Contemporânea no Ensino Médio. Tesis Doctoral.
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Quantum Theory. Computers in Physics, 12, 190-199.
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com
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theory. Computers in Physics, 12 (2), 190-199.
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Vergnaud, G. (1990). La théorie des champs conceptuels. Recherches en Didactique des Mathématiques, 39
10 (2/3), 133-170.
Maria de los Ángeles Fanaro Ph.D in Science Education, University of Burgos, Spain. Nucleus of
Research in Education in Science and Technology. Teachers’ formation De�
partment, Faculty of Exact Sciences, National University of the Center of the
Province of Buenos Aires (UNCPBA), Assistant Researcher of the National
Council of Scientific and Technical Researches. (CONICET), Argentina.
E-mail: mfanaro@exa.unicen.edu.ar
Website: http://mariaangelesfanaro.sites.exa.unicen.edu.ar/
Maria Rita Otero Ph.D in Science Education, University of Burgos, Spain. Nucleus of
Research in Education in Science and Technology, Teachers’ formation
Department, Faculty of Exact Sciences, National University of the Center
of the Province of Buenos Aires (UNCPBA). Independent researcher of
the National Council of Scientific and Technical Researches (CONICET),
Argentina.
E-mail: rotero@exa.unicen.edu.ar
Website: https://sites.google.com/site/mariaritaotero/
Marcelo Arlego Ph.D in Physics, National University of La Plata. Institute of Physics la Plata
(IFLP), UNLP.
Assistant Researcher of the National Council of Scientific and Technical
Researches, (CONICET), Argentina.
E-mail: arlego@fisica.unlp.edu.ar
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40
DISTANCE, REMEMBRANCE, TOLERANCE:
EUROPEAN REMARKS ON CONTEXTUAL
CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
Geert Franzenburg
University of Muenster, Germany
E-mail: franzenburg@t-online.de
Abstract
Individuals, groups and communities are coping with conflicts and crisis, which include the diversity
of lifestyles. This statement can be made in different ages and cultures; it becomes of interest when
combined with a church or confessional context. Therefore, the first issue and authority for Christian
education is how to develop opportunities to find one’s own ways of remembering leading to a tolerant
attitude towards other ways of life. The study underlines the importance of the contextual approach
in Christian education (consisting of religious, systemic, biographical and intercultural research) by
analyzing examples of different European traditions. Decoding, deconstructing and reconstructing
coping strategies and cultures of remembrance in a contextual way make sure that only by facilitating
opportunities of sharing experiences people and organizations can learn to cope with transitions and
difficulties in a reasonable and equitable manner.
Key words: Christianity, culture, Europe, remembrance, tolerance.
Introduction
The following study is an example to perform a tolerance-curriculum for an intolerant

area by analyzing Christian examples from European past and present times, examples of
human biographies and religious communities from a Protestant point of view.
Following the model of social-integrative education in school (Tausch & Tausch, 1998)
and the interpretive approach of religious education (Jackson, 1997), this concept of mutual
and common learning of pupils with different resources should be transferred into the context
of parishes. It further should be integrated together with the approaches of intercultural training
(Auernheimer, 2003; Borelli, 1986), of encounter-groups (Nieke, 2000) and project-work
(Warwitz & Rudolf, 1977) into a concept of intercultural tolerance-education, which combines
recognition and equality (Auernheimer, 2003) as principles in an universal and relativistic sense
(Honneth, 1994).
Tolerance in an Intolerant World
The daily news show that many attempts to implement more understanding between
individuals, groups, religions and nations failed during the last centuries and still fail.
The need to learn tolerant attitudes towards other points of view can be noticed either in
single biographies - as stages of transitions, conflicts between generations and in relationships
- or social contexts – as transitions in society, conflicts between groups, communities, nations,
religions, cultures. Therefore, it intends intercultural training, as well as the ability to share
one’s own convictions and traditions in a non-violent approach with others.
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Because such conflicts and challenges depend on contexts, such as communicative 41

situations, discourses, encounters, historical and social conditions, the process of contextual
education is an essential facilitating strategy to cope with them.
Tolerance by Contextual Christian Education
Based on the author’s research on Christian education in the German (Franzenburg, 2010)
and the European context (Franzenburg, 2011), the focus in this paper is on the interdependence
between biographical and systemic approaches and on the importance of Christian education
for implementing a curriculum of learning tolerance in communities.
Contextual Christian Education as a Way towards Tolerance
The following study underlines the value of contextual education in Christian communities
and groups with children, pupils and adults. It depends on the concept of collective identity
(Gergen, 1991, Giddens, 1991) and the Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
The analysis of published and unpublished educational and church-oriented texts
and of narrative interviews with members of Christian communities suggests the following
considerations:
Contextual Christian Education as a Categorical System
Contextual Christian education integrates biographical, systemic, narrative and

phenomenological approaches. It is a way of holistic teaching and collaborative learning, and
a way to test and evaluate phenomena of human attitudes following stages of transitions in the
biographical and social dimension. These stages develop a categorical system of biographical,
systemic and dialogical attitudes, which can be transferred into the cultural context of
geographical and historical situations.
Stages of Transitions
Tolerance and intolerance both begin in early childhood. The development into the one
or the other process depends on the way how parents and other adults behave. When their
actions and reactions towards the individual child and his/her brothers and/or sisters attempt
to treat them in the category of justice or partnership, the children can become more tolerant
towards each other.
Children learn from the attitude of their parents and other adults towards foreign people
(Noack, 2001). Therefore, it is useful for adults to accept their role as models for their children.
Concerning the curriculum of tolerance-learning, these observations suggest the recognition
of imitation learning as an educational category. This can be exercised in institutions like
the family-centers or public schools, where the different generations and cultures meet and
gain experiences with foreign attitudes and points of view by using the model of intercultural
dialogue (Franzenburg, 2010).
For adolescents coping with the search for identity is a significant challenge; therefore,
they need the support of adults and peer-groups and depend on their recognition or appreciation
(Erikson, 1968). These authorities can assist them in developing self-efficacy (Bandura,
1995).
For older adults, there is not only the responsibility and challenge to care for children
but also for themselves. There are situations in life, when people become aware of their
limitations and encounter with their “shadows”. In such situations, the category of neutral and
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42 value-free perception becomes crucial. On the way to integrate past, presence and future in a
context-conform identity (Oerter and Dreher, 2002), people have to recognize all aspects of
their biography without discrimination. Adults, who teach to distinct between perception and
interpretation, help younger people to encounter with others in an open-minded manner.
This can be exercised in parishes and communities, where people with different capacities
and resources (cognitive, physical, and communicative) encounter to develop a common project
by using the category of diversity by sharing experiences and mutual enrichment.
Retired persons recognizing the limitation of life have to find out perspectives and
attitudes, which help them to cope with this challenge in an adequate way; this could be by
training their inner capacities and resources and considering the value of their experiences
with the category of remembrance and reflection. Therefore, the concept of cultural memory
(Assmann, 1992) is helpful.
Sharing experiences for a culture of remembrance or a mentoring system can encounter
the generations and promote historical thinking. This can be experienced in all institutions,
where different generations encounter such as Family center, school, parish, and community.
These stages suggest the integration of systemic, biographical and dialogical approaches
to develop a tolerance-based and tolerance-oriented curriculum, which integrates aspects of the
past (remembrance), presence (distance) and future (acceptance).
Sampling Categories of Experience
By sampling and analyzing examples of individual and social experiences in European

Christian contexts, following e.g. the history of the Leuenberger Konkordie (Hüffmeier, 1993)
or the REDco project (Weisse, 2007), certain categories of experiences of coping strategies
and attitudes become obvious: justice and partnership, model learning, neutral perception,
diversity by sharing and mutual enrichment, remembrance and reflection, sharing experiences.
Considering experiences facilitates teaching and learning situations and develops a curriculum
by using such categories. The catechetical tradition is such an approach, which demonstrates the
value of categories of experience. Therefore, texts from and narrative interviews with German
speaking parishes in Europe, concerning church life and biographical events, underline the
importance to recognize their educational impacts and consequences. The data and narratives
lead to a curriculum with the focus on implementing tolerant attitudes towards own and foreign
experiences, attitudes and values.
Such categories of experience are part of the main dimensions of human existence:
System, dialogue and biography, which can be recognized as theoretical approaches towards a
tolerance-curriculum.
Existence means to exist as an individual together with other individuals within a
certain system; therefore, to become tolerant by remembrance means to share experiences with
others within a certain framework. Therefore, a tolerance-curriculum should recognize these
dimensions as approaches and the categories, which they impact, as its matrix: status and role
for the systemic approach, perception and interpretation for the dialogical, and memory and
character for the biographical approach.
For the topic of tolerance and remembrance within the systemic dimension, the aspects
of status and role are essential: People remember and experience themselves as persons playing
certain roles and following internal and external expectations.
In order to become tolerant towards foreign and contradictory attitudes, people should
learn to play with roles and status-aspects in certain aspects:
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Support versus Superiority or: Partnership Is No Hierarchy 43
Learning tolerant attitudes means to tolerate and appreciate foreign attitudes and points
of view as enrichment and complement. From a systemic and spiritual point of view, the other
is essential for me to become a fully functioning person (Buber, 2008; Rogers, 1961).
Invitation versus Imitation or: Learning Is No Copy-Making
If learning tolerant attitudes means to tolerate, what seems foreign and strange, learning
has to become an invitation to make experiences and not attempt to spread mainstream
knowledge. Therefore, strengthening the individual abilities and resources instead of standard-
behavior and knowledge-canon are essential approaches towards tolerance.
Following the dialogic action approach (Freire, 1970); the aspects of perception and
interpretation are necessary: People remember and experience themselves in communication-
situations, where words, tones, texts, subtexts and body-language become a part of the situation
by interpretation. Therefore, in order to become tolerant towards foreign and contradictory
messages and convictions, people should learn to play with such situations and should avoid
false interpretations.
Interperception versus Interpretation or: Mutual Awareness Avoids Conflicts
In order to learn tolerant attitudes people have to avoid stereotypes, which often lead
to conflict situations (Bar-Tal and Teichmann, 2005). Therefore, to become aware of one’s
own and of the foreign character and attitudes, not by rumors, prejudice or interpretation, but
by pure mutual perception, is crucial. Perceiving behavior with critical appreciation avoids
discrimination of persons and their imagined intentions.
Enrichment versus Embarrassment or: Foreign Attitudes as Complements
When people do so, foreign and strange behavior of others and their attitude become
less challenging, threatening or embarrassing, but can be recognized as enrichment and
complement.
Following the biographical approach, the aspects of memory and character are essential:
People remember and experience themselves by reconstruction situations in which they acted in
a certain way (Rosenthal, 1995). By doing so, they often rather are deconstructing by forming
their own self that might be agreeable for other persons. In order to become tolerant towards
foreign and contradictory aspects of their real self, playing with one’s constructs can avoid the
false shame and role-play.
Re-creation versus Reconstruction or: Memories as Actual Constructions
In this sense, learning tolerant attitudes also means to find out alternative approaches
towards one’s own experiences in the past. Remembering is not reconstructing events that
happened, but the actual construction of the importance of an experienced event for the actual
situation. Therefore, memories should be used as experiences that manifest their wealth and
richness just in the moment of sharing, of creative and common de- and reconstruction as re-
creation (Rosenthal, 1995).
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44 Sharing versus Shame or: the Art of Feedback
An open-minded and mutual accepting attitude is crucial for learning tolerant attitudes.
Such framework improves the self-confidence that is necessary to reveal oneself towards
others.
These theoretical considerations should be exemplified by the aspects of European
historical situations, traditions, discourses, and memory cultures, in order to demonstrate, how
tolerance can be taught in a non-directive, experience- and community oriented holistic and
sustainable manner, e.g. by using the global and integrating ritual of prayer (Franzenburg,
2011).
Historical Situations
Regarding the religious situation in Europe, the four stages are obvious, which can be
compared with an individual biography: National and cultural identity and collective memory
have to do with indigenous, childlike culture. In the following development, other influences
become obvious like social impacts on adolescents or young adults.
During the middle ages, Christian mission mostly succeeded against the rural religion
and established its own value and confessional system.
In times of Reformation, a more autonomous style substituted a greater or smaller part of
the Christian people like the autonomy of older adults (see Luther’s catechisms).
The final stage is the challenge to find one’s own way of spiritual life by integrating
their indigenous religion their roots with the experiences of church-oriented (Catholic or
Orthodox) and individual (Lutheran or Reformed) tradition, and with their own considerations
and critique.
Every single stage can live tolerance or fall into an intolerant attitude towards other
confessions and spiritual practices. Therefore, to practice partnership without any hierarchy is
an essential step in this process towards tolerant attitudes.
During the change of different historical ages and paradigmatic terms, a complementary
attitude towards former rituals, theories and confessions can help to develop a tolerant point of
view.
Such attitude prefers to invite others to share experiences and knowledge instead of
suggesting dogmatic formulas. Like the early mystics became aware of secret rituals and
of pagan knowledge, and like the Reformation depended on the biblical and early Christian
tradition, modern Christian education keeps the treasure of multicultural and ecumenical
rituals and implements dialogical structures in communities. Therefore, other cultures - within
a religion or external - become a complementary enrichment for the own confession and an
invitation to consider one’s own traditions and convictions as living and actual treasures, which
can be shared without any shame or stereotypes.
Religious Traditions
The evaluation of the Diaspora situation of Lutheran parishes (Gustav-Adolf-Werk,

1966-2010) underlines the importance of cultural identity and cultures of remembrance:
The different religious stages in the history of nations imply certain religious traditions,
which show different confessions, rituals, and attitudes, which also influence the process
towards tolerance or intolerance: The indigenous tradition underlines the value of nature and
landscape and gives them a transcendent character. Especially in the Scandinavian and Baltic
countries this attitude can be noticed until modern times and influences the religious life, e.g.
by nature rituals.
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The Catholic tradition underlines the value of the institution and gives it a transcendent 45
character. Especially in Mediterranean countries the Catholic Church demonstrates the enormous
power and influence into families, society and individual life.
The Orthodox tradition underlines the value of liturgy and gives it a transcendent
character. This can be noticed especially in Rumanian or Bulgarian or Greek parishes during
services.
The tradition of the Reformation underlines the value Gods Word and gives it a
transcendent character. Especially in Germany, Switzerland, the BENELUX countries, Bohemia
and Denmark with its Scandinavian and Baltic neighbors, can be noticed, how Christian life
develops by Christian schools, Christian education (catechism) and doctrines.
Similar the Pietism tradition underlines the value of Christian behavior and gives it a
transcendent character. Coming from a Lutheran or Reformed tradition the doctrine and the
message should be deepened and strengthened
The tradition of modernity, influenced by the age of enlightenment and industrialization,
underlines the value of individuality and progress and gives them a transcendent character.
This can be noticed in secular societies, especially in Eastern Europe.
All these different traditions are to be used as parts of a universal treasure, which can be
shared in an open-minded atmosphere of partnership and tolerance. That means that common
projects can be organized, which recognize the historical circumstances and individual coping
strategies (Franzenburg, 2011).
Such projects could be common youth projects between Germany, Poland and Latvia,
remembering the Shoa or concerning the life of Baltic refugees in Germany; also workshops in
non-violent communication and work camps for restoring Jewish or War- cemeteries in Eastern
Europe help to become aware of the emotional, biographical and social impact of historical
events.
Such projects can foster mutual understanding and awareness and avoid stereotypes and
teach how to distinguish between action and actors, individual, communicative and cultural
memory and to implement the cultures of remembrance by analyzing different discourses.
Cultures of Remembrance
Experiences, which people and communities made in historical contexts, integrate the
framework and tradition into a culture of remembrance and influence the cultural identity of a
person and a group. Such cultures of remembrance find their expression in adapted rules and
rituals, narrations and discourses. An important method to analyze them is oral history: By
interviews or archival research, people learn to different dimensions of experiences into their
own attitude.
If learning tolerant attitudes means to tolerate, what seems foreign and strange, learning
has to become an invitation to make experiences and not attempt to spread mainstream
knowledge.
Therefore, strengthening the individual abilities and resources instead of standard-
behavior and knowledge-canon are essential approaches towards tolerance (Forum Politische
Bildung, 2010).
In order to learn tolerant attitudes people have to avoid stereotypes, which often lead to
conflicts. Therefore, to become aware of one’s own and of the foreign character and attitudes
not by rumors, prejudice or interpretation, but by mutual (inter-) perception is crucial.
Perceiving behavior with critical appreciation avoids discrimination. Therefore, foreign
and strange behavior of others and their attitude become less challenging or embarrassing and
can be recognized as enrichment and complement.
In this sense, learning tolerant attitudes also means to find out alternative approaches
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46 towards one’s own experiences in the past. Remembering is not mere reconstructing events that
happened, but the actual construction of the importance of an experienced event for the actual
situation. Therefore, memories should be used as experiences that manifest their wealth and
richness just in the moment of sharing, of creative and common de- and reconstruction as the
process of re-creation (Assmann, 1992; Rosenthal, 1995; Erll, 2005).
An open-minded and mutual accepting attitude is crucial for learning tolerant attitudes.
Such framework improves the self-confidence that is necessary to reveal oneself towards
others.
This attitude can transform and integrate individual experiences not only in a common
culture of remembrance, but also in a cultural identity (Snow, 2001).
Results
In historical situations, discourses and cultures of remembrance in different European

countries certain strategies to become more tolerant towards foreign and strange convictions,
messages and behavior, can be noticed. They remind of transitions in human life: coping with
one’s own and the other persons’ status and role, to interpret perceptions according to one’s own
speculations and expectations, remember events according to other persons’ expectation.
In such situations of biographical or cultural transitions from one influence to on other
tolerant and intolerant attitudes towards oneself and others are possible solutions. Therefore,
the process towards a tolerant cultural identity of individuals as a group or encounter should be
facilitated by a curriculum, which integrates open-minded and mutual learning and awareness,
sharing and communication:
Young and elder people encounter in an atmosphere of mutual acceptance and equal
partnership for intergenerational learning. Following models of tolerant behavior from biblical
and historical tradition, and comparing them with their own biography, help people accepting
their own limitations and becoming aware of the framework for this process.
Within the framework of biographical, social and systemic influences, people become
aware of the richness of their fellows and peer-groups and integrate their experiences into a
culture of acceptance and mutual understanding.
Therefore, a curriculum for this learning process should recognize the following aspects:
Responsibility by Common Remembrance
Tolerance-oriented work with young persons (children, adolescents, pupils) means

to recognize the responsibility of the participants by esteeming individual experiencing and
searching for common experiences behind. Concerning adult education the focus is more on
memories and the search for a common culture of remembrance by finding combining and
integrating rituals
Communities by Common Contexts
Such culture of remembrance and cultural identity is developing in classroom, long

term workshops, encounter-groups and parishes by establishing common rituals, narratives
and symbols, e.g. Remembrance days, reconciliation pictures and gestures, reconciliation or
remembrance trees, common meals, etc.
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Chances by Sharing 47
Within these frameworks, intercultural dialogues become possible, not only between
different nations or religions, but also between different peer-groups, milieus and generations.
Discussion
The comparison of different historical, cultural and biographical traditions of Christian

education and their impact on tolerance-education suggests decoding, deconstructing and
reconstructing coping strategies and cultures of remembrance in a contextual way; thus it
facilitates opportunities to share experiences, which help people and organizations to cope with
transitions and crisis and their multicultural character in a constructive and tolerant way.
The study invites researchers and teachers of Christian education to consider how to de-
and reconstruct cultural, individual and social constructions and how to assist others developing
common constructions of tolerant inter-cultures.
In order to facilitate opportunities of tolerance-learning in an interreligious, intercultural
and/or intergenerational context, the following methods, adapted to work with pupils or adults,
are helpful:
- International newspapers help to facilitate contact with strangers (Apel, Knoll, 2001).
- Performing Kleist’s famous Ring-Parable facilitates discussions about “Welt-Ethos”
(Küng, 1990).
- Analyzing political programs from contradictory systems such as Hitler vs. Stalin or
Capitalism vs. Socialism, facilitates historical thinking and intercultural competence (Arendt,
1951).
Contextual Christian education facilitates cultures of remembrance and opens them for
global comparison and sharing by recognizing the cultural memory of communities and groups
(Cornelißen, Klinkhammer, Schwentker, 2004; Eisenstadt, Giesen, 1995; Forum Politische
Bildung, 2010). When people are able to communicate both further on in a global intercultural
dialogue, this also can avoid Europe-centered Orientalism (Said, 1978; Yousefi, 2006).
Conclusions
Following this invitation, further research and practice in Christian education can
transfer the consequences from this research into actual educational work. Therefore, it is
helpful to recognize the European framework for constructive cultures of remembrance and the
biographical context of constructive Christian education.
References
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48 Buber, M. (2008). Ich und Du. Mit einem Nachwort von Bernhard Casper. Reclam, Stuttgart.
Cornelißen, Chr., Klinkhammer, L., Schwentker, W. (Eds.) (2004). Erinnerungskulturen. Deutschland,
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Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation,
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Yousefi, H.R., Fischer, K., Braun, I. (Eds) (2006). Wege zur Kommunikation. Theorie und Praxis
interkultureller Toleranz, Traugott Bautz, Nordhausen, 19-48.
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Advised by Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland 49
Received: August 05, 2012 Accepted: November 27, 2012
Geert Franzenburg M.A. (Adult Education), Lecturer, University of Muenster, Eichenaue 5, Germany.
E-mail: franzenburg@t-online.de
Website: http://www.uni-muenster.de/en/
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50
ANALYTICAL STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE
PREFERENCE USING THE PEDAGOGICAL
EPISTEMOLOGY OF EDUCATION
FRAMEWORK OF QUANTITATIVE,
QUALITATIVE, AND PERFORMATIVE
KNOWING AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS IN THAILAND
Sudgasame Jantaraweragul
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
Ivy Tech Community College, Bloomington, Indiana
E-mail: jantaraw@indiana.edu
Noy S. Kay
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
E-mail: noyskay@indiana.edu
Abstract
The basic research dilemma of the present study relates to the assumption that every individual can learn,
not based on a personal innate intelligence but what and how a person learns to acquire intelligence.
The investigation involved developing an instrument to detect the trait of basic knowledge through
knowing factors that form a student’s knowledge preference. Furthermore, the study attempted to analyze
the association between knowledge preference and the student’s nurturing culture and environmental
influential factors. The assessment of tacit knowledge is to gain information that has been influent student’s
learning formally or informally. Student early characteristics of the knowledge learning preference can
be derived from different sources of knowing, for instance, the biological heredity procession in family,
language, thinking process, perception, and frames of thought. A test named the Knowledge Preference
Test was developed, and it consisted of 50 items. It statistically received a reliability coefficient of 0.91.
The study participants included 2 017 secondary school students in Thailand. The study found significant
association patterns among knowledge preference, student biological and cultural status, and some areas
of student achievement.
Key words: basic knowledge, biological matrices, cultural matrices, learning styles, pedagogical
epistemology of education, performative knowing, qualitative knowing, quantitative knowing.
Introduction
A basic knowing is not uncommonly recognized by educators as a foundation of

learning through sensational reception from the beginning of life, especially later on before
and during the school age. However, in reality, societies surge the demands for school systems
to focus on the otherwise. The cognitive status of basic knowing is that characterize a unique
entity are its qualities; basic knowing yields qualitative knowledge: recognitive, acquaintive,
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Sudgasame JANTARAWERAGUL, Noy S. KAY. Analytical Study of Knowledge Preference Using the Pedagogical Epistemology of
Education Framework of Quantitative, Qualitative, and Performative Knowing among Secondary School Students in Thailand
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and appreciative. When these types of knowing are considered from the learner’s perspective, 51
a certain requirement specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions of evident to judge that
a learner has come to know. Furthermore, basic knowledge is the kinds of knowledge that a
student processes from the beginning. It cannot be directly taught but it can be brought to
realization. This fundamental asset, it gradually helps his/her learning be formulated a trait of
preferences via teaching and the studenting process. The learning product is being delivered
through education settings in the forms of quantitative, qualitative, and performative knowledge
(Steiner, 1988). Including the basic and non-basic classifications of knowing, three kinds of the
knowledge preference are elements for investigation in associations with student performances
and personal backgrounds. Therefore, the framework of this study was derived from the work
of Maccia (1973) in pedagogical epistemology of education model which had set forth the
property in a theoretical characteristics and classifications of knowing.
An expecting required product of a pedagogical process is student learning as
psychical development. The give-and-take process between teaching and studenting has
evolved for individuals and societies from the beginning of humankind. Sources and contents
of the pedagogical objective were often deterred by the contemporary demands of the society.
However, different individuals and groups have and do hold different beliefs as to what is true,
both with respect to what is good-for, good-of, what ought to be, and what it is. Different
people do believe different things in a society. Yet one might observe that, in a sophisticated
community immune from outside influences, all do embrace the same beliefs. There are as
many schools of thought as people and everyone is locked into their own world of knowing.
However, more often persons do not inquire but rather settle belief on the basis of tenacity or
authority or reason, for few persons are possessed by the “will to learn” (Steiner, 1988, p. 27).
Along the same line of thought as introduced by John Dewey in the Logic: Theory of Inquiry,
1938, acclaimed that influential factors of biological and cultural matrices of learning rooted
due to their basic knowledge derivation of students which are influenced by biological factor
and environment values. In an extension to these literatures, this study intended to discover
the associational kinds of knowing and the influential matrices that are nurtured in students by
family culture and the immediate environment.
Using the framework kinds of knowing, several questions were proposed attempting
to settle and verify regarding knowledge preference under an assumption that there are
different contents in the three kinds of knowledge (qualitative, quantitative, and performative)
for learning preference. The properties of knowing as tacit knowledge were explicated and
induced as a model for the conceptual framework of this study. Deductive kinds of knowledge
were sorted into observational variables; the instrument items were categorized into factors
according to its kind aiming to be validated, and employed to examine the associations among
student achievement and status of student profiles.
According to Dewey (1938), human thinking factors are conditioned by the matrices
of biological necessity and cultural enforcement. Deductively, thinking and learning are dual
processes of inquiry that nurture each other. Like thinking activity, learning profile may be
shaped by consistent patterns of biological and cultural constraints. Human learning has been
interpreted through many different approaches that often ignore influential factors related
to human thinking. This study is also attempting to classify learning preference on the basis
of what the learner perceives and interprets and how he or she conceptualizes knowing the
information in the light of cultural and biological dimensions.
In environments where teaching and learning events take place, as part of the teaching-
studenting process, learners receive information from teachers by means of various teaching
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52 strategies used to present different subjects. As posited in Maccia’s (1973) pedagogical

epistemology theory, connecting to an educational process that includes objectives for bringing
persons to knowing is patent. Knowing is viewed in light of tutorial requirements. According
to Maccia (1973), from an epistemological perspective, knowing is classified into qualitative,
quantitative, and performative knowing. Learning subject matter or knowledge becomes a
product of perceptive knowing. In Maccia’s view, the terms related to knowing can be reduced
to operational properties that are observable and measurable. Thus, his theoretical proposition
can be implemented in connecting learning preferences.
Culture on the other hand, according to Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952), requires a
definition in which learning is emphasized, as derived from the work of the anthropologist
Wissler (1916), who was educated in psychology. Kroeber asserted that the evolution of
culture’s definition grows and that “cultural behavior is always learned behavior, but not all
learned behavior is cultural; conversely, learning is only one of a number of differentia of
culture” (p. 59). Despite the differences in cultural emphasis existing throughout education,
Steiner (1988) cautioned that “some claim that there cannot be one true opinion, but that truth
is relative to the individual or the culture. For example, most Americans believe it is true that
competitive action is good but the other cultures may believe otherwise” (p. 10). The research
on learning behavior should be considered in relation to the differences.
In order to familiar with the epistemology of education in learning preference framework,
hereby, the proposition was being briefly explicated. Maccia (1973) had set forth the dimensions
of knowing that constitute what he called “pedagogical epistemology” and further classified
cognitive educational objectives in comparison with those of Bloom (1956) and Scriven (1967).
The dimension of knowing is concerned with teaching in order to bring someone to know.
According to Maccia (1973), knowing can be divided epistemologically into knowing that one,
knowing that, knowing how to do, and knowing what to do.
Knowing that one and knowing that arise from the distinction between basic and non-
basic knowing. The cognitive status of basic knowing is that of knowing that one rather than of
knowing that. Since what characterizes a unique entity are its qualities, basic knowing yields
qualitative knowledge. There are three types of qualitative knowledge: recognitive, acquaintive,
and appreciative. When these types of knowing are considered from the learner’s perspective,
a definition specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions of measurement to judge that a
learner has come to know.
Also, there are three types of non-basic knowing that can be defined from a tutorial
perspective: testimonial knowing, structural knowing, and criterial knowing. Testimonial
knowing appears to be a clear understanding of the evidence of testimony that rests on an
adequate social theory of knowledge. Structural knowing or knowledge of structures assures a
cognitive grasp that is more than mere recitation of facts. The condition of a learner is to be able
to explicate or exhibit the material he has learned. The knowledge domain of criterial knowing
is that of describing or explicating standards governing arguments, and such knowledge is
philosophical. However, criticisms in the knowledge domains of art as well as science are
domains of criterial knowledge.
The distinction between propositional knowing and procedural knowing has been
scrutinized carefully in epistemological research. Based on the work of Lehrer and Paxon
(1968), the semantics of knowing from a tutorial perspective has the propositional sense of
knowing what to do as well as the procedural sense of knowing how to do something. Maccia
has characterized four kinds of procedural knowing: protocolic, conventional, innovative, and
creative knowing (see Schema 1).
Knowing how to do, or protocolic performance, involves smoothly executing a single-
pathed performance where there is evidence of carrying out the required condition in one pass
(e.g., the reactive character of motor conditioning). The knowing how to do of conventional
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performance involves being able to repeat or perform a multi-pathed execution knowing that 53
the required conditions are met.
Knowing what to do involves a distinction between innovative knowing and creative
knowing as propositional requirements. Knowing how to innovate involves integrating a
performance into the whole of another performance. Learning to innovate is coming to know how
to transfer pathways of one performance to another. From the propositional aspect, innovative
know-how is setting forth procedural rules for doing a given thing in a different way. Knowing
how to create involves transforming elements of a performance into another performance
without including a part or all of the previous performance with respect to the new performance.
Maccia (1973) noted that the innovative and the creative procedures are open-ended like the
advancement of knowledge. They cannot be taught but only realized. However, the structures
of realized innovation and creation can be taught. To be familiar with the classification and
adequacy of knowledge preference based upon the dimensions of knowing as presented in
Figure 1, the concept was operationally formulated using the notion of knowing and is briefly
introduced and further discussed in the following section.
Figure 1: Dimensions of Knowing.
Knowing that one is a completely justified true belief about the quality of a singular state
of affairs. Knowledge is manifested by enactment in the absence of justificatory statements of
beliefs.
Recognitive knowing is discrimination of an entity as it is. It is manifested by denoting or
selecting a singular object, person, universal, representation, or category.
Acquaintive knowing is discrimination of the qualities of entities and their connection
that uniquely constitutes the configuration of a singular whole. It is manifested by iterating or
selecting related parts that are peculiar to a singular object, person, universal, representation,
or category.
Appreciative knowing is discrimination of the qualitative order of a singular entity with
respect to relevant standards of qualitative ordering or with respect to a rank order of singular
entities within a class of entities.
Knowing that is an undefeated, completely justified, true belief about the existential
attributes of a state of affairs. Such knowledge is manifested by witness, evidential argument,
or proof.
Testimonial knowing is an assertion warranted by good authority that establishes a
person’s right to be sure. It is manifested by referencing adequate authority as backing for
truth claims. Structural knowing is an assertion that is warranted by evidential argument. It is
manifested by assertions that characterize the force and reach of evidential claims. Criterial
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54 knowing is an assertion of the adequacy of an evidential argument, proof, or witness. It is

manifested by assertions that characterize the force and reach of justificatory claims.
Knowing how to do involves smoothly executing some specified performance. It is
manifested by completion of a performance in an appropriate manner that can be repeated.
Protocolic knowing how to do involves smoothly executing a single-pathed performance. It is
manifested by goal attainment through invariant sequences of movement.
Conventional knowing how to do involves smoothly executing a multi-pathed
performance. It is manifested by goal attainment through adaptive sequences of movement.
Knowing what to do is specifying the manner by which some performance is altered
in realizing a goal. It is manifested by mapping or iterating sequences for executing novel
performances.
Innovative knowing involves transferring elements of one performance into another such
that the latter performance is altered. It is manifested by improvising or inventing different
ways for realizing the same goal.
Creative knowing involves transforming elements of performances such that a uniquely
novel performance is realized. It is manifested by uniting disparate ways of realizing goals.
As illustrated by Maccia (1973), a given classification of cognitive educational objectives
is achieved more adequately through a pedagogical epistemological perspective than through
an educational psychology (Bloom, 1956) or a logical one (Scriven, 1967). Therefore, the
knowledge preference that derives from an epistemological perspective can account for the
characteristics of completeness, reducibility, and strength (Steiner, 1972).
In this decade, research on learning preference is not as active as compared to the past
few decades, perhaps because of lack of interest in the compromise of the emerging new media
technology. The recent argument on learning preference, reflected by Coffield (2004), was
that it was relatively less important to design learning programs than matching the nature of
the subject to individual learning preferences. However, the comment did not suggest to what
extent the sources and content intended for individual learning preference were articulated,
especially for the younger learners. With the new methods of using technology, the study by
Constantindou and Baker (2002) suggested that the method of using visual presentation as
pictorial model was advantageous for both of high or low learning preference, especially for
verbal processing preference. It could lead to the argument that the visual materials may be so
specific in presentation that it could be so limited on a certain context; and they may not covey
to other alternative preference features. Perhaps, an adequate pedagogical theory in learning
was not well examined so that learning preference has not been advanced into the satisfactory
level of a better universally generalization for research exploration. The whole issue may need
to be re-examined to expanding extended theoretical model.
Learning preference in educational research has been widely emphasized since the
1950s. The basic premise of learning style theory is that people differ in the domain where
they learn best. This coincides somewhat with research in aptitude treatment interaction (ATI),
wherein subjects who have a particular identified aptitude are observed in a specific type of
environment and their performances are diagnosed. Learning preferences, which are a pervasive
part of the personality, remain stable over time and cross content lines (Witkin, 1977). Witkin
had characterized and claimed that general intelligence achievement has no relationship with
certain types of learning preference.
The main question addressed in learning preferences research focuses on effective
strategies for learning that can be maximized for all students. In 1890, Chamberlin suggested
that the search for instructional methods has often proceeded on the presumption that there is
a definite patent process through which all students can be put so as to arrive at results that
maximize their potential excellence. Hence, the pedagogical inquiry of “the special values of
different method; and what the several advantageous applicabilities are in the varied work of
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instruction” has arisen (Chamberlin, 1965, p. 757). These observations were originally written 55
over one hundred years ago, but the same issues are still being addressed today by learning
preference researchers.
According to Ferrel (1981), in educational settings, aptitude is generally termed learning
preference. The underlying assumption in this approach is that students learn best if they are
arranged in an educational environment that matches their preferred learning preferences.
Every classroom teacher knows that students are unique individuals, and educators and teachers
should design instruction accordingly. Regarding instruction, Keefe (1979) observed that
“previous efforts have been unsuccessful because they were based on a false epistemology, on a
misunderstanding of how students learn” (p. 124). Until now, with emerging new technologies
and ideas, a need for powerful epistemology in education to serve school communities vividly
stands out. Clarification and refinement of the understanding of learning preference can be
attributed to work in the epistemology of education (Maccia, 1976). Decades later since mid
70’s, an appropriate extension of more adequate theory of knowledge for the development of an
effective model to respond to individual learning preference was worth attempting.
This study focused on accomplishing two tasks: first, to develop an instrument having
a highly acceptable statistical reliability and second, to analyze the data to settle answering the
statement of the proposed problems including (1) is there a relationship between knowledge
preference and school academic achievement? (2) Is there a difference in the knowledge
preference associations with family backgrounds of students? (3) Is there a difference in
knowledge preference related to student biological gender? And (4) is there a relationship
between biological left- or right-handedness and knowledge preference? To confirm the answers
to the problems, statistical procedures were employed and designed to analyze and verify an
outcome. This study was intended on secondary school students in Thailand for a sole purpose
of the familiarity in setting and their literacy ability in communication that the study result
could yield for a better generalizability. Schools were randomly selected, and the participants
in the study volunteered. According to the research designed, the study was interested in the
basic knowledge profiles imbedded in students that lead them to comfortably learn the subject
matters, the observational data was based on student self-reports.
From the onset of the framework, for relevancy, the operational terms were drawn
out and searched for through the literature and recently done studies. There was no study
implemented from such a framework. Discussion with colleagues, short written essays about
learning experiences by volunteer students, and interviews with teachers and students were part
of developing the instrument for a pilot study. SPSS was a statistical tool for the standardized
instrument. The reliability procedure, RELIABILITY, was applied for item analysis technique
and computed the reliability coefficients. Cronbach’s alpha value and standardized item alpha
reliabilities were computed for each item, scale, and subscale constructing the Knowledge
Preference Test (KPT).
To analyze the data for this study, several SPSS procedures were also applied. Descriptive
procedures, DESCRIPTIVES, helped to illustrate the characteristic description of the survey.
Variance analysis procedures of DISCRIMINANT and ANOVA were used to examine
differences between/among determinant variables and also used to identify the differences
among background groups and independent variables. A criterion of the statistical significant
level of confidence was predetermined at 0.05.
Correlation analysis procedure of CORRELATIONS computing Pearson correlation
matrices was used to determine the coefficient values of associations among student learning
profiles. Students’ learning achievement and learning profiles used self-reported grade point
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56 averages (GPAs) in each subject area and cumulative GPAs as the analyzing units. For
investigating a relationship between a student learning profile and his/her biological linkage
to knowledge preference, correlation analysis was used to determine coefficient values of the
relationship between learning preference’s profile and student biological gender and the use
of hands and arms. The linear discriminant function provides the criterion for minimizing the
probability of misclassification from a multivariate normal population (Norusis, 1990), so in
this study, the analysis was used for differentiating gender groups.
After the pilot study, the final product was an instrument of 50 items that were developed
and designed to focus on detecting student learning perception of self-analytical knowing. This
instrument can be administered to an individual or a group. The instructions given to the students
suggested they pay attention to read each statement and respond truthfully. A student does not
need to spend a lot of time on each item but rather clearly react to the first impression that triggers
him/her to fall within the given scenario situation. There were three scales that consisted of 10
subscales and five questions on each subscale. Using a Likert scale, each question offered five
possible responses based upon the degrees of comfort for a respondent regarding the perception
of that matter that most fitted his/her preference. Respondents would choose from:
(1) It does not inspire me to grasp the matter (or have no interest in the matter),
(2) It inspires me a little to grasp the matter (or have a little interest in the matter),
(3) It inspires me to concern about the matter but I’m not intent to pursue the matter,
(4) It inspires me to consider the matter and like to pursue it if there is an opportunity, or
(5) It so inspires me to investigate the matter and I am willing to learn more.
Students were also asked to tell about themselves and completed answering personal
information responding to the given choices for GPA, age, gender, family income, dialect
spoken, and school location. In addition, they were asked whether they were right- or left-
handed in writing, throwing, and arm strength. Participants in the present study included 2,017
secondary school students. The respondents that showed no variation or incomplete the necessary
questions were eliminated, so the analysis of the study consisted of 1,770 students. According
to Gorsuch (1983), for this type of study, a minimum ratio should be five respondents to every
item and a minimum of 100 subjects for any analysis.
The questionnaire was reviewed and approved by the review board and administrators
before being distributed to students. A version of the questionnaire written in Thai was delivered
in person or by mail to the school setting. Participating schools were conveniently selected
which was considered a warranted of cultural differences. Questionnaire administrators were
instructed through written instructions or discussion sessions. One period of 30 minutes was
suggested to answer the questions, a total of 50 items. Concerning on the clarification of the
terminology and intended question, subject advised to ask the test administrator for better
understood.
Over a period of 16 months, final data collection was concluded to be audited and verified
using the SPSS package. Some minor incomplete data were included in the master data file, but
in some cases, they would be automatically eliminated through the statistical procedures. The
descriptive statistic procedures were used providing descriptive information.
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Data Analysis 57
Constructing the Knowledge Preference Test (KPT) Results
The analysis of the instrument construction, the study revealed that the overall reliability
coefficient of the Knowledge Preference Test (KPT) was 0.91. The reliabilities of qualitative
knowing (QUALIT), quantitative knowing (QUANTI), and performative knowing (PERFOR)
were 0.80, 0.71, and 0.87, respectively. The five items of each subscales of QUALIT were
recognitive knowing (RECOGN), acquaintive knowing (ACQUAI), and appreciative
knowing (APPREC) yielded reliability coefficients of 0.63, 0.60, and 0.58. For the subscales
of QUANTIT, testimonial knowing (TESTIM), structural knowing (STRUCT), and criterial
knowing (CRITER) were 0.55, 0.51, and 0.69. For PERFOR subscales of innovative knowing
(INNOVA), creative knowing (CREATE), protocolic knowing (PROTOC), and conventional
knowing (CONVNT) were 0.66, 0.66, 0.63, and 0.80. From the analysis, the results confirmed
that the KPT was statistically reliable to measure the designed content. However, each subscale
that consisted only five items could reflecting that smaller item could yield lower coefficient of
reliability but it should not be acceptable if it lower than 0.30.
Results of Research
The Associations between Knowledge Preferences and Student Status Results
The initial analysis is to determine the associations between knowledge preferences and
academic achievements, geographical representations, family monthly incomes, family spoken
dialects, genders, and preference of using hands. The analysis of variance determined the
difference among student achievement levels with the knowledge preferences and also student
statuses affecting biological and cultural factors. Those variables included residential region,
family spoken dialect, family income, school setting, and the preferences in hand for writing,
throwing, and lifting.
To verify the relationship between the knowledge preference and student achievement,
the self-reported GPA, ranging from 1.00 to 4.00, was classified into four levels: (1) low, (2)
moderately low, (3) moderately high, and (4) high. Using self-reported GPA as a criterion of
student achievement, the survey found that the GPA was significantly correlated to the family
income and school districts. There were significant differences at the 0.01 level of confidence
in each subject area and the overall. In every category, female performances were statistically
significantly higher than that of males. It was revealed that GPA was significantly different to
QUANTI and CRITERI with their F-values of 5.22 and 5.14, respectively, and where the higher
achievement groups had higher average scores (see Table 1).
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58 Table 1. Means Comparison of Student Achievement in GPA.
Male Female Mean F-value Sig.
GPA: Overall 2.63 2.83 2.7 37.11 0.00

Thai Language 2.58 2.91 2.77 85.21 0.00
Social Study 2.68 2.87 2.79 22.16 0.00

Physical Educ. 3.02 3.22 3.14 29.43 0.00
Science 2.53 2.78 2.67 29.78 0.00

Career Educ. 2.94 3.38 3.19 118.09 0.00
English Lang. 2.45 2.87 2.70 82.09 0.00
Mathematics 2.41 2.58 2.51 11.56 0.00
In addition, there were significant differences among achievement levels with respect
to cultural variables, such as geographical region, spoken dialect, family income, and school
district at the 0.01 level of confidence, where their F-values were 16.23, 8.04, 5.14, and 10.41,
respectively. Regarding family income, there was a pattern that indicated students from the
higher income family attained better grades than students from the lower income family. For
hand preference, only among English-language achievement levels was there a significant
difference in throwing objects at the 0.01 level of confidence and an F-value of 5.68. Students
using the right hand and both hands had higher GPAs than those with a left hand preference.
Regarding the analyses of achievement in each subject area associated with knowledge
preference, the Thai language GPA was significantly correlated to ACQUAI and CRITER at the
0.01 level of confidence. Also, it was significantly correlated to residential region (REGION) and
family spoken dialect (DIALEC) at the 0.01 level. Social study achievement was significantly
correlated to CRITER and REGION at the 0.01 level. English language achievement had
a similar profile in relation to CRITER. As presented in Table 3, there was a significantly
reverse correlation between English subject achievement and the INNOVA. Unlike science,
mathematics achievement was significantly correlated to the APPREC, CONSTRU, QUALIT,
and QUANTI at the 0.01 level of confidence. Science achievement also showed a significant
correlation to DIALEC.
Physical education achievement was significantly correlated to QUALIT and APPREC
at the 0.01 level. As shown in Table 2, art and craft achievement was significantly correlated
to QUALIT, PERFOR, and KNOWIN at the 0.01 level of confidence. Especially, in regard to
these variables, it had significant correlations to all subscales in PERFOR: INNOVA, CREATI,
PROTOC, and CONVENT at the 0.01 level. Art and craft achievement was also significantly
correlated to the RECOGN, REGION, and hand preference in writing (WRITIN).
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Table 2. Correlations between Achievement Levels with Knowledge Preferences 59

and Student Status.
GPA THAI SOCIAL PHYS SCIEN CAREER MATH ENGLISH ART
0.005 0.004 0.006 0.036 0.007 0.035 0.049* 0.033 0.076**

RECOGN
ACQUAT 0.050* 0.062** 0.034 0.061* 0.036 0.010 0.040 0.025 0.017
APPREC 0.042 0.037 0.034 0.062** 0.048* 0.034 0.078** 0.041 0.057*
TESTIM 0.023 0.000 0.009 0.007 0.010 0.028 0.043 0.002 0.044
STRUCT 0.046 0.001 0.004 0.052* 0.017 0.027 0.088** 0.026 0.056*
CRITER 0.083** 0.081** 0.070** 0.049* 0.075** 0.033 0.060* 0.063** 0.025
PROTOC 0.040 0.027 0.031 0.001 0.020 0.014 0.022 0.066** 0.063**
CONVEN 0.058* 0.051* 0.023 0.022 0.033 0.041 0.010 0.054* 0.153**
QUALIT 0.025 0.021 0.032 0.015 0.053* 0.022 0.039 0.011 0.090**
QUANTI 0.037 0.046 0.030 0.075** 0.041 0.041 0.075** 0.010 0.077**
PERFOR 0.007 0.001 0.002 0.033 0.005 0.006 0.038 0.037 0.122**
KNOWIN 0.023 0.026 0.010 0.048* 0.023 0.012 0.056* 0.005 0.096**
REGION 0.054* 0.111** 0.071** 0.000 0.049* 0.059* 0.030 0.027 0.078**
LANGUA 0.040 0.141** 0.061* 0.031 0.099** 0.047* 0.015 0.053* 0.048*
INCOME 0.222** 0.199** 0.162** 0.136** 0.230** 0.135** 0.083** 0.203** 0.073**
WRITIN 0.011 0.001 0.012 0.012 0.022 0.014 0.038 0.023 0.065**
THROWI 0.022 0.011 0.027 0.017 0.034 0.023 0.013 0.021 0.043
STRENG 0.021 0.023 0.038 0.019 0.039 0.029 0.028 0.057* 0.008
REGION 0.199** 0.249** 0.229** 0.196** 0.255** 0.208** 0.091* 0.176** 0.094**
Note: * = Significance Level at 0.05 ** = Significance Level at 0.01

REGION = School Region, DIALEC = Family Spoken Dialect, INCOME = Family Income,
KNOWIN = Knowledge Preference Scale, QUALIT = Qualitative Knowledge Scale,
QUANTI = Quantitative Knowledge Scale, PERFOR = Performative Knowledge Scale
RECOGN = Recognitive Knowing Subscale, ACQUAI = Acquaintive Knowing Subscale,
APPREC = Appreciative Knowing Subscale, TESTIM = Testimonial Knowing Subscale,
STRUCT = Structural Knowing Subscale, CRITER = Criterial Knowing Subscale,
INNOVA = Innovative Knowing Subscale, CREATI = Creative Knowing Subscale,
PROTOC = Protocolic Knowing Subscale, CONVEN = Conventional Knowing Subscale.
Analyses of Variance in Subject Area of Achievement levels and Knowledge Preferences
The Thai language (THAI) was significantly different than ACQUAI and CRITER
at the 0.01 level, where their F-values were 8.82 and 11.20, respectively. Social study was
significantly different than CRITER at the 0.01 level, where its F-value was 8.08. Students with
higher achievement in social studies attained higher scores on CRITER (see Table 3).
Regarding physical education, there were significant differences at the 0.01 level of
confidence in QUALIT, QUANTY, and KNOWIN, where their F-values were 22.43, 12.58,
and 4.83, respectively. Physical education (PHYS) was shown to be significantly different in
three of its subscales: ACQUAI, APPREC, and CRITER at the 0.01 level, where their F-values
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60 were 9.37, 13.20, and 10.76, respectively. Furthermore, in QUANTI, there was a significant
difference between achievement levels where the higher achievement groups had higher
average scores.
In science, there were significant differences at the 0.01 level of confidence in CRITER,
and its F-value was 4.47. In mathematics, there was a significant difference at the 0.01 level of
confidence in QUANTI and CRITER, where its F-values were 4.09 and 4.94, respectively, and
the higher achievers had the higher scores. Concerning career studies, there were significant
differences at the 0.01 level of confidence in CRITER and CONVEN, where their F-values
were 7.70 and 4.78, respectively. However, in CONVEN, the moderate-low and moderate-high
achievers had the highest scores, but the highest achiever had the lowest.
With English language, there were significant differences at the 0.01 level of confidence
in APPREC and CRITER, where their F-values were 4.18 and 4.40, respectively. The moderate-
low and moderate-high achievement groups had the highest scores on APPREC, and the low
achiever group had the lowest. In CRITER, the higher achievement groups had higher average
scores than the lower. In art and craft, there were significant differences at the 0.01 level of
confidence in KNOWIN, ACQUAI, APPREC, CRITER, and INNOVA, where their F-values
were 4.46, 8.61, 10.23, 5.73, and 4.99, respectively.
Table 3. The Knowledge Preference Mean Scores and Overall Grade Point
Average (GPA).
GPA RECOGN ACQUAI APPREC QUALIT TESTIM STRUCT CRITER

1 12.23 13.71 13.52 39.47 14.21 13.15 13.36
2 12.04 13.50 13.46 39.01 12.78 12.28 13.53
3 12.04 13.74 13.80 39.59 13.30 12.69 13.99
4 11.69 13.80 13.76 39.25 13.28 12.50 14.36
Total 11.97 13.69 13.68 39.36 13.18 12.55 13.93
GPA QUANTI INNOVA CREATI PROTOC CONVEN PERFOR KNOWIN

1 40.73 12.47 16.39 15.78 11.92 56.52 136.73
2 38.60 11.82 15.39 15.23 11.08 53.54 131.17
3 39.99 12.26 15.46 15.60 11.31 54.65 134.23
4 40.15 12.48 15.20 15.08 10.69 53.46 132.87
Total 39.67 12.19 15.41 15.39 11.13 54.14 133.18
Note: 1 = low GPA, 2 = moderately low, 3 = moderately high, 4 = high

Associations between Knowledge Preference and Family Background

As presented in Table 1, cultural background of students included the residential region,
spoken dialect, and family income. As for geographical representation of the six residential
regions, the northeastern region had the highest number of participants as over one half of the
country’s population is located in this area. The diversity of local culture and speaking dialects
in the northeast are much more different in comparison with other regions. The survey sample
showed the proportion of males (41.15%) to females (58.85%) reflected the national population
ratio.
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The family average monthly income was classified into six categories from low to high. 61
The self-reported figure indicated that 50% of participants had income relatively higher than
the national average, and 18% had income lower. The family spoken dialects that could be a
barrier for verbal expression to conforming with the central national mandated that was different
of student using at home was classified into ten usages. It was often a contributing factor to
some learning activities for a student who would be forced to adjust in the classroom. As
reported in Table 3, the majority (55.9%) of respondents spoke the written Central Thai dialect.
The Northeastern has several dialects: Laos, Cambodian, Sauy, and Korat, a total of 18.2%.
However, Cambodian and Sauy are totally different in vocabulary, wording, and syntactic
structure with the rest of the other dialects. Northern and Southern dialects are spoken by 8.1%
and 9.5%, respectively. The far eastern and far western regions, where dialects are closely
common to that of the Central dialect, each reported 3.1%. Some other dialects share in varying
degrees the vocabulary and toning of the standard Thai central dialect.
Table 4. Distributions of Genders and Family Spoken Dialects.
Speaking Female Male Total

Dialects #Cases %Frequency #Cases %Frequency #Cases %Frequency
Others 16 0.9 21 1.2 37 2.1
Northern 113 6.3 30 1.8 143 8.1
Laos 159 8.8 101 5.9 260 14.7
Cambodia 2 0.1 1 0.1 3 0.2
Sauy 5 0.3 4 0.2 9 0.5
Korat 26 1.5 24 1.3 50 2.8
Central 538 29.5 452 26.4 990 55.9
Far East 32 1.8 23 1.3 55 3.1
Far West 26 1.4 29 1.7 55 3.1
Southern 119 6.7 49 2.8 168 9.5
Total 1036 58.5 734 41.5 1770 100
Analysis of variance between knowledge preference with the three variables of INCOME,
REGION, and DIALEC, the main effects for all scales showed significant differences at the
0.01 level of confidence, where their F-values were 5.86, 4.16, and 4.93, respectively, See Table
6. There was only one main effect regarding the STRUCT subscale that was not significantly
different as a cultural factor. With respect to the spoken dialect variable, the analysis found
that there were significant differences to QUANTI and PERFOR, where the F-values were
3.00 and 4.56, respectively. Also, there were significant differences with ACQUAI, INNOVA,
PROTOC, and CONVEN, where F-values were 3.10, 3.94, 4.54, and 3.31.
In ACQUAI, students who spoke the Sauy, Southern, and Far East dialects were among
the highest average scores, whereas students who spoke the Cambodian and Far West dialects
had the lowest scores. This finding indicated that students with high scores would respond well
when the subject content involved identifying the configurations of unique objects, persons,
and any indescribable feature. In INNOVA, students who spoke the Sauy and Southern dialects
had the highest average scores, whereas students speaking the Cambodian, Far West, Far East,
and Northern dialects were among the lowest scores. This result suggested that students who
had higher scores preferred to deal with learning materials involving what needs to be modified
in existing ideas or practices into other forms.
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62 As shown in Table 5, regarding PROTOC, students who spoke the Southern and Sauy
dialects had the highest average scores, whereas students speaking the Cambodian dialect had
the lowest score. Students with the higher scores would prefer learning contents related to how
to make up new models or forms. Last, in CONVEN, students who spoke the Southern and
Sauy dialects had the highest average scores, and students who spoke the Laos dialect had the
lowest score. It could be concluded that students who spoke the Southern and Sauy dialects
would do better in dealing with learning materials related to modifying existing procedures or
routines to fit in with other situations.
Table 5. Analysis of Variance on Knowledge Preference Subscale Associations

with Regions, Spoken Dialects, and Incomes.
Source of Variation df Mean-Sqr F-Ratio Sig.
Main Effects (RECOGN) 18 17.01 2.076 0.005

REGION 5 37.68 4.599 0.000
DIALEC 8 18.42 2.249 0.022
INCOME 5 1.40 0.172 0.973
Main Effects (ACQUAI) 18 52.33 6.177 0.000
REGION 5 114.99 13.575 0.000
DIALEC 8 23.10 2.727 0.005
INCOME 5 29.27 3.455 0.004
Main Effects (APPREC) 18 43.81 4.994 0.000
REGION 5 111.83 12.747 0.000
DIALEC 8 20.52 2.339 0.017
INCOME 5 16.65 1.899 0.092
Main Effects (TESTIM) 18 13.69 1.320 0.165
REGION 5 15.14 1.460 0.200
DIALEC 8 7.08 0.683 0.707
INCOME 5 15.35 1.480 0.193
Main Effects (STRUCT) 18 36.34 4.705 0.000
REGION 5 75.29 9.748 0.000
DIALEC 8 12.27 1.589 0.123
INCOME 5 26.26 3.401 0.005
Main Effects (CRITER) 18 55.89 6.467 0.000
REGION 5 128.85 14.907 0.000
DIALEC 8 17.50 2.025 0.040
INCOME 5 32.09 3.713 0.002
Main Effects (INNOVA) 18 31.61 3.412 0.000
REGION 5 36.70 3.961 0.001
DIALEC 8 31.24 3.371 0.001
INCOME 5 16.50 1.781 0.114
Main Effects (CREATI) 18 43.61 3.183 0.000
REGION 5 97.40 7.110 0.000
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DIALEC 8 33.69 2.459 0.012 63
INCOME 5 6.33 0.462 0.804

Main Effects (PROTOC) 18 67.81 5.582 0.000
REGION 5 131.56 10.829 0.000
DIALEC 8 76.39 6.288 0.000
INCOME 5 8.43 0.694 0.628
Main Effects (CONVEN) 18 54.00 4.170 0.000
REGION 5 79.30 6.123 0.000
DIALEC 8 41.40 3.197 0.001
INCOME 5 23.71 1.831 0.104
Table 6. Analysis of Variance on Knowledge Preference Scale Associations with

Region, Spoken Dialect, and Income.
df Mean-Square F-Ratio F-sig.

Source of Variation
Main Effects (KNOWIN) 18 2629.09 6.188 0.000
REGION 5 5554.09 13.073 0.000
DIALEC 8 2007.16 4.724 0.000
INCOME 5 511.66 1.204 0.305
Main Effects (QUALIT) 18 264.41 5.865 0.000
REGION 5 675.97 14.994 0.000
DIALEC 8 133.24 2.955 0.003
INCOME 5 78.64 1.744 0.121
Main Effects (QUANTI) 18 171.29 4.165 0.000
REGION 5 362.77 8.820 0.000
DIALEC 8 81.86 1.991 0.044
INCOME 5 66.64 1.620 0.151
Main Effects (PERFOR) 18 649.95 4.934 0.000
REGION 5 1143.28 8.679 0.000
DIALEC 8 633.36 4.808 0.000
INCOME 5 123.46 0.937 0.456
Knowledge Preference and Student Biological Gender
There are differences related to student gender in knowledge preference. According to

the analysis, females were superior to males in every category of academic achievement. But
for the knowledge preference score, the average male score was significantly higher than the
female score at the 0.01 level, where the F-value was 24.95. Through discrimination analysis
on the knowledge preference scores to determine the classification power of groupings between
males and females, it was found that females were more predictable than males. A total of
66.7% of cases were correctly classified as females, whereas 58.1% of males were correctly
classified.
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64 In analysis of each scale of knowledge preference at the 0.01 level of confidence, there
were significant differences between males and females in QUANTI and PERFOR, where
the F-values were 22.14 and 36.01, respectively. It was found that six subscales were also
significantly different. There was no significant difference in QUALIT; however, within this
scale, RECOGN was found to be significantly different where the F-value was 23.43.
In QUANTI, there were significant differences between males and females at the 0.01
level of confidence, where the F-value was 22.14. The male average mean score was higher
than female. Also, there were significant differences in TESTIM and CONSTR. In PERFOR,
there were significant differences between males and females and in all subscales, and the male
average score was significantly higher than the female score.

Table 7. Comparison of Variance Analysis between Students’ Gender and
Learning Preference Scales and Subscales.
Variables df Sum-Sqr F-Ratio F-sig

Main Effects on KNOWIN 1 10992.26 24.95 0.000
Main Effects on QUALIT 1 24.84 0.52 0.471
Main Effects on RECOG 1 189.72 23.43 0.000
Main Effects on ACCQUI 1 4.03 0.45 0.501
Main Effects on APPREC 1 45.99 5.08 0.025
Main Effects on QUANTI 1 933.50 22.14 0.000
Main Effects on TESTIM 1 344.30 33.25 0.000
Main Effects on STRUCT 1 166.67 21.28 0.000
Main Effects on CRITER 1 0.83 0.09 0.763
Main Effects on PERFOR 1 4805.08 36.01 0.000
Main Effects on INNOV 1 156.36 16.59 0.000
Main Effects on CREATI 1 267.26 19.42 0.000
Main Effects on PROTOC 1 275.44 21.93 0.000
Main Effects on CONVEN 1 569.76 43.76 0.000
Relationship between Biological Left- or Right-Handedness and Knowledge Preference
Hand-use preference in regular routines is an inductive way to observe factors related

to biological influence that may reference brain function. This study designated the way that
subjects used their hands in writing, throwing, and lifting as inferential of brain orientation. The
survey revealed that the left hand was used by only 3.2% for writing, 6.5% for throwing objects,
and 7.5% for lifting heavy objects. The survey found for comfortably using both hands were
0.8% for writing, 6.5% for throwing, and 8.6% for lifting.
There were significant correlations at the 0.01 level of confidence on two scales and
five subscales for hand preference in throwing an object. There were significant correlations
on two scales and one subscale for hand preference in lifting a heavy object (see Table 8).
Hand preference in throwing objects had a positive significant correlation with QUALIT and
PERFOR and with the subscales ACQUAI, APPREC, CREATI, and PROTOC. No correlation
was found with hand preference for writing.
In variance analysis, there were significant differences between hand-preference groups
in throwing objects with QUALIT and PERFOR at the 0.01 level of confidence, and their F-
values were 6.76 and 7.29, respectively. Students who comfortably used both hands equally had
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the highest average score, and those who were right-handed had the lowest average score. The 65
same pattern was found on the ACQUAI, CREATI, and PROTOC subscales. However, with
CRITER, the left-handed students had the highest average score, and the right-handed students
had the lowest score. For hand preference in lifting heavy objects, there was no significant
difference among the knowledge preference scales and subscales.
Table 8. Relationship and Correlation Coefficients among Preference of Hand

Use and Learning Pattern Scales.
WRITING THROWING STRENGTH

KNOWIN 0.0151 0.0932** 0.0564*
QUALIT 0.0037 0.0896** 0.0581*
RECOGN 0.0078 0.0512* 0.0376
ACQUAI 0.0097 0.0789** 0.0433
APPREC 0.0053 0.0740** 0.0537*
QUANTI 0.0319 0.0555* 0.0412
TESTIM 0.0157 0.0398 0.0039
STRUCT 0.0187 0.0172 0.0341
CRITER 0.0366 0.0616* 0.0498*
PERFOR 0.0135 0.0860** 0.0490*
INNOVA 0.0152 0.0515* 0.0047
CREATI 0.0080 0.1051** 0.0272
PROTOC 0.0006 0.0690** 0.0599*
CONVEN 0.0253 0.0561* 0.0667**
Note: * = Significance level at 0.05

** = Significance level at 0.01 (2tailed)
In summary of the analysis, the study first task was to develop an instrument having a
highly acceptable statistical reliability coefficient at 0.91. And the second task was to analyze
the data to settle answering the statement of the proposed problems: (1) there was no significant
relationship between knowledge preference and school academic achievement. (2) There was a
difference in the knowledge preference associations with family backgrounds of students. (3)
There was a difference in knowledge preference related to student biological gender. And (4)
there was relationship between biological left- or right-handedness and knowledge preference.
Discussion
The instrument, the Knowledge Preference Test, was confirmed and statistically verified
as acceptable in evaluating knowledge preference through student self-perception that were
reliable and sufficient to identify student learning profile. Student achievement, overall GPA,
showed some degrees relating to the divisions of knowledge but found no statistically significant
association. It was reflecting the earlier mentioned claiming by Witkin (1977) that knowledge
preference and student achievement was likely independent. Regarding the results from
examining the subscales of knowledge preference with GPA and each subject area, there were
a few subscales significantly associated. Concerning the answers to the cultural and biological
matrices, the results confirmed there were relationships to every knowledge scale and subscale
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66 except for one. The finding indicated that differences in cultural background contributed to the
various preferences in different kinds of knowledge. There are differences in student gender
in knowledge preference on the quantitative and the performative scales and on six subscales.
There were some relationships between left- or right-handedness and knowledge preference in
hand use in throwing an object but not in writing.
As the assumption claimed by Witkin underlined that student intelligent inferring to
school achievement was not likely factored associating to student learning styles. It was found
in this study that learning preference only a couple subscales showed some association with
self-report GPA. Knowledge preference in parallel to ‘learning style or willing to learn’ was
considered an embedded trait of a student learning preference that it is a satisfactory resolution
to anticipate in school curriculum activities. A comfort zone could be considered an important
factor for student willing for engagement. As practice in general, school systems emphasized
quantitative cognition subject areas such as mathematics and science to demonstrate the highest
value of success. And in many societies, it was so institutionalized of quantitative approach to
the point that some students decided to drop out because it was so far off to their comfort zone.
As portrayed by the Frontline PBS TV Series programs aired on September 25, 2012 entitled
“Dropout Nation” that students were at risk in crisis and the daily struggle to graduate in one of
the Houston school system, Apollo 20 project. Basically, nearly 50% of students were dropout
through the path of 4 years high school requirement.
Quantitative knowledge falls under the category of a cognitive condition which requires
the ability for generalization, inductive or deductive roles of thought. The results indicated
that the scale and subscale variables were associated to and differentiated from various student
statuses, income, spoken dialects and family culture. Especially, spoken dialect or language
code usages showed significant differences in grading achievement. Basically, variations of
language usage in Thai leaded to stereotype reflecting in some degree of social segregations.
Many schools and in classrooms would seek ways to discipline students who misspoken
standard Thai dialect. This stereotype could become a force to limit or retreat from personal
liberty procession in expressing publicly. Students often tend to afraid of mistake in speaking
correctly and avoid moments of embarrassing when they asked to talk in front of the class.
This ‘avoidant’ behavior would not only likely affect student achievement but also emotional
disturbance which it is ‘willing to engage’.
Reflecting the findings, qualitative and performative knowledge that involved other
sensational mental dialectic along with cognitive analogue ability interacted to various activities.
Therefore, qualitative and performative knowledge that requires additional mental dimensions
(e.g., esthetic, recognition, appreciation, passion, attitude, or will power) executing physical
activities that should be considered for attention in educational process. For example, to better
a given learning goal toward creative, innovative, protocolic, or conventional knowledge, so
the curriculum should be considered integrating contents and activities that suited recognizing
in qualitative and performative knowledge as parts of success by system.
As mentioned in the review of related studies, this instrument could further lead to wider
discovery of a variety of alternative needs for curricula by identifying an individual’s talent
in a wider spectrum, with it the least complicated learning diagnostic instrument available for
individuals or a classroom setting. Practically, a teacher could have found a student who had an
extraordinary score on the conventional knowing subscale of the performative scale. He or she
would be encouraged to try out in performing tasks such a repeated multiple-pathed execution
activities. This person could comfortably engage in physical movement skills (e.g., designing,
drawing, singing, dancing, drama, spelling, gymnastics, or recognition skills in observation).
In case of a student with an exceptional recognition ability found, school should also be ready
to seek an accommodation for this student to enhance her/his performance. For instance, in
case if a student embedded with talent to recognize a unique characteristic in nature (e.g.,
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being able to identify unique orders of features, texture, smell, quality of color, taste, design, 67
crafts, or drawing and so on), she/he should yield a high score in the area of qualitative
knowledge preferences. As mentioned earlier, this knowledge cannot be taught directly but it
can be structurally brought to grasp through realization.
There may be some limitations concerning the instrument itself. For example, the
structural knowing subscale in quantitative knowledge may contain item(s) incurring face
validity regarding terminology used. The terminology may be inappropriately selected to fully
communicate with younger students. Further analysis and revision may help to enhance it for
better understood. Furthermore, the framework using kinds of basic and non-basic knowing
as the model in this study was the very first theoretical interpretation attempted to associate
students learning preference. The actual implementation for teaching and learning instruction
or curriculum put in place for classroom would be the next step proving that any change in
energetic learning or school dropout was significance.
Conclusions
Overall, the diagnostic instrument yielded high reliability in performing a valid task
to identify the student traits of knowledge preference, and it can be used by teachers or
administrations. The score from this instrument should validly reflect the self-reported
knowledge preference of a student. A school system or teacher could be able to match student
needs by using or designing various methods, instructions, subject matter, and programs that
would accommodate students’ biological and cultural backgrounds. Each type of knowledge,
quantitative, qualitative, and performative should regard as equally preference connecting to
student basic knowing. The epistemology of education model of knowing could be brought
to trial or experimented; at least it should identify some trouble learners who were desperately
needed to help to retain themselves in the school system.
References
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25, 2012.
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Constantinidou, F., & Baker, S. (2002). Stimulus modality and verbal learning performance in normal
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Sackheim, H., Packer, I., & Gur, R. C. (1977). Hemisphericity and cognitive set and susceptibility to
subliminal perception. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 624690.
Schmeck, R. R. (1983). Learning styles of college students. In R. F. Dillon, & R. R. Schmeck (Eds.),
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68 Individual differences in cognition (pp. 223-279). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Schmeck, R. R., & Meier, S. T. (1984). Self reference as a learning strategy and a learning style. Human
Learning, 3, 917.
Schmeck, R. R., & Ribich, F. D. (1978). Construct validation of the inventory of learning processes. Applied
Psychological Measurement, 2, 551562.
Schmeck, R. R., Ribich, F., & Ramanaiah, N. (1977). Developments of a self reported inventory for assessing
individual differences in learning processes. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 419491.
Nie, N. H. (1990) Statistical package for the social sciences reference guide. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Steiner, E. (1978). Logical and conceptual analytic techniques for educational researchers. Washington, DC:
University Press of America.
Steiner, E. (1988). Methodology of theory building. Sydney, Australia: Educology Research Associates.
Steiner, E., Maccia, G. S., & Jewett, R. E. (1963). Construction of educational theory models. Columbus OH:
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Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodeneough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field dependent and field independent
cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47 (1), 164.
Advised by Vincentas Lamanauskas, University of Siauliai, Lithuania
Received: October 05, 2012 Accepted: October 21, 2012
Sudgasame Jantaraweragul Ph.D., Research Assistant, Applied Health Science, School of Public Health,
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
Adjunct Professor, Ivy Tech Community College, Bloomington, Indiana, USA.
Phone: 1-812-219-5270.
E-mail: jantaraw@indiana.edu
Website: http://www.iub.edu/
Noy S. Kay H.S.D., Clinical Associate Professor, Applied Health Science, School of
Public Health, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
Phone: 1-812-855-2156.
E-mail: noyskay@indiana.edu
Website: http://mypage.iu.edu/~noyskay/This e-mail address is being pro�
tected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it
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HOW DO ANIMALS SPEND THE WINTER? 69
A FINNISH STUDY ON THE USE OF VEE

HEURISTICS IN A BIOLOGY UNIT FOR
EIGHTH GRADERS
Sirpa Kärkkäinen
University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
E-mail: sirpa.a.karkkainen@uef.fi
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to describe the eighth graders’ (N=92) biology learning process and
the use of Vee heuristics in six Finnish secondary school classes (age 13-14 years). The teaching unit
“How do animals spend the winter?” had an inquiry-based approach by using Vee heuristics. Part of the
learning took place in the local Science museum. In this study, Vee heuristics consisted of ten questions
related to three different phases; the planning, implementation and evaluation phases. In the planning
phase, pupils were interested in animals’ nutrition and external features. In the evaluation phase, pupils
made broader generalizations about animals’ behavioural and structural adaptations to winter. They
compared, contrasted and evaluated the environmental effects on the ways in which animals have adapted
to winter and highlighted the biotic elements in the winter ecosystem. In the planning phase, pupils had
multiple goals in their value claims and they reported a sense of independence and dedication during the
learning process. Results indicate that Vee heuristics could be considered to be a tool for improving the
learning process in pupils. In biology it encouraged learning for understanding, engagement, enjoyment,
independence and self-efficacy.
Key words: biology education, environmental education, secondary school, Vee heuristics, winter
ecology.
Introduction
Research on winter-related ecology and the study of interrelations between organisms

and the cold environment has long traditions in Finland. How can we, at the secondary school
level teach such complex and abstract phenomena as the seasonal period of decreased solar,
thermal and nutritional energy? This paper focuses on pupils’ learning process concerning
animals’ winter ecology and presents the Finnish viewpoint on the use of Vee heuristics in
biology education.
Many previous studies have shown that primary or secondary school pupils do not
understand essential ecological concepts, for example adaptation, food chain, ecological niche,
cycle of matter as well as the structure of ecosystems or the nature of the interrelations within
the ecosystems (see e.g. Grotzer & Bell Basca, 2003; Lin & Hu, 2003; Magntorn & Helldén,
2007a; Sander, Jelemenska & Kattmann, 2006; Yip, 2009). Grotzer and Bell Basca (2003)
argued that the difficulty in understanding ecosystem concepts stems partly from the inability to
grasp the underlying causality that structures the concepts. Also Ashelford (2002) highlighted
that concept adaptation for example, has many meanings in biology teaching and learning
and is an area where conceptual difficulties frequently arise. The main causes for conceptual
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70 difficulties are failure to distinguish both between adaptations as a process of short-term change
and a long-term evolutionary change as well as the failure to distinguish adaptation as being
a process of change from its meaning as a description of current features that aid survival
(Ashelford, 2002).
Several developments in biology education aim to improve pupils´ ability to think
scientifically. According to Gehring and Eastman (2008) a major challenge in the teaching
and learning of biology is the development of students’ abilities to gather, analyze, apply and
synthesize information. These skills are also important for students to underlying evidence that
supports basic biological concepts. Asking questions for example is an essential component
of the practice of science (Yip, 2004). According to the study of Yip (2009), asking questions
helps pupils make a distinction between causal and teleological explanations. Teleological
explanations are questions required for the significant importance or advantage of certain
biological processes. Functional or physiological explanations primarily answer the “how”
questions and demand the underlying mechanisms of how processes work; evolutionary
explanations answer the “why” questions (Yip, 2009).
This being so, an inquiry-based, field work approach is important and essential in
teaching and learning about ecology at the primary and secondary school level (e.g. Finn,
Maxwell, Calver, 2002; Hamilton-Ekeke, 2007; Lindeman-Matthies, 2006; Sander et al., 2006).
Magntorn and Helldén (2007a) had a study of ecology teaching and learning in a Swedish
primary school class which they used perspective from organism autecology to synecology and
finally to the whole community or systems level. In ecology education, an inquiry-based study
of a single organism has been shown to be highly motivating for students. Naming an organism
also provides opportunities for discussion and inquiry and allows children to make sense of
the world around them (Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2011). According to the study of Magntor and
Helldén (2007b), naming animals has little intrinsic value but when naming has the same
ecological function, then taxonomy is important for reading about nature. Students have to
be introduced to observing the structures – both biotic and abiotic – and to be familiar with
ecological models that can be related to these structures (Magntorn & Helldén, 2007b).
Problem of Research
In biology education field work is not always possible, therefore other learning
environments are important. Previous studies (e.g. Wilde & Urhahne, 2008; Krombass &
Harms, 2008) show that natural history museums are well-respected educational resources with
authentic objects and realistic surroundings. A detailed study of any organism’s characteristics
may be carried out more easily in a museum environment than in the natural world. According
to the study of Tunnicliffe and Laterveer-de Beer (2002) a museum exhibition promotes the
understanding of morphology and forms of locomotion. It is important however to remember
the results of Tunnicliffe’s (1996) previous study revealing that when children look at animals
in exhibits, they mention anatomical features such as size, shape and colour but they do not
mention conservation issues or habitat. Thus, animals in museums do not provide a realistic
view of the natural world, for example malnutrion or disease. Falk and Storksdieck (2005)
have also shown in their studies that students are not just familiarised with facts and concepts
of animal species; in the museum context they may also gain a better awareness of animals’
physical size or the texture of their fur. Young children rely on anatomical structures of group
animals while older children use taxonomy, habitat and behaviour in addition to anatomical
structures (Tunnicliffe & Reiss, 1999).
In the museum, learning takes place at many levels; in addition to the cognitive level,
motivational and affective components are also integrated if the tasks are quite open (Wilde &
Urhahne, 2008; Krombass & Harms, 2008). Research on pupils’ interest, goals and motivation
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Sirpa KÄRKKÄINEN. How Do Animals Spend the Winter? A Finnish Study on the Use of Vee Heuristics in a Biology Unit for Eighth
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in science and especially in biology education (e.g. Prokop, Prokop, Tunnicliffe & Diran, 2007; 71
Uitto, Juuti, Lavonen & Meisalo, 2006) helps the teacher to devise strategies to enhance students’
interest and develop a positive attitude towards science and biology education. According to
the study of Lindemann-Matthies (2006) this is possible if children’s awareness of nature in
their daily lives is promoted as well as an interest in and knowledge of local plants and animals.
Without knowledge and a relationship with organisms in their local environment, people might
not notice what happens to them (Lindemann-Matthies, 2006). In previous studies, Pintrich,
Marx, and Boyle (1993) for example, have shown that motivational beliefs including goals,
values and self-efficacy also play a major role in conceptual change.
Research Focus
In this study, eighth graders used Åhlbergs’ modified Vee heuristics which consists of
ten questions related to three different phases: the planning, implementation and evaluation
of the learning process. The ideas presented in the value basis and theoretical basis sections
of the planning phase (questions 2-5) provide an insight into how pupils’ ideas develop. The
implementation phase includes one question (question 6). The ideas presented in the sections,
knowledge and value claims in the evaluation phase (questions 7-10), indicate how valuable
this process of working through the heuristic has been to the pupils (Figure 1).
Figure 1: A model of Vee heuristic and its ten questions (see Åhlberg, 1998)
which pupils used during their biology learning process.
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72 Vee heuristics can be used to implement inquiry-oriented science activity (Tsai, Liu,
Lin & Yuan, 2001) and it is a relatively unknown method at the secondary school level (see
Novak, Gowin & Johansen, 1983; Ugwu & Soyibo, 2004). According to Novak (2002), the
comprehension of Vee may explain in part, why Vee heuristics are currently less popular than,
for example concept maps. Novak et al. (1983) also wrote that a couple of years of work with
Vee would be needed for students to acquire effective use of Vee heuristics. Vee heuristic in
its basic form was firstly introduced by Gowin (Novak et al., 1983; Novak & Gowin, 1984,
Mintzes, Wandersee & Novak, 2001). In Finland, Åhlberg (1998) devised the modified Vee
heuristic (see Figure 1.) because there were some problems with the original Vee heuristic
(see also Vanhear & Pace, 2008). For example, when students were asked to state their “world
view” many of them were unfamiliar with the term. Modified Vee heuristics contain value
claims instead of “word view”. (Åhlberg, Äänismaa & Dillon, 2005.) Thus, Åhlberg and his
colleagues have for over 20 years, developed and tested Vee heuristics with students in a variety
of disciplines at the university and school level (e.g. Åhlberg & Ahoranta, 2002; Åhlberg et
al., 2005). The main difference with Gowin’s original Vee heuristic and Åhlberg’s modified
version, is that Åhlbergs’ Vee heuristic contains ten theoretically justified steps to high-quality
learning and thinking (see Novak et al., 1983; Åhlberg et al., 2005).
Previous studies have shown that Vee heuristics has much potential in promoting
authentic inquiry (Åhlberg et al., 2005; Vanhear & Pace, 2008). Although it has been used at the
university and primary school level, this approach is relatively new in secondary schools and
not much research has been documented. Thus, it is of interest to study how Vee heuristics can
be implemented in a biology learning process at the secondary school level and to find out how
pupils respond when they are asked to formulate their focus questions and design investigations
in order to answer them. The main research question is: how do pupils use Vee heuristics in the
biology learning process concerning winter ecology?
The specific research questions are:

1. What do the pupils want to know about the subject “animals in winter”?
2. What kind of value basis do pupils have in the beginning of the biology learning
process?
3. What are the pupils’ conceptual and procedural knowledge in the planning,
implementation and evaluation phase?
4. How worthwhile is the new knowledge and the use of the Vee heuristics?
The participants of this study were pupils (N=92) from six classes in a rural secondary
school in Central Finland. The pupils were aged from 13-14 and the sample consisted of 48 boys
and 44 girls who were taught by the same biology teacher. The biology teaching unit “How do
animals spend the winter”, which was under study here, belongs to the normal timetable of the
school and followed pupils’ normal daily routines. The pupil-directed inquiry-based biology
learning unit was rooted in constructivist pedagogy. It has been designed to create a learning
environment where pupils use Vee heuristics to build upon their knowledge in an effort to
experience enriched understanding. Interaction of new knowledge and prior knowledge is
accomplished through Vee heuristics with its ten questions (see Figure 1).
The possibilities for studying winter ecology outdoors were limited because the biology
learning unit took place at a time when there wasn’t any snow. Thus, the project was mainly
based on materials from texts and some of the biology lessons were held in the local Science
museum which is located near the school building. There, pupils could relatively independently
explore exhibits of a terrestrial forest, freshwater ecosystem and farmyard as well as skulls and
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skeletons of vertebrates and invertebrates. Animals were those living freely in the wild, because 73
it was recommended that domesticated animals should not be used as study species during this
biology learning unit.
This biology learning unit, which is also based on the Finnish Biology education
curricula (grade 8) on ecological issues, is mainly integrated into the core content “Nature
and Ecosystems”. The goal of the national core curriculum is for biology instruction to be
founded on inquiry-based learning, developing the pupils’ thinking in Natural Sciences as well
as giving pupils the ability to observe and investigate nature, life and its phenomena. In the
8th grade, pupils learn about ecology, biodiversity and nature conservation. The curriculum
covers topics such as interactions between organisms, energy cycles, biodiversity as well as
protected areas and endangered species. Biology education should have, as one of its aims, the
development of biological literacy so that all pupils can make decisions about biological issues
and improve their ability to think scientifically: ideas related to the design of investigations
and the collection, presentation, analysis, and evaluation of the resulting evidence. Ecological
issues are also integrated in the grade 9 core content “Life and Evolution”. (National Board of
Education, 2004.)
This paper focused on an examination of pupils’ Vee heuristics in the context of ten
biology lessons. Research data was also collected through concept maps, diaries, self evaluation
reports, essays, and pupils’ marks. Vee heuristics reveal pupils’ perceptions through their
individual ways of describing issues. From the Vee heuristics the data gathered was personally
produced by the pupils using concepts familiar to them in their own style of writing. According
to the study of McLaren and Webber (2009) writing tasks play an important role in facilitating
pupils´ thinking and domain centered learning in the sciences. Writing activities can be useful
a aid in conceptual comprehension and retention as well as in promoting reflection. Mintzes,
Wandersee, and Novak (2001) also highlighted that writing should be an integral part of every
school science experience. They think that written assignments are less frequently used by
many teachers because reading and evaluating them is often viewed as time consuming.
Biology Learning Unit
All the six groups had 10 lessons, each lasting 45 minutes. The aim of the biology learning
unit was to develop pupils’ skills of how to learn, such as planning, monitoring and evaluation.
The main idea of the biology lessons was to understand how animals spend the winter, reporting
the interactions of animals and their environments and describing what shapes the patterns
of distribution and abundance of different species had. Each lesson started and ended with a
classroom discussion framing the task to be studied. All of the pupils had used Vee heuristics
and concept maps at least once before this study but they did not have any long term experience
with Vee heuristics. Pupils were encouraged to consult scientific literature. The first major
decision that each pupil had to make concerned the focus question or questions selected for the
study. During this time a number of opportunities for informal feedback, advice and discussion
were provided. Pupils were allowed to independently seek assistance and communicate their
findings with other pupils and the teacher. Formal summative assessment consisted of a written
report.
In phase 1, the pupils discussed their own views about animals in winter and shared
them with the class, giving pupils an idea of some of the issues related to the subject. They
preferred single project work rather than group or pair work, although in many cases the pupils
worked together in the lessons. At the beginning of the unit, each pupil individually constructed
a concept map based on issues that they knew about the subject “animals in winter”. Pupils
also wrote up every lesson in a diary which was used to reflect upon their thinking. In phase
2, the teacher and pupils visited the local Science museum. Firstly, pupils identified the focus
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74 questions in the Vee heuristics which promote inquiry that eventually leads to new biological
knowledge. Secondly, pupils worked with issues on the left side of the Vee heuristic, the value,
theoretical, conceptual and methodological bases (questions 1-5). In phase 3, pupils gathered
data to answer their questions (implementation phase in Vee heuristics). They also conducted
library research, surfed on the Internet and visited the local Science museum again. At each
visit a member of the museum staff was present and helped the pupils who were also asked to
write a report as a part of their homework. In phase 4, they completed issues the right side of
the Vee heuristics; quality of data, value and knowledge claims (questions 7-10). At the end
of the project, pupils constructed a concept map based on issues known about the subject. Vee
heuristics and concepts maps were discussed with other members of the class. The sharing of
experience at the end of lessons provides a good chance for the teacher to consolidate their
understanding of learning skills. In phase 5, pupils shared their experiences. Each pupil gave
a 5-10 minute oral-presentation and also completed a self-evaluation task in their diary. At the
end of the unit, pupils made a summary in their diaries about the subject “animals in winter” and
wrote short self evaluation reports. Pupils’ written reports comprised of about 10-12 pages.
Data Analysis
The Vee heuristics (N=92) were qualitatively analysed by using the methods of inductive
content analysis. First, the Vee heuristics were carefully read through in order to understand
their content, then each of the pupils’ Vee heuristics with their ten questions were analysed.
Codes and categories specifically emerged from the pupils’ writings. From the first reading,
core concepts (codes) were identified; these initial codes were then revised after a second
and third reading. Codes with common themes were subsequently placed into categories that
reflected the pupils’ conceptions. The Vee heuristic with its ten questions were also analyzed by
counting core concepts, although changes in the average number of concepts in the planning,
implementation and evaluation phase alone, do not provide conclusive evidence of conceptual
change.
Some ideas from previous studies have also been utilised. For example, the SOLO
taxonomy is used to describe the complexity of knowledge claims in the evaluation phase.
According to Biggs and Collis (1982), the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO)
taxonomy is divided into five major levels: 1) pre-structural, 2) uni-structural, 3) multi-structural,
4) relational and 5) extended abstract. In this study, is used only four major levels to describe the
complexity of the knowledge claims, the pre-structural and uni-structural levels being combined.
Pre-structural and unistructural knowledge claims included unconnected information as well
as simple and obvious connections with concepts. Multistructural knowledge claims included
concepts which a number of connections may be made, but the meta-connections between them
are missing. The relational level included knowledge claims made up of concepts which are
linked each other and the parts are in relation to the whole. Extended abstract level knowledge
claims had connections with concepts which contained generalised principles and ideas.
Analysis of the Vee heuristics was done by triangulation of the data. Triangulation
reduced subjectivity, increasing the validity of data analysis and interpretation of the results
(e.g. Patton, 2001). Most of the codes and themes were assigned to the same category by the two
researchers who independently grouped the codes into individual categories. Any discrepancy
which occurred was settled through discussions and negotiation between the researchers. The
author, being a teacher, attempted to foresee limitations by emphasising that they should answer
truthfully and accurately. The descriptive themes were therefore constructed, based on the core
ideas that emerged from the different pupils. Vee heuristic were used with six different groups
from which, although rather small in size, some conclusions could be made. These limitations
were taken into account in the interpretation of the results.
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Results of Research 75
The results are presented through examples from pupils’ Vee heuristics with its ten
questions. The planning phase in this study included the left side of Vee heuristics; focus
questions, value basis, theoretical, conceptual and methodological base (questions 1-5). The
implementation phase includes one question in Vee heuristics; what do you have to do in order
to construct answers to the focus question (question 6). The evaluation phase is the right side of
the Vee heuristics and included analysis of the data, main conclusions as well as new knowledge
and value claims (questions 7-10).
Focus Questions in the Planning Phase
What do the pupils want to know about the subject “animals in winter”? The number
of focus questions presented by the pupils is shown in Table 1. Most of the pupils asked 3-4
questions about animals in winter and altogether 309 questions asked on this subject (see Table
1).
Table 1. The number of focus questions in Vee heuristics from the planning
phase.
Number of focus questions

Girl Boy Total
in pupils Vee heuristics
1 0 2 2
2 10 12 22
3 51 51 102
4 84 84 168
5 5 10 15
Total 150 159 309
Focus questions were also classified into five categories according to the question type:
factual, explanatory, comparative, descriptive and conditional questions. Most of the pupils’
focus questions were “which” questions (48 %), and the pupils were able to answer these
questions by using factual knowledge. Factual questions also included measuring and counting
questions which concerned e.g. species list, place, count or time. Pupils asked questions such
as “Which animals are in torpor?”, “Which rodents change their coat colour?”, “Where does
the bear sleep in winter?”, “Where does the lynx pass the winter?” and “How many tits survive
and pass the winter?”
“Why” or “how” questions (32 %) showed a typical way of thinking in biology. These
focus questions required a relatively simple explanation or a greater degree of insight as well as
an understanding the primary causes and evolutionary and teleological explanations. Some of
these questions have no simple answer maybe no answers. “How” questions required functional
and physiological explanations and “why” questions evolutionary explanations. Pupils
investigated how animals adapt to physical environments, how populations grow and what
shapes the patterns of distribution and abundance of animals. Pupils asked questions such as:
“How was the lynx adapted to winter?”, “How have some small rodents adapted to winter?”,
“Why are owls active in winter?” and “Why are some mammals white in winter?”, “How do
animals pass the winter?”, “Why are some rodents in deep hibernation?”
Focus questions which included an animals’ external features, for example; the colour of
an animal’s fur and the structure of an animal’s skull, are descriptive questions (14 %) as well
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76 as animals’ hibernation types, nutrition habits and species lists. Pupils asked questions such as:
“What kind of habits do rodents have in the winter?”, “What kind of fur do animals have in
the winter?”, “What kind of structural features exist among small rodents?” and “What kind of
nutrition does a bear have?”
Only a few focus questions were comparative questions (4 %) which help pupils analyze
and classify for example, animals’ behaviour and structural features, animals’ hunting habits
and the structure of animals’ skulls. These questions were also linked to those relating to species
identification. Eight graders asked questions such as: “What are the main differences between
owls and tits in hold they pass the winter?”, “What are the structural differences between
rodents?” and “What are the advantages and disadvantages of hibernation?”
A few of the focus questions are conditional questions (2 %) which encourage pupils to
explore the properties of animals and make predictions about phenomena or changes in the future.
These questions also required evolutionary explanations as well as a physiological process of
explanations. For example pupils asked: “What will happen if small rodents do not change their
fur colour?” and “What would be the advantage of such behaviour to mammals?”
In conclusion, pupils raised questions about how owls generally survive the winter and
what is their winter nutrition. Animals’ external features such as skulls were important in pupils’
focus questions and they used the main concepts of carnivores and rodents which are concepts
from order. In focus questions, pupils used the concept of species for example bear and lynx,
both of which are carnivores and endangered species in Finland. As well as the owls, pupils
were generally interested in animals’ overwintering. It is important to note that pupils wanted to
raise several focus questions instead of just one and the quality of them was quite factual. There
were also a few pupils who were not able to produce any focus question at all.
Value Basis in the Planning Phase
Pupils’ descriptions with the number of value claims (n=235) are classified into eight
categories shown in table 2. In this paper, we define value claims as a construction that includes
different motivational elements and thus pupils’ value claims were classified into two themes
according to the motivational level: intrinsic value claims, external value claims. Generally
each pupil had more than one value claim in which they wrote about their interests, goals and
motivation.
Table 2. The number of value claims (n=235) in pupils’ Vee heuristics.
Value claims Girls Boy Total %

Intrinsic value claim 66
Learning 48 37 85 36
Interesting 24 11 35 15
Independent working 10 5 15 6
Benefit in the future 9 13 22 9
External value claims 33
Better grade 18 14 32 14
Included schoolwork 12 12 24 10
I don’t want to do it 2 9 11 5
other students do I too 1 8 9 4
Other 1
I don’t know 1 1 2 1
Total 125 110 235 100
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More than half of the pupils had intrinsic value claims and one third of the pupils’ 77
descriptions expressed that they wanted to learn. Pupils were also interested in the winter ecology
of animals; they were interested in the content of the biology lesson and learning in general.
The Biology learning unit was enjoyable and satisfying in itself in addition to learning having
positive advantages they felt they would benefit from the use of knowledge in the future. Pupils
also reported a strong sense of intrinsic motivation, independence, dedication and development
of critical reasoning. Pupils reported: “It is interesting to read”, “I want to learn more” and “It
is important for me to know more about hibernation.”
Pupils had external value claims and performance goals in their value claims, such as
increasing the number of credits and getting better examination marks. The reward is dependent
upon the success or failure of the task and there is also peer pressure in the classroom. Pupils
also wrote that the teacher directed the teaching and learning process and that they expected to
be told what to do and hold to do it. External value claim goals included descriptions in which
pupils wrote that they didn’t like this biology learning unit and were dissatisfied with it. They
were not interested in the task and did not see the importance and value of the biology learning
unit. Levels of self efficacy varied among the pupils who wrote that: “The teacher asked me
to do this learning project”, “Because I do this work I can get a better number of credits in
biology”, “I must to do this because it is our school work.”, “Other pupils do this task too”,
“I take no interest in overwintering”, “I would prefer to do something else” and “Biology and
this project is boring” A few pupils did not know why they had to use their time and resources
to solve the problem. They wrote briefly “I don’t know.”
Conceptual Knowledge in the Planning, Implementation and Evaluation Phase
Pupils wrote the theoretical basis according to the question: What do you know about the
issues? Pupils have many “everyday perspectives” and misconceptions on how animals pass
the winter. They used concepts which are not scientifically exact, for example they used the
concept of food instead of nutrition. Some pupils´ also had misconceptions concerning animals’
hibernation. Some of them wrote that “the hedgehog is in deep torpor instead of hibernation.”
Pupils also had anthropomorphic explanations, for example they wrote that a “rodent eats
cheese”, “a wolf fear is afraid of fire” and “an owls’ home is up a tree”. Factual knowledge
claims are typical but teleological reasoning was quite rare in the planning phase. Some of
the pupils wrote that “Many birds migrate south in winter in response to cold weather or the
shortening length of the day.”
Pupils’ conceptual knowledge and the most frequently mentioned descriptions in the
planning, implementation and evaluation phase is shown in table 3.
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78 Table 3. The number descriptions in the planning, implementation and evalua-

tion phase.
Implementation
Description Planning phase Evaluation phase Total
phase
Hibernation 28 10 3 41
Nutrition 22 4 3 29
Owl 18 23 58 99
Skull 16 4 37 53
Rodent 16 5 14 35
Overwintering 16 10 0 26
Endangered sp. 16 04 15 35
Habitat 14 2 2 18
Carnivore 12 0 0 12
Mixed flock 12 0 0 12
Bird of pray 12 0 0 12
Rovtand 10 0 0 10
Deep hibernation 10 0 0 10
Lynx 0 20 25 45
Aegolius f. 0 18 25 43
Bear 0 17 17 34
Wolf 0 14 20 34
Parus major 0 11 0 11
Bubo bubo 0 11 15 26
Clethrionomys g 0 11 0 11
Strix aluco 0 11 11 22
Big predator 11 0 15 26
Adaptation 0 0 45 45
Small rodents 0 0 38 38
Mammals 0 0 22 22
Tits 0 0 21 21
Mouse 0 0 15 15
Asio otus 0 0 18 18
Spoor 0 0 17 17
Vole 0 0 16 16
Total 213 171 452 836
What are the most important concepts already familiar from previous knowledge?
Altogether the pupils had 213 concepts in the planning phase. Pupils wrote about animals’
behavioural or physiological adaptation to winter and the environment. Pupils used concepts
of torpor as well as hibernation. They wrote that hibernation allows some animals to stay
sheltered and survive periods of winter cold. They described the quality of hibernation, for
example the level of being awake during the winter and they wrote lists of animals which are
in hibernation as well as those in deep hibernation. Pupils wrote: “Hibernation is found in
animals with inadequate external food reserves”, “Bear goes into hibernation and arouses from
hibernation”, “Animals store and use food prior to hibernation” and “Some mammals are in
deep torpor/deep hibernation.”
Pupils used the concept of nutrition, or they just wrote how and what animals eat as well
as how they change their nutritional habits or habitat during the winter time because of the food
shortage hibernation helps animals to avoid difficulties in finding sufficient nutrition over the
winter. Pupils used the concepts of carnivore and rodents and wrote: “The nutrition of most
herbivorous animals is different in the winter”, “Mammals choose their food plants carefully”,
“Many mammals eat food stocks they have gathered” and “When the snow cover is thick owls
have difficulty in finding and gathering food”.
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Owls are one of the core concepts in pupils’ Vee heuristics. Migration is one avoidance 79
strategy in birds but most of the owls did not migrate during the winter. Predator and prey
relationship is important because owls suffer if its food is a species that cannot tolerate a cold
environment. Pupils wrote about the owls’ habitats, behaviour and nutrition during the winter:
“Owls have extensive habitats in winter”, “Owls are active in winter”, “Winter is the critical
season for owls because of the scarcity of food resources” and “Rodents are the owls prey.”
In the planning phase, the pupils’ main concepts are concepts from order such as
carnivore and rodent. They also use the core concept “endangered species” and described the
exterior features or external structures of animals, for example skull, rovfood and canine teeth).
They wrote: “Carnivores’ skulls are big and sharp-toothed”, “Carnivores such as the bear
have large habitats”, “Owls eat rodents in winter time” and “Wolf is a predator and belongs to
an endangered animal species” Many of the animals stay active in winter and there the pupils
used the concept “overwintering”. Meaning specializing particular habitat change, for example
migration or behavioural change in predation: “Tits live in mixed flocks in winter”, “Mammals
had many overwintering habits”, “During the long winter the bear wakes up but does not eat”
and “Some animals spend long periods of time in burrows in the winter”.
The number of core concepts and descriptions in the implementation phase in Vee
heuristics is shown in table 3. To the question What do you have to do in order to construct
answers to the focus questions? pupils answered quite shortly, mainly they listed concepts. In the
implementation phase owls are the main concept and pupils mentioned many species of owls,
for example Tengmalm’s owl (Aegolius funerus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) and the
Tawny owl (Stricx aluc). Pupils wrote: “I investigate Tawny owls’ distribution and breeding”,
“The most important thing is the owls’ food supply in winter time”, “Owls’ hibernation in
Finland” and “Some owls are endangered in Finland”.
In addition to the owl species, pupils used the concept of lynx, bear and wolf. The
concepts of hibernation and overwintering were also frequently used. For example: “One
example of a hibernator in Finland is the bear and I wrote about it” and “I focus my studies
on animals without external reserves of the nutrition because they must use internal reserves
and others hibernate”. Secondary school pupils also used the concept of Parus major and mole
.They wrote: “I investigate the bank mole (Clethrionomys glareolus) and how it passes the
winter”, “Tits for example, Parus majors’ overwintering in Finland” and “How tits pass the
cold winter?”
What kind of data did you actually succeed in gathering? The number of core concepts
and descriptions in the evaluation phase in Vee heuristics is shown in table 3. They wrote
about animals’ morphology, behaviour, life cycles and autecology and used concepts of rodent,
predators as well as endangered animals. In the evaluation phase, pupils mainly highlighted
synecology, for example the ecological relationship of a community. The systemic view which
means relations between biotic and abiotic components and the flow of energy and cycling of
matter in the ecosystem, was seldom mentioned. The main concept of mammals includes many
subconcepts such as bear, vole, mouse, wolf and lynx.
Owls were the main concept in the evaluation phase but pupils also used sub concepts
such as the species Bubo bubo, Asio otus, Strix aluco, Tawny owls, Tengmalm’s owl and Aegolius
funerus, all of which are typical owls in winter in Central Finland. Owls are presented as one of
the top predators in food chains and food webs. Owls have a wide variety of species as their prey
though they have preferences in ranking order of choice when there are alternatives available.
Animals respond to each changing condition in their environment, the effects of which may
largely be determined largely by the responses of other community members. Temperature does
not affect only one of the species: it also affects the owls’ competitors as well as its prey. Pupils
wrote: “Owls occur in various habitats for which they have adapted their foraging behaviour”,
“Owls prey on animals such as tits and rodents. Fluctuations in food supply are typically in the
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80 life of owls”, “Owls are active winter birds which do not migrate”, “Food shortage in winter
has limited the distribution and abundance of owls” and “Some owls are endangered”.
In the evaluation phase, pupils used the concept “adaptation” and they wrote about
animals’ structural and functional adaptation to it. Structural or functional adaptation included
examples of shivering and regulation of temperature. Some of the responses to changing
conditions include acquiring a different coat in the autumn, a thick one underlain by a thick layer
of fat. Mammals as well as birds (=endotherms) expend more and more energy maintaining
the constant body temperature and to achieve this alm they have a high requirement for food.
Pupils wrote: “Bear: one of its external features is thick fur which is grown twice a year”,
“Colour change to reduce risk of predation”, “Tits huddle close together”, “Once feeding
tits has started it has to continue regularly”, “Some birds such as tits also take advantage of
each other’s body heat as a means of coping with the cold weather (huddling)” and“Mammals
and tits that live in cold temperatures are insulated from the cold with extremely dense fur or
feathers and extra layers of fat”.
Environmental conditions act primarily to modulate the rates of physiological processes
and many conditions are important stimuli for growth and development, preparing an animal
for conditions that are to come. For example, although pupils did not write about the external
signal such as is the length of the day in the approaching of winter, they wrote: “The wolf is able
to add to heat production by shivering”, “Mammals and birds retain a relatively constant body
temperature”, “Hibernation in a mammal is a state of reduced core temperature”, “The bear’s
active body temperature is near to 37 °C” and “Reduction in heart rate and body temperature
is important to mammals”.
In their writings, pupils used concepts of small rodents and large predators. In winter
ecology the relation between the body’s surface and mass plays an important part in the
effectiveness of insulation, the percentage change in winter insulation being greater in small
animals than in large ones. In cold climates, animals have a low surface area in ratio to volume
(short ears and limbs) and this reduces heat loss through the surface. Pupils wrote in their Vee
heuristics: “The lynx is an example of the ratio between long-leg surface and body-weight”, “
The vole has a body temperature that does not vary with the external environment”, “Some big
predators solve the problem by cooling their extremities” and “Maintaining cold extremities is
adaptation in response to a cold environment”.
Identifying animals is possible by the aid of the shape and size of a skull. Teeth are
another indicator of species. Identification of the teeth can be the first step towards discovering
what type of animal the skull belonged to and what the animal ate. Additional information
about the animal also can be gleaned from skulls, for example the age and general picture of the
health of the animal: “With the aid of skulls I can see evidence of similarities and differences in
animals” and “Skull observation gives information about what the animals ate”. Many animals
stay active in winter and pupils can observe and study animals’ tracks and footprints in the
snow. Pupils wrote: “Identification of animals’ spoor and feeding habits”, “Identification of
footprints and droppings in winter”, “The width of the forepaw is important” and “The bark
mole stores food in the burrow and lives in forest. It is easy to see the burrows in snow”.
Ecology included abundance of various types of population dynamics and cycles. Only
a few pupils used concept cycles although small herbivorous mammals such as voles and
lemmings tend to have 3-to 4-year cycles. These cycles may be caused by food shortage during
winter and cycles may be due to predator-prey interactions: “Predator – prey relationship is
important among animals”, “The number of rodents is important”, “The lynx competes for food
and living space”, “The home range of the tit usually changes with the season” and “Breeding
conditions and the number of breeding pairs”.
In the evaluation phase, secondary school students were interested in endangered species
which is a population of organisms at risk of becoming extinct due to begin few in numbers or
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threatened by the parameter of a changing environment or predation. In Finland, one example 81

of an endangered species is the wolf and the otter, lynx and bear are also threatened to some
extent. Owls too are presented to pupils as an example of an endangered species; “Some owls
are endangered” and “The lynx and bear are also endangered species”.
When comparing the planning and implementation phases with the evaluation phase,
concepts used by the pupils in the evaluation phase increased in number, were diversified and
more abstract: adaptation to winter, mammal, rodent and concepts which included taxonomy
classification of genius, family, order and class as well as species. For example, owls occur in
various habitats for which they have adapted their foraging behaviour once a broad spectrum
of prey such as rodents (vole) and tits. In the evaluation phase pupils used generalised concepts
concerning bird species identification. However, there were only a few descriptions about
abiotic factors such as light and temperature.
Procedural Understanding in the Planning, Implementation and Evaluation Phase
In the planning phase, the methodological basis included Vee heuristic questions: Which
methods do you plan to use to solve the problem? Pupils made observations in the museum
and consulted scientific literature. Pupils well encouraged to decide the size of their project
and the timing of their work themselves. Table 4 seems to suggest that pupils used processing
skills in the planning phase i.e. the use of data sources and illustrations. Pupils wrote: “I read
newspapers and wrote in my diary”, “I asked the biology teacher”, “I searched for knowledge
from the internet” and “I went to the library and science museum to look at animal skulls”.
In the implementation phase, pupils mentioned in the methodological basis that they
searched for information, compared, read and made some research, while in the evaluation
phase pupils used editing, selection, mapping, drawing and summarizing. Pupils wrote: “I used
collection, analysis and interpretation of the data”, “I had active learning using text”, “I made
decisions about biological issues”, “I compared the findings with data from other sources”, “I
used identification books” and “I presented the owls’ distribution area with aid of a map”.
In the evaluation phase, some pupils were more interested in finding generalizations
from a single observation of the biotic and abiotic components and how they interacted. They
used taxonomic specimens and identification books with the aid of drawings and maps pupils
showed the density of populations in Finland. Using diagrams they showed cycles of abundance
with peaks around every year and also demonstrated that show that when the temperature is a
few degrees above zero, organisms may be forced into extended periods of inactivity.
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82 Table 4. The classification and number of methods which pupils in the planning
and evaluation phase.
Planning Planning Planning Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation

Method Total
phase phase phase phase phase phase
Girl Boy Total Girl Boy Total
Drawings/maps 30 35 65 60 48 108 173
Books 28 20 48 48
Reading 24 22 46 28 28 56 102
Science museum 19 10 29 29
Textbooks 13 13 26 26
Computer 11 9 20 20
Writing 6 9 15 8 15 23 38
Newspapers 4 6 10 10
Diagrams 2 6 8 11 11 22 30
Television 3 5 8 8
Comparing 4 3 7 1 2 3 10
Underline 3 1 4 5 1 6 10
Own knowledge 4 0 4 4
Truncate the text 2 1 3 3
Teacher 1 2 3 3
Listening 0 2 2 2
No answer 0 2 2 2
Copy 0 1 1 1
Rework the text 24 21 45 45
Labels 8 13 21 21
Summary/introduction 11 5 16 16
Plan 8 8 16 16
Diary 4 4 8 8
Working 3 3 2 8
Other 2 0 2 2
Total 154 147 301 173 159 332 633
In the planning phase most of the students described 3-4 methods, in the evaluation
phase they used 4-5 methods (see Table 5). In the implementation phase, pupils highlighted
concepts instead of methods. In the evaluation phase, pupils used maps showing the area of
the animals’ distribution, many drawings about animals spoor as well as relevant information
upon which they elaborated and organised for their own use. Pupils used a variety of learning
strategies and thought about what they were doing in the evaluation phase, using the diary as an
important method for reflection.
Table 5. The number of methods in the planning and evaluation phase.
Vee Evaluation
Planning phase
heuristics phase
Number of meth�
Girl Boy Total Girl Boy Total
ods
0 0 2 2 1 3 4
1 0 2 2 0 2 2
2 18 22 40 8 2 10
3 36 54 90 33 84 117
4 64 36 100 52 24 76
5 30 25 55 55 20 75
6 6 6 12 24 24 48
Total 154 147 301 173 159 332
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What are the Main Factual Conclusions which You Have Constructed Out of the Data? 83
The classification of pupils’ knowledge claims in accordance with SOLO-taxonomy,

is shown in table 6. Most of the pupils’ knowledge claims were relational and at an extended
abstract level.
Table 6. The classification of pupils’ (N=92) knowledge claims in the evaluation

phase.
Category Girl Boy Total %

Pre- and unistructural knowledge 17 18.5
Claims which included mistakes 8 7 15
No knowledge claims evaluation 2 2
Multistructural 23 25
Factual knowledge 12 7 19
Opinion 0 4 4
Relational 14 15.2
Explanation 4 4 8
Learning of skills and ecology concepts 0 6 6
Extended abstract level 35 38
Evaluation of knowledge 1 1 2
New research question 0 2 2
Discussion 12 10 22
Generalisation 7 2 9
Other 3 3.3
Don’t remember 0 2 2
No answer 0 1 1
Total 44 48 92 100
Pre- and unistructural knowledge claims are claims which included mistakes. In the
evaluation phase, pupils had some mistakes and misconceptions concerning animals’ adaptation
to winter. Some pupils did not understand the level of torpor and could not remember what
animal was in deep torpor. Some knowledge claims were very simple and in the planning phase
the pre knowledge of the pupils did not contain explanations or causal relationship.
Multistructural knowledge claims included concepts from which a number of
connections may be made but the meta-connections between them were missing. Pupils wrote
lots of factual knowledge about animals’ winter adaptation which contained figures and very
detailed information. Pupils wrote: “The hedgehog hibernates quite well at -5 °C with a body
temperature of 2.5 °C and heart rate of 19 beats per minute. Hedgehogs wake up after 4 or 5
hours.” and “The vole has ten offspring a year”. Pupils also had opinions about other animals.
They wrote: “The elk is a good animal for hunting” and “Gulo gulo is a terrible predator”.
Relational knowledge claims included concepts which are linked each other and are
parts in relation to the whole. Pupils wrote: “Next time I will be able to work better on a new
project than this one”, “I understood that the lynx is not so small as I had thought” and “By
investigation of skulls and their anatomy I found out if the animal was herbivore or predator”.
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84 Pupils used extended abstract level knowledge claims in connection with concepts,
generalised principles and ideas. They wrote: “The ability to become a dormant does not
probably play a role in governing the distribution of the mammal”, “I learned about inquiry
itself and new things about animals. It was wonderful because I was able to told my mother
about the hedgehog and its overwintering when she asked.”, and “The board distribution of
several species of hibernators over many climatic areas, is evidence that large populations of
the species do not make use of their physiological ability”.
How Worthwhile is the New Knowledge?
Pupils’ descriptions are classified into seven categories. The classification of pupils’
evaluation of knowledge claims is shown in table 7. Most of the knowledge claims included
positive attitudes to learning and new knowledge.
Table 7. The classification of pupils’ (N=92) value claims in the evaluation

phase.
Category Girl Boy Total %

Learning for the understanding of ecology 31 25 56 30
Evaluation of the whole learning process 25 23 48 26
New knowledge is worthwhile and useful 28 23 51 27
My opinion become more positive 12 4 16 9
Knowledge is not worthwhile 2 5 7 4
No comments 3 3 6 3
Total 101 83 184 100
Pupils were able to construct new meaningful knowledge. The knowledge claims which
had been made in the evaluation phase were complicated and covered a wide area on the issue.
Pupils’ new knowledge has been gained in their attempt to understand winter ecology. The
activity encouraged problem solving and provided appropriate feedback to Vee heuristics with
its ten questions reducing emphasis on learning the facts and increasing emphasis on learning
scientific processes. Pupils wrote: “Biology is interesting. I will use biology knowledge in future”,
“I like biology and feel successful at it”,”The learning process is enjoyable and satisfying in
itself. Now I have a positive attitude towards biology”, “I want to use this knowledge; someday
this will be useful to me” and “I think that the whole process is important: the planning,
implementation and evaluation phase”. A few of the knowledge claims showed a negative
attitude to knowledge. Pupils wrote: “I think that this project was useless. The knowledge I
searched for was useless” and “I will never need this information”.
How Worthwhile are Vee Heuristics?
Pupils thoughts on the use of Vee heuristics are shown in table 8. Pupils’ abilities to
produce Vee heuristics may vary; some were unfamiliar with it and had difficulties although
all of them (with the exception of one pupil) had used it before. Pupils wrote: “I don’t know
what I am doing. I don’t understand the form of Vee heuristics” and “Vee heuristics is different
and it required effort and more work than in the other tasks”. 35 % of the pupils had positive
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experiences of Vee heuristics: “Vee is an effective strategy because it demands thinking”, “I 85

am willing to use it in other biology task. Now I think more logically”, “I have improved my
preparation. I am better able to identify weakness in my time table” and “Vee is transferable
across different tasks”.
The Vee heuristic was considered to be new, variable and concise and its use made it
possible for pupils to follow their own learning process. 45 % of the pupils had negative thoughts
about the Vee heuristic, reflecting confusion and a negative attitude towards the new method.
Vee heuristics help pupils to realize what they already know and to gain new knowledge in
their attempt to understand winter ecology. The eighth graders were able to plan, monitor and
evaluate their own learning process. Some of the pupils were unable to present either a positive
or negative attitude towards Vee. 4 % of the pupils did not even answer the evaluation question
concerning Vee heuristics as a method in general.. “I am actively participate in my own learning
process” and “I construct new meaningful knowledge”.
Pupils estimated time requirements and organised materials, finally evaluating their
success and identifying learning strategies which would be valuable for the future. Pupils
are aware of the learning process but perhaps there is not sufficient guidance about how to
work with Vee heuristics. They believed in the value of the task and in their own abilities and
commented on how they have dealt with difficulties. (Table 8.)
Table 8. The decription of pupils (N=92) value claims about the use of Vee heu-
ristics.
Description Girl % Boy % Total %
Negative 16 36 25 52 41 45
Positive 17 39 15 31 32 35
No comments 9 20 6 13 15 16
Don’t know 2 5 2 4 4 4
Total 44 100 48 100 92 100
Discussion
Are pupils interested in animals in winter? If so, are they more interested in some
ecological topics than in others? Pupils’ questions can be a key element in the teaching and
learning process in biology. Pupils’ focus questions extend their prior knowledge and establish
linkages and relationships between existing knowledge and experiences, leading to the
construction of new comprehensive conceptions. In the planning phase pupils mainly used
focus questions which recall factual information and “why” and “how” questions which need
explanations about a process or phenomena. Pupils’ focus questions are linked to descriptive
ecology (simple descriptions about their observations) and comparative ecology (descriptions of
animals and their behaviour). The focus questions of biological activities and process are linked
to causal ecology. According to the results of this study, pupils’ questions deal with four levels
of ecological organisation – individual organisms, populations, communities and ecosystems.
In addition, pupils’ questions deal with a variety of spatial scales, from the community to that
of the whole biosphere. It is important to acknowledge that not all of the focus questions were
related to content, thus some pupils have difficulties in making reliable focus questions, a
finding which is in accordance with the previous results of Yip (2004, 2009).
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86 Value claims are important in emphasizing the value of knowledge. During the learning
process pupils’attitudes to learning biology change. The same results were apparent in Jamaican
eighth graders who participated in the study of Ugwu and Soyibo (2004) even though it was not
in the context of biology education. Vee heuristics and inquiry based learning is a strategy aimed
to enhance pupils’ interest in biology, which is important (see Prokop et al., 2007, Uitto et al.,
2006). Winter ecology is relevant to pupils’ lives and many of them will use the things learned
in concrete situations. (see also Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2011; Lindemann-Matthies, 2006). The
pupils appreciated this and considered the knowledge gained as being useful in the future, even
though in the beginning of the learning process, they didn’t understand why they should use
their time, resources and their own lives to solve these problems.
The pre-, inter-and post-instructional evaluation of pupils’ Vee heuristics here, shows
evidence of an increase of concepts in the understanding of winter ecology. The content areas
in which the most significant understanding occurred, were the biotic elements of winter
acclimatization. In the implementation phase pupils used mainly a single organism and named
single species, especially owls. In the evaluation phase, identification of another organism
followed, describing its adaptation to winter. Inquiry-based study of a single organism has, in
other studies (see Magntorn & Helldén, 2007a; 2007b), been shown to be highly motivating for
the students. The study of Margo et al. (2001) as well as Magntorn and Hellden (2007a) have
previously shown that students lose interest if they are not familiar with the organism. In this
study, all of the birds and mammals are local animals. For example, in the evaluation phase
pupils used the concept of owls and its subconcept, species Bubo bubo, Asio otus, Aegolius
funereus as well as the concept of mammals and its subconcepts mouse, vole, bear, wolf and
lynx. This means that they linked single organisms to systemic thinking and used concepts
which indentified prey – the predatory system.
This study provides useful information about the gaps in pupils’ conceptual and
methodological basis and the types of misconceptions pupils are likely to have about the subject
“animals in winter”. Especially in the planning phase, pupils’ Vee heuristic contained a lot of
everyday experiences and misconceptions concerning subjects such as hibernation and animals’
nutrition in winter. The biology teacher needs to be aware that such misconceptions exist in
the minds of pupils and should act upon them (see Patrick and Tunnicliffe, 2011). Reasoning
about the functions of the animal in relation to the whole ecosystem was largely absent in the
planning phase. This was not surprising and is supported by other studies (see e.g. Magntorn
& Helldén, 2007a). In this study, pupils highlighted biotic elements in the winter ecosystem
although abiotic elements are also important.
The results of this study provide support for the previously perceived implications
for the use of Vee heuristics (e.g. Ugwu & Soyibo, 2004; Vanhear & Pace, 2008; Åhlber &
Ahoranta, 2002; Åhlberg et al., 2005). Using Vee heuristics, eighth-grade pupils are also able
to plan, monitor and evaluate their own learning activities. The ten questions of Vee directed
pupils towards observing their own learning, which gave them the feeling of independence.
Vee heuristics also help pupils to understand the cognitive and affective elements that interplay
in learning. The results cannot be generalized, but we hope that this study encourages other
teachers to use Vee heuristics in biology learning at the secondary school level.
According to this study, the local Science museum can help pupils to observe ecosystems
if the possibilities of studying the ecosystem outdoors is not possible. It is especially easy to see
the anatomy of animals and their features (e.g. skull, fur, and colour in winter) in the Science
museum. In their previous research, Magntorn and Helldén (2007a) found that the recognition
of species (and taxonomy) help students read about nature, if naming is related to the functional
level. Results of this study as well as previous studies of Falk and Storksdieck (2005) and
Tunnicliffe and Later-Veer de Beer (2002) show that most of the eighth-grade pupils combined
structural and functional aspects in winter ecology because they observed, for example, skulls
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and teeth which are easily seen in a museum. In this study, results show that conservation issues 87
are also important for students. This is not in agreement with the previous study of Tunnicliffe
(1999).
When teaching, biology teachers should be aware of various meanings of adaptation.
In the evaluation phase, pupils’ mainly used concepts concerning physiological or behavioural
adaptation to winter. According to Ashelford (2002) it is also important to distinguish adaptation
as a process of long-term evolutionary change. In this study, few eighth graders asked questions
concerning evolutionary adaptation (for example the hare’s white coat) or explained adaptation
with evolution. In the Finnish national curriculum (2004) evolutionary adaptation is included
in ninth grade biology, thus the eighth graders had no knowledge about the mechanism of
evolutionary adaptation or evolution in general.
In this study, eighth graders refer to adaptation as being a process of short-term change.
This usually involves a change in physiology, behaviour or development, made in direct
response to a change in external conditions. Many birds migrate south in winter in response to
cold weather or the shortening length of the day. Many small mammals are nocturnal as the lack
of light renders them harder to detect. These responses to changes in external circumstances
are inherited and as such are adaptations, in the same sense as the white coat of the polar bear
is an adaptation to its environment. They are simply more flexible and in many ways more
sophisticated, examples of evolutionary adaptations. This is a difficult distinction to make. In
our curricula the mechanism of evolution is not included in grade 8, however we can reinforce
the idea of why some organism undergoes seasonal or diurnal changes and why some apparently
do not.
Secondary school students described a feature of an organism that aids its ability to survive
and reproduce in its natural environment. Their examples included morphological features of
organism such as coat colouring. Adaptations can also be behavioural or physiological such
as hibernation. Secondary school students also described adaptation as a process in which an
organism makes and appropriate response to a change in the environment, for example many
birds adapt to seasonal changes in climate by migrating to warmer habitats in winter. These
responses relate to short term changes in behaviour, physiology or development. However, in
biology education it is also important to teach and learn adaptation as a process of change which
also refers to long-term evolutionary changes.
Results in this study show that although pupils draw animals’ distribution in their maps,
the relationships between climate, geography and physiological mechanisms are complicated
(see Ashelford, 2002). Physiology helps to explain how animals can live where they do but
rarely explains the exact limits of their distribution. Factors which limit the occurrence of the
species would be competition, habitat-selection, diet and behavioural mechanisms, thus the
ability to hibernate does not appear to be a distributional determinant. Pupils also used the
concept “endangered animals” in the planning and evaluation phase of this study. Wolves have
been listed as an endangered species in Finland and are rarely observed in nature. It may just
be that the lack of actual experiences with those big mammals could be one of the reasons why
pupils are interested in them. Perhaps it tells us something about positive attitudes towards large
carnivores or that pupils use adaptation to explain the distribution and relative abundance of
organisms in habitat.
Conclusions
On examining Vee heuristics, one notes the difference in the answers on each side. In
the evaluation phase, pupils used the concept “adaptation to winter”, thus in the planning phase
most of the pupils used the concept “overwintering and hibernation”. In the evaluation phase,
pupils also used concepts of big predators and small rodents. The size of the animal is important
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88 in its ability to adaptat to winter. Because of their high metabolic rates, some small mammals
and birds are faced with an acute need for a continual supply of food and water. The ability to
drastically lower their metabolism conserves their food and water. One of the most important
factors in the control of heat loss is the barrier between the core of the animal and the external
environment.
Vee heuristics included three mental processes involved in learning; cognition, conation
and affectation. Data collected in this research reveals that each pupil processes incoming
information differently and therefore it is very unrealistic to expect all pupils to respond to
whatever happens in class in approximately the same way. Results confirm that for a pupil
“to take an interest in learning” the teacher must be aware of the pupil’s own preferred way
of learning in order to address his/her needs and enhance his/her learning experience. Vee
heuristics were used with different groups from which, although rather small in size, some
conclusions could be made. The right side of the Vee heuristics showed an increasing number
of skills and concepts, which used as an assessment tool, describe changes in pupils’ conceptual
understanding.
The Vee heuristic lent itself beautifully to a process of reflection and action in which
pupils’ internal language became visually overt and explicit. In this way pupils are taught to
think aloud, reflect on what is going on in their heads and decide how they can proceed to act
and develop it. By constructing Vee for the focus question under study, at a glance pupils clearly
conveyed “what they already know”, thus providing educators with the opportunity to build
upon it. The learning programme was very effective in allowing both the teacher and the learner
to easily see what prior knowledge was present, what new knowledge had been constructed
and how this was integrated and elaborated within the pre-existing cognitive structure. Vee
heuristics provide the teacher and the learner with a clear picture of how the learner responds
to and acts upon incoming information. This metacognitive teaching strategy shifts the control
from the teacher to the learner, resulting in learners becoming the agents of their own learning,
since they are actively participating in their own learning process. Moreover, the learner exhibits
how he/she plans to learn more. This is very important in order for the teacher to be able to
collaboratively build a learning programme which would be relevant to the learner’s way of
responding to new information and so prove to be truly motivating and meaningful.
Analysis of the ten questions in the planning, implementation and evaluation phase was
done by triangulating the data to expand the richness of the answers. Thus in this study, Vee
heuristics are analysed to complete the validity of the research and to prove that pupils have
different ways of representing their conceptions of animals in winter. In this study it is also
evaluated changes in the average numbers of concepts. Some of the pupils’ concepts did not fit
well within the concept categories and categorisation of pupils’ questions was not a simple task.
For example, pupils’ focus questions were analysed with taxonomy. Taxonomic classification of
focus questions formalizes hierarchical arrangement of species, genus, family, order and class
but some pupils’ concepts did not fit well within taxonomy. The question has to be determined
with reference to the specific context in which the question is asked.
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90 Tunnicliffe, S. D., & Reiss, M. J. (1999). Building a model of environment: how do children see animals.
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Advised by Tuula Keinonen, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
Received: September 03, 2012 Accepted: September 25, 2012
Sirpa Kärkkäinen Dr, Senior Lecturer,��

University of Eastern Finland, ��
School of Applied Educa�
tional Science and Teacher Education, Box 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland.
E-mail: sirpa.a.karkkainen@uef.fi
Website: http://uef.fi
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CRAFT AS A BOUNDARY TOOL FOR 91
MULTI-AND INTERCULTURAL
EDUCATION: A CASE IN TEACHER
EDUCATION
Tarja Kröger
University of Eastern Finland, Savonlinna, Finland
E-mail: tarja.kroger@uef.fi
Abstract
Studies on boundary crossing and boundary objects emphasize that boundaries carry potential for
learning. However, it is not explicated how the craft could be used as a boundary in multi- and intercultural
education. This research describes a case of using craft as a boundary to facilitate multi- and intercultural
education. It first gives an overview on the Multi- and Intercultural Craft course including a theoretical
part that was organized through a virtual platform, Moodle. The course included also a practical part,
a project, where Finnish, exchange students and a group of immigrants from Burma met in the context
of craft. The students (n = 14) were asked to write reflective essays about the course. In the qualitative
analysis of essays, their learning experiences that appeared in the data, were examined. Three aspects
of learning experiences were identified: first a cognitive aspect, which is about increased knowledge;
second an affective aspect, which focuses on changing attitudes; and the third an interactive aspect,
which is concerned with how to get on with people from different cultures.
Key words: boundary object, craft education, intercultural education, multicultural education, teacher
education.

Introduction
Finland is experiencing increased cultural diversity due to immigration and is facing

challenges in developing multi- and intercultural education in schools and in teacher
education.
Studies on boundary crossing and boundary objects emphasize that boundaries are
relevant for learning (see e.g. Wenger, 1998). The claims on boundaries and learning made in
the literature are often general in nature, and the literature hardly explicates how or what kind
of learning is taking place (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011, p. 133).
Multi- and Intercultural Education
Terms multicultural and intercultural are used interchangeably, sometimes they are
differentiated. Critically oriented researchers argue that there are no major differences between
critical multicultural education and critical intercultural education (Mansikka & Holm, 2011).
UNESCO (2006) differentiates multi- and intercultural education in the following way:
“Multicultural education uses learning about other cultures in order to produce acceptance, or at
least tolerance, of these cultures. Intercultural education aims to go beyond passive coexistence,
to achieve a developing and sustainable way of living together in multicultural societies through
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92 the creation of understanding of, respect for and dialogue between the different cultural groups.”
Interculturality implies, by definition, interaction, learning with others rather than learning
about other cultures from a distance.
In this research, the concept of intercultural education is interpreted in the way UNESCO
defines it, but it is also understood that they can be used as companions to help educators to
work with their diverse learners.
Boundary Objects
The concept of boundary objects comes from Star and Griesemer (1989) who introduced
the concept of boundary object to indicate how artifacts can fulfill a specific function in
bridging intersecting practices. Situated action theorists (e.g. Lave and Wenger, 1991) have
demonstrated that it is the situation that drives people’s learning and behaviour, rather than
goals. Boundary objects are tools to facilitate interactions in these situations. A boundary object
could be artifacts, documents, terms, concepts and other forms of reification that can help
people from different communities build a shared understanding (Wenger, 1998). In this paper,
a boundary object refers to a craft as an artifact and as a process.
There are different ways in which scholars have approached learning on the boundary.
Akkerman and Bakker (2011) have analyzed the learning processes described in the studies
on boundary crossing and boundary objects. The review of the studies reveals four potential
learning mechanisms that can take place at boundaries: identification, coordination, reflection,
and transformation. Identification is about coming to know what the diverse practices are
about in relation to one another. Coordination is about creating cooperative and routinezed
exchanges between practices. Reflection is about expanding one’s perspectives on the practices.
Transformation is about collaboration and codevelopment of practices. (Akkerman and Baker,
2011.)
Problem of Research
Prospective teachers need to be encouraged to develop multi- and intercultural education.

The following case shows how craft can be used as a boundary in multi- and intercultural
education. The research question is: what kind of learning experiences students get during the
course where craft is used as a boundary tool for multi- and intercultural education.
The qualitative case study design was chosen because it is useful to understand learning
experiences in multi- and intercultural education and to improve education academically. Case
studies include an intensive process of collecting the research data (Merriam, 1998). In this
case study, the research data were collected through reflective essays. The essays were analyzed
qualitatively.
Fourteen prospective teachers participated in this study. Of which, ten participants
were Finnish students and four were exchange students. Reflective essays were written by
all students (14). The essay task was rather open, the page limit was about 5-10 pages. First,
they were asked to write about meeting people from other cultures and developing cultural
sensitivity in the context of crafts during and after the course. Second, they were asked to reflect
on both difficulties and pleasurable learning experiences. They were also asked to reflect on the
lectures/readings and assignments of the course.
The texts were repeatedly read in order to determine the distinct ways in which the
students described their learning. In addition to differences in forms of expression, attention was
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also paid to similarities. The categories resulting from the analysis cover the whole variation of 93
different ways in which the students described their subjective learning outcomes.
The researcher’s role in this qualitative case study is an insider-researcher. Insider-
researchers are those who choose to study a group to which they belong. He interacts and
collaborates with the participants, and he gathers data by himself (Unluer, 2012). There are
both advantages and disadvantages to being an insider-researcher. As an insider it is easy to
determine the case, to enter the research site, to define the researcher’s role to participants
and to access data. On the other hand, an insider researcher may encounter some problematic
situations in considering the ethical issues. The instructor/researcher had to be careful not to
give the impression that students were tested when they wrote their reflective essays. The
lecturer/researcher emphasized to the students that the question was not to test but to understand
the participants’ learning experiences about the subject.
The Case
The course was held at the University of Eastern Finland’s Department of Applied
Education Science and Teacher Education in spring 2011 during two months. The course was
aimed at crafts science students who will become teachers. The course followed a blended
learning methodology, which combines attended learning and on-line learning. On-line
activities took place in a learning environment Moodle and hand-on activities took place in
classrooms. Ten Finnish students and four exchange students (two from Latvia and two from
Spain) registered for this course.
The course had three primary goals. The first goal was to introduce the participants to
multi- and intercultural concepts and cultural sensitivity. Secondly, the course was designed
to provide motivation, knowledge, and an appreciation of diversity that can help to overcome
many obstacles to intercultural understanding and communication. Thirdly, the goal was to help
improve intercultural communication in the context of craft culture. That is, what antecedents
and considerations need to be taken into account when people from different cultures come
together to share ideas and information? Finally, the goal was to encourage future teachers
to reflect on and identify their own personal positions, in various environments, in order to
develop a clearer sense of their ethnic and cultural identities and to examine their cultural
sensitivity vis-à-vis people from different cultures.
Orientation to the Course
The course started with a pre-task where students were asked to write a short essay
about the theme”Me and multiculturalism”. After completing the pre-task, students were asked
to browse through the virtual Moodle environment and the document of the course syllabus
and program. Students were also asked to make an introduction using the discussion forum of
Moodle. A diverse student group with different backgrounds and experiences was in itself seen
as an important resource in this course.
Lectures/readings and Assignments
The students were asked to listen to asynchronous lectures and perform asynchronous
assignments in the virtual Moodle environment. Because the lectures were in Finnish, the
exchange students were given some English readings instead of Finnish lectures. Lectures/
readings were given two times a week. In total, there were five topics for the lectures/readings.
The lectures included a bibliography and recommended links.
In addition to lectures/readings, associated activities - assignments - were given in
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94 Moodle. The purpose of the assignments was to stress important points of lectures/readings,
clarify theoretical concepts, stimulate ideas and foster study of craft culture. The course
comprised two main types of assignments. The first type included independent activities. In the
second type of assignments, students were asked to express considerations, doubts, queries and
comments to each other’s posts.
The lectures, readings and tasks were available from the given day and the students had a
week to complete the task connected to a lecture or specific readings. After a week, the lecturer
made a summary of the students’ answers. Summing-ups were provided to the students through
Moodle.
The following topics were discussed during five lectures/readings and tasks.
- Multi- and interculturalism: concepts and sensitivity
- Characteristics of Finnish craft culture and other cultures
- Cultural signs and meanings of minority cultures and subcultures
- Representations of cultures
- Practices of multi- and intercultural pedagogy
Project
Reflection on a cognitive level is not enough; the emotional level, too, should be
taken into account (Alasuutari & Jokikokko, 2010, p. 30). A vital question is, what kinds of
experiences make students not only aware of intercultural issues, but also help them translate
their knowledge into action. Some researches (Mezirow, 1991; Jokikokko, 2009) have shown
that emotionally powerful experiences play a significant role in the transformation process. In
this course, project work was used for this purpose. The project used the principle of learning
of the real case that stimulates learning and converts it in to a significant process.
In the project, students were supposed to meet refugees from Burma and organize a craft
workshop for people who are just beginning to learn Finnish and don’t know much about the
Finnish culture. The instructor explained the idea of the project in the first face-to-face session
and gave a task to plan content for the first meeting (two hours) and the workshop (four hours)
with the refugees and the exchange students. The main information was also published in the
virtual environment. The students were given the following support questions for planning the
first meeting:
- What and how do you tell about yourself?
- What and how do you tell about your craft culture?
- What do you want to know about the guests?
- How do you show your interest in the strangers?
The Finnish students worked in pairs so that every pair would later include five refugees
and one exchange student to their group. The students made their plans first in pairs and
later presented them to the whole group in the second face-to-face session. Students had the
opportunity to use the virtual wiki forum in Moodle for planning.
The plans for the meeting and the workshop with the refugees were presented and
discussed in the second face-to-face session. The face-to-face session aimed to training students
for collaboration and boundary crossings in the context of craft. It aimed also to creating a safe,
trusting and open atmosphere within the group.
When the Finnish students, the exchange students and the refugees met for the first time
in the meeting, they brought (craft) artefacts with them to show to each other. The artefacts that
they brought with them were recognizable and common enough for them to talk about. The
craft artefacts worked as a common point of reference for the conversations. The students and
the refugees realized that some of the techniques like weaving and materials like wool were
familiar for them regardless of their diverse backgrounds. Although crafts were made with
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common techniques and structures, people attached different meanings on them. For example, 95
weaving has been an essential way of getting money for living for the Burmese people. To
the Finnish students weaving often represented so called ‘slow craft’ carrying a therapeutic
meaning. Despite the different interpretations, boundary craft objects served as a means of
understanding each other.
The dialogue continued after a week in the craft workshops which were organized by
the Finnish students. The small groups were the same in the workshops as in the first meetings,
i.e. two Finnish students, five refugees and one exchange student in a group. All groups had a
common theme “Let’s take part in the world’s biggest blanket –project”. “The world’s biggest
blanket” project was a national craft project that anyone could take part in. Small blankets (parts
of the world’s biggest blanket) were donated to charities after “The world’s biggest blanket”
event. The participants crocheted together patches for the blanket in the workshops. While
learning and making they shared experiences, recognised similarities and differences, and came
to understand each other.
After the workshop, volunteering students gathered together and stitched the patches
together. The blanket was named “Diversity is richness”. The completed blanket was put on
display and also photos were taken of it and sent to the participants of the workshop. The students
attached some manifestos to the blanket that was on display. The blanket is also displayed on
the web page http://www.kaspaikka.fi/koti/savonlinna/monikulttuurisuuspeitto/index.html.
Results of Research
In the analysis of essays, students’ learning experiences that appeared in the data, were
examined. Three different aspects emerged from the essays: cognitive aspect (knowing), affective
aspect (understanding and valuing) and interactive aspect (behavior and communication).
In the following there is an overview of the students’ perceptions of the various learning
experiences. Direct quotations from students are in italics.
The cognitive aspect refers to knowing about others, their behaviour, culture, history,
country. There were descriptions of learning experiences where students say that they value the
information they learned from the Burmese culture.
The most rewarding thing was to see that the Burmese people have a lot of craft know-
how, and we can learn from them.
This course deepened my previous knowledge about the Burmese culture.
The cognitive aspect also includes knowledge about the similarities and differences
between cultures.
It is always interesting for me to learn things about other cultures, but this experience was
so much better, because this time I had a chance to meet people from other culture and
it helped me to look deeper in cultures than just on the cover, like through pictures. I saw
how they move, act, look, speak and work. It made me more sensitive in understanding
that the things that are so common for me are something very unusual to others.
Affective aspect refers to accepting, respecting and appreciating others. Students

described how their attitudes have changed and cultural sensitivity has increased during the
course by looking from another perspective. Taking another perspective is a way to begin to see
things in a different light.
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96 I started to think about what I would miss from my home if I had to go to another country
as an immigrant. I realized that it is certainly not easy for the Burmese people to take up
the Finnish language and culture.
Learning experiences on the affective level were often connected to significant persons
met during the project. Jokikokko (2009) has analyzed biographical interviews in which Finnish
teachers were asked to talk about their lives from the perspective of intercultural learning. The
analysis of the interviews showed that other people were involved in many of the experiences
being referred to, and that these individuals played an important role in the stories. In the essays
of this course, there were also comments about significant persons. A significant individual is
described as an emphatic person or an equal interlocutor.
It was an awesome experience when an old Burmese woman taught me her own crochet
model. It was a good experience for me because I understood what it is like to learn
something new without the same language. On the other hand the experience of teaching
and that someone really appreciates and wants to learn from your traditions, was a
rewarding experience for the Burmese woman and the whole group.
I met a very warm, emphatic Afghan woman in our workshop. She was so positive and
gentle, a good role model for every one of us.
Learning experiences of the interactive aspect were connected to the social events,
behaviour, in the workshop and experiences of craft as a tool for communication. The
descriptions of behaviour included experiences of a positive atmosphere in the group. The
positive atmosphere was described as familiar, supportive and warm.
It was great to see that the second meeting with refugees was more informal and we
clearly managed to gain trust of the foreigners. We even managed to found a common
humour, although a common language was weak.
The best thing definitely was working together in a workshop with the refugees and the
exchange students. Co-operation was smooth and everybody was eager.
Learning experiences included many descriptions of craft as a tool for communication. The
possibility to communicate without a common language was emphasized in the descriptions.
Craft is a different way to interrelate and enriching oneself, while very useful for
establishing a communication with those who do not speak the same language. It also
provides a cultural exchange between different cultures involved in this process, making
the experience much more usable: teaching and learning from craft.
The crafts have been the perfect excuse to meet and at the same time to explore the
enriching characteristics of the people and the Burmese/Finnish culture. Finding
different ways to communicate has been a challenge. We have seen that there are many
ways to say something. Words are not everything. Crafts can be a way to express yourself
and understand the others.
The project has helped me to get a new perspective on working with people from other
cultures. Often people think that making a multiculturalism project is not possible
because, if the two groups do not speak the same language, the communication is not
possible and then the project serves no purpose. But now I’ve seen that we do not need
fluent verbal communication to interact with a cultural group different from yours.
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The meaning of craft got a new perspective. Although we had not a common language, 97
craft making connected us.
When we meet people from different cultures and we share a common interest, we can
understand each other even though we do not have a common language. The greatest
experience during this course was to meet without a common language.
Discussion
The results give us clues that craft as a boundary object has at least three aspects:
cognitive, affective and interactive. These aspects can be equated approximately to the domains
of intercultural competence (see e.g. Chen and Starosta, 1998; Lustig and Koester, 2006;
Bennett, 2008).
Cognitive aspect is about getting knowledge about one’s own as well as other cultures.
It also includes knowledge about the similarities and differences between cultures. Craft as
a boundary can be seen as a knowledge-transforming device. Hill (2006) reminds that it is
important to go deeper than the superficial, easily recognizable characteristics of a particular
culture. Students should be encouraged to compare variability across a number of cultures, for
example, between individualism and collectivism: the extent to which a society is structured
around a group mentality or each person acting individually. Students’ descriptions of cultural
knowledge in this research are on a very general level. Therefore, future research should take
this issue into account; one possible suggestion is to use an interview as a research method.
Hill (2006) points out that cultural knowledge is an important component, but it is
not enough for intercultural understanding. Positive attitudes, such as empathy, curiosity and
respect, are also necessary for intercultural understanding. Knowledge about another culture
can lead to an appreciation of that culture but the adoption of a positive attitude towards other
does not stem from knowledge alone (Hill 2006.) Positive attitudes are described here as an
affective aspect. A person’s affective response to intercultural difference can be called also
intercultural sensitivity (Straffon 2003). Affective aspect here is about accepting, respecting
and appreciating others through craft objects and craft skills that are important for individuals.
Craft as a boundary creates a possibility to look at oneself through the eyes of other worlds.
Boland and Tenkasi (1995) call this perspective taking. They argue that boundary objects are
artifacts that can serve as a perspective-taking experience for those who have the attitude of
taking of the other into account (p. 362).
For Weber (2003; 2005), who has introduced an intercultural encountering model,
intercultural learning and development is a collective activity where face-to-face encounters are
important. The importance of face-to-face encounters can be seen also in this case. It seems that
craft could provide a physical layout that allow participants to be and communicate together
even without a common language. This is called here an interactive aspect. Interactive aspect
is about experiences of ability to interact effectively and appropriately with people from other
cultures. It includes experiences of positive atmosphere in a group and experiences of craft as
a tool for communication.
There are also studies which report that artifacts can fail as boundary objects when they
do not fully or rightfully capture multiple meanings and perspectives (Akkerman & Baker,
2011, p. 141). To understand more precisely what the learning potential craft as a boundary tool
entails, more research is needed.
This research is exploratory and the report is an initial analysis. Thus caution and
prudence apply and it is necessary to contrast the findings with others cases. To move forward,
both more empirical research and conceptual development are needed to interpret how craft
works as a boundary tool across different contexts. It is also important to collect more data by
conducting interviews about experiences of refugees.
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98 Conclusions
The purpose of the present paper was to describe a case about using craft as boundary
object for multi- and intercultural education and to examine learning experiences of the students.
Talking about crafts and making crafts together is not really new. What is new is a need to
become more intentional and systematic about fostering craft as a boundary object for multi-
and intercultural education.
Three aspects of learning experiences were identified when craft was used as a boundary
object: a cognitive, an affective and an interactive aspect. There is one conclusion that holds for
all three aspects: Boundary crossing does not mean moving from multiplicity to homogeneity
but rather a process of establishing continuity in diversity. Students and refugees can all agree
they are talking about craft but they are not actually talking about the same thing. They attach
different meanings to craft, it is used differently, for different purposes. Despite different
interpretations, craft is common enough to serve as a means of working together, communicating
and understanding each other.
The case gives clues that craft could be used as a boundary object through which a
teacher can provide opportunities for researching information, extending awareness and
knowledge, deepening understanding, exploring values, and making comparisons and contrasts
of differences and similarities between cultures in positive ways, without stereotyping or making
judgments, and practicing craft together and seeing that craft connects people.
References
Akkerman, S. F., & Bakker, A. (2011). Boundary Crossing and Boundary Objects. Review of Educational
Research, 81 (2), 132-169.
Alasuutari, H., & Jokikokko, K. (2010, June 1). Intercultural Learning as a Precondition for More Inclusive
Society and Schools. Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration, 5 (3), 27-37. Retrieved from
http://www.etmu.fi/fjem/pdf/FJEM_3_2010.pdf
Bennett, J. M. (2008). On becoming a global soul: A path to engagement during study abroad. In V.
Savicki (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research and
application in international education. Sterling: Stylus, 13-31.
Boland, R. J., & Tenkasi, R. V. (1995). Perspective making and perspective taking in communities of
knowing. Organization Science, 6, 350-372.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1998). Foundations of intercultural communication. Boston, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.
Hill, I. (2006). Student types, school types and their combined influence on the development of intercultural
understanding. Journal of Research in International Education, 5 (1), 5-33.
Jokikokko, K. (2009). The role of significant others in the intercultural learning of teachers. Journal of
Research in International Education, 8 (2), 142-163.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (2006). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across
cultures. 5th Ed. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Mansikka, J., & Holm, G. (2011). Teaching minority students within minority schools: Teachers’
conceptions of multicultural education in Swedish-speaking schools in Finland. Intercultural
Education, 22 (2), 133-144.
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (2nd Ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Star, S. L., & Griesemer, J. R. (1989). Institutional Ecology, ‘Translations’ and Boundary Objects:
Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Social Studies of
Science, 19 (3), 387–420.
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Straffon, D. A. (2003). Assessing the intercultural sensitivity of high school students attending an 99
international school. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17 (4), 487-501.
UNESCO (2006). Guidelines on Intercultural Education. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0014/001478/147878e.pdf
Unluer, S. (2012). Being an Insider Researcher While Conducting Case Study Research. The Qualitative
Report 201, Volume 17, Article 58, 1-14. Retrieved August 1, 2012 from http://www.nova.edu/
ssss/QR/QR17/unluer.pdf
Weber, S. (2003). Boundary-crossing in the context of intercultural learning. In T. Tuomi-Gröhn & Y.
Engeström (Eds.) Between school and work: New perspectives on transfer and boundary-crossing
(pp. 157–177). Oxford: Elsevier Science, EARLI.
Weber, S. (2005). Intercultural learning as identity negotiation. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice- Learning. Learning, Meaning, and Identity. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Received: August 27, 2012 Accepted: October 13, 2012
Tarja Kröger Ph.D, Senior Lecturer in Craft Science, University of Eastern Finland, Kun�
inkaankartanonkatu 5-7, P.O. Box 86, FI-57101 Savonlinna, Finland.
E-mail: tarja.kroger@uef.fi
Website: http://www.uef.fi/uef/english
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100
EFFECTS OF GENDER ROLE PORTRAYAL
IN TEXTBOOKS IN KENYAN PRIMARY
SCHOOLS, ON PUPILS ACADEMIC
ASPIRATIONS
David N. P. Mburu, Grace Nyagah

University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
Email: Mburudnp@yahoo.com, Nyagahgrace@Yahoo.com
Abstract
The researcher aims to investigate the effect of gender role portrayal in selected textbooks in Kenyan
primary schools on pupils’ academic aspirations. The study explored participants’ perceptions of what
academic levels they wanted to attain and whether their aspirations and expectations were partly a product
of the influences in their textbooks. The research was guided by the following objectives; to establish the
gender roles portrayed in the pupils’ textbooks and their effect on pupils’ academic aspirations, determine
gender attributes suggested through the statements and their effects on pupils’ academic aspirations,
and to establish the presence of appropriate textual role models and its effects on pupils’ academic
aspirations. The research addresses the following research questions; What are the gender roles that male
and female characters are portrayed in?, What gender attributes are suggested through the statements
in the textbooks and what appropriate textual female role models are present in the pupils’ textbooks?
The paper was based on a study undertaken in Dagoretti District in Nairobi County, Kenya. The target
population was 88 pupils and 60 teachers. The sample was selected through random sampling for the
teachers and stratified random sampling for the pupils. Descriptive statistics was used in data analysis.
The data was collected by use of interview guide, a questionnaire and content analysis of 40 text books in
class one to three. The results show that gender stereotypes had an effect on pupils’ academic aspirations
as pupils tended to mostly identify with characters of their gender in the textbooks. The study recommends
for intervention by the stakeholders in the education sector in order to improve gender aspirations by
including a variety of activities and illustrations in the textbooks for both boys and girls.
Key words: genered stereotypes, textbooks, gender portayal pupils aspirations.
Introduction
In developing countries as in advanced ones, a subtle inculcation of roles from early

childhood builds the woman’s sense of dependence on man. Various studies worldwide (White,
2011; Ceci, Williams & Barnett, 2009; Sutter & Rutzler, 2010) have revealed the depressed
status of women and girls in relation to men and boys. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Cited in Wallace,
2005) in his writings perpetuated gender imbalance in education when he argued that the whole
education of women should be relative to men, to please them, to care for the old, to advise
them, to console them, to make life agreeable and sweet to them-these are the duties of women
in every age and that is what should be taught to them at their infancy. Gender bias which denies
equal opportunity to girls is to be found in textbooks, teaching methods, classroom processes,
curriculum content, and guidance for the selection of study careers (Blumberg, 2007).
Since 1969, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
has undertaken studies of promoting equality in education for girls and women in various
countries (Blumberg, 2007). The fact that books are image-forming and sources of information
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David N. P. MBURU, Grace NYAGAH. Effects of Gender Role Portrayal in Textbooks in Kenyan Primary Schools, on Pupils Academic
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on social norms is no longer in doubt. Books shape attitude and they shape content (White, 101
2011; Tietz, 2007). Textbooks and school curricula can help to alter or reinforce stereotypical
patterns. The evidence at hand suggests that teachers as well as teaching materials in the past
have tended to reflect cultural stereotypes.
According to Lloyd (2005) the manner in which gender is represented in children’s
textbooks impacts attitudes and perceptions of gender-appropriate behaviour in society. Sexism
in textbooks can be so insidious that it quietly conditions boys and girls to accept the way
they ‘see and read the world’ thus reinforcing gender images. This reinforcement predisposes
children not to question existing social relationship. In spite of all the efforts that have been
made to promote gender equality throughout the world, gender bias is still a very big issue in
the world (Tso, 2010). According to Stromquist (2007) less progress has occurred in the funding
and development of the content favourable to creation of positive identities among women in
textbooks in developing countries.
Objectives of the Study
This study was guided by the following objectives:

1. Establish the gender roles portrayed in the pupils’ textbooks and their effect on pupils’
academic aspirations.
2. Determine gender attributes suggested through the statements in the textbooks and
their effect on pupils’ academic aspirations.
3 Establish the presence of appropriate textual role models in the textbooks and their effect
on pupils’ academic aspirations.
The target population was 88 pupils and 60 teachers. The teacher sample was selected
through simple random sampling and the pupils sample was selected through stratified random
sampling. This was to have a sample that was representative of both female and male pupils in the
study. The data was collected through an interview guide for the pupils and a questionnaire for
the teachers. A content analysis guide was used to collect data on the textbooks. This consisted of
Mathematics, Kiswahili and History and Civics primary school textbooks recommended by the
Ministry of Education textbook guideline (2001) for use in standard Two and Three in Kenya.
The total number of textbooks recommended during this year were 40: 14 in Mathematics, 14
in Kiswahili (text), 25 Kiswahili (readers) and 4 History and Civics textbooks (Ministry of
Education, 2001). The target population also included Standards Two and Three pupils and
their class teachers in primary schools in Dagoretti District, Nairobi County, Kenya. Class one
to three pupils were appropriate for this study since they were at the formative stage of their
academic life and they would tend to believe everything they come across in the textbook. At
this level, the learners mostly internalise what they learn from the textbooks.
Purposive sampling was used whereby all the Six Kenya Institute of Education (KIE)
authored textbooks; 2 in Mathematics, 2 in Kiswahili and 2 in History and Civics were used
because they are widely used in primary schools in Kenya. The books from private publishers
that are also widely used were six: 2 from East African Educational Publishers, 2 from Longhorn
Kenya Limited and 2 from Focus Publications. There were a total of 12 textbooks in this study.
Data was collected through a questionnaire administered to the teachers, an interview schedule
for the pupils and through a content analysis guide.
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102 Research Results
Participation of Women and Men in Productive Work Both Inside and Outside the Home as
Portrayed in the Textbooks
A content analysis of participation of women and men in productive work both inside and
outside the home found out that there was over representation of women performing domestic
functions such as cooking, housekeeping, child rearing or they were engaged in feminine
occupations such as nursing or as petty traders. On the other hand, in Kiswahili Book 2 (KIE,
2000), men are mainly engaged in salaried occupations. Professions requiring higher education
are reserved almost exclusively for men as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Male and female occupations in the textbooks.
Male Frequency Female Frequency

Professional Professional
Teacher 17 Teacher 12
Doctor 16 Nurse 2
Policeman 8 Reporter 1
Reporter 2 Chef 1
Soldier 2 Business
Chef 2 Petty Trader 3
Pastor 1 Tailor 1
Business Semi-skilled
Tailor 6 House girl 1
Farmer 6 Traditional midwife 1
Barber 2 Unremunerated
Shopkeeper 2 Cooking at home 1
Bee keeper 2 Subsistence farming 1
Laundry 1
Semi-skilled
Driver 6
Watchmen 2
Trades
Carpenter 6
Painter 2
Leadership
Politician 2
Chief 2
A qualitative analysis of Table 1 shows the gender linked job possibilities in the society in
which female and male characters are portrayed. Male Characters are portrayed in professional
occupations as teachers, doctors, policemen and reporters. There professional occupations are
varied and out numbers those of the female characters. Female characters are mostly portrayed
in the teaching profession. Male characters also dominate the business sector where they appear
in varied businesses as shopkeepers, tailors, bee keepers and large scale farmers. Female
characters on the other hand are portrayed as petty traders and tailors. They are also found in
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semi-skilled occupations as house girls and traditional midwives and in the unremunerated 103
occupations like traditional subsistence farming and cooking for the family. Female characters
are missing in leadership occupations like chiefs and politicians. This analysis reflects the same
trend as in other textbooks analysed in this study. In these books young girls have limited
occupations to identify with while offering boys a wide range of occupations. The occupations
mentioned are also stereotyped in the traditional gender roles.
In History Combined Book 3 (KIE, 2000), out of 26 occupations in the book female
characters are only represented in two occupations. The male characters are represented in a
variety of occupations namely a) leadership positions as: presidents, provincial commissioners,
district officers, heads of district development committees, chiefs, assistant chiefs, district
commissioners, chairmen of committees and imams. b) Professional occupations such
as: pilots, train drivers and agricultural officers. c) Businessmen: as traders, carpenters and
fishermen. d) Semi-skilled occupations such as: matatu drivers, boat rowers, postmen, hunters,
travellers, poachers and medicine men. Female characters are presented in two occupations:
as an agriculture officer and a medicine woman. The results show that female characters are
restricted to certain occupations, where they might not be involved in making major decisions.
The world of women that pupils were exposed to revolves around their homes and careers
pursued outside the home are seen as an extension of their domestic functions. That is why
women are mainly presented in careers like nursing and teaching. Men on the other hand are in
occupations that are involved in making major decisions in the society.
Participation of Women and Men in Administrative Roles in the Selected Textbooks
A content analysis of GHC Combined for standard Three (KIE, 2000) reveals that no single
female character was given a leadership role. The above analysis shows that women have been
marginalised from leadership roles in the textbooks. The results also strengthen the patriarchal
beliefs in that women are expected to cook, wash dishes and do the housework. According to
Beauvoir (1974) and Blumberg (2007) girls from an early age are brought up knowing that men
are supposed to be leaders in society. In GHC comprehensive book 3 (Kanjoya & Ogula, 1998),
a girl is illustrated being trained in household chores by her mother while a boy is learning from
the father on how to protect the family. In the same book, male characters appear in eleven
leadership positions while female characters appear in none. Male characters are shown as
District Officers, Agriculture Officers, Health Officers, Police Inspectors, Councillors, Chiefs
and Imams. The same scenario repeats itself in GHC Combined Book 2 (KIE, 2000) and GHC
Comprehensive Book 2 (Kanjoya and Ogula, 1998). In leadership roles, female characters have
been marginalised as shown on analyses of selected textbooks. There are more male characters
depicted in leadership roles than female characters. The pupils were therefore presented in
class with societal roles that limited their aspirations to stereotyped gender roles in society.
A study of the selected books shows that women are either absent or underrepresented in the
administrative roles. Male characters emerge as the leaders both at home and outside the home.
Male characters were portrayed in 14 different administrative positions while female characters
are not portrayed in any.
Gender Attributes Suggested through the Statements in the Textbooks
Content analysis of statements used in the textbooks found out that most characters are
referred to as male apart from a few instances when we have a reference to female characters.
A qualitative analysis of Mathematics Book 3 (KIE, 2000) found out the following statements.
• A farmer had 835 sheep. He sold 402 of them. How many sheep remained (KIE, 200
p. 18)
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104 • A farmer has 965 cows. He sells 546 of them. How many is he left with (KIE, 2000
p. 18).
• The teacher walks from his desk to the nature corner and back.
• A farmer owned 925 sheep, he sold 502 how many were left (KIE, 2000 p. 45)
Content analysis of these statements shows that the reference to a farmer or a teacher
refers to a male character. Female characters are rarely referred to in these statements. Pupils
then tend to identify these occupations with men. It would be inferred from these statements that
teachers would also identify these roles as belonging to men in their classroom presentations.
The statements in these texts directly refer to male characters.
An analysis of Comprehensive GHC Book 3 (Kanjoya & Ogula, 1998) produced the
following results:
• The D.O controls the work of the chiefs. He tells people what the government wants
them to do. He ensures that there is peace in the division. He ensures in the division
that people build schools, health centres and dips (Kanjoya & Ogula, 1998 p.7).
• The area education officer takes care of schools. He ensures that children get a proper
education (Kanjoya & Ogula, 1998 p. 6).
• The assistant Agriculture Officer advises farmers on how to grow crops. He also tells
them how to take care of the crops (Kanjoya & Ogula, 1998 p. 7).
• The healthy-health officer advises people on how to keep their homes clean. He
ensures that hotels are clean (Kanjoya & Ogula, 1998 p. 8)
• The police officer prevents crime and ensures that people obey laws. He arrests
people who do bad things
The analysis of these statements shows that certain roles are attributed to men. There
is a high concentration of masculine male generic language in the textbook. Pupils reading
this book will definitely associate the role of a D.O, Education Officer, Health Officer and
Police Officer to a man. Male characters are depicted in all spheres of society in the textbooks.
Men are shown to be more dominant in society and women are shown to be absent from the
world dominated by men. Men are the decision makers, they are wise and they are managers of
people. The results show that the roles mentioned can only be associated with male characters.
According to Carter (2009) and Stanley & Sturm (2008) in most cultures the most important
method and effective way of transmitting values and attitudes is through storytelling, and in
literate cultures , this process includes children’s books. They further argue that children can
recognize and interpret images in books. Boys are then able to identify with these roles more
than the girls. A learner may think that a chief, a police officer and elders in society can only be
men and not women.
Presence of Appropriate Textual Female Role Models in the Selected Textbooks
Content analysis of the books analysed show that females were the least depicted of all
human categories. Table 2 shows the analysis of the named characters in class two and three
textbooks. Characters in each textbook were identified and tabulated. The female characters’
percentages were calculated against those of the male characters.
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Table 2. Named male and female characters in the textbooks. 105
Textbooks Male Percent Female Percent
Mathematics KIE 2 12 60.0 8 40.0
Mathematics KIE 3 62 59.6 42 40.4
Math Comprehensive 2 31 55.4 25 44.6
Math Comprehensive 3 64 56.6 49 43.1
GHC Combined 2 33 50.0 33 50.0
GHC Combined 2 14 73.6 5 26.3
GHC Comprehensive 2 25 62.2 15 37.5
GHC Comprehensive 3 6 30.0 14 70.0
Kiswahili KIE 2 77 71.3 31 28.7
Masomo ya Msingi 2 60 68.2 28 31.8
Total 384 60.6 250 39.4
The results of Table 2 show that about 60.6 percent of the books analysed refer to male
characters while only 39.4 percent refer to female characters by name. Male characters are
clearly illustrated and explanatory notes given referring to them as male characters. Female
characters are engaged in the traditional areas of petty trading, nursing and in unremunerated
tasks around the home and in subsistence farming. The results then show that appropriate female
role models are lacking for students to imitate and identify with. The unremunerated tasks that
most female characters are depicted in, limit their participation in decision making professions
that will finally lead to societal gender equity. Female characters should be seen participating in
paid employment. According to Korinek (2005) the historical, cultural and traditional societal
labour imbalances limit women’s advancement in the labour market.
Compared with boys and men, women are mentioned less frequently in text and appear
less frequently in illustrations and the roles assigned to them are more restricted and less varied.
Their choice of role models is also limited and the examples and subject matter selected all
indicate prejudice in favour of boys.
Effects of Gender Role Stereotyping on Pupils’ Academic Aspirations
Pupils in this study were randomly asked to point out from the illustrations in the selected
textbooks, which characters they would have liked to identify with. The pupils’ gender was
taken into account. The results show that 95.0 percent of the respondents indicated that they
would have identified with characters of their own gender. Only 5.0 percent of the respondents
indicated they would have identified with characters of either gender in the textbooks. This
analysis indicates that pupils were more inclined to imitate characters and activities illustrated
in the textbooks by people of their gender. According to Taylor (2003) children learn early in
life on the society’s expectations and standards for girls and boys. They also learn the gender
code which is clearly embedded in the children’s books that are used in class. This is what
shapes children aspirations.
The pupils’ were also asked to indicate the highest academic level they wanted to attain.
The results established that 40.0 percent of the boys indicated that they wanted to attain college
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106 education compared to 30.0 percent of the girls. The results then indicate that boys had high
academic aspirations than girls. The analysis on Table 3 show the various reasons given by
the students why they thought role models in the text books would give them higher academic
aspirations.
Table 3. Pupils’ responses on whether the characters portrayed in the textbooks

inspired them to higher academic aspirations.
Responses Frequency Percent
Those who wanted to be like the role models portrayed in the

18 47.4
textbooks
Those who were attracted to particular occupations portrayed in

9 23.7
the pictures in the textbooks
Those who indicated that education was valuable 6 15.8
Those who felt that they would be inspired to leadership roles in

4 10.5
the textbooks
Those who felt that they were attracted to better paying occupa�
1 2.6
tions in the textbooks
Total 38 100.0
The results of Table 3 show that about 47.2 percent of the pupil respondents felt that they
wanted to be like the role models portrayed in the textbooks, 23.7 percent indicated that they
were attracted to particular occupations portrayed in the pictures in the textbooks, 15.8 percent
indicated that education was valuable, 10.5 percent indicated that they would be inspired to
leadership roles in the textbooks and 2.6 percent indicated that they were attracted to better
paying occupations in the textbooks. The results indicate that role models in the textbooks
could inspire pupils to higher academic aspirations.
Teachers were asked through a questionnaire to indicate their responses on the impact
of gender representations in the textbooks on pupils’ academic aspirations. Table 4 shows the
responses of teachers on the impact of gender representation in textbooks on girls and boys
academic aspirations.
Table 4. Teachers’ responses on the impact of gender representation in the text-

books on pupils’ academic aspirations.
Response Frequency Percent

It had a positive impact on boys 34 43.6
It had a negative impact on girls 15 19.2
It had a positive impact on girls 12 15.4
It had no effect on both boys and girls 8 10.3
It had a negative impact on boys 7 8.9
It had a positive impact on both boys and girls 2 2.6
Total 78 100.0
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The analysis according to Table 4 show that 43.6 percent of the teacher respondents felt 107
that textbooks had a positive impact on boys and only 15.4 percent felt that those textbooks
had a positive impact on girls. The results show that textbooks were more favourable to boys
than they were to girls. Most of the textbooks portrayed a negative stereotyped image of female
characters, which did not inspire girls to academic excellence compared to boys.
The respondents also gave various reasons on why they thought textbooks had a
negative or positive impact on girls and boys academic aspirations. The outcome was to help
in determining whether pupils believed in what was written in the text. According to McCabe,
Fairchild, Pescosolid and Tope (2011) books contributed to how children understand what is
expected of women and men and shape the way children will think about their own place in the
world. Textbooks form an important source of information for young children and they provide
pupils with clues about life, and in particular about what goals and social norms are available
and appropriate for members of their sex. Table 5 shows their responses.
Table 5. Teachers’ responses on pupils reaction to what is written in the text-

books.
Reaction Frequency Percent

Pupils believed that what is written in the textbooks was always true/They
41 53.9
always referred to textbooks to support their points
Pupils believed that some things written in the textbooks were not real 21 27.7
Pupils believed that teachers interpretation of the textbooks was always

14 18.4
correct
Total 76 100.0
The results of Table 5 indicate that most of the teacher respondents (53.9 percent)
indicated that pupils believed that what was written in the textbooks was always true and
they always referred to the textbooks to support their points. Only 27.7 percent of the teacher
respondents indicated that some pupils cited some images in the textbooks as unreal and 18.4
percent indicated that pupils believed that teachers’ interpretation of the textbooks was always
correct. The results then established that 72.3 percent of the pupils believed in what they read
from the textbooks. This could have a negative effect on pupils’ academic aspirations as it
strengthened their belief in the gender stereotypes in the textbooks. This would then have a
negative effect on girls’ academic aspirations. Content analysis on the selected textbooks has
revealed that female characters were marginalised and relegated to the background while male
characters dominated. Boys had various societal role models and activities to identify with and
imitate in the textbooks. These images then directed girls and boys to traditionally accepted
occupations that gave boys dominance and leadership positions in the society.
Conclusions
This study found out that women are mainly described in terms of their role as housewives
in family context; babysitting, doing household chores like washing, cooking or looking for
firewood. Men on the other hand are mostly portrayed outdoors on salaried occupations.
Male occupations are varied and most leadership roles in the textbooks are occupied by male
characters. Male characters are also portrayed in the political offices where most decisions and
policy issues that affect the society are discussed and agreed.
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108 There is also gender role stereotyping in occupations that female and male characters are
involved. Occupations that are related to services provisions such as teaching and nursing are
in most cases the only main occupations outside the home that female characters are mentioned.
All leadership roles are reserved for men and women are either absent or underrepresented in
the administrative roles.
The absence of female models in textbooks was found to have a negative effect on the
self-images, aspirations and motivation of girls who grow up reading and internalising these
textbooks. Girl readers are deprived of adult role models to identify themselves with and imitate.
Textbooks were found to uphold the idea of male dominance instead of advocating the message
of basic equality. Textbooks should therefore be written in a way that they include role models
that girls and boys can positively identify with and imitate in the changing modern society.
Textbooks should depict females and males in varied activities in society. Men should
be portrayed as nurses even if there are very few male nurses in society to date. The aim is to
suggest new career possibilities, which certainly exist. Equally, though there are few women
plumbers, engineers, pilots and mechanics, it would not be realistic not to show women in
these occupations. Women should also be portrayed as professors, politicians and principals of
institutions, researchers, chiefs and provincial administrators.
References
Beauvoir, S. D. (1974). The second sex. Middlesex. Penguin Books Ltd.

Blumberg, R. L. (2007). Gender bias in textbooks hidden obstacle on the road to gender equality in
education. Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008,
Education for all by 2015: will we make it.
Carter, J. L. (2009). Gender role portrayal in board book illustrations (Unpublished Master’s thesis).
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Ceci, J. S., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. (2009). Women’s underrepresentation in science: Socio-cultural
and biological considerations. Psychological Bulletin, 135 (2), 218-261. doi:101037/a0014412.
Firestone, C. (2000). Gender and textbooks in the Pacific Rim: Similarities amidst diversity. Centre for
Iberian and Latin American Studies working Paper No. 8. University of California, San Diego.
Korinek, J. (2005). Trade and gender: issues and interactions. OECD: Trade Policy Working Paper No.
24.
Lloyd, C. B. (Ed.). (2005). Growing up global: The changing transition to adulthood in developing
countries. Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press.
McCabe, J., Fairchild, E., Grauerholz, L., Pescosolido, B. A., & Tope, D. (2011). Gender in Twentieth-
Century children’s books: Patterns of disparity in titles and central characters. Gender & Society,
25 (2), 197. Doi: 10.1177 /08912432 113 9 8358.
Ministry of Education. (2001). Approved list of primary school textbooks. Nairobi: Government Printer.
Mweru, M. (2000). Gender stereotyping in the selection and use of play material by children in the
selected Nairobi city council schools (Unpublished M.Ed thesis), Kenyatta University, Nairobi.
Obura, A. P. (1992). Changing images and portrayal of girls and women in Kenyan textbooks. Nairobi:
Acts Press
Raillard, S. (2011). Perilous pedagogies: Female education questioned in the epistolary novels of
Rousseau, Laclos, Sade, and Charriere (Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy thesis). Columbia
University.
Stanley, S., & Sturm, B. (2008, November/December). Sequential art books & beginning readers: Can the
pictures help them decode words? Knowledge Quest, 37 (2), 50-57.
Stromquist, N. P. (2007). The gender socialization process in schools: A cross-national comparison.
Background paper prepared for the education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008 Education
for all by 2015: will we make it.
Sutter, M., & Rutzler, D. (2010). Gender differences in competition emerge early in life, IZA Discussion
Paper No. 5015.
Taylor, F. (2003). Content analysis and gender stereotypes in children’s books. Teaching Sociology, 31
(3), 300-311.
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IN THE 21st CENTURY
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Tietz, W. M. (2007). Women and men in accounting textbooks: Exploring the hidden curriculum. Issues 109
in Accounting Education, 22 (3), 459-480. doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.2308/iace.2007.223.459
Tso, W. B. (2010). Comparative study of gender representations in Philip Pullman’s his dark materials
and its Chinese translation. (Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy dissertation). The University of
Birmingham.
United Nations (2000, June 5th-7th). Action for gender equality and advancement of women for the Twenty-
First Century. New York: UNESCO.
UNICEF (2000, May). Towards a new global agenda for children in the 21st century: Gender equality and
rights of women and girls. Tarrytown Working Paper Series No. 1, New York.
Ustundag, N. (2001, March). A review of the 1-3 grade school books in turkey according to the human
rights and gender equality criteria. Istanbul: National Committee for Human Rights.
Wallace, H. (2005). Woman’s Education according to Rousseau and Wollstonecraft. Feminism and
women’s Study. Retrieved from http://feminism.eserver.org/theory/papers/ womens-education.txt
White, J. L. (2011). What sociology teaches us about gender: The underlying messages within introduction
to sociology textbooks (Unpublished Master‘s of Arts thesis). San Diego State University.
Appendix A
Sample of Textbooks
Year of pub-
Subject Class Title Publishes Author
lications
2 Primary Mathematics Jomo Kenyatta Foundations KIE 2000
Comprehensive
2 Focus Publication S. Njoroge 1999
Mathemat� Mathematics
ics 3 Primary Mathematics Jomo Kenyatta Foundations KIE 2000
Comprehensive
3 Focus Foundations S. Njoroge 1999
Mathematics
Kiswahili Kwa Darasa
2 Kenya Literature Bureau KIE 2000
2
East African Educational
Kiswahili 2 Masomo ya Msingi Z. Zani 1998
Publishers
(Texts) Kiswahili Kwa Darasa
3 Kenya Literature Bureau KIE 2000
3
East African Educational
3 Masomo ya Msingi Z. Zani 1998
Publishes
Comprehensive GHC- J. Kanjoya &
2 Longhorn Kenya Ltd. 2000
Our Location P. Ogula
History GHC-Com�
2 Jomo Kenyatta Foundations KIE 2000
History bined
Comprehensive GHC- J. Kanjoya &
3 Longhorn Kenya Ltd 1998
Our Location P. Ogula
History GHC Com�
3 Jomo Kenyatta Foundation KIE 2000
bined
Advised by Laima Railienė, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania

David N. P. Mburu PhD., University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya

Email: Mburudnp@yahoo.com
Grace Nyagah Senior Lecturer, Chair of the Department of Educational Administra�

tion and Planning at the University of Nairobi, P.O. BOX 30197-00100,
Nairobi, Kenya.
E-mail: Nyagahgrace@Yahoo.com
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110
PROPOSIONAL COURSES OF TEACHER
EDUCATION: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Joana Paulin Romanowski, Pura Oliver Martins, Simone Manosso Cartaxo

The Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
E-mail: joana.romanowski@pucpr.br, pura.oliver@pucpr.br
Abstract
The research focuses on the reformulation of undergraduate courses in universities in the state of Parana,
Brazil. The research problem arises in the context of reformulations in the courses of teacher formation,
the undergraduate courses encouraged by the demands of current educational policies for these courses,
with the following questions: What changes to current policies of teacher education were produced in
the organization of undergraduate courses? The overall objective was to analyze the reformulations of
the undergraduate courses in relation to established priorities and the implications to the professional
development of teachers indicating the tensions caused in this process and to indicate alternatives that
contribute to the improvement of basic teacher education. The methodology of the study considers the
assumptions of the theory as practice of expression, performs the analysis of educational legislation,
organization of curriculum matrices of undergraduate courses at universities in the State of Parana and
includes interviews with coordinators and teachers from the course. Results show that the courses differ
in the composition of the curriculum matrices in each of the institutions examined, as for example: the
organization of the curriculum regarding the disciplines that are part of it; sorting the disciplines; the
number of hours of each discipline; the design of the training process; the apprenticeship supervision
processes. This means that the tensions and priorities generated at each university in the constitution of
the identity of the undergraduate courses are disparate from the proceedings in which these courses are
instituted because of the institutional clashes priorities. The performed reformulations extend the amount
of teaching time for teaching practice, starting from the first year of the course, in the form of professional
practice and in the final years the completion of supervised practice. However, the university remains
far removed from the elementary school, the academic disciplines do not articulate these practices. It
is noteworthy that the undergraduate courses in Brazil have been the subject of debates and proposals,
since the 1.980s.
Key words: teacher education, undergraduate courses, professional development.
Introduction
The research done focuses on the reformulation of teaching courses held in public and
private universities located in southern Brazil. The purpose of this investigation was to analyze
the reformulation of the undergraduate courses in relation to established priorities and the
implications with the professional development of teachers indicating the tensions originated in
this process as well as to indicate alternatives which contribute to the improvement of teacher
education.
The article is the result of research which aims at examining teacher education in
undergraduate courses. It focuses on teaching, professional practice and apprenticeship in the
reformulation of the projects in the undergraduate courses upon the new guidelines proposed by
Resolutions nº 1 and 2 of 2.002, from the National Council of Education, Ministry of Education,
Brazil.
Indeed, the policies of education in Brazil, and the structure and curriculum of higher
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education which train teachers are defined by federal agencies and are crucial for all universities. 111
Since the creation of the first courses in high school called “normal” which formed the primary
school teacher in 1.835 and later with the creation of courses for postsecondary teachers’
formation in 1.934, the organization and evaluation of these courses is defined by the Ministry
of Education.
The organization of the curriculum when they were created, were based on the teacher
formation model known as scheme 3+1, which consists in organizing a bachelor’s degree
lasting three years and after that plus one year of teacher formation. This curriculum still keeps
unarticulated the specific knowledge from the pedagogical knowledge; it also keeps unarticulated
the relationship theory and practice, as well as it has a different statute, undergraduate and
bachelor. It is included in this process of dismantling the separation between the universities
(forming institutions) and the schools (teacher’s workplace).
Research on the undergraduate programs, conducted in the 1.990’s corroborated the ear-
lier criticism, indicating the persistence of a departmentalized university structure preventing
collective discussions to overcome the existing dichotomies. They also emphasize, that the
curricula of the undergraduate programs are linear, the pragmatic and immediate formation is
valued, giving priority to formation rather than to “training”.
Upon this, a comprehensive reform of the courses was done, from 2.002 to 2.008, which
motivated research to examine and analyze the changes that were made, especially on teacher
formation. It was a comprehensive investigation, since most of the courses were examined in
the universities in the state of Parana, located in the southern region of Brazil. For the study,
the discipline proposals were analyzed and course coordinators and teachers were interviewed.
This paper includes the results of this investigation which allows us to understand the changes
made in teacher formation courses in Brazil, since the Resolutions which led to the changes
are applied nationally.
Not even the institutional restructuring has allowed an organic articulation of the degree
courses, in some cases they have reduced and restricted the inclusion of teachers in the peda-
gogical area in the definition of the degree courses, augmented by an expansion with lower
costs, as Taffarel (1993) points, by the power struggles within the institutions Diniz-Pereira
(2000). The curricula are linear, giving value to the pragmatic and immediate training, prioritiz-
ing training for “training”. Summary of the issues prepared by Pimenta (1993, p. 129) points
that:
a) training in specific areas has not been considered as part of teacher training process. Con-
sequently, the Institutes have, in their curricula, separate teacher preparation and professional
preparation in the specific area, concerned more with the latter and delegating the first to other
bodies, not assuming it as their responsibility;
b) consequently, teacher training has been under the sole responsibility of the Colleges of
Education. This view brings with it a split between pedagogical training and the specific training
in the area, when the desirable would be the articulation between them: educational formation,
specific formation and professional practice formation.
c) the educational disciplines are not mutually interconnected, so the education fundamentals
are worked without establishing relationships with the didactic-methodological fundamentals,
and still there is little relationship between these disciplines with the disciplines of practice and
internship;
d) often, the undergraduate courses have ignored the reality of the professional practice, losing
sight of the social demands for the same.
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112 The consolidation of this structure has turned these hybrid and disintegrated courses
(GATTI 1997), resulting from the division into two training areas (the specific content and
pedagogical content), organized in two stages (theoretical foundation and professional initiation
done during internship), two training areas, the education institutions and professional work.
Historically, in Brazil, teachers do not have a thorough education during their teacher formation.
Besides, upon graduating, usually their job contracts are temporary and their salaries are quite
low for their intense work.
In many institutions the bachelor degree courses are the first created, that is, they
are the ones which allow the origin of the institutions, ensuring their sustainability and
institutionalization, however as they are expanded they are being bequeathed to the background,
and other courses of higher social prestige become more valued, both in the distribution of
resources in the institutional budget as well as in the demand of students.
In addition, the learning of specific content by students does not get satisfactory results.
This situation occurs mainly in the exact sciences area handicapping future professional
activities of the undergraduate. The mastery of the specific content by the students, does not
happen during the education course, either by the approach directed to the education of the
bachelor’s degree (BA), or by the own learning condition. Research has shown discouragement,
disbelief in the expanding profession evasion. Teacher education programs are among the least
disputed as shown by the indexes candidate / vacancy for college entrance exam (vestibular1),
the ones with the least institutional prestige as pointed out by Pereira (2000). Adding up, there
is also the socio-economic condition of the students who need to work during their studies, but
which is not always related to education. Census data confirm that the expansion of enrollment
in the new education courses for teachers is more pronounced in isolated institutions, of a
private administration, offering courses at night (Romanowski, 2003).
In the 1.990s, a new Law of Directives and Bases of National Education – LDBEN
was approved and promulgated, LAW 9.394/96. The changes defined by this law, related to
teacher education, include the requirement for graduation in college courses, degree courses,
for teacher practice in elementary and middle schools2.
Once the new law was approved, a long debate was established involving the Ministry
of Education - MEC and the National Education Council - CNE, associations of researchers
and institutions to establish new guidelines for teacher education courses. These guidelines
were defined in accordance with Resolutions 1 and 2 of the CNE in 2002, and higher education
institutions were responsible to reshape their courses.
Among the major changes in undergraduate courses, Resolution CNE/CP No. 1 indicates
in its article 3 as guiding principles of teacher’s preparation for professional practice:
I – competence as fundamental conception in course orientation;
II – coherence between the offered training and the expected practice of the future teacher;
III – research, as a focus in the teaching and learning process, since teaching requires, both to
have the knowledge and to mobilize it for action, like to understand the process of knowledge
construction.
These principles refer to a training process in close relation with the context in which
the professional practice becomes effective. This became evident with the approval of
Resolution CNE/CP No. 2 which deals with the minimum credit hours of the undergraduate
teaching courses, as well as their distribution in theoretical lectures, practices, internships, and
complementary activities which were defined as follows: Courses credit hours will be effected
1 Vestibular refers to the generic name of the selection process exam for the access to higher education,
to which students with high school education are submitted.
2 Pre-school includes childhood education from 0 to 5 years old, elementary and middle school lasts 9
years and high-school lasts three years.
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by the completion of at least 2800 (two thousand and eight hundred) hours, as follows: 400 hours 113
of practice as a curricular component, experienced along the course; 400 hours of supervised
curricular internship starting at the beginning of the second half of the course; 1.800 hours of
classes of the curriculum contents of a scientific and cultural nature and 200 hours for other
forms of academic-scientific-cultural activities.
Considering this, there is the following question: Which changes were introduced by
the universities in their teacher education courses to address what was determined in Resolu-
tions 1 and 2 of the CNE in 2002, in the period from 2002 to 2008? Therefore, the text contains
results of this research with the aim of contributing to the understanding of the changes made in
teacher education courses in Brazil, considering the Resolutions issued by the Ministry of Edu-
cation that regulate such courses nationally. Thus, it is a contribution to the area and researchers
of teacher education
The methodology performs the analysis of the educational legislation, organization

of curriculum matrices of the undergraduate courses, includes interviews with coordinators
and teachers of undergraduate courses. For the analysis, it considers the theory premises as an
expression of practice; theory is the expression of a specific practice and not of any practice
(Martins, 1996, Santos, 2001). In this paradigm, the practice is not driven by theory, but theory
is going to express the practical action of the subjects. They are the modes of acting which will
determine the thinking ways of human beings. “The theory thinks and understands the practice
about things, not the thing. Hence, its only function is to indicate possible ways, never to govern
the practice”. (Bruno, 1989, p. 18). The base of knowledge is the practical action that men carry
through social relations, by the institutions. The basic assumption is that “man does not reflect
about the world, but he reflects his practice about the world. (Bernardo, 1977, p. 86). Thus “...
knowledge is always knowledge of a practice, never the natural or social reality.” (Santos, 1992,
p. 29). These principles refer to a formation process in close relation with the context in which
effective professional practice. These principles refer to a formation process in close relation
with the context in which effective professional practice. The data were collected during 2008
and 2009, and they were taken as reference to the instruments used in the research “Dilemmas
and Perspective for the Educational Innovation in Basic Education and Teacher Education
(DIPIED)”, coordinated by Professor Eduardo A. Terrazan (2004).
Institutions and Investigated Courses
The research was conducted in three3 public universities (free for the students and
maintained by the government): Universidade Federal do Paraná - UFPR; Universidade Estadual
de Maringá - UEM; Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa – UEPG; a private university
(students pay a tuition): Universidade Tuiuti do Paraná – UTP; and a confessional university
(linked to the catholic church; students pay a tuition): Pontíficia Universidade Católica do
Paraná - PUCPR.
3 Universidade Estadual de Londrina – UEL was also contacted, but at the time this university had not
done any reformulation in the undergraduate courses.
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114 Instrument and Procedures
Thirty seven undergraduate courses were investigated. The courses examined are indicated
as follow: (i) Portuguese-English Languages and Literature; Portuguese-Spanish Languages
and Literature; Pedagogy4; Biology; Philosophy; Physical Education and Mathematics
from ALFA5 (ii) Biology; Physical Education; History; Portuguese-Spanish Languages and
Literature; Portuguese-English Languages and Literature and Mathematics of BETA; DELTA
Visual Arts, Pedagogy, History, Portuguese/Spanish Languages and Literature, Portuguese/
French Languages and Literature, Portuguese/English Languages and Literature, Music,
Physics, Geography, Mathematics, Chemistry, Biological Sciences, Physical Education, Long-
Distance Geography, Long-Distance History, Long Distance Portuguese/Spanish Languages
and Literature; in EPSILON the Pedagogy courses, History, Portuguese/French Languages
and Literature, Portuguese/English Languages and Literature, Music, Physics, Geography,
Mathematics, Chemistry, Physical Education, Philosophy. The interviews involved seventeen
course coordinators and ten teachers.
Data Collection
In the analyses, it was considered the curriculum composition around subjects and their
workload, as well as the testimony of coordinators and teachers from undergraduate courses
through interviews. For the data survey which were taken as reference to the instruments used in
the research “Dilemmas and Perspective for the Educational Innovation in Basic Education and
Teacher Education”, coordinated by Professor Eduardo A. Terrazan (2004), which analyze the
curriculum proposals regarding the course’s total workload, the specific knowledge disciplines
workload, educational disciplines, practice disciplines, internship disciplines, complementary
disciplines; the workload percentages; the disciplines’ distribution per period. In Brazil, the
courses do not adopt the credit system, they are of a series system, where students must attend
the disciplines arranged per period.
The interviews involved seventeen course coordinators and ten teachers. In the sequence,
the text expresses the synthesis of the results and the analyses performed on an interim basis.
The series of interviews for coordinators and teachers contained the following questions:
Participant’s characterization:
Formation:
Work experience in the course:
Experience in coordinating / teaching:
Disciplines taught:
Experience in elementary education:
1- Which changes were introduced to the course to meet the requirements of the current
education legislation which regulates 800 hours of internship?
2 - How does the course develop the educational formation?
3 - What are the proposed practices? How about the internship?
4 6 The Pedagogy course is aimed at teacher education for early childhood education and for the five
initial years of the elementary education. The remaining undergraduate courses are for the last four years of the
elementary education and for the three years of high school, but these teachers can also teach in early childhood
education and in the first four years of the elementary school.
5 For this work the investigated institutions are shown by Greek letters, since the group opted in not
identifying the institutions in order to preserve the anonymity and secrecy of the information. For this, Greek
letters were used. Care was also taken not to present the information in the same order in that the research is
contextualized.
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4 - How is the relationship established between the university and the schools in the internship 115
field? How does the internship process happen?
5 - Does the course include teacher formation to work with students with special needs?
6 - Does the course include research training?
7 - What are the major difficulties found in the course?
9 - Comments on the course teaching practice.
10 - Is there an ongoing concern in the course about diversity formation? How?
Results of Research
The aspects which were considered in the analysis were directed to indicate: the
constitution of the identity of the undergraduate courses in the institutions researched; the
priorities in teacher education introduced in the composition of the curriculum matrix; and the
appointment of new areas of teacher education as training for the inclusion. The examination
of proposals for undergraduate courses divulged in the researched universities disclosed the
following: the distribution of the specific disciplines and of the pedagogical disciplines; the
workload for each field of training; the distribution of practices and supervised internships; and
the offer of academic and cultural activities.
For the analyses, tables contained data from the curriculum from each participating
institution. The tables are: Table 1 – Distribution of the general workload of disciplines per
undergraduate course from Alfa institution; Table 2 – Distribution of the general workload of
disciplines per undergraduate course from Beta institution; Table 3 – Distribution of the general
workload of disciplines per undergraduate course from Delta institution; Table 4 – Distribution
of the workload of professional practice disciplines and educational disciplines from Epsilon
institution. One of the public institutions did not provide the course proposals for this survey;
the research in these institutions only considered the interview data. The Tables were done
according to the data access availability from each of the investigated institutions. Other Tables
were done which refer to the discipline curriculum, but as they were not analyzed in this paper,
they were not included.
The preliminary results of the investigation undertaken up to now indicate that the
courses differ in the composition of the curriculum matrices in each of the institutions examined.
This means that the tensions and priorities generated at each university in the constitution of
the identity of the undergraduate programs are mixed: three universities established a general
coordination to monitor and promote the redesign of undergraduate courses and three left the
redrafting in charge of the collegiate course.
Alfa Institution – With more than fifty years of existence, it is private and confessional,
offering undergraduate courses during the day – Philosophy, Biology, Physical Education and
Pedagogy, and night courses, in the evening, from 7 P.M to 11 P.M., Liberal Arts Portuguese
English, Portuguese Spanish, Philosophy, Pedagogy and Mathematics.
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116 Table 1. Distribution of the general workload of disciplines per undergraduate

course from Alfa institution.
Academic
Cultural Specific Education
Course Practice Internship Total
Activities Discipline Discipline
Liberal Arts
392 424 200 1.600 360 3.224
English
Pedagogy 126 360 100 1.800 3.206
Biology 414 396 200 1.600 360 3.026
Liberal Arts
432 414 200 1.600 360 3.026
Spanish
Philosophy 414 306 200 1.600 360 3.206
Physical
396 414 200 1.800 216 3.206
Education
Mathematics 381 234 200 1.600 360 3.206
Pedagogy 126 360 200 840 1.680 3.206

Font: research data obtained from CONSUN/ALFA resolutions which regulate the courses.
The curriculum organization of the undergraduate courses from one of the universities
Alfa - Table 1 - has a higher workload of about 3.200 hours, 400 hours more than in the workload
defined in Resolution No. 2, CNE/CP, 2.002. In this resolution the workload is of 2.800 hours.
This larger number of class hours is due to the inclusion of institutional disciplines which are
compulsory in all courses of this university. These disciplines aim to provide a humanistic and
social welfare education.
The emphasis of the curricular proposals in this institution has the same logic of
distribution in the fields of training in specific disciplines, around 60% of the workload;
the pedagogical disciplines revolve around 12%, covering the disciplines of Foundations of
Education, Organization and Management of School, Learning Fundamentals, Curriculum and
Teaching Building Action and specific Teaching Methodology. The disciplines of professional
practice add up to 400 hours, around 14% of the total course load. The internship also sums 400
hours. Thus, the practical disciplines make up almost 30% of the course load. This accentuated
practice load may emphasize a training directed to practical rationality, focusing on know-how,
an economistic perspective devoid of political, critical and analytic education (Moraes, 2003).
The Pedagogy course – at Alfa University - presents a different workload considered the
nature of the training disciplines. There are 126 hours of professional practice disciplines, 360
of internship, 200 hours of cultural-academic activities and the institutional disciplines. The
pedagogical disciplines total 1.680 hours emphasizing the teaching methodological disciplines
which total 840 hours.
Beta Institution – A private university with several courses; day: Physical Education;
night courses: History, Biology, Liberal Arts Portuguese and English, Liberal Arts Portuguese
and Spanish, Mathematics.
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Table 2. Distribution of the general workload of disciplines per undergraduate 117

course from Beta institution.
Specific
Educational Intern- Academic Cultural Research Interdis-
Courses forma- Total
formation ship Activities ciplinary
tion
History 1.836 270 414 108 108 180 2.934
Physical
1.332 630 414 108 106 180 2.788
Education
Portuguese
and English 1.548 432 432 216 54 90 2.790
Languages
Portuguese
and Spanish 1.512 432 432 216 54 90 2.790
Language
Mathematics 1.206 486 432 216 72 180 2.610
Font: research data obtained from the course proposals.
Beta University, a private institution, in Table 4, has a distribution with the following
discipline characterization: the ones for research training, the ones specific for research, the
ones for teacher education for working with students’ special needs, the pedagogical ones, the
cultural-academic activities, the ones for internship and the ones for interdisciplinary studies. It
is pointed out that the curricular organization is not the same for the set of courses, even though
the majority presents a workload of 2.800 hours.
The Biology course at Beta University has a total of 2.934 hours which are divided in
108h of training for research, 270h of pedagogical disciplines, 108h for the academic-cultural
activities, 1.386h of specific ones, 414h of supervised internships, 166h of specific ones for
research, 18h of disciplines for special needs and 180h of interdisciplinary studies.
The Physical Education course has a total of 2.788h among them there are 630h of
pedagogical disciplines, 108h for the academic-cultural activities, 1.332h of specific ones, 414h
of supervised internships, 106h of specific ones for research, 18h of disciplines for special
needs and 180h of interdisciplinary studies.
For History at Beta University there are 536h of pedagogical disciplines, 216h for the
academic-cultural activities, 1.386h of specific ones, 414h of supervised internships, 72h of
specific ones for research and 90h of interdisciplinary studies.
In the Liberal Arts courses Portuguese-English it was founded 2.790h, distributed in
1.548h for specific disciplines, 432h of educational disciplines, 216h for academic cultural
activities, 432h of supervised internships, 54h specifically for research, 18h. for special
education and 90h of interdisciplinary studies. In the Liberal Arts course Portuguese-Spanish
the specific disciplines total 1.512h, and the others have the same workload, which gives a
grand total of 2.754h.
And finally, the Mathematics Course has a total workload of 2.610h, of which 1.206h
are for specific disciplines, 486h of pedagogical ones, 216 for the academic-cultural activities,
432h of internships, 72h of specific ones for research, 18h. for special education and 180h of
interdisciplinary studies and for specific ones.
Beta institution complies with what is determined in the resolutions about the
undergraduate courses and maintains around 2.800h, being that some courses have a smaller
workload which does not meet the determination of the law. It is highlighted the offer of
a discipline directed to inclusive education with a restricted workload, but it allows to the
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118 undergraduates to have contact with the question. It is also highlighted that in this institution the
curriculum contemplates the offer of interdisciplinary disciplines, which configures a curricular
innovation.
Delta is a public University, the oldest one, has a composition of the curricula of the
undergraduate courses indicating Visual Arts, Pedagogy, History, Languages and Literature,
Music, Biology, Physical Education with a workload of approximately 3.300 hours, that is, it
is superior to the indicated in the Resolutions of CNE/CP no 1 e 2, 2002. For these courses the
workload is of approximately 3.300 hours. Geography, Chemistry and Physics courses are the
ones which have the lowest workload, of about 2.900h.
Table 3. Distribution of the general workload of disciplines per undergraduate

course from Delta institution.
Educa- Academic
Specific Intern- Research
Course tional Practice cultural Total
formation ship
Formation activities
Visual Arts 1.556 272 680 408 200 238 3.354
Pedagogy 374 2.040 102 408 200 306 3.260
History 2.040 204 0 408 200 272 3.276
Liberal Arts Portu�
2.090 272 272 408 200 34 3.276
guese/ Spanish
2.090 272 272 408 200 34 3.276
guese/ French
2.090 272 272 408 200 34 3.276
guese/ English
Music 1.156 272 1.020 408 200 238 3.311
Physics 1.564 612 0 408 200 136 2.920
Geography 1.460 476 272 408 200 136 2.952
Mathematics 1.840 612 0 408 200 68 3.128
Chemistry 1.640 680 0 408 200 0 2.928
Biological Sciences 1.640 272 748 408 200 0 3.268
Physical Education 1.868 272 408 408 200 102 3.258
Geography distance
1.868 612 204 408 200 68 3.360
learning
History distance
2.278 204 0 408 200 170 3.360
learning
Liberal Arts Por�
tuguese/ Spanish 2.244 204 408 408 200 68 3.532
Distance learning
Font: Research data obtained from the course proposals.
At Delta University the workload distribution in the disciplinary areas presents a

significant variation. In the Visual Arts, Portuguese/Spanish, Portuguese/French, Portuguese/
English, Music, Biological Sciences, Physical Education courses there are approximately 272
hours of disciplines destined to educational training and 1.156 hours of specific disciplines. In
the History, History Distance Learning and Language and Literature courses the educational
disciplines are about from 204h.
Other courses exceed the recommended amount, like, Visual Arts with 680 hours, Biology
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with 748 hours, Physical Education with 408 hours, and Music with 1.020h. It is necessary to 119
verify if these professional practices are specifically directed to teacher education. For example,
in the case of Biology the laboratory practices expand the knowledge in the specific area. This
knowledge does not oppose to teacher education, since they are necessary knowledge to the
teacher, however, they reinforce the bachelor’s performance where the practices are destined
to the development of research and are not articulated to the necessary practices of teaching
Biology.
In regard to the professional practice disciplines there is also a variation among the
courses, since History, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry do not have those; the Pedagogy
one includes 102h, Languages and Geography have 272 hours of practice. In these courses the
amount of hours is lower to the one determined in the resolution about undergraduate courses.
Regarding the internship of all courses at Delta institution they are adequate within the number
of hours, with a workload of 408 hours, the same occurring with the academic-cultural activities
with 200 hours.
It is emphasized at Delta, that the majority of courses has training hours research, being
that the Pedagogy course is the one which presents the highest number of hours for this activity:
306 hours. Still, it is worth noting that this institution offers undergraduate courses in the long-
distance mode in the areas of Geography, History and Languages and Literature.
It is emphasized at Delta, that the majority of courses has training hours research, being
that the Pedagogy course is the one which presents the highest number of hours for this activity:
306 hours. Still, it is worth noting that this institution offers undergraduate courses in the long-
distance mode in the areas of Geography, History and Languages and Literature.
This way, the majority of undergraduate courses at Delta meet with what is recommended
by Resolution nº 2/2002 from CNE, even though some courses have not been adapted since
hours have not been destined in the curriculum for the development of the professional practices
activities.
Epsilon The exam of the curriculum composition of the undergraduate courses of the
Epsilon institution, Table 6 presents the following configuration: all courses have a higher
workload than 2.800 hours, being that the lowest number hours of 2.852 hours in the courses of
Philosophy, Geography and Physics. The other courses add up over 3.200 hours and Pedagogy
is highlighted by the sum of 3.702 hours.
Table 4. Distribution of the general workload of disciplines per undergraduate

course from Epsilon institution.
Courses Specific Educational Prac- Academic Cul- Research

Internship Total
formation formation tice tural Activities
Pedagogy 380 2.000 408 408 200 306 3.702
History 2.386 238 68 400 200 68 3.360
2.124 238 398 400 200 68 3.428
guese / French
2.124 238 398 400 260 0 3.428
guese/ English
Music 1.834 614 272 544 240 68 3.572
Physics 1.710 408 160 476 200 34 2.988
Geography 1.540 408 369 272 200 96 2.888
Mathematics 2.046 238 340 510 240 34 3.408
Chemistry 2.312 238 136 408 240 68 3.402
Physical Education 1.806 498 136 480 200 136 3.257
Philosophy 1.768 204 136 408 200 136 2.852
Font: Research data obtained from the course proposals.
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120 The distribution in the areas of training at the Epsilon Public University presents a
variation in the courses. So, the hours destined to the specific knowledge disciplines add up to
1.540 hours in the Geography course and 2.312 hours in the Chemistry course. Due to this, the
Chemistry course is one of the lowest one in the number of hours in the pedagogical disciplines
with 238 hours, and the Geography and Chemistry one is of 408 hours. Among the courses with
the lowest number of hours to the pedagogical disciplines there are History, and Philosophy,
being that this last one offers a lower total workload in relation to the others.
Regarding the number of hours destined to the professional practices, the History course
only has 68 hours, Music 272 hours, Physics has 160 hours and Chemistry, Physical Education
and Philosophy have 136 hours. However, the courses of Pedagogy, Languages and Literature,
comply with the resolution’s recommendation. In regard to the number of hours destined to
the internship, the only one lower than 400 hours are the Geography, Physics and Physical
Education courses; Music with 614 hours, and the others with less around 200 hours, except
Pedagogy which addresses preferential to educational formation.
In regard to training for research, only the Languages and Literature course do not
contemplate a specific discipline; the other courses include some research discipline, being that
Pedagogy has 306 hours. Still, about the academic-cultural activities all the courses include 200
hours or more for these activities.
This way, it is verified that at Epsilon the majority of courses in relation to the curricular
organization is adequate to what is defined in Resolution nº 2/2002 of CNE. However, the
area of professional practices is the one which presents the biggest deficiency in regard to the
recommendation.
In the data collection for this research it was observed that two universities created a
general coordination for the undergraduate courses whose role is to articulate discussions and
propositions for these courses. In one of the universities, an undergraduate forum is maintained,
a space in which the propositions from the various courses are analyzed, searching for a bigger
articulation. Indeed, the creation of a general undergraduate coordination, a way found by the
institution to reorganize the undergraduate courses considering the new CNE requirements, has
favored some advances in the search of theoretical and practical articulation. The agents involved
try to minimize the dichotomy between theory and practice existing in this development.
So, in the institutions group, it is highlighted the importance of the disciplines of specific
training, with a high workload destined to them, which in some courses it reaches 75% of the
workload. This way, even though there has been the inclusion of other training areas and the
distribution of the pedagogical training happens along the course, this level of specific training
predominance is close to the model 3 + 1.
Other research shows similar results, as Martins and Romanowski (2010) examined
research on the offer of didactics in undergraduate courses in Brazilian universities. The
research showed some institutions which do not offer the discipline of General Didactics;
they offer, instead, disciplines on teaching methodologies of specific content, such as teaching
mathematics methodology. With this, the educational formation is restricted to the field of the
study method with little understanding of educational theory.
Diniz-Pereira and Amaral (2010) researched the undergraduate courses of the universities
in the state of Minas Gerais. The results are similar to the ones found in our research, since they
point to the risks of emphasizing teacher formation as a process of accelerating, improvised and
afar from elementary education.
Dias da Silva (2005) conducted a study on the reformulation of undergraduate courses
at the Universidade Estadual Paulista – UNESP, and it points out to the fragility of the
formative role of the educational knowledge and to the deprofessionalization of teachers. It
stresses that the implantation of the changes determined by Resolution nº 1 and 2, 2002, by the
National Council of Education for the undergraduate courses “may have resulted in the denial
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of the formative role which belongs to the Education area, due to the trivialization and/or denial 121
of the educational knowledge.” In the words of the author “The new legislation impacted the
universities” for being a process of imposing length and workload, the obligation to fulfill
curricula credits for the performance of activities of a “practical” nature; a 1000 hours destined
to: 400 hours of “practice as a curriculum component”, 400 hours of “teaching curricular
supervised internship”, besides 200 hours of “other forms of academic-scientific-cultural
activities”. Dias da Silva (2005, p. 6) stresses that the “central question became arithmetic:
[...] the immediate result of these resolutions for our universities was reduced to the allotment
of hours in the curriculum, with disastrous consequences for the construction of knowledge of
future teachers”.
The national research by Gatti and Barreto (2009) on undergraduate courses emphasizes
that the universities do not take as priority teacher’s formation, and as a result, the course
proposals weaken the understanding of issues related to the organization of teaching, to the
fundamentals of education and they maintain the educational disciplines disconnected from the
specific and vice-versa. The authors call attention to the propositions relative to apprenticeship
which are inconsistent without indicating the rapprochement policies and the exchange
partnerships with schools.
In the interviews done during the research, it was possible to highlight some points
which complement the undergraduate courses curricula analysis. They are the following:
The main change happened in the distribution of the workload of the undergraduate
courses expanding the disciplines for professional practice and internship with an increase to 800
hours. This resulted in a small decrease in the disciplines of knowledge of the specific areas and
the maintenance of the same amount of hours in the disciplines of pedagogical fundaments.
• Another change happened in the organization of the distribution of the disciplines during
the course. The disciplines of pedagogical training happen concomitant to the specific
disciplines, during the course since the first semester. However, there is no intentional and
programmatic articulation among the disciplines, when the articulation occurs it is isolated
and circumstantial.
• The formulation of initiatives in working the relation between theory and practice during
the course and inside of each discipline which composes the curriculum and integration of
the disciplines of common fundaments to all the undergraduate courses can be considered
an innovation.
• Regarding the professional practices proposal, some institutions try to maintain an integration
among the disciplines for professional education and the internship, strengthening the
practice and theory articulation among the fundament disciplines and the action of the
student in the school. Some practices are specifically destined to the teacher’s professional
education, but some practices are destined to the graduate’s professional education.
• The internship done in the schools – maintains the previous form of these practices, which
are: the observation, the participation in the classroom together with the classroom teacher
and finally teaching in the classroom. These internships happen in public and private schools.
None of the universities checked have their own school. The agreements are done between
the education departments in the cities and state, however, the school may not accept
teacher-trainees. This way, each internship supervisor teacher establishes a partnership with
the schools so that their students may perform these activities. The students go to these
schools only one day of the week.
• The articulation with the practice from the beginning of the course is done through the
Professional Practices disciplines. Indeed, this solution found by the course coordinators
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122 and teachers’ groups discussed in collegiate and Undergraduate Forums, maintained by
the institutions, constitutes an advance in the search of the articulation between theory and
practice. However, it maintains the emphasis on the internship from the fifth period and
the logic of the theory as a practice action guide. This logic, which is on the basis of the
scheme 3+1 still prevails in the different institutions, being that the private ones manifest a
movement of search to alter it.
• Within the researched public universities, one of them makes it explicit the maintenance of
the scheme 3+ 1. The majority of the coordinators from this institution said that, in order to
comply with the resolution, they created practice disciplines and expanded the internship
workload in the last two years. The Languages and Literature coordinator points out that
the disciplines workload was reduced because of the increase in the amount of hours for
the internship. In the speech of one coordinator it is noticed the worry with the theoretical
fundaments in the initial years for the later pedagogical training implying in the student’s
option after two and half years of course.
• In regard to the teacher education for inclusion, in the Pedagogy courses the disciplines for
LIBRAS (Linguagem Brasileira de Sinais / Brazilian Sign Language) for communication
with hard of hearing students were included. In some institutions, LIBRAS discipline was
included in undergraduate courses, besides some complementary lectures.
• Regarding the training for research, teachers have shown concern that in some institutions
they offer disciplines for research methodology, although teaching with research is not
done. They are initiatives of some professors. Besides this, in some courses the students do
a final course paper (TCC).
Considerations
Upon completing this text, we reiterate that the analyses presented are interim, but
denounce the urgency of a policy commitment to teacher education. Decisions at national level,
although they recognize the need to develop a solid proposal for the undergraduate courses,
provide a lightweight training and poor conditions.
In this perspective, a first aspect that we can perceive is that the private institutions try to
meet the determinations of CNE while the public ones, using their autonomy, do not meet them
totally. It is observed a movement in the private institutions in the sense of creating spaces for
discussion for the agents involved in the courses.
Regarding to the basic education guidelines in Brazil, it is found that the guiding documents
define for each one of the teaching modes a specific direction. This way, the guidelines for the
various teaching modes besides the national curricula parameters set which include all the basic
education. An interlocution between the propositions of these documents and the undergraduate
course proposals demand a deeper study than this text covers. However, there is evidence of
fragility in the undergraduate course proposals, since the relation to the basic education is more
intense only during the internships.
The internships are understood more as a demonstration that the future teacher is able
to teach “lessons”, because in general the procedures which the students perform include
observing teachers’ classes in community schools, to plan classes and to be observed carrying
out these classes. There are testimonies that students can only teach two or three classes during
the internship. The organization of most courses, invariably, place the moment of the internship
at the end of the course. The internship supervision is inconsistent, without effective supervision
of students the modulation of classes is presented with an excessive number of students per
supervisor.
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The study of the elementary education curriculum is not emphasized enough as a specific 123
discipline in courses, being only in the Pedagogy course that there is inclusion of studies specific
discipline about curriculum. The other courses include this topic in the teaching methodology
disciplines, but not with much depth.
Teacher preparation is focused on the disciplines of didactics and specific didactics,
called teaching methodology; didactics addresses teaching organization, the elements of
didactics and the teaching planning preparation while methodology focuses on how to teach
contents. With that, undergraduate students do not have enough training in the knowledge of
pedagogical fundamentals.
Preparation for teaching is focused on discipline and teaching in the disciplines of
teaching specific calls teaching methodology, didactics addresses the organization of teaching,
teaching the elements of planning and preparation while teaching methodology addresses how
to teach the content. With that the undergraduate students have little training in fundamental
pedagogical knowledge.
The conception of developed formation takes as reference the theory as an action guide,
a strong theoretical formation as a guarantee of a consequent practice. The introduction of
practice disciplines did not overcome this tendency, according to what was registered during
the interviews. The formation proposals are rarely articulated with the demands of elementary
education such as inclusion, diversity, violence, which maintain formation centered in the
academic domain of the discipline content knowledge, directing formation to the bachelor
degree. The undergraduate courses are still without an identity of teacher formation of the
elementary education, since it keeps a proposal more directed to a bachelor6 degree. Currently, a
research is being done to examine which discipline contents are being worked by the teachers.
Dissonances accentuate the devaluation of the teacher formation processes in contradiction
to the growing expansion of the education value as a universal, continuous and permanent
process, condition to social life and for the development of the social and economic life. The
challenge goes much further than reformulating curricular proposals!
The dissonances accent the devaluation of the teacher education processes in contradiction
to the crescent expansion of the education value as a permanent, continuous and universal
process, condition to social life and for the development of social groups and of economic life.
The challenge goes much beyond of the reformulation of curricular proposals!
Acknowledgement
Research funding agency – Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico

- CNPQ -
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Advised by Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey 125
Received: August 22, 2012 Accepted: November 05, 2012
Joana Paulin Romanowski Professor, The Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, Rua Cel
Joaquim Ignácio Taborda Ribas, 701, AP 804, Bigorrilho Curitiba,
Brazil.
E-mail: joana.romanowski@pucpr.br
Pura Oliver Martins Dr., The Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
E-mail: pura.oliver@pucpr.br
Simone Manosso Cartaxo The Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
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126
PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNCHRO-
NOUS VIRTUAL EDUCATION: THE ELLU-
MINATE LIVE CASE AT THE FACULTY OF
EDUCATIONAL AND LANGUAGE STUDIES
(THE OPEN UNIVERSITY)
Sonia M. Santoveña Casal
National Distance Education University (UNED), Madrid, Spain,
E-mail: ssantovena@edu.uned.es
Abstract
In the current document the efficiency of the Elluminate Live tool is analyzed when it is used as a
synchronous media in a virtual learning environment. In most of the research discussed, as for the
integration of the tool in the university studies, it has been found that its use makes easier communication,
interaction, development of online tutorials, lectures and debates. The main goal of the research shown in
the current paper is to present the results obtained when using the synchronous communication tool in the
process of learning and teaching of Languages Studies in the Open University. The sample consisted of
one teacher and six tutors of Languages Studies of the Open University. In order to analyze the experience
developed with the Elluminate Live tool, an interview with 13 questions of open answer was designed.
The experience described by the tutors and the academics pointed out the advantages of the integration
of synchronous communication in the teaching-learning process. Interviewees highlighted the potential
of the tool for language teaching in distance education. It was considered that Elluminate Live is a
facilitator of the learning process for the Open University courses, since it allows online tutorials where
students can practice speaking.
Key words: distance education; intelligent tutoring systems; interactive learning environments;
pedagogical issues.
Introduction
US interest in virtual education is growing and some experts believe that the beginning
of a transformation of the educational system is currently taking place for the first time in more
than 50 years (Metz, 2010).
In this situation, one of the challenges that must be faced is the need for teachers with
specific strategies and skills for a virtual teaching network. Teachers, tutors or trainers in the
network must have a set of skills that enable them to develop their educational role in the new
virtual media (Barrett, 2010, p. 19).
Virtual courses may be the only available alternative to some students and it is the
responsibility of the tutor, teacher and / or instructor to make the learning experience consistent
and comparable to other learning situations that students may have experienced before (Pan &
Sullivan, 2005).
In summary, the integration of a tool in our virtual classroom meant studying and
analyzing its characteristics, applications and functions, advantages and disadvantages in depth,
as well as the results obtained in other universities when it has been used.
In the following lines a theoretical framework is presented which describes the teaching
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Educational and Language Studies (the Open University)
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methods and teaching strategies that enable the integration of Elluminate Live in the learning 127
process. The work is presented as a case study investigating the use of Elluminate Live in the
process of learning and teaching of Languages Studies in the Open University.
The research done describes the main features of the synchronous communication tool
Elluminate Live and introduces the pedagogical principles of synchronous virtual education.
There are also shown the results which have been obtained when Elluminate Live has been
used. Also, it presents the research carried out in the Department Language Studies (The
Open University) relative to the integration of the Elluminate Live in their studies. The results
have been analyzed in the following section and, finally, in the last section, conclusions are
presented.
Synchronous Communication Process Online: Elluminate Live
Elluminate Live is a synchronous communication tool developed by Elluminate Inc.

which integrates various virtual resources in order to facilitate the process of online training,
such as video, chat, audio, session recording, surveys, presentations, etc.
When integrating it, Elluminate can be used as a tool in a platform as Moodle or
Blackboard (Universidad Estatal a Distancia de Costa Rica, 2010)
It allows online demonstration and collaboration. Students can follow their teacher’s
explanation online watching every single move he/she makes on his/her computer, it allows
print and broadcast media, incorporates the possibility of sharing the board and files of different
formats. The main characteristics of Elluminate Live! ® is the possibility of developing
synchronous conferences and of integrating different types of virtual resources (PowerPoint,
flash, video, audio) in the sessions. In short, Elluminate Live allows the creation of virtual
classes while sharing documents and applications. (Elluminate Inc, 2009).
Among its features, Universidad Estatal a Distancia de Costa Rica, points out the following:
Integration and Transfer of content. During the session, the moderator can use and display
the documents produced by students through PowerPoint, Excel, Word, Flash, Dreamweaver,
among others. It is provided an interactive whiteboard that can be used simultaneously by
teachers and students. Many are the opportunities that this interactive whiteboard provides,
among others: sharing of computer desktops, it provides the ability to record sessions, it allows
the use of several rooms simultaneously by Workgroups, introduce the possibility of real time
collaborative surveys and, finally, it allows the use of different operating systems, such as
Windows, Mac, Linux and Solaris.
Analysis of several studios and expert opinions have showed that synchronous tools
use supported socio-emotional relationships and personal interactions development (Chou,
2002; Clark, 2005; Freitas & Neumann, 2009; Hrastinski, 2008; McBrien, Jones & Rui Cheng,
2009; Rourke & Anderson, 2002; Shauna, Kromrey, Barron, & Hogarty, 2005; Schullo, 2005),
increasing the frequency of interaction among the users involved in the process (Freitas &
Neumann, 2009; Mabrito, 2006) and the communication process (Chou, 2002; Fox, Morris, y
Rumsey, 2007; Freitas & Neumann, 2009; Hrastinski, 2008).
Pedagogical Principles of Synchronous Virtual Education
It is difficult to improve the teaching and learning in higher education by simply

implementing new technology, but it can be optimized when the development of educational
innovation is made on the basis of: an instructional design, the context of learning, student
characteristics and previous experience with technology. Technology alone cannot ensure
efficiency in the learning process (Kirkwood & Price, 2005, p. 15).
The seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education can be removed,
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128 Chickering and Gamson (1987), to apply the synchronous teaching-learning process. The
integration of the seven principles of Chickering and Gamson, the study of synchronous
communication in virtual environments is justified on the grounds that studies of synchronous
communication technologies have fed on the theories and principles of classroom teaching
(Graham, Cagiltay, Craner, Lim & Duffy, 2000) and even the principles and variables
traditionally considered influential in student performance are still valid today (Knight, 2007).
Numerous authors consider that these principles are of interest to guide the use of synchronous
technology tools (Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Freitas & Neumann, 2009; Knolle, 2002).
The principles provided in educational practice: activity, expectations, cooperation,
interaction, diversity and responsibility. These principles (Chickering & Gamson, 1987, p. 1-
6):
Strengthen teacher-student contact: the largest motivating factor for students.
1. Enhancing reciprocity and cooperation among students: Work in a collaborative team
learning and facilitates the exchange of ideas. Also respond to social interactions
providing a quick thought process and a deeper understanding.
2. Promoting active learning through the practical application of learning, where
students get to put into practice what they have previously learned.
3. Provide reinforcement and response to students: Students need to be constantly
informed about the progress of their learning: Knowing what they have to improve,
what they need to know how to evaluate the learning process. It is important to
receive suggestions for improvement.
4. Give importance to the duration of tasks: Learning to use time. Students must learn
to manage time and teachers to make a realistic time organization.
5. Communicate high expectations: Having high expectations of students support a
positive evolution of their learning, on the theory of self-fulfilling prophecy.
6. Respect the different abilities and learning styles: First it is necessary to know the
talents and learning styles of students preferred to further enhance alternative ways
of learning, enhancing learning.
Khan (2001) has created an e-learning framework with eight dimensions and their
sub-dimensions. Among his suggestions for the development of a learning process from the
pedagogical dimension is pointed out the following: The objectives should be adapted to the
course and clearly described; the course must submit an appropriate structure. It will address
what the role of the instructor is and then it is studied where and how this facilitation of learning
takes place. On the other hand, in order to facilitate the acquisition of goals and objectives by
the students, the educational content should be presented and organized in a proper sequence in
the correct order. The levels should take care of the clarity, style, readability, usability, graphics
and multimedia components. In short, the course will provide a clear direction of what the
student must do at each stage of the course and be also characterized by providing a logical
continuation of the learning process. Besides, the use of various means of teaching can enrich
the learning process.
Another interesting study by Knolle (2002) had as main objective to investigate the
most effective practices for teaching in a synchronous online environment (HorizonLive) at the
University of California State University, Chico. The sample consisted of accepting 28 teachers,
selected from those teachers who had taught and had used HorizonLive, an asynchronous tool
for a semester. Based on their responses and following the seven principles of Chickering and
Gamson (1987) 68 types were set as strategies for teaching online. An analysis of data on
the perceived effectiveness of the seven fulfilled the above principles. In addition, advantages
and disadvantages are analyzed of using this tool (Knolle 2002). The results indicate that the
group was able to identify seven principles and 68 strategies to facilitate their development.
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Based on the fact that the experience with HorizonLive is applicable to other synchronous 129
communication tools such as Elluminate Live, it’s interesting to know some of these strategies
and their relationship with each of the principles when using HorizonLive to teach in the virtual
learning environment:
With regard to principle 1st “Encouraging contact among students and teachers”, Knolle
(2002, p. 32-39) suggests: Ensure that all questions asked are answered; maintain attention
and generate new possibilities of interaction (ask questions during the session, reinforce
meaningful participation, attendance at the virtual tutoring); care organization and management
and manage (supervising the working groups, to organize the form and order of the response to
exercise, among other aspects); promote emotional closeness of the group (using their name,
read the comments made during the session to the group, and end the session by thanking their
participation).
“The development of reciprocity and cooperation among students” (Second principle)
can be achieved by dividing the class into small groups, using the restrooms for the debate
team, introducing a topic for discussion or a task to be completed and / or using the discussion
for clarification of questions and make suggestions. In addition, they can develop activities
that promote interaction between the campus and online students, enabling students to answer
questions made by other students on campus (Knolle 2002, p. 39-43).
With regard to the third principle “promote active learning”, Knolle (2002, p. 39-43)
highlights the following strategies: Asking students to analyze the information presented,
ask questions of thought, ask a subject of debate, the assignments for the tasks performed
exclusively during the synchronous session, development activities through Web searches, case
studies, vignettes or other exercises during the class sessions to get students’ answers in the chat
room. Everything previously mentioned is a good approach to encourage an active learning.
The fourth principle “Strategies to boost and quick responses to the students”, according
to Knolle (2002, p. 48-50), may be developed if the instructor lets a specific time in the
synchronous session for the approach of questions and answers, other than the necessary time
to provide the lesson, showing the activities and / or comments made by other students and/or
start the session by a summary of the previous session answering outstanding questions.
According to Knolle (2002, p. 50), “Give importance to the duration of the tasks” (top five)
can be achieved on the one hand, through strategies that strengthen participation in synchronous
session (reviewing attendance reports and contacting students who have not participated in the
synchronous session, sending private messages to encourage participation), and on the other, by
implementing teaching strategies that facilitate the monitoring of the session (using slides, and
present an outline of content, providing students copies of content to be treated; classes begin
by explaining the objectives and explaining how the session will be carried out).
In order to develop the top 6 “Communicating high expectations” Knolle (2002, p. 54-
57) suggests using the modeling technique, reinforcing high expectations about the students,
show a detailed description of tasks, clarifying expectations and objectives of the course and
displaying the content or examples of good jobs.
Finally, Knolle (2002, p. 57-60) suggests that the top 7 “Enhancing learning styles”
can be achieved if the course is enhanced using different types, sizes and materials (official
documents, presentations, videos), resources offered by the tool (visual, animated movements,
facial features, camera, etc.) and assessment strategies, among other strategies.
Results which Have Been Obtained when Elluminate Live Has Been Used
As noted above, many studies on the efficacy, use, evaluation and impact of the use of
online courses and asynchronous communication tools in education can be studied, but few
sources of research are found on the use and effectiveness of synchronous communication
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130 tools, probably due to his recent appearance on the market (Falloon, 2011; Hampel, 2003). In
addition, it can be stated that there is much research available regarding the development of
optimal instructional strategies in synchronous communication environments (Schullo, 2005).
It stands out, above all, the lack of studies relating to the synchronous tools with the objectives
of learning and integration of this tool in teaching (Schullo, 2005).
Among the authors who make recommendations to ensure proper integration of
Elluminate Live, several can be pointed out, such as to Frank, Kurtz and Levin (2002) who
examined two pre-university courses where they used LearnLinc iNet. The authors conclude
that it is important to respond to students immediately and to facilitate care throughout the
process, establish a methodology that provides opportunities for students to speak; teachers
need to have some experience in using the tool and in coordination of virtual groups.
In order to achieve success in the synchronous learning process it is suggested: properly
design of a reference guide for the program including synchronous teaching exercises and
instructions, use of asynchronous tools as essential to provide greater autonomy to the student,
allowing access to content to an individualized pace, prepare students before the start of the
session; use the blackboard to respond to the chat notes, solve technical problems; track students,
monitor if you are late to the session and disruptive students (Hofmann, 2001)
Moreover, it is interesting to note that among the most effective teaching strategies
used in the study of Schuller (2005) at the University of Florida, mini lectures with interactive
exercises were included, group work and collaborative structured exercises, and finally, debates.
The main objective of the instructors using Elluminate Live is to reduce the lack of immediacy
present in asynchronous tools, as well as the need to direct the acquisition of information.
Suggested recommendations for a successful use of synchronous tools, such as chat,
conducted by Branon and Essex (2001) have been related to the ability to form small groups of
students, organizing several sessions at different times to increase participation opportunities
for all students and, finally, it is recommended to design a specific protocol for the chat.
The results indicate that for teachers and educators to find useful distance education
using synchronous tools, the following items should be achieved: the development of meetings
or sessions, decision making, brainstorming, community building or equipment and for
addressing technical problems. Moreover, they noted that asynchronous tools were considered
particularly useful in strengthening the depth of learning, reflection, discussion and development
of communication. (Branon & Essex, 2001, p. 36-37).
Laurillard (2002) indicates the risk of delivering new material during the synchronous
sessions instead of allowing a preliminary discussion. On the other hand, he believes that
integration of different resources synchronous (text, audio, video, etc.) can enrich the learning
process.
Kirkwood and Price (2005) consider that the immediacy of the response requested in
synchronous communication means not having enough time for reflection, highlighting the
advantage of asynchronous communication tools on the time that allows students to reflect
on some issue or question raised, prominent element in the educational process. Synchronous
communication, therefore, should be more structured and systematic, requiring more technical
training in the use of these tools by tutors and students.
Clark (2005) based on a review of researches made regarding the use of synchronous
tools, including Elluminate Live, draws some recommendations for its integration in virtual
classroom. First, the author recommends being brief. The online sessions should be 60 to 90
minutes. You can make several weekly sessions or one session per week distributing and using
asynchronous tools between sessions. Secondly, in order to maintain student´s attention in
synchronous sessions, he recommends: pace yourself active in the presentation of content while
using synchronous tool (in one hour to present to 40-45 slides, distributing the content across
multiple slides) to dominate visual content rather than content-text, incorporating the responses
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of students, and conduct small group meetings, assigning groups to the rooms. 131
The eLearning Guild (Brandon, 2005) is the result of analysis of data from 644 surveys
answered by professionals on the synchronous instruction. Based on the experience gained with
the use of this tool, a set of tips for the delivery of teaching through online synchronous tools
are listed. Among others, it is highlighted the need for the instructor, to meet and practice with
the tool (software) and technology, preparing to teach through an online tool to know what is
going to be taught and how they will teach it and prepare for the unexpected, that is ,to prepare
for the session in advance.
Furthermore, in order to ensure an effective result, it is recommended as follows:
preparing the session in advance, keep in mind the students, help to prepare the student in
using the tool, establishing clear expectations from the beginning of the course, providing the
possibility the student to introduce him/herself, taking care of the motivation, involvement and
commitment of students, giving the student immediate reinforcement, care of contents and
keeping a clear and precise communication with students. It also noted that it is interesting to
study the optimal size of the class group based on the objective of the course (if the target is the
interaction group size must be less than if the goal is the presentation of content through slides)
and indicates that the duration should not exceed 2 hours.
The review of the literature by Freitas and Neumann (2009) indicated that the design
of tasks, taking into account the technological means which will be used, the role of tutor and
design activities on the basis context, the environment and the characteristics of the students are
teaching basic aspects to consider when integrating a synchronous tool in distance education.
The authors note that their application should be mainly in small groups.
In the research conducted by Schuller, Siekman and Szydlo (2003) which studied the
use of Elluminate Live! in different synchronous tools by teachers from different disciplines
(Education, Nursing and Engineering) conclude that similar teaching strategies are used in all
subjects, such as the use of conference and / or discussion, as well as in all courses, students
positively evaluated the performance of teachers and the learning experience, which stimulated
effective learning environments and increased the sense of community.
One of the teachers conducted interactive classes that included dictation, surveys,
question and answer sessions and discussion. Furthermore, he used the rest rooms for project
work in small groups of students. Another teacher worked with small groups of students (groups
of 3 students) introducing short lectures to be subsequently discussed by the group of students.
She used slides and the Internet for the presentation of information. A third teacher used a
small group work and introduced no materials or did online classes. Students work in groups
to achieve a specific objective following the competitive methodology. Communication tools
were used for the communication among group members (Schullo, Siekman & Szydlo, 2003)
Finally, here are some examples of activities that can be implemented by using Elluminate
Live. In the presentation “Five interesting Ways to teach by using Elluminate” conducted by the
Faculty of Education and Language Studies, 28th June 2011, at the Open University, they were
presented five examples of Activities to use in a group with Elluminate. The main purpose of
the presentation was to explain what the possibilities of this online teaching tool were. Among
the suggestions the following may be included:
You can start the course with an introductory task that aims to encourage students to
speak and participate through the tool. The first activity was the presentation of a text (of a 2
minutes duration) over which it is developed group discussion for about 8 minutes. From the
pedagogical point of view, this work facilitates the participation of students through answers to
the questions presented, but also reinforces the students to take the lead in the discussion.
The second activity is the presentation of an ethical and reflective issue (analysis of
potential harm from the standpoint of an ethical approach to research) to which the students
respond verbally.
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132 The third activity’s main objective is the collaborative work group through the use of
quiz answers. Following the presentation of a case study or conceptual text, some questions
are introduced to be answered. Each student will individually present their response in writing,
allowing a direct and immediate response. The tool lets you know, immediately and directly,
which student has answered, and what is issued.
The fourth activity is called “Open-ended discussion”. Following the presentation of the
book “Alice in Wonderland” raises a question of reflection to the students, who must respond
verbally and individually.
The fifth activity is based on a collaborative process of building where, from the
presentation of the task by the teacher, students progressively include written responses to the
shared whiteboard. Later, the teacher introduces a question and students give their answers
verbally. Therefore, at the end of the session there is an available answer set by the group
of students, both verbally and in writing, reinforcing the process of learning and knowledge
acquisition.
Here the above mentioned examples are displayed in a chart (see Table 1).
Table 1. Examples of Activities to use in a group with Elluminate Live.
Activity developed
Time of the academic Pedagogy target Activity description
with Elluminate Live
year
Encourage students
Presentation of a text (of a 2 minutes du�
to speak and
Introductory task Beginning of course ration) over which it is developed group
participate through
discussion for about 8 minutes
the tool
It may be one of the first Presentation of an ethical and reflective

activities presented to Introduction to issue: analysis of potential harm from
Academic task the student, once he she discussion and re� the standpoint of an ethical approach to
has been introduced in flection techniques research
the course
Following the presentation of a case

study or conceptual text, some ques�
Collaborative work
Collaborative activi� All throughout the tions are introduced to be answered.
group through the
ties academic year. Each student will individually present
use of quiz answers
his=her response in writing, allowing a
direct and immediate response
Following the presentation of the book

Group Discussion
Open-ended discus� Within the academic “Alice in Wonderland” a question of re�
and development of
sion year. flection raises to the students who must
knowledge
respond verbally and individually
From the presentation of the task by

Reinforcing the
the teacher, students progressively
Within the academic process of learning
Collaborative process include written responses to the shared
year. and knowledge
of building whiteboard. Later, the teacher intro�
acquisition.
duces a question and students give their
answers verbally
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In this section a number of theories and guidelines are introduced of how to start a process 133
of synchronous communication in virtual learning environments. Among the pedagogical
principles identified by the experts, it is considered that the proposal by Chickering and Gamson
(1987) is the most complete, since it brings together the fundamental guidelines regarding the
process of synchronous teaching which are shared by Knolle (2002). In short, when using
Elluminate Live there should be taken should into account issues such as: the need to strengthen
the student (this is shared by most authors studied), enhance interactivity and active learning to
be effective in the answers, care of the duration of tasks, communicate high expectations and
respect learning styles. Khan (2001) identifies as relevant aspects some such as organizing and
structuring the course, adapting to the course objectives, the importance of methodology and
instructional media.
It has been identified several strategies for working with a synchronous tool. Among
the points raised, several are highlighted: the importance of providing students respond to
their interventions (Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Frank, Kurtz & Levin, 2002; Hofmann,
2001; Knolle 2002), the need to provide students the chance to talk and interact during the
sessions (Brandon, 2005; Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Frank, Kurtz & Levin, 2002), the need
to organize the session, the teacher, before starting and to prepare the students themselves
(Brandon, 2005; Hofmann, 2001). Furthermore, it is stated that it is imperative that the teacher
has prior training in technology and organization of virtual groups (Frank, Kurtz & Levin,
2002; Brandon, 2005). Some authors emphasize the importance of studying the duration of the
session (Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Clark, 2005; Knolle 2002), give predominance to the
visual content (Clark, 2005) and conduct small group meetings (Clark, 2005; Schullo, 2005),
and finally, the presentation of interactive exercises (Schullo, 2005).
Problems of the Research
Traditional systems of education have been substituted by new ways of instruction

which have been characterized mainly by its development with the help of ICT (Information
Communication Technology). The research showed in this research arises from the need to
know what results have been obtained when Elluminate Live –a synchronous communication
tool- has been used in higher education. On the other hand, it has been analyzed the experience
developed with Elluminate Live in the Department Language Studies of The Open University
as a reference study.
Following Clark (2005) approach, two main issues will be considered, those which try to
be answered throughout this article: What are the best practices for the use of these new tools
to deliver training? What can be learnt from the experiences carried out in an educational field
and the research on the instructional methodology implementation?
Elluminate Live is used in the Department of Languages of the Faculty of Education

and Language Studies of the Open University. Elluminate Live has been integrated within the
platform Moodle as a complement tool in courses in order to teach several languages.
Aims and Sample
In order to analyze the experience developed with Elluminate Live tool, in the Faculty
of Educational and Language Studies (The Open University), an interview with 13 questions of
open answers was designed. The mentioned interview can be consulted in the appendix.
Summing up, the sample consists of:
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134 - 1 academic is a course team member and also chair of Spanish courses in the Department
of Languages at the Open University
- 6 tutors of Spanish courses in the Department of Languages at the Open University
were interviewed, with an average of 17 years of teaching experience and 9.6 years of
experience with the use of ICT.
Instruments and Data Collection
The interview has been built on the basis of the objectives for which it was intended,
which as noted above, is to collect more information on the possibilities and applications of the
tool in courses of Language Studies of The Open University.
Planning of the interview was conducted following the steps listed below:
Selection of interviewees: The choice was deliberate and intentional. That is, all
participants are teachers or tutors in virtual courses of Language Studies of The Open University.
It has been aimed to cover the whole range of users and professionals involved in online courses.
The selection has resulted into 7 tutors and 1 teacher.
Choosing time and place: As they are individual interviews in order to reach the greatest
number of tutors and teachers, the interview was conducted via email.
Sending request: During the month of June 2011 interviews were sent by email to all the
selected subjects.
For the analysis of the interviews the technique of Content Analysis was used. The Content
Analysis technique has been defined as “a set of communication analysis techniques designed
to obtain indicators (quantitative or not) for systematic and objective procedures to describe the
contents of messages, allowing the inference of knowledge regarding the conditions production
/ reception (inferred variables) of these messages” (Bardin, 1986; citado en García, González
y Ballesteros, 2001).
In order to systematize the study of information, some of the steps recommended by
García et al. (2001) have been followed but with a more qualitative approach:
1. Defining the universe of contents and sample selection
2. Decision taking on the unit of analysis.
3. Establishment of families and Codes: Based on the preliminary analysis conducted
by the researchers, a content analysis using the Software Atlas TI is then applied. It
confirms the previously established codes.
Families and codes found were as the following:
- F.C. Possibilities: Enrichment programme, Complement, Behaviour and Cognitive.

- F.C. Pedagogy: Tutorials, Interaction, Learning and Communication.
- F.C. Advantages: Student participation and Workgroups.
- F.C. Disadvantages: Technical problems.
- F.C. Impact: Quality of teaching and Studies and/or universities.
Treatment of Results
The treatment of the results was performed according to the previous objectives of this
research.
Firstly, all the interviews received by email were read and arranged. This approach
facilitated the first detailed analysis of the contents. Then it is carried out an objective and
systematic reading of each of the interviews without losing sight of the objectives of the
investigation.
Secondly, interviews were organized as primary documents for analysis with ATLAS.ti.
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It was treated as a new hermeneutic unit, primary documents were assigned, we found the total 135
amount of words through Word Crunder and later, depending on the results, create codes and
associated dates. The coding approach is followed by a textual approach at first, and later by
a more descriptive coding in order to comprise the most comprehensive and rich contents of
the interviews. They were created code families in order to group the codes depending on the
objectives of the investigation. Finally, the reports of codes are developed by appointment and
the networks with which the most relevant codes were built up.
Moreover, in a subsequent analysis the particular was discriminated, individual and
atypical of what the interviewee shared with other interviewees and the matches found between
the different interviews were studied, repeated attitudes and opinions are the aspects on which
analysis was, finally, presented.
Results of Research
Quantitative Analysis
The qualitative analysis has shown that the use of the tool on online courses in the
department is preferably carried out in small groups. In general, mentoring is ready for 20
students, but approximately 12 students usually attend. In addition, they used Elluminate Live
within small groups (2 or 3 students per group).
Among the interviewed, It may be mentioned a professor at the Open University, Head of
Award for Certificate courses and course team member and also chair of Spanish courses in the
Department of Languages at the Open University, with 22 years of experience as a teacher and
15 years of experience in the use of ICT in education. In addition, 6 tutors of Spanish courses in
the Department of Languages at the Open University were interviewed, with an average of 17
years of teaching experience and 9.6 years of experience with the use of ICT.
Qualitative Analysis
It is then shown a conceptual map which reflects all the families and established codes
to categorize interviews with the teacher and the tutors (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Conceptual map: families and codes found in the research.
By performing a content analysis, it is pointed out that throughout the interviews, the
tutors and the teacher have highlighted the potential of the tool and its advantages for the
teaching-learning process, not to be forgotten the disadvantages of its use. They have also been
reflected on the potential impact of the integration of Elluminate Live within studies of the
Open University and also at other universities.
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136 Regarding the family code (FC) “Possibilities” offered by Elluminate Live (see Figure
2) the interviewees highlighted the potential of the tool for language teaching in distance
education. It is presented a conceptual map of family code “Possibilities” conceptual analysis
results performed:
Figure 2: Family code: “Possibilities” offered by Elluminate Live.
The academic believes that Elluminate Live is a facilitator of the learning process for the
Open University courses, since it allows online tutorials where students can practice speaking.
The tutors that were interviewed shared the same ideas. They believe that the tool enriches the
academic program, as it facilitates learning, allowing interactive process of teaching in the area
of language.
All interviewees have agreed that the tool enriches the academic program, considering it a
technological advantage that facilitates the development of cognitive and behaviour processes.
Among the cognitive and behavioural processes that are reinforced by the tool is the
possibility to practice listening and verbal skills. Overall, the tutors considered that the tool
enhances learning and social interaction, “(...) capabilities such as perception, participation,
attention or memory” oral skills, i.e. mainly Elluminate Live “makes a communicative approach
of language easier”.
Some of the comments made by interviewees were as follows:
Academic 1. “Yes, I think it enriches the academic program as it facilitates learning and
language teaching in an interactive way”.
Tutor 4. “Absolutely. Elluminate or any other programs that serve these functions is
a very important addition. It gives the opportunity to do some practice that otherwise
would not be possible in a distance situation (practice real conversation in real time)”.
Moreover, it highlights aspects related to the teaching developed in virtual classrooms
followed through Elluminate Live. It is drawn a conceptual map of family code “Pedagogy”
(see Figure 3) conceptual analysis results performed:
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137
Figure 3: Family code: “Pedagogy” (Teaching process developed in virtual

courses).
Interviewees pointed out that the tool is to support the development of virtual tutorials,
mainly due to the ability of Elluminate Live to facilitate communication and interaction among
participants in the tutorials. Therefore, it is considered that it facilitates, in turns, learning.
The use of the tool enhances the “sense of group belonging and” facilitates the contact
between “(...) tutor / student to and from the students themselves in an interactive way.” It also
allows the undergoing of business meetings.
On the other hand, it is added that through virtual tutorials developed real-time Elluminate
Live is possible to reinforce grammar and practical aspects of language learning.
In summary, Elluminate Live has been used to “(...) to reinforce grammatical structures
and carry out communicative activities related to the course syllabus”.
Tutor 4 summarizes in a clear and concise manner some of the most frequently applications
performed with the tool:
We used Elluminate to put students in situations (discussions, role playing or group

discussions) that mimic real situations that have specifically been chosen to facilitate the
practice of vocabulary and certain structures.
In this line, it is interesting to note one of the experiences described by one tutor:
Using Elluminate as a virtual classroom in which I meet about once a month (the course
has a tutorial hour) with my students for a class / tutorial. In whiteboard it was presented
a power point with the objectives and as support for activities that I will cover in class.
Students participate and complete activities in an active and interactive using their voice
and applications / functions on the whiteboard.
Within the Department of Languages, the tool has been integrated into all foreign
language courses, courses for beginners A2 (French, Spanish, German, Italian, Chinese and
Welsh), intermediate B1 (French, Spanish, German, Italian) and advanced C2 (French, Spanish
and German) with a frequency of tutoring per month in addition to the tutorials available in
all regions where the courses are taught. In general, Elluminate Live is used by tutors with a
frequency of 1 or 2 tutorials per month.
Teachers and tutors valued the tool as an alternative to the classroom: “It is not always
possible to arrange classes, and this is a good alternative. It is also a useful alternative for
students with mobility problems, or those living in a remote or dispersed area, and would have
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138 to travel long distances to attend a tutoring office”. Noted the possibility offered by the tool
“(...) reading, writing, listening and speaking in a previously prepared position”. Elluminate
Live, allows the tutor to solve doubts, to practice verbal skills and unrelated participants in the
course.
Among the resources developed by the Department of Languages at the Open University,
it is necessary to highlight the project “Open Resources Languages Online (LORO)” (see:
http://www.open.ac.uk/education-and-languages/parrot/).
Among its highlights the potential advantages of the tool as a means of strengthening
teamwork, social interaction and participation, as well as student motivation. They note that
the tool can reinforce the development of auditory and verbal skills through group work. In
addition, the ability to record sessions provides students unable to attend, to consult offline.
Some of the comments made regarding the advantages of Elluminate Live were as
follows:
Academic 1. “It allows to work oral and aural skills in real-time group. I think it’s motivating to
have that contact with other students when studying at a distance”
Tutor 1. “It’s a tool that offers convenience; you can use it from home, and definitely reinforces
teamwork”
Tutor 4. “(...) mainly reinforces the sense of belonging to a group”
Tutor 5. “It is interactive and encourages participation”
The technical problems of connection and sound quality are the main drawbacks
mentioned. The sound quality is considered a “(...) problem when you have to take into account
the quality of the language, pronunciation and intonation”.
On the other hand, it has been indicated that the use of the tool may have an exclusionary
and discouraging effect to those who are not accustomed to using it. They underlined
the importance of teachers trained in the use of the tool as a means of mentoring, because
there are important differences between the process of classroom teaching and learning via
videoconferencing. Moreover, the tutors have stressed that the tool has not been particularly
helpful to increase student participation on online tutorials, compared to the tutorials. However,
the use of this tool has partly replaced the telephone tutoring, facilitating the tutorial.
Among the comments on the disadvantages of the tool is interesting to note the
following:
Academic 1: “Technical problems: connection, sound quality ... You also need a good teacher
training program, it is not the same teaching in a classroom than teaching through audiographic
lectures”.
Tutor 6. “Technical problems and the connection to the Internet are sometimes slow or fails”.
The department’s online courses have been enriched by the increased flexibility
provided by the use of Elluminte Live in distance education, since it eliminates spatial barriers
in the learning process. In short, the integration of this tool can be valuable for educational
organizations, always taking into account the limitations set out and the need for teachers with
resources to make good use of the tool.
Academic 1. “I think we can be more flexible and offer a service to students living in remote or
dispersed and those with mobility problems”.
Tutor 2. “Tutorials can be recorded and it is easy for students to access them”.
Finally, the teacher highlights two important aspects. On the one hand, the difficulty
involved in implementing a new tool not only by teacher training, but also by “(...) processes
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to be set or documents (eg protocols and instructions for final exams of course performed in 139
Elluminate)” and, second, emphasizes the use of the tool for business meetings.
Discussion
Seven interviews have been carried out with experts on the use of Elluminate Live, with
the main objective of analyzing the possibilities of this tool for distance education. In addition,
it is sought to understand the pedagogical applications of the tool in the field of philology,
studying the advantages and limitations of using the tool in education and reflecting on the
impact that may have resulted from integrating it into studies of the Department of Languages,
the Faculty of Education and Language Studies, Open University.
The academic and tutors believe that Elluminate Live is a facilitator of the learning
process for the Open University courses, since it allows online tutorials where students can
practice speaking.
Among the cognitive and behavioural processes that are reinforced by the tool is the
possibility to practice listening and verbal skills.
The potential of a synchronous communication tool opens new possibilities for distance
education. The experience described by the tutors and the teacher pointed out the advantages for
the teaching-learning process of the integration of synchronous communication. Motivational
aspects and practical elements have been highlighted by respondents.
Elluminate Live is valued as a facilitator, as it adds the ability to practice the language in
real time, especially for those students who for various reasons can not attend classes. Tutors
report that Elluminate Live enables them to interact, using different types of formats (text, audio
and video) and integrating different files.
The main purpose of tutorials is the practice of oral skills and enhancing of teamwork.
Tutors use the tool to practice oral skills in situations that simulate real life (debates, role plays
and group discussions).
On the other hand, the project “Open Resources Languages Online (LORO)” of the
Department of Languages had provided a repository of activities to be used by teachers in the
OU in order to facilitate the tutorial task with Elluminate Live. Some of the tutors note that they
both used the activities suggested by teachers and also design their own resources.
It would be interesting to conduct a comparative study between the tool Elluminate
Live and the synchronous communication tool developed by the National Distance Education
University (UNED). This comparative study would highlight the advantages and disadvantages
of both tools and their possibilities in distance education.
Conclusion
Experiences from teachers at The Open University show that the use of Elluminate Live
means paying special attention to the interactive aspects of the teacher-student relationship.
That is, it is necessary to strengthen the participation of students in real-time sessions, to support
collaborative learning styles, together with discussion and group reflection. In short, teachers
need to provide students opportunities for interaction and communication through this tool.
Three basic aspects have been highlighted to be taken into account in the development
of the teaching-learning process through Elluminate Live:
Firstly, the creation of small workgroups that facilitate the development of collaborative
work, in fact, this has been pointed out as the key element in the effectiveness of using this tool.
At the beginning of the online session is recommended to distribute subgroups into separate
rooms where they can work independently from the rest of the class. Later on, the subgroups
will show their work and findings to all the participants of the course.
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140 Secondly, it must be pointed out the need to promote teacher training in using the tool,
from a technical and pedagogical point of view.
Thirdly, the need to prepare online tutorials in advance was brought up by teachers.
In connection with the best conditions under which to use the tool, it is pointed out the
confirmation of the data obtained in the investigations discussed: reduced number of students
by session (between 8 and 10) which are later divided into smaller groups (2/3 students per
group) and selection of a small number of subjects to study, not more than 3 or 4. Some tutors
have recommended to deal with between 1 or 2 activities per session, although this can vary
depending on the objectives of each session and the length of the activity. It might be concluded
that the length of each session should be approximately of 1 hour (maximum one hour), with
a frequency of one or two sessions per month. Nevertheless, it is emphasized the difficulty of
setting a specific number of sessions, as it depends on the needs of each discipline and users
group.
On the other hand, it is interesting to comment the project “Open Resources Languages
Online (LORO)” of the Department of Languages that has provided a repository of activities to
be used by teachers in the OU in order to facilitate the tutorial task with Elluminate Live.
In short, Elluminate Live is an effective complement to other tools offered in online
courses, especially in relation to auditory and visual communication in real time. Teachers and
tutors value the tool as an alternative to traditional class.
It is a useful tool for students with mobility problems and / or for those who live far from
school. It is also highlighted the possibility offered by the tool for the development of skills of
reading, writing, listening and speaking. This allows the teachers to answer questions, students
to practice reading, writing and oral skills and the interaction among participants in a course.
It is possible to conclude that a synchronous communication tool opens new possibilities
for distance education. The experience described by the tutors and teachers stresses the advantages
of the integration of synchronous communication for the teaching-learning process.
It would be interesting to conduct a comparative research between the tool Elluminate
Live and other synchronous communication tools such as the one developed by the National
Distance Education University (UNED). This comparative study could display not only the
advantages and disadvantages of both tools but also their possibilities in distance education.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Steven Hutchinson, Head of Department of Education
of Faculty of Education and Language Studies (FELS) (Open University) for his invitation to
The Open University in order to do a research in virtual courses at university, and also thanks to
Kris Stutchbury, Senior Lecturer in Education of Faculty of Education and Language Studies,
for her support during researching period at the mentioned university.
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Appendix.
Interview protocol: Elluminate Live
First name and surname:

Years of experience as a professor:
Years of experience with the use of ICT in education:
a. Possibilities of the tool and its pedagogical applications

1. Do you think the use of Elluminate Live is an enrichment of the academic program? (Is a facilitator of
learning, provides an educational initiative).
2. What aspects of the Elluminate Live you considered to be enriching the program?
3. What cognitive and behavioral processes are reinforced and/or powered by using this tool?
4. Could you describe the methodology (pedagogy) followed in your online course? How are you using
the tool on the OU?
5. As for the Department of Languages:
• What courses are you using this tool in?
• Which subjects are you using this tool in?
• How often?
6. Could you tell me, in your experience, what are the optimum uses of the tool?
• Number of students (student group size: in small groups or within the class group)
• Number of topics to be discussed
• Number of sessions (per week, month ...) or length of sessions
7. Can it be asserted that the Elluminate Live is effectively complements to other tools offered in online
courses? Why?
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b. Advantages and disadvantages of the tool 143
8. What are the main advantages of the tools (for example, enhances teamwork and study/learning
motivation)?
9. What are the main disadvantages or problems that you face when using the tool?
c. Impact
10. What is the impact of the use of the tool on the quality of teaching in courses where it has been
used?
11. What result do you think it might become from integrating this tool in other studies and / or
universities.
12. If you have not previously responded/answered: what would improve the tool?
13. Would you like to make any further comments?
Sonia M. Santoveña PhD in Education, Lecturer at the department of Didactics, Teaching Organization
Casal and Special Didactics in the UNED’s Faculty of Education, C/ Juan del Rosal, 14,
Dpcho. 234, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
E-mail: ssantovena@edu.uned.es
Website: http://portal.uned.es/portal/page?_pageid=93,1221175&_dad=portal&_
schema=PORTAL
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144
TEACHER CAREERS AND TEACHER
EDUCATION : A BRAZILIAN DILEMMA
Hustana Maria Vargas

Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
E-mail: hustanavargas@gmail.com
Abstract
The professional aspect of teacher education is in the core of a more general context of teachers’ work.
One of the most marking issues of this work’s conditions, as cause and consequence of many problems,
is its insertion in a career framework. At which point of this framework are teaching careers? What
consequences for the teaching work may be anticipated from this relative position of teaching in the
general career framework? Let us examine this situation from the Brazilian viewpoint. To discuss this
subject, a study that deals with career hierarchy in higher education, the socioeconomic profile of
undergraduates of some careers related to teacher formation and the position of these careers in the
Brazilian university context was conducted. Socioeconomic data were obtained from national microdata
of undergraduate students in a time series from 2000 to 2008. The investigation concluded that there is
a strong internal hierarchy among careers in Brazil, revealing its effects in symbolic, intra institutional,
employment, salary, and corporate terms. This scenario has persisted over time, without the entry of new
profiles in teaching careers, traditionally addressed to low-income students.
Key words: careers hierarchy, sociology of education, teacher education.
Introduction
Brazil faces nowadays a double crisis in teacher formation, those of quantitative and
qualitative nature. The quantitative crisis is revealed in all the subjects of basic education since
there is no discipline in which the number of teachers with specific formation – for example,
Mathematics teacher graduated in Mathematics – is equal or superior to the real demand. More-
over, the quality of formation verified in national exams reveals itself insufficient (Ristoff,
2012). The courses of teacher formation have attracted few students and cannot offer a solid
formation to their students. It would be relevant to analyze this problem under the perspective
of the careers.
The professional aspect of teacher education is in the core of a more general context of
teachers’ work. Undoubtedly, one of the most marking aspects of this work’s conditions, as
cause and consequence of many problems, is its insertion in a career framework.
At which point of this framework are teaching careers? What would indicate their level
of professionalization compared to other careers? What consequences for the teaching work
may be anticipated from this relative position of teaching in the general career framework?
Let us examine this situation from the Brazilian viewpoint, trying to compare it with other
realities.
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Professionalization in Brazil: General and Specific Aspects 145
The thematic approach of professions becomes more relevant as modern society proves
professionalized. According to Barbosa (2003), “professionalism may be considered the
modern way to organize social inequalities”. What happens, as stated by the same author, is that
professions become social groups – professional groups – with great capacity to organize social
relations; this capacity starts to influence the world’s structural and hierarchical organization
as a whole1. This arrangement makes professionalization a tool for social mobility, because
“professionalization is the collective project of social mobility that eventually guarantees
monopolies on service provision and certain privileges in the occupational structure” (Bastos,
2004, p. 57). Professional hierarchization is the particular manner to organize these inequalities
(Larson, 1997). Therefore, the existence of a rigid career hierarchy reflects the unequal
conditions surrounding the exercise of occupational privileges and monopolies.
In the Brazilian case, it´s possible to talk about a State constituted by professional groups.
Beyond physicians’ universal and everlasting prestige, the State’s formation and maintenance
may be associated with the support by two groups: lawyers in colonial Brazil; engineers,
indispensable to the movements of industrialization; and again, lawyers, in the transition to the
third millennium, within the judicialization of social relations (Barbosa, 2003 and 1993).
The case of lawyers is illustrative. Although higher education has not occupied the central
position it took in the 19th century in Europe and the United States, university graduates were
decisive actors in the construction of the Brazilian national State. Especially significant is the
contrast between the importance of Brazilian founders, predominantly jurists, and the weight
of the military in the foundation of Ibero-American countries. José Murilo de Carvalho (1980)
evidenced, when studying the political elite of the empire, our legal formation initiated at the
University of Coimbra, making up the first generation of statesmen, as the essential ingredient
of the Brazilian mandarinate. Possibly, there was, from Coimbra to Brazilian law schools, an
internalized process of the constitution and replacement of the mandarin network, efficiently
continued during our whole history. Nowadays we still may observe the predominance of Law
graduates in the Brazilian political administrative representations.
Such a circumstance does not go unnoticed by students. For 80% of university graduating
students in 2009, “undergoing professional education is the main contribution of the course.
That is, students attend higher education in search of a profession” (Ristoff and Sevegnani,
2010, p. 91).
As a result, between 2002 and 2009, the estimated number of people with a university
degree in Brazil according to the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) changed from
6.9 to 12.2 million. It represents a 74.8% increase, what corresponds to almost 750 thousand
new graduating students per year. The highest increase was observed among women; in the
category color, among blacks and mixed-race people.
By career, the highest increase was that among teaching professionals with higher
education degrees. They were 1,076 million in 2002, and changed to 2,096 million in 2009, a
94.7% increase. In total, 80% of these professional taught elementary school. This increase is
explained by the high number of elementary school teachers who graduated in this period. In
2002, there were 2.7 million teaching professionals, 46% of them with a university degree; in
2009, there were 3.7 million, 61% with a university degree.
In that period, income differences due to schooling decreased, but attaining higher
education still means to earn 193% more than average, compared to 173% in 2002. The
advantage of people who have a university degree over those graduated at high school was three
times in 2002, against 2.8 times in 2009 (income of all works by people over 18). Income varies
among the several occupation groups with higher education, but differences in relation to those
1 Social marker of great importance, for example, to presentation rites in society.
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146 with no degree are very significant. The average income earned by teaching professionals with
a university degree is R$ 2,022.00, a difference of 59%. For professionals of the exact sciences
and engineering, it is R$ 4,375.002, a gain of 117% (Schwartzman, 2011).
Even with all those advantages, disparities in the salary return of careers stand out. It
is a matter of concern to us in so far as we worry about the working conditions of education
professionals.
Higher Education, Professionalization, and Careers
As salary differences among careers stand out, there is another related point to be
discussed: higher education is the field of professionalization, par excellence. Professions, in
turn, are divided according to their institutional character, organization, political weight, social
prestige, etc. Each one of them will fall into a corresponding pattern of social, economic and
symbolic profitability.
For that reason, we cannot ignore the fact that the respect achieved by bearers of
university degrees brings internal distinctions, translated into career hierarchy. Taking higher
education as the constituting and safekeeping field of professionalization and profitable titles in
the economic, social and symbolic market, we understand that any investigation about it must
be careful to avoid generalizations. Thus, we did not conceal the selection of courses in our
study; quite the opposite, it is here privileged.
The more or less generalized context of devaluation experienced by teaching-related
careers is a source of worry, because it constitutes cause and effect of a lot of difficulties related
to teacher formation, in a kind of vicious circle. Accordingly, the low perceived status and
the low remuneration rates of these careers, usually lacking professional associations that
may strengthen them, conform to the inadequate job supply for present and future teachers.
Inequality between these and other careers is considerable and extends over time. Many of the
problems experienced in the daily process of teaching education and practice – despondency,
shortage of material and academic resources to complete a course, limited political bargaining
power – originate in this field.
The social effects of these careers’ lowliness have been easily observed in Brazil:
elementary school teachers with a university degree earn less than the average population with
similar instruction level. Considering teachers with no university degree, the salary average is
inferior to that of the total population, according to tables from the 2006 PNAD (Salário, 2008).
Probably related to this fact, we may verify a shortage of almost 250,000 teachers at Brazilian
public schools, taking into consideration the needs of middle and high school in Physics,
Chemistry, Biology and Mathematics (Faltam, 2007). One cannot say that these teachers do not
exist: an unpublished study by the Ministry of Education (MEC) demonstrates that except for
Physics and Chemistry, there are more graduates than necessary to teach all the classes wanting
teachers. The survey claims that there are enough graduate teachers to meet the demand, but
they choose other jobs (Falta, 2007).
This external aspect of discredited careers attained by teacher education programs has a
counterpart inside post-secondary education institutions, where these courses also lack prestige.
Comparing facilities, a number of professors per student, the hours when the courses are
offered, and research grants, there are hierarchical distances among schools within a university.
In a debate about democratization of the campus held by Anísio Teixeira National Institute of
Educational Studies and Researches (INEP), one of the lecturers affirms: “university decision-
makers are internally investing more in courses chosen by the elite. Wise investments, though,
are not made in courses joined by the poor” (Santos, 2010, p. 83). On the other hand, a Chemistry
student of an evening course at Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) stated about that
2 About US $997.88 and US $2,159.11respectively.
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point: “UFMG conceals the fact that there are no serious initiatives for the promotion of social 147
inclusion. In the evening there are no speeches, seminars, courses. Our formation is restricted
to the core curriculum. Libraries are close and I have difficulty in borrowing books. Everything
is much more difficult” (Rede, 2006).
The social composition of the different courses reflects and nurtures this hierarchy. From
the entrance examinations to the exams that reveal the profile of graduating students, what
stands out is the influence of social condition on the distribution of courses and their regular
attendees.
Students’ Socioeconomic Profile, Career, and Professional Destination
Nogueira shows (2005, p. 11) the several aspects of career choice in school trajectories:
“[...] the choice of an undergraduate course may be described as the result of a set of perceptions
(beliefs and values explicitly fostered or tacitly cherished as practical knowledge) that one holds
in relation to himself and the acting environment”. The correlation between “social place” and
individual perception supports the occurrence of self-selection in the choice of an undergraduate
course, joining the objective and subjective dimensions of reality.
In order to face this problem we must ask what kind of profile, in socio-economic
terms, has teaching attracted. May one think of recruitment in close affinity with vocational
perspective? What bargaining power as a professional category would these professionals
have to use in keeping monopoly and privileges that guarantee respect for their career? Which
position inside universities is occupied by teacher education courses in relation to funds,
symbolic expression, and input? To discuss this subject, we conducted a study that deals with
career hierarchy in higher education, the socioeconomic profile of undergraduates of some
careers related to teacher formation, and the position of these careers in the Brazilian university
context. The selected careers were Language and Literature and Mathematics, main subjects in
the life school, and courses that traditionally graduate teachers and reflect two great knowledge
areas, in a time series.
For the purpose of conducting this study, micro data from the “Provão” and ENADE3
(tests for undergraduate students, which evaluate higher education in Brazil) were used in a
time series from 2000 to 2008, the most recent years in which this test takes place. They were
taken by all undergraduates, along with a socio-economic questionnaire.
From that questionnaire we selected some indicators that literature considers advantageous
in the schooling process: color, parents’ titles, school of origin and occupation status (Foracchi,
1997, Martins, 2006, Schwartzman, 2000). The examination of these indicators’ behavior in
each career compared with all the others present at the tests in those years started to guide the
study.
The group of those other careers was named “General”. In 2000, the “General” category
comprised the following courses: Management, Agronomy, Biology, Social Communication,
Law, Economics, Engineering, Physics, Language and Literature, Mathematics, Medicine,
Veterinary Medicine, Dentistry, Psychology, and Chemistry. In 2001, it included all those and
also Pharmacy and Pedagogy. In 2002, Architecture, Accountancy, Nursing and History were
added. In 2003, it had all the previous and Speech and Language Pathology, and Geography.
In 2004 Language and Literature and Mathematics were not evaluated, and in 2005 and 2008
they were evaluated along with Architecture, Computer Science, Biology, Social Science,
Engineering, Philosophy, Physics, Geography, History, Pedagogy and Chemistry.
The evolution of some of these indicators is presented in the following Table, in percent
terms.
3 The test name was changed from Provão to ENADE in 2004. Provided by INEP in CD-ROM on request
or downloaded from the site. The database was set up in SPSS.
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148 Table 1. Economic variables, by career and “General” group – 2000-2008.
School of
Higher Education
origin
Years Groups/Careers White Does not work
Father Mother Private
  General 80.17 30.13 24.34 31.64 43.18
2000 Language/Literature 70.64 9.65 9.95 20.70 20.77
Mathematics 73.19 8.39 8.90 18.77 18.63
  General 77.48 26.74 22.68 30.55 39.69

Mathematics 67.10 8.13 9.30 17.43 20.03
  General 76.10 24.55 21.49 28.48 35.18
Mathematics 64.37 7.68 9.40 18.41 17.70
  General 72.68 24.05 21.95 28.27 35.03

  Mathematics 61.91 7.91 9.92 19.60 17.94
General 70,19 22,29 21,40 25,98 32,89
2005 Language/Literature 60,41 10,53 12,78 18,43 18,85
Mathematics 64,32 9,10 10,88 15,91 15,22
General 68,90 21,56 21,16 24,15 32,64
2008 Language/Literature 55,12 8,56 11,78 16,58 15,87
Mathematics 56,88 6,78 11,22 14,11 13,87
Source: Micro data from Provão and ENADE (drawn by the author)
The selected courses are more socially unfavorable than those of the “General” group.
There are fewer students who are white, have undergraduate parents, do not work, come from
private secondary schools in the teaching careers than in the “General” group. Besides, we
must consider that in each year a group of career goes through the tests. Until 2003, Language/
Literature and Mathematics were inserted in more heterogeneous and elite groups, a fact which
explains the wider detachment among the profiles. In 2005 and 2008, the set of disciplines
evaluated did not include the courses of Medicine and Law, for example, which produced a small
decrease in the socio-economic profile and, therefore, a bigger approach between Language/
Literature and Mathematics with the general profile.
Later, data evolution was examined over time, observing a pattern of stability in all
indicators, not reflecting expressive alterations of socio-economic profile in the courses. It
is important to highlight that the studied years correspond to a moment of higher education
expansion, with increased enrolments, what could have changed the socio-economic profile of
undergraduates in these courses.
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Teacher Education “From the Inside” 149
Would this whole previously described asymmetric situation be reflected inside the
institutions of higher education? This is what we are discussing next. The observed vicious
circle establishes a reality in which the equation terms denouncing inequality are responsible
for nurturing it.
As it is possible to observe, low social prestige and low rates of remuneration in
some careers – lacking representative associations that may strengthen them – conform to
the inadequate job supply for present and future teachers, inside and outside the courses that
prepare them.
One must remember, as a comparison, the situation of careers counting on strong
professional associations: Medicine – the Federal and the Regional Councils of Medicine; Law –
the Brazilian Bar Association; Engineering – the Federal and Regional Councils of Engineering;
Management – the Federal and Regional Councils of Management. These associations may
strengthen their careers at institutional, salary, symbolic, political and market levels. Besides,
courses in these areas may open, close or expand according to what these entities express, what
guarantees restricted access to the profession. For example, according to decree 5773/2006, the
creation of courses of Law or those of Medicine, Dentistry and Psychology must be submitted
to the Federal Council of the Brazilian Bar Association or the National Council of Health.
Accreditation and accreditation renewals, according to the same decree, imply not only the
considerations of these associations, but, under article 37: “in the case of a course corresponding
to a regulated profession, the Secretariat will establish a limit of 60 days for the profession
regulation organ, of national scope, if willing, to offer data for the Ministry of Education’s
decision. Meanwhile, however much active teacher unions are, there is no equivalent action or
existing legal basis in our country.
Another aspect of the problem must be considered, concerning the interior of institutions.
Could we think of an environment, opposite to the professional-corporate and business scenario,
in which the several courses integrated, in equal conditions, inside university? Unfortunately
we do not, and for a historical reason.
Quoting Anísio Teixeira (UFRJ, 2007, p. 12), “because schools were created as isolated
institutions of professional education, they tend to keep, even when integrated at university,
their loyalty towards the school, not towards university”. Then, a poor sense of solidarity among
courses is fostered. Inversely, competition for resources and benefits, and no common identity,
seem to be the historical mark of Brazilian universities. In this case, the law of the jungle
prevails: the more fragile courses are (even the founding courses such as teacher education), the
more fragile they will remain inside institutions.
This point of view is shared by Darcy Ribeiro: “from there comes the structure of these
universities established as federations and professional schools, not only autonomous for their
independence from university, but also, stuck in their isolation, including because of the hostility
among them” (Ribeiro, 1975, p. 39). A seriously contradictory aspect is shown: the system does
not materialize as a university, but uses the socially valued image of the university. Denying this
would mean despising Lessa’s serious advice:
The exercise of self criticism is mandatory; at the same time, the perception of the University
as a non-Euclidian mirror of the Brazilian society (...) University internalizes, enlarges and
sometimes distorts general problems of Brazilian life. The academy reproduces nation’s virtues,
potentials, blemishes, limitations, idiosyncrasies, and vices. We need to stop saying we are good,
misunderstood, and victims of injustice; that our problems come from lack of resources. There is
more than a grain of truth here, however we must admit there is no reason for us to be an island
of happiness (1999, p. 29).
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150 What seems more serious, in this case, comes as a final question: how much of this
inequality is daily nurtured by higher education institutions? How long will the academy hold
inside it so deep inequalities of treatment, investment and care among careers?
It is true that these inequalities will not be overcome except by means of revaluation of
the teaching career at political, symbolic, salary and professional levels.
Final Considerations
This investigation indicates that there is an internal hierarchy among careers in Brazil,
revealing its effects in symbolic, intra institutional, employment, salary, and corporate terms.
This scenario has persisted over time, without the entry of new profiles in teaching careers,
traditionally addressed to low-income students. The study also showed how this profile is still
regarded as inferior compared to those of other careers; it is necessary to bring value back to
teaching careers at political, symbolic, salary and professional levels as a way to break this
vicious circle.
References
Barbosa, M. L. de O. (2003). As profissões no Brasil e sua sociologia. Dados, 46 (3), 593-607. doi:
10.1590/S0011-52582003000300007.
______. (1993). A Sociologia das Profissões: Em Torno da Legitimidade de Um Objeto. Boletim
Informativo Bibliográfico de Ciências Sociais, 36(2), 3-30. Retrieved from http://www.anpocs.
org/portal/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=115&limit=20&limitstart=0&o
rder=name&dir=DESC&Itemid=293.
Bastos, A. P. B. L. (2004). Herdeiros ou sobreviventes: mobilidade social no ensino superior no Rio de
Janeiro. Master’s dissertation. IFICS/UFRJ.
Carvalho, J. M. de (1980). A construção da ordem: a elite política imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Campus.
Falta quem queira ser professor (2007, October 15). O Estado de São Paulo, p. A15. Retrieved from
http://acervo.estadao.com.br/pagina/#!/20071015-41635-nac-15-ger-a16-not.
Faltam 246 mil docentes no nível médio (2007, July 3). O Estado de São Paulo, p. A14. Retrieved from
http://acervo.estadao.com.br/pagina/#!/20070703-41531-nac-14-ger-a15-not.
Foracchi, M. M. (1997). O estudante e a transformação da sociedade brasileira. São Paulo: Companhia
Editora Nacional.
Larson, M. (1997). The rise of professionalism. California: The University of California Press.
Lessa, C. (1999). A universidade e a pós-modernidade: o panorama brasileiro. Dados, 42 (1), 159-188.
doi: 10.1590/S0011-52581999000100008.
Martins, C. B. (2006). Uma reforma necessária. Educação e Sociedade, 27 (96), 1001-1020. Retrieved
from http://www.scielo.br/pdf/es/v27n96/a17v2796.pdf.
Nogueira, C. M. M. (2005). Desafios teóricos na análise sociológica de um momento crucial das trajetórias
escolares: a escolha do curso superior. 29º Encontro anual da ANPOCS. Caxambu.
Rede pública dificulta acesso. (2006, November 26). Estado de Minas, p. 26. Retrieved from http://apple.
estaminas.com.br/data1/2006/semana_48/domingo/gerais/ege2.
Ribeiro, D. (1975). A Universidade Necessária. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra.
Ristoff, D. A tríplice crise da formação de professores. Opinião N4. Grupo Estratégico de Análise da
Educação Superior no Brasil. 2012. Retrieved from http://www.jornaldaciencia.org.br/Detalhe.
jsp?id=84034.
Ristoff, D., Sevegnani, P. (Org.) (2010). Democratização no campus: Brasília, 25 e 26 de outubro de
2010 / Brasília: INEP.
Salário no ensino básico é menor que média do brasileiro (2008, January 19). Folha de São Paulo, p. C1.
Retrieved from http://feeds.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/cotidian/ff1901200829.htm.
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Santos, F. D. (2010). Democratização no campus: Brasília, 25 e 26 de outubro de 2005 / Organização: 151
Dilvo Ristoff e Palmira Sevegnani. – Brasília: INEP.
Schwartzman, S. (2011, September 14). O que fazem nossos bacharéis. [Web log post]. Retrieved from
http://www.schwartzman.org.br/sitesimon/?p=1792&lang=pt-br.
______ (2000). A revolução silenciosa do ensino superior. Retrieved from http://www.schwartzman.org.
br/simon/pdf/nupes2000.pdf.
UFRJ, a universidade do passado, do presente e do futuro. (2007, October 15). Jornal da UFRJ, 7-9.
Advised by Rosaly H. L. Brandão, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Received: September 07, 2012 Accepted: October 18, 2012
Hustana Maria Vargas PhD., Professor and Researcher, Fluminense Federal University, Rua Negrei�
ros Lobato 23 ap. 103, Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
E-mail: hustanavargas@gmail.com
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152
AN EARLY UNDERSTANDING OF
MECHANISM OF RAINFALL: A STUDY
EXAMINING THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
YOUNG MINORITY IMMIGRANT AND
NATIVE-BORN CHILDREN
José Domingo Villarroel
University of The Basque Country, Leioa, Spain
E-mail: txomin.villarroel@ehu.es
Abstract
Preschool and lower grades of primary education (that is, before the age of 8) are a crucial period to
attempt to reduce the educational performance gap between minority immigrant and native-born children.
Regarding the science education field, it is believed that early exposure to scientific explanations on
natural phenomena may positively influence to not only a better comprehension of the surrounding world
but, also, the pupils’ success in grasping subsequent and more formal scientific concepts.
In this respect, little research has been conducted to examine whether the learning process on the subject
of the comprehension of natural phenomena varies significantly in the case of young minority immigrant
children in comparison with the mainstream process covered by native-born children.
In this vein, this study aims to study how 5 to 7 year old children understand the rainfall phenomenon
(N=124) and to examine whether this comprehension differs according to the differences regarding the
socio-cultural background of the children comprised in the sample.
To that end, children’s answers to a semi-open questionnaire and their pictorial representations are
analyzed and socio-cultural perspectives on the human cognitive development are utilized to assign
meaning to the results obtained.
Key words: cognitive development, early understanding, natural phenomena, science education.
Introduction
A growing body of research indicates the significant role that quality science learning
experiences give support to cognitive (Sackes, Trundle & Flevares, 2009; Eshach & Fried, 2005),
social (Ginsburg & Golbeck, 2004; Inan, Trundle & Kantor, 2010) and language development,
especially at early ages (Peterson & French, 2010).
Thus, it is believed that early exposure to scientific phenomena prompts the formation
of deep reservoirs of both verbal and non-verbal information that, eventually, provides the
cognitive foundations for grasping subsequent and more formal scientific learning (Eshach,
2006).
Predictably, making scientific interpretation of natural phenomena accessible to young
children seems to be related not only to a better comprehension of the surrounding world and
natural phenomena but, also, to their success in schooling (Inan et al., 2010). In this sense, an
early and effective link between young children and science-related activities is a recurring
recommendation promoted from the field of science education. (Osborne & Dillon, 2008).
In this regard, atmospheric phenomena, such as precipitations, are fundamental science
related concepts which have been proposed to be introduced in the early stages of the beginning
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José Domingo VILLARROEL. An Early Understanding of Mechanism of Rainfall: A Study Examining the Differences between Young
Minority Immigrant and Native-Born Children
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of their scientific understanding (Cross & Bowden, 2009; Gillespie & Gillespie, 2007; Loxley, 153
Dawes, Nicholls & Dore).
Rainfall is a natural, observable and daily phenomenon that facilitates the connection
between classroom activities and children’s interests, questions and inquiries. Therefore, the
precipitations phenomenon is broadly utilized as a didactic resource in order to introduce
scientific perspectives into elementary science educational levels (Fernández & Rodríguez,
2006).
However, despite being familiar and apparently easily understandable, the fact is that
the understanding of the precipitation phenomenon, far for being an obvious learning process,
requires children to grasp the non-observable mechanisms that underlie the cyclical changes
that water goes through in the environment. Science offers the so-called water-cycle account
(Bennett, 2008) in order to explain what happens to water in the environment which involves
deep notions about physic, biology, chemistry and earth sciences.
So, to understand how science accounts for the mechanisms of rainfall, children need
to deal with abstract elements among which are such concepts as the invisible role of the sun
movement of water in hydrosphere, the function of water reservoirs in nature (clouds, sea,
rivers, atmospheric water…) and the phenomenon of the reversibility of the changes of water
states.
The perspectives related to the domain-general theories on development barely recognize
children’s competence to deal with the above-mentioned abstract science notions. In this light,
young children’s cognitive capacities are too dependent on perception inputs and as a result,
young children’s ability to manage abstract concepts turns out to be more than questionable
(Gelman & Brenneman, 2004).
Nevertheless, research in specific domains of knowledge provide consistent data to
correspond with the idea that early in the development, human beings are able to generate
abstract representations of objects, agents, numbers and causes (Carey, 2009). Accordingly,
human cognitive structures are innately predisposed to move onto specific learning paths and to
actively scrutinize the surrounding environment looking for relevant data (Gelman, 2009).
Bearing in mind these aforementioned thoughts, looking into the explanations used by
young children to make sense of natural phenomena seems to be a relevant research goal.
On the one hand, it is beyond any doubt of the relevant role that atmospheric phenomena,
and specifically, rainfall, have as didactic resources to introduce science to kids in elementary
and primary educational levels (e.g. Ashbrook, 2003; Newton, 2002; Williams, 2008). In this
respect, the more relevant our knowledge is regarding how young children give meaning to
natural phenomena, the better conceptual foundation can be presented for designing educational
proposals.
On the other hand, investigating the explanations given by young children to account
for natural events, such as the precipitation phenomenon, can provide significant data for the
still pending debate between domain specific accounts and domain-general theories regarding
the origin and evolution of the early competence for reasoning about non-obvious concepts
(Christidou & Hatzinikita, 2006). In this vein, a better comprehension about the process of the
understanding of the mechanisms of rainfall, and hence the water cycle itself, will contribute
to more precise knowledge of the process of acquiring scientific thinking skills during early
childhood.
It is also worth noting that the research efforts made during the last decade regarding the
investigation of children’s ideas and accounts related to natural phenomena has been focused
on students in the upper levels of the compulsory educational system (Henriques, 2002; Lewis,
van der Hoeven Kraft, Bueno, Watts, Baker, Wilson & Lang, 2010; Shepardson, Wee, Priddy,
Schellenberger & Harbor, 2009) but little research has been done with regard to young children
in preschool and the lower grades of primary education. In this sense, Christidou and Hatzinikita
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154 (2006) and Sackes, Trundle & Flevares (2009) have conducted the most noteworthy research
regarding how preschoolers assign meaning to the precipitation phenomenon.
In this respect, it has been profusely pointed out the importance that visualizations (that is,
a novel visual presentation of data) may have in the conceptual organizations of information by
the construction of mental models (Rapp, 2005) and specially, in the field of the understanding
of physical world (Buffler, Lubben, Fred & Pillay, 2008).
Additionally, as far as our knowledge extends, there is no research into the learning
process of young children coming from immigrant families on the subject of the comprehension
of natural phenomena and, particularly, regarding the mechanism of precipitation and whether
this learning process differs fundamentally from that shown by native children.
However, this lack of research contrasts with the widely accepted appeal to produce more
extensive investigation in regard to the special needs that children of immigrants may require
in relation to their learning science process (Ginsburg & Golbeck, 2004). Undoubtedly, this is
a significant research line, given that preschool and lower grades of primary education are a
crucial period to assured academic success during later schooling, and, consequently, it ought
to be a critical point in time to reduce the educational performance gap between native-born
and minority immigrant children (Kim, Chang & Kim, 2011; Saçkes, Trundle, Bell, O’Connell,
2011).
Therefore, this research addresses and analyses the comprehension that 5-7 year old
children exteriorize on the topic of the mechanism of rainfall to examine the following two
points:
• Firstly, there is the supposition that, to some extent, young children are able to resort to
some of the non-obvious scientific concepts in order to give meaning to their own explanations
related to the precipitation phenomenon.
• Secondly, whether the usage of scientific notions regarding the mechanisms of
rainwater varies significantly in the case of young minority immigrant children’s explanations
in comparison with those given by native-born children.
The eventual purpose of this research is to contribute to a better understanding of how
young children achieve to understand the basic notions that underlie the science explanations
related to atmospheric phenomena. This goal seems to be desirable in order to have more data
regarding both young children’s skills to manage abstract concepts on natural phenomena and
the differences in the learning process of elementary scientific notions that may be related to
children’s cultural backgrounds. Eventually this complementary data can be utilized for the
design of more accurate educational proposals for science education at elementary levels.
According to the framework presented in this introductory chapter, the following

describes firstly, the characteristic of the sample; then, the procedure used to undertake the
study and, finally, the aspects related to the analysis of data.
Characteristics of the Sample
The sample studied is comprised of 124 young children (61 boys and 63 girls) aged
between 5 and 7. Just over a half of the subjects of the sample (56.8%) were in the final year of
infant education when the investigation was carried out and the remaining individuals were in
the first course of primary education.
The data were collected from 4 pre-school and primary state schools came from two
different towns with more than 4,000 inhabitants belonging to The Basque Autonomous
Community, Spain (Wikipedia, 2011a).
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The authorization to interview the children was obtained from the academic board of each 155
school and the meetings with children were held in the first quarter of 2011 taking place at the
schools during normal classroom hours. The language used was Basque or Spanish according
to the linguistic profile of each school.
Interestingly, 28.2% (N=35) individuals of the sample were minority immigrant children
belonging to families coming from Morocco, Colombia, Ecuador, The Ukraine, Pakistan and a
few Gypsy children. Moreover, native-born children totaled 71.8% of the sample (N=89). All
the children in the sample studied were in the appropriate academic level according to their
age.
Procedure
The procedure used to carry out the investigation was based on individual sessions with
subjects of the sample. During these meetings, which lasted no longer than fifteen minutes,
two major tasks were presented to the children: (a) a semi-structured dialogue led by a set of
interview questions shown in table 1 and (b) a pictorial task
Regarding the semi-structured questionnaire, it is worth noting that a similar series of
questions have been used in other studies on the topic of young children’s understanding of
the precipitation phenomenon (Saçkes, Flevaresa & Trundle, 2010) and they involve the most
relevant concepts regarding the basic understanding of the rainfall mechanism and the water-
cycle process.
Table 1. Questions used to undertake the semi-open questionnaire (Saçkes et

al., 2010).
Questions Objective of the question
Have you ever seen rain? Introductive question
1. What does rainwater consist of? Informative question

2. Where does rain come from? Informative question
3. Where does rain go after it falls? Informative question
4. Sometimes after it rains there are puddles but eventually they disap�
Informative question
pear. What happens to these puddles?
Have you ever seen clouds? Introductive question
5. What do clouds consist of? Informative question
With respect to the pictorial task, children were encouraged to draw items related to
rainfall. To this end, the researcher put sheets of paper and issued pens and pencils but no color
pen was available.
During the drawing task, the interviewer encouraged children to express themselves by
drawing everything connected to rainfall. After the child indicated that his or her drawing was
finished, the researcher and child reviewed the elements of the picture, taking note of their
meaning.
The dialogues with the children were audio-recorded and the transcriptions were linked
with the drawings. Moreover, the children’s educational level, gender and school were collected
with the aforementioned data.
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156 Data Analysis

The answers collected in the semi-open questions were initially examined according
to the procedure suggested in the Saçkes’ work (Saçkes et al., 2010). However, this preliminary
framework came to be exceeded by the range of responses that emerged from the studied
sample and, accordingly, it was necessary to add new categories and occasionally, to re-define
others. Regarding the children’s pictorial productions and water-cycle related elements these
were considered in the analysis of the drawings.
The ultimate version of the code utilized to quantitatively analyze the data collected from
the two tasks proposed in the interviews will be presented in the results section of this paper as
the outcomes of each task are unveiled.
Finally, the quantitative analysis was undertaken by the nonparametric Mann-Whitney
U test (Siegel & Castellan, 1988) for comparison of means and Chi-square tests to analyze the
possible differences between nominal variables. The level of significance used in the study was
p<0.05, and statistical work was done using the SPSS version 18 software.
Results of Research
The results of this research are presented by addressing, firstly, the analysis of the
data associated with the semi-open questionnaire and subsequently, the examination of the
information related to the children’s drawings.
Considering the first question of the verbal survey, the vast majority of the children
interviewed (83%) asserted that rain consists of water. However, very few children (6%)
mentioned other substances, such as sugar, juice or, even, plastic as a constituent of water.
With regard to the question of the origin of rainfall, the children interviewed mostly
ascertained that clouds were the source of precipitation (54.4% of children), but a significant
number of children (41.2%) pointed out that the sky, or simply up above was the place from
where rainwater came.
Moreover, table 2 shows the frequency of the answers found regarding the query to what
happens to rain after falling. In this respect, only 14% of the children gave an explanation as to
what the conclusion to the water-cycle might be (for example: “The sun dries it and waterfall
becomes vapour”; “After falling rainwater goes underground”; “Rain is taken by plants”; “Rain
goes to the sea thanks to rivers”). On the contrary, the majority of the responses (83.3% of the
sample) given were related to situational and urban linked statements (for instance,: “Rain falls
to the ground“; “It goes down“; “It makes puddles”, “Rainfall disappears through the sewer and
then goes to the houses by pipes“; “It falls over the towns”;” It wets the playground”).
Table 2. Relatives frequencies of the answers regarding the question: “Where

does rain go after it falls?” (N=114).
Category Mentioned concepts %
Unknown or unintelligible 1.8

Natural River or plants or sea or dry or underground. 14
Situational Ground or down or puddle 59.6
Urban Pipe, sewer, house, playground, cities 23.7
Disappearing Destroying, disappearance 0.9
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Furthermore, table 3 breaks down the frequency of the responses regarding the children’s 157
explanation about why puddles disappear. Preponderantly, the children of the sample (52.6%)
not only indicated the sun as an agent of the disappearance of puddles but also attempted to
point out the evaporation process by labelling this phenomenon with different names such as
drying or melting (for instance: “the sun makes puddles disappear because it dries water“ or
“Water melts due to the sun”). Additionally, in a significant number of responses the sun was
not mentioned as an agent of the phenomenon of rain but natural processes related to changes
in the rainwater are pointed out. (for example: “Because puddles are dried“; “Because water
changes“; “Because puddles become waterless”) or do not try to identify the process that the
sun causes (for instance: “Because the sun rises“; “Because the sun appears“).
Table 3. Relative frequencies of the answers regarding the question: “Why do

puddles disappear?” (N=114).
Category Mentioned concepts %
Unknown or unintelligible 12.3

The sun & process The sun dries or melts rain. 52.6
The sun w/o process The appearance of the sun. 15.8
The rain changes. Puddles become waterless or are
A process w/o the sun 7.9
dried.
Destroying or disappearance (for example through sew�
Non natural 11.4
ers).
As for the fifth and final issue of semi-open questionnaire which refers to the composition
of clouds, the majority of the answers given referred to different kind of substances such as
cotton, sugar or air (45.5%) and a significant amount of children (31%) admitted that they did
not know what clouds consisted of. However, 23.6% of the answers recorded were linked to
water as a constituent of clouds.
Regarding the study of the answers to the semi-open questionnaire considering the family
origins of the children, it is worth noting that no significant differences were found between
minority immigrant and native-born children.
Moving on to the analysis of the children’s drawings, some examples of the drawings
analyzed are presented in the appendix at the end of the paper). Moreover, table 4 accounts for
the pictorial elements found in the pictures which were linked to water-cycle. This table also
indicates the category assigned to each drawn items.
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158 Table 4. The water-cycle related categories of elements drawn in the pictures of
the sample studied.
Elements drawn Categories

Sun Solar
Clouds, river, sea, lake, vapor and
Water reservoirs
steam.
Water cycle related
Soil, mountains, sky, caves, Geographic
Rainfall, snow, hail, thunder, storms,
Atmospheric
rainbow, wind.
Flowers, grass, trees, leaves. Living beings
In order to facilitate the study of the distribution of this variable, three groups were
defined in relation to the total of water cycle related elements found on each drawing
The range of these sets is presented in table 5 and the corresponding relative frequencies
are separately indicated for minority immigrant and native-born children due to the statistic
differences identified (=8.4, df=2, p< 0.05).
Table 5. Relative frequencies (%) of the drawn elements linked to the water
cycle in each group of children considered according to their family
origins.
Minority immigrant children

Native-born children (N=89) Total
(N= 35)
Between 0 and 2 items 34.3 15.7 21
Between 3 and 5 items 57.1 56.2 56.5
Between 6 and 8 items 8.6 28.1 22.6
More specifically, table 6 provides information regarding the frequency of the utilization
of water reservoirs in the pictures with each group of children surveyed. The indicated differences
are statistically significant (U=1162; p< 0.05).
Table 6. Statistic descriptors for water reservoirs related elements drawn on
each group of children considered according to their family origins.
N Mean SD
Minority immigrant children 35 1.31 0.72
Water reservoir
Native-born children 89 1.73 0.85
Total 124 1.61 0.83
Finally table 7 illustrates the statistically significant differences found (=6.5, df=2, p<
0.05) in regard to the appearance of, at least, one living organism in each picture.
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Table 7. Relative frequencies (%) of the appearance of living organisms each 159
group of children considered according to their family origins.
Minority immigrant children

Native-born children (N=89) Total
(N= 35)
No living beings 65.7 40.4 47.6
One or more living beings 34.3 59.6 52.4
Concerning the remaining water-cycle related categories, the sun was represented in
43.5% of the pictures studied. Furthermore, 33.1% of these pictures presented, at least, one
element belonging to the already mentioned geographic category (soil, mountains and sky)
and, finally, 25% of the drawings presented, at least, one element of this atmospheric category
(rainfall, snow, hail, thunder, storms, rainbow, wind).
As for the study of potential differences between minority immigrant and native-
born children with respect to the frequency of illustrated elements belonging to the sun, and
geographic and atmospheric categories, no significant differences were found in the sample
analyzed.
Discussion
In terms of scientific discourse, rain is considered as one of the types of hydrometeors that
occurs in the atmosphere and is responsible for much of biological, geological, climatological
and also, cultural phenomena (Wikipedia, 2011b). It may be also pointed out as a significant
element of the so-called water-cycle; that is, the most highly structured scientific understanding
regarding the movement of water substance on the Earth (Bennett, 2008).
In terms of educational praxis, the precipitation phenomenon is a widely used didactic
resource so as to introduce elementary scientific notions and to stimulate pupils’ interest towards
characteristically scientific activities such as observation, measurement and the drawing of
conclusions (Fernández & Rodríguez, 2006; Ashbrook, 2003; Newton, 2002; Williams, 2008).
Despite the fact that rainfall is an observable phenomenon, the understanding of its
scientific explanation is far for being evidence of its being learnt. The understanding of even
the most basic form, of some of the non-observable mechanisms that underlie atmospheric
water phenomena, (such as the sun’s role in the movement of water between different reservoirs
or the permanence of water as a substance despite its changes in appearance) requires some
developmental steps that do not seem easily covered, especially by young children (Shepardson,
et al., 2009; Uyen, Payne, Whitley, 2010).
Given the intrinsic cognitive difficulties that characterize scientific concepts, the so-called
domain-general perspectives on development, call into question young children’s competence
to grasp abstract notions (Gelman & Brenneman, 2004; Sloutsky, 2010). However, a growing
body of data collected by research into specific domains of our knowledge suggests that the
early human skills to produce abstract representations of objects, agents, numbers and causes
(Carey, 2009) have to be seriously considered.
In this regard, the data presented above is consistent with the idea that young children are
capable of making representations of non-evident happenings and also are able to incorporate
them into their explanations, in this case, concerning the mechanisms of rainfall.
Regarding the semi-structured dialogue with the subjects of the sample, the third and
fourth questions seem to be milestone points in order to examine children’s competence to
deal with non-evident scientific concepts. In this regard, 14% of the children interviewed used
arguments that, to some extent, were consistent with a scientific point of view regarding the
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160 water-cycle, pointing out that rainwater is taken by plants or it goes to the sea or to rivers or it
becomes vapour. Contrary to answers based on perceptual evidence used by other children (for
instance, rainfall makes puddles or it disappears through or it makes the playground wet), no
simple observable evidence can be found to support the idea that rainwater is taken by plants
or it goes to the sea.
Similarly, half of the sample studied not only mentioned the sun as the agent that causes
the disappearance of puddles but also referred to a specific process involved in this change
(evaporation, drying…). Once again, the link between the sun and the evaporation of rainwater is
not obvious or perceptible (in comparison, for instance, with the evident relationship expressed
in the answers that pointed to a simple disappearance or to the idea that it disappears through
the sewer system).
Concerning the pictures drawn during the second part of the interview, 56,5% of the
depictions examined, illustrated between 3 and 5 elements that matched the components of
the water-cycle; for example, the sun, different water reservoirs (rivers, vapour, the sea, lakes,
clouds…), living beings (plants and animals) or geographic location (mountains, caves, soil,…)
and atmospheric elements (winter, storms, rainfall, snow,…). Moreover, 22.6% of the subjects
of the sample drew more than 6 the aforementioned elements related to the water-cycle.
Currently a well established body of research gives an account of the capacities that
young children display in order to manage such abstract and non-obvious notions such as
spatial intelligence (Newcombe & Frick 2010), numerical understanding (Villarroel et al.,
2011), probabilistic thinking (Gonzalez & Girotto, 2011), causal reasoning (Cook, Goodman,
Schulz, 2011) and timing capacities (Busby & Suddendorf, 2009).
Nevertheless, little research has been carried out regarding the understanding of the non-
evident scientific concepts which are required to grasp the scientific explanations on natural
phenomena (Saçkes, et al., 2010). In this sense, the results presented in this study show that a
significant number of children included in the sample studied use non-obvious notions when
verbally trying to get across their understanding of events related to the crucial aspects of
the mechanisms of rainfall. Similarly, their pictorial representations of the elements that they
consider to be related to rainfall, more often than not, include representative elements of the
water cycle.
Conclusions
Generally speaking, the presented results may support the thought-provoking

consideration that there is no reason to keep young children away from the essential core of the
abstract explanations that science uses to assign meaning to natural phenomena, in the case of
using appropriate instructional interventions.
Moving on to the analysis of the potential differences between the young minority
immigrant children and the native-born children comprised in the sample, both groups of children
seem to perform similarly regarding the oral explanations about the rainfall phenomenon.
However, regarding the study of the pictures presented, the minority immigrant children were
less likely to draw water-cycle related elements in their pictorial representations, given that
only 65.7% of the children whose parents do not belong to mainstream culture drew 3 or more
water-cycle related elements, in comparison with the figure of 84.3% achieved by native-born
children.
These differences also turn out to be significant regarding two of the most characteristic
elements belonging to the scientific understanding of water cycle: the presence of different
water reservoirs through which water substance moves (rivers, sea, lakes, steam, clouds,
vapor…) and the role of living beings (plants, grass, trees, animals,…). In this regard, it may
be significant to highlight that daily life may barely provide children with enough observable
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experiences through which they can make a connection between water and water reservoirs. 161
Likewise, the relationship that living beings have with rainfall is not easy to conclude based on
experiences in the environment (in fact, some aspects of this relationship involves even more
complex concepts such as what happens in the case of the evapotranspiration or on the issue of
the mutual influence between forest and rainfall).
Children’s pictorial productions are considered a very useful technique for exploring
very young children’s ideas. On the one hand, drawings are believed to be a mirror image of
a child’s representational development (Cherney, Seiwert, Dickey, & Flichtbeil, 2006; Kress,
Jewitt, Ogborn & Tsatsarelis, 2001). On the other hand, drawing activities prevent children from
reproducing conventional answers (Rennie & Jarvis, 1995) and encourage them to exteriorize
their thoughts even in the case of kids who have communicational difficulties (Holliday,
Harrison & McLeod, 2009).
As a result, the significant differences found between young minority immigrant and
native-born children with respect to their pictorial representations may be interpreted in terms
of different levels of an in-depth understanding of the rainfall phenomenon. Consequently, it
seems to be reasonable to consider that native-born children of the sample analyzed, exteriorize a
more accurate comprehension of the rainfall event, in comparison with their other classmates.
Nevertheless, according to the aforementioned differences the lack of dissimilarities
found regarding the oral explanations given by children in the semi-open questions remains as
a challenging fact to be explained. In this respect, it has been pointed out that during the early
emergence of abstract concepts learners find in the communication exchanges the essential
support to conduct the verbal usage of new non-obvious concepts by virtue of linguistic
routines (Sfard, 2000a, 2000b). These early stages, known as linguistic template-driven phase,
does not guarantee a deep understanding of the abstract concepts but only serves as a linguistic
scaffolding to use the concepts that, eventually, can sustain the emergence of an in-depth sense
of the concepts.
In light of this socio-cultural perspective that underlines social interaction and language
as catalysts of learning, the mentioned similarity between the two groups of children studied
as regard their oral explanations and the corresponding differences concerning the pictorial
representations may be understood as a consequence of differences in the learning process. In
this respect, it may be pointed out that while the subjects belonging to both groups analysed
seem to have achieved a similar level of linguistic practice of non-evident concepts to explain
the rainfall phenomenon (and consequently, all the children seem to have achieved a similar
linguistic template-driven phase on the subject of the mechanism of rainwater), only the native-
born children, as a whole, seem to have interiorized a deeper understanding of these notions,
which may cause differences in the pictorial expressions.
Nonetheless, it is necessary to carry out further research to confirm the validity of
socio-cultural standpoints in order to better understand how young children give meaning to
the notions that science gives us about the rainfall phenomenon by means of the water-cycle
account. In this vein, it is required to set up additional investigations with larger samples of
young children but, more importantly, it seems to be necessary to study more exhaustively how
young children carry out the appropriation process of scientific perspectives on a broader range
of natural phenomena, an undoubtedly interesting research line which has been little developed
so far.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Malcolm A. Cook for language supervision of the article
and the following educational centres for their collaboration: Gorlizko Ikastexea, from Gorliz,
Aranbizkarra Ikastola, from Vitoria-Gasteiz; Landazuri Ikastola, from Vitoria-Gasteiz and Sta.
María de Vitoria Ikastola, from Vitoria-Gasteiz.
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164 Appendix
Received: October 03, 2012 Accepted: November 02, 2012
José Domingo Villarroel PhD., Lecturer at the University of The Basque Country, University College of
Teacher Training in Bilbao, Barrio Sarriena s/n. Campus of Biscay, Spain.
E-mail: txomin.villarroel@ehu.es
Website: http://www.ehu.es
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COST AND BENEFITS OF RUNNING A 165
TEA-BASED FARMER FIELD SCHOOL IN

KENYA
Stephen Wambugu Maina

Ministry of Agriculture, Nakuru, Kenya
E-mail: stephen67maina@yahoo.com
John Gowland-Mwangi
Egerton University, Egerton, Kenya
Email: mwangijg5@yahoo.com, dvcre@egerton.ac.ke
Dave Boselie
Learning and Innovation, IDH, The Sustainability Initiative Utrecht, The Netherlands
Email: Boselie@idhsustainabletrade.com
Abstract
The Kenya Tea Development Agency (KTDA), through its extension workers, has been educating tea
producers on good agricultural practices using Farmer Field Schools (FFS). Information on training
cost and benefits of running a tea-based FFS in Kenya were not readily available. Such information
would enable tea stakeholders to develop a strategy for up-scaling FFS. This study sought to determine
and describe the cost and benefits of running a tea-based FFS among small-scale farmers in the Rift
Valley. The study used a Cross-Sectional research design to collect data from 514 small-scale tea growers
drawn randomly from KTDA factories. A questionnaire with a reliability coefficient of 0.92α was used
after validation by extension experts. Face-to-Face interviews and a stakeholders’ workshop were used
for triangulation purposes. Data were analyzed qualitatively and reported using descriptive statistics.
The results indicated that training a farmer in a tea-based FFS in a year costs Ksh 6,076/= (US$71). The
training gave farmers skills to improve their tea husbandry, yields, level of empowerment and leadership
skills. The researchers concluded that training tea farmers in FFSs was cheap, sustainable and effective
in changing their behavior. Stakeholders in the tea-value chain should increase funding and use of FFS
in training tea farmers.
Key words: benefits, cost, farmer field schools, good agricultural practices, Kenya Tea Development
Agency.
Introduction
Agriculture is the backbone of Kenya’s economy contributing 26% directly and another
25% indirectly of the GDP, accounting for 65% of Kenya’s total exports and provides more
than 18% of formal employment (Government of Kenya, 2010). Tea is a key foreign exchange
earner and in 2009, the value of tea exports was Kenya shillings 69/= (US$ 0.86) billion
(Government of Kenya, 2011; Mugambi, 2010; Odhiambo, 2010). Kenya is the World’s third
largest tea producer and the world’s largest exporter of black tea with approximately 110,000
hectares of land under tea that is world famous for its brightness, attractive color, brisk, flavor
and texture (Maina et al., 2012a; Mutai, 2011). Kenya Tea Development Agency (KTDA) is the
second largest exporter of black tea in the world and is responsible for 62% of all tea produced
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166 in Kenya (Braga, Lonescu-Somer, Seifert, 2011). Since 2006, KTDA extension workers have
been using Farmer Field Schools (FFSs) to educate its smallholder tea producers in soft and
technical skills (Campbell, 2010; Maina et al., 2012b; Odhiambo, 2010). Farmer Field School
popularly known as “informal” or “school without walls” is a community-based, capacity
building, learning by doing extension model or system that uses adult education principles in
farmers’ groups (Akinnagbe & Ajayi, 2010). This group-based experiential learning encourages
farmers (normally in groups of 20-30) to learn improved technologies and farming practices
through observation (Hartl, 2009; Mwangi, Oloo & Maina 2010). The experiential learning
approach and empowerment - that refers to the development of skills so that individuals can
make informed choices in their lives - make FFS a popular training method for farmers and
provides an up-scaling model for knowledge empowerment (Dzeco, Amilai & Cristóvão, 2010;
Stigter, 2010). The FFS can be an effective methodology for building trainers’ capacity and
changing their attitudes (Maina et al., 2012a).
Problem of Research
The Kenya Tea Development Agency (KTDA) extension workers have been training
small-scale tea (Camellia sinensis) producers through various extension methodologies to adopt
good agricultural practices (GAPs). Tea growers’ adoption of GAPs through the conventional
method of extension has been slow. The KTDA extension workers from the year 2006 started
educating tea producers on good agricultural practices using the FFS approach. Most FFS
initiatives got financial support from KTDA tea factories but were expected to be self-sustaining
as the FFSs are up-scaled to reach 560,000 tea producers. However, information on the cost
and benefits of running a tea - based FFS were not readily available. This study sought to
provide the missing information in order to assist tea stakeholders’ to mobilize enough training
resources for the up-scaling of FFSs.
Research Focus
Limited education, knowledge transfer and adoption by farmers of improved technologies

are largely responsible for reduced farm productivity, farmers’ inability to generate income,
poverty and food insecurity (Kilimo Trust, 2010; Maina, Mwangi, Boselie, Onduru & Buses,
2012a). The KTDA factories have used FFS since 2006 to train farmers in sustainable tea
production and aim to reach 560,000 tea producers using this methodology (Braga, Lonescu-
Somer & Seifert, 2011; Hiller, Onduru, & Jager, 2009). This flexible, participant-led learning
facilitates their demand for knowledge and enables them to choose, test and adapt useful
technologies based on their needs (Mwangi, Oloo & Maina, 2010). The FFS provides a forum
for participant-led learning, flexible interactions and integration of different types of knowledge.
The FFSs may be expensive or low-cost depending on who implements them and how they are
conducted but costs per FFS decline as activities become routine, prices become lower due to
bulk purchase of materials, and trainer and facilitator skills and experience increase (Braun
& Duveskog, 2010; Maina et al., 2012b). The costs of up-scaling FFSs include expenses for
training extension workers and for buying inputs for running FFS. It is possible to up-scale the
FFS system to many farmers by deploying FFS-trained farmers to train other farmers (Bunyatta
et al., 2006). The FFS graduates are selected and appointed as FFS farmer facilitators that carry
the knowledge gained in FFSs as farmer facilitators to new FFS groups in the community.
Tea smallholder farmers can also be trained through demonstrations in field day that lasts for
one to several days and normally attended by several hundred farmers. Field days’ costs are
related to the opportunity cost of the trainers’ time, transportation of experts to the field day and
participants’ food, refreshments and time (Ricker-Gilbert, 2005). Other field day costs include
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those related to presentation stage (dais) and publicity banners (Ricker-Gilbert, 2005). Tea 167
farmers can also be trained through farm visits. A farm visit uses the training and visit (T&V)
extension approach. The T&V system is a technology transfer extension model that was used
in the mid -1970s to mid -1990s, by 70 countries in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (Swanson &
Rajalahti, 2010; Wani, 2008). In the approach, tea extension agents (TESAs) living in KTDA
factories and farmers’ neighborhoods visited local tea farmers individually and passed “proven
tea practices” (recommendations) from tea research centers to contact farmers (Maina et al.,
2012b; Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010; Wani, 2008). Farmers also incurred an opportunity cost for
the time spent in training.
Farmers who joined FFS benefited from income generating activities, enjoyed benefits
accruing from FFS activities, networking, social capital and facilitators’ expertise (Wanyama,
Mose, Mutoko, Wanyonyi, Nyambati, Wanjekeche & Rono, 2007). Participation in FFSs
made farmers more efficient and self-reliant managers of their scarce agricultural resources.
FFSs gave farmers practical knowledge and skills to work more effectively (Muller, Guenat &
Fromm, 2010). Being an agricultural extension model, the FFS plays a key role in raising farm
productivity by being a means for offering technical advice, helping farmers identify problems
and opportunities, sharing information and supporting group formation (Asian Productivity
Organization, 2006). Using the FFS for training groups of farmers can lead to sustainability of
the groups because it allows the groups to build sustainable human and social capital, which
include collective marketing of produce, and lobbying through farmer networks and savings
groups (Davis, Nkonya, Mekonnen, Odedo, Miiro & Nkuba, 2010). Acquisition of knowledge,
better attitudes and skills for problem-solving empower FFS-participating farmers while
professionally-trained facilitators make farmers feel confident to share their knowledge, skills
and experiences (Davis, et al., 2010).
Several concepts drawn from non-formal adult education concepts are relevant to the
FFS approach. This study looks at the FFS approach adapted to suit studies on tea, tea-related
technologies and the environment under which tea is grown in Kenya. The FFs learning approach
is informed by a combination of concepts and theories (FAO, 2011). These theories include the
Constructivist theory, Haberman’s critical theory, Knowles concept of adult education, Kolbs
learning cycle of experiential learning, Carl Rogers’ work on learner-centered approaches,
Action learning theory, Mezirow’s transformative learning theory, Stimulus-response theory,
Cognitive theory and Motivation and Personality theory. Transformative learning theory, which
is based on the assumption that adult learners are active with significant life experience that can
enable them construct meaning of what happens in their lives, is the most established theory of
adult learning (De Jager et al., 2009; Friis-Hansen, Duveskog, & Taylor, 2012).
A Cross-Sectional Survey Design, which is the scientific method for collecting and
analyzing data gathered from two or more samples at one point in time (Mosby’s Dental
Dictionary, 2008) was used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data from smallholder tea
producers. To help ensure an accurate and comprehensive investigation, Face-to-face interviews,
document analysis, record reviews, site visits, observation, living the system and a stakeholders’
workshop were carried out. The study was undertaken in 25 KTDA factories located East and
West of Kenya’s Rift Valley, which divides the country right in the middle between East and
West. Data was collected from KTDA factories in Embu, Meru, Kiambu, Murang’a, Kirinyaga
and Nyeri counties in the East while those in the West are in Kericho, Bomet, Vihiga, Nandi,
Mt Elgon, Nyamira and Kisii counties. These areas have tea as a major economic activity, most
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168 of the tea growers were small-scale farmers that delivered their tea to KTDA factories, Farmers
Field School were being used as a training methodology, and the locations enabled to capture
agro-ecological, ethnical, social-cultural diversity that characterized the tea growing areas in
Kenya.
Sample of Research
The target population for this study was all KTDA smallholder tea producers totaling
560,000. A two-stage random sampling technique based on factories and Farmers Field School
was used to sample 514 tea growers. A random sample of 25 KTDA factories was selected. A
total of 20 FFSs members per factory were randomly selected purposively from FFS groups.
A two-stage random sampling provided greater precision, guard against an unrepresentative
sample and is less costly (Kothari, 2008). Data was collected from all FFS’s’ experts and KTDA
extension agents in the target area from randomly selected representatives of FFS participants
and tea stakeholders.
A questionnaire containing closed-ended and open-ended items and two check-lists

developed by the researchers was used to collect data from FFS-trained tea growers, FFS
facilitators, farmers delivering tea to the 25 selected factories and from stakeholders from
KTDA, Rainforest Alliance, Partner Africa, ETC East Africa, Ministry of Agriculture, Egerton
University and LEI, part of Wageningen UR. Validity was ascertained by a panel of extension
experts while a pilot test involving 30 farmers in Nandi County indicated the questionnaire’s
reliability coefficient of α=0.92 which was above the threshold for acceptable reliability of
α=0.70, with the significance level set a priori at p < 0.05. A research permit was obtained
from the Kenya National Council for Science and Technology. The researchers – through
a preliminary survey identified experts in FFSs and stakeholders along the tea value chain
with whom they worked out logistics for data collection. Tea producers in the selected sample
assisted the researchers to define the FFS costs and benefits. Document analysis and Face-
to-Face interviews were used to obtain the relevant information based on the objectives of
the study. To make data collection easier, faster and more efficient, logistics for Face-to-Face
interviews were worked out with stakeholders prior to the actual data collection. Follow-up
interviews were conducted to increase the response rate.
Data Analysis

Data were analyzed qualitatively and reported using descriptive statistics. It was
expressed in charts and tables. Descriptive statistics were used to calculate the costs.
Results of Research
On average the farmers interviewed had been active members of a tea-based FFS for
11.67 months (standard deviation: 13.01; mode: 12 months) while the longest period that they
had been active FFS members was 79 months. Most of the FFS registered by the Ministry of
Culture and Social Services had 30 members; the average was 28 and the maximum of 44. The
number of active FFS members was 21, standard deviation of 8.31, mode of 30 and maximum
of 35 members. The mean earnings for a smallholder farmer was three hundred (300/=) Kenya
shillings per day, standard deviation of 365.05, mode of 200/= and maximum of 3,750/=. The
mean number of hours worked per day was 7, standard deviation of 2.49, mode of 8 hours and
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a maximum of 12 hours. It was observed that an FFS usually started with at least 30 members 169
but this number gradually decreased to an average of about 21 members. This decrease was
due to reasons such as unfulfilled expectations, poor FFS leadership, and engagement in more
rewarding opportunities or changing priorities. It was also noted that farmers whose FFS was
registered were able to access credit facilities from the government and were able to benefit
from being linked to groups having similar interests and activities as well as to groups that
offered training opportunities.
The cost of setting up and running a Farmer Field School varies depending on the
enterprise and the cost of facilitators and the materials required for training. Table1 indicates
the cost of conducting a tea-based FFS in Kenya for 12 months based on the 2011 prices as
derived from KTDA field staff and smallholder farmer respondents. In the study area, the
average cost of hiring a venue per year was Kenya shillings 17,100/=. Money was also spent to
buy stationery (e.g., a flip charts was bought 400/= Kenya shillings, exercise books at 675/=,
pens at 675/=, file folder at 675/=, felt pens at 180/=) and a flip chart tri-pond stand for Kenya
shillings 600/=. In order to run an FFS effectively, one needs to build the capacity of staff
or to engage competent/ qualified trainers. Their remuneration would depend on their level
of formal education, experience, seniority and whether they are from the public or private
sector. The FFS facilitators who are farmers earned less than well trained FFS facilitators from
extension, research or other specialists. Although KTDA tea factories had no obligation to pay
the salaries of such facilitators, they gave a facilitation allowance. KTDA factories gave FFS
farmer-trainers a facilitation fee of 500/= per session and non-farmer trainers a facilitation fee
of 1,000/=. The respondents proposed that a trainer from a research institution should be given
a facilitation fee of 3,337/=, an extension agent 1,689/= and a farmer facilitator 1,310/=. The
FFS participants took some refreshments anytime they met for training costing 1733/= per
session and spent 2,639/= to buy fertilizer for the demonstration plot. They also used 558/= to
buy pruning saws, 487/= to buy watering cans, and 450/= to compensate the host farmer for
offering the 90 tea bushes used by FFS members for field experiments, 3,000/= for tea and
snacks during meetings organized at the KTDA factories and 20,000/= for visiting and training
in a research station. Most KTDA factories spent an average of 182,290/= to run a Farmer Field
school per year, which translates to 6,076/= or US$71 (182,290/= divided by 30 FFS members)
per farmer per year. In the opinion of most FFS members, this amount was inadequate and
should be increased. They proposed an FFS budget of 231,746/=. This translates to 7,725/=
(US$91/= at an exchange rate of US$1=Ksh85/=) per farmer per year (231,746/= divided by
30 FFS members).
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170 Table 1. Cost in Kenya shillings of conducting a Farmer Field School for 12
months (N=514).
Item Proposed by farmers Spent by a KTDA factory

Total Total
Unit cost No Unit cost No
cost cost
Hiring a venue 1,125 24 27,000 300 24 7,200
Flip chart 400 1 400 400 1 400
Exercise books 30 30 900 15 30 450
Pen 30 30 900 15 30 450
File Folder 30 30 900 15 30 450
3 felt pens 180 1 180 180 1 180
Flip chard/ tripod stand 600 1 600 600 1 600
Paying researcher-led facilitator 3,337 4 13,340 1,000 4 4,000
Paying extension-led facilitators 1,689 24 40,536 1,000 24 24,000
Paying farmer-led Facilitator 1,310 3 3,930 500 3 1,500
Estimated cost of refreshment 1,733 24 41,592 1,733 24 41,592

Fertilizer, 2,639 1 2,639 2,639 1 2,639
Pruning saws 558 5 2,790 558 5 2,790
Watering cans 487 5 2,435 487 5 2,435
FFS members tour costs to the factory 20,000 1 20,000 20,000 1 20,000
FFS members tour to a research station 20,000 1 20,000 20,000 1 20,000
Compensation for 90 tea bushes x 5
18,000 18,000
groups x 1kg/bush/year 450 40 450 40
Hospitality costs (tea & snack) 3,000 2 6,000 3,000 2 6,000
Cost incurred by the TESA’s when train�
29,604 29,604
ing in FFS. 2,467 12 2,467 12
Total costs 182,290

231,746
NB: The current level of KTDA financial support for the FFS facilitators is inadequate and might not attract the quality
and commitment of the qualified professionals required.
The KTDA Tea Extension Service Assistant (TESA) who trains tea farmers in an FFS,
visits 30 farmers in the FFS group for two monthly sessions of two hours each. The TESA’s
opportunity cost in terms of the time spent in the training is based on the TESA’s monthly salary
and 8 hours’ work per day. This comes to Kenya shillings 467/=, which is obtained by dividing
a monthly salary of 28,000/= by 30 days by 8 hours times 4 hours. The TESA gets 1,000/= for
training in an FFS per day (500/= for travel and 500/= for lunch), which comes to 2,000/= for
the two monthly training sessions. Since a tea-based FFS has 30 members, the combined cost
of training them would be Kenya shillings 2,467/= (467 + 2000) or 82/= Kenya shillings per
farmer (2467/= divide by 30 farmers).
Although the FFS learning takes an average of only two hours, participants spend more
time preparing to attend and adjusting to do other things after the FFS session is over. The exact
time that farmers spend before and after the training varied from farmer to farmer. Although
this time is often not taken into account in calculating the cost of a tea-based FFS, it must be
considered calculating the farmers’ opportunity cost. Because most FFS members did not keep
time, the FFS sessions often started later than scheduled and tended to take longer than planned,
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which means using the two hours to calculate the cost of farmers’ time at the FFS are just a 171
minimum. The FFS session often took longer and members coped by extending the session.
They sometimes spend the whole morning or afternoon in FFS trainings but on average they
spent three hours attending the FFS. This opportunity cost of the farmer’s time in FFS could
be used for income generating. For a farmer who earns 300/= per day and spends three hours
attending an FFS, he would have to forgo an income of Kenya shillings 225/= (i.e. 300/= divide
by 8 hours per day time 3 hours per session times 2 sessions per month). When a farmer’s
opportunity cost of attending an FFS (Kshs 225/=) is added to the cost of a TESA training a
farmer in the FFS (82/=), the total cost per farmers was Kenya shillings 307/= or US$3.6, where
US$1=Kshs 85/=.
While calculating the cost of a field day organized by KTDA to train farmers on tea, the
researchers considered the cost incurred by six TESAs to administer the field day based on a
TESA’s monthly pay of 28,000/=, the TESA’s transport expenses to the field day, participants’
cost of food and refreshments, and participants’ opportunity cost for attending the field day. Six
field days, each lasting a full day, were being conducted every year in all the 6 electoral areas.
The monthly cost of conducting a field day is 28,000/= divide by 30 days times six TESAs is
equals 5,600/= (US$65.88) that trains 400 farmers. The cost of hiring trainers (usually six per
field day) to conduct a mini tea-based field day per farmer is Ksh 14/= or US$0.16 (Ksh 5600/=
divide by 400 farmers). The cost of conducting a major tea-based field day (attended by 800
farmers) is Ksh 14/= divide by 2, which is equal to 7/= or US$0.08. KTDA spends 20,000/=
per mini field day and 120,000/= for a major field day to cater for refreshments and transport.
The amount spent per field day per farmer is equals to (20,000/= divide by 400 farmers and
120,000 divide by 800 farmers farmers) 50/= and 150/= respectively. Framers’ opportunity cost
of attending a field day, based on a farmer’s pay per day, was 300/=. The total cost of educating
a tea farmer in a mini field day therefore was 364/= or US$4.28 (14/= plus 50/= plus 300/=).
The total cost of educating a tea farmer in a major field day therefore was 457/= or US$5.38
(7/= plus 150/= plus 300/=).
While calculating the cost of training a tea farmer through a farm visit, a KTDA TESA
is required to visit 100 farmers per month. The TESA’s opportunity cost of making a visit to
a farmer’s farm is calculated on the basis of the TESA’s monthly salary of 28,000/= Kenya
shillings. Assuming he can train 100 farmers (4 farmers per day for 25 days) in one month about
tea, his opportunity cost would be equal to 280/= (28,000/= divided by 100 farmers). The TESA
receives 500/= per day for travel and 500/= for lunch in each of the 25 daily visits to farmers
per month. The cost would be (500 + 500) x 25 days) or 25,000/= per month divided by 100
farmers equals a cost of 250/= (25,000/= divided by 100 farmers). In calculating the exact cost
of a farm visit, one must consider the cost incurred by the extension agent and the opportunity
cost that a farmer forgoes in order to welcome and receive training from the extension agent.
The farmer’s opportunity cost of participating in a training session on the farm was calculated
on the basis of his or her average daily earning of 300/=, which covers eight working hours per
day. The farm visit lasts an average of two hours which translates to a farmer’s opportunity cost
of 75/= (2hrs divided by 8hrs x 300/=). When the farmer’s opportunity cost (75/=) is added to
a TESA’s two hours’ pay (280/=) and transport cost (250/=) it becomes 605/= (US$7.1), which
is then the total cost of a two hours’ field visit.
Smallholder farmers in this study (Figure 1) benefited from participating in the FFS
through empowerment in sustainable farming, better tea husbandry, improved yields, social
capital benefits and leadership skills.
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172
Figure 1: Farmers’ benefits of participating in Farmer Field School trainings.
Over 84% of the smallholders recorded a good-to-excellent increase in yields and

reduced tea plucking interval after training in FFSs’, 78% observed good-to-excellent change
in improved public health, 76% observed a good-to-excellent increase in empowerment and
increased savings while 62% observed increased ability to fund own activities (Table 2).
However, 58% of the smallholders’ ability to pay facilitators’ costs remained poor, 33% of
their ability to acquire affordable credit was poor, 31% of their ability to lobby through farmer
networks (e.g. for better tea prices) was unchanged, 30% of their ability to pay operational costs
did not improve, 27% of the smallholders said their chances for membership to a federation was
poor. Twenty five percent were yet to market their farm produce as a group and 24% were yet to
access linkages and networking with other groups. This lack of progress was probably because
many FFS groups were still in the early stages of their curriculum and were yet to observe real
changes in their livelihood.
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Table 2. Farmers’ observed changes in livelihood after training in a Farmer Field 173
School (N=514).
Discussion
Most KTDA factories spent an average of 182,290/= to run an FFS per year, which
translates to 6,076/= (US$71) per farmer per year. This amount, in the opinion of most FFS
members, was inadequate and should be increased. They proposed an FFS budget of 231,746/=,
which translates to 7,725/= (US$91/=) per farmer per year. This cost is reasonable compared to
Barbut (2011) who indicated the costs of establishing a new FFS to be $800 and that of training
a new FFS facilitator as $1350. Van den Berg and Jiggins (2007) estimated the costs running
a FFS in Indonesia and the Philippines as US$62 and US$48 per participant, respectively.
According to Gallagher (2003), the cost of conducting a season-long field school for 25 farmers
range from $150 to $1,000 depending on the country and the organization. Braun, Thiele and
Fernández (2000) gave the average cost of a field school facilitated by a professional extension
worker as US$532. According to Braun and Duveskog (2010), FFSs can be expensive or
low-cost depending on implementer and how they are conducted but costs per FFS decline as
activities become routine, prices become lower due to bulk purchase of materials, and trainer
and facilitator skills and experience increase. The results contradict the findings of Rusike et
al., (2004), and that of Swanson and Rajalahti (2010) who considered FFSs as more costly to
implement, labor-intensive extension model that reaches a small number of interested farmers.
The findings of the study confirm that group extension methods are cheaper than
individual extension methods in the training of tea farmers. Among the three methods considered,
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174 FFS was the cheapest (US$3.6 per farmer) followed by field days (US$4.28 for a mini field
day and US$5.38 for a major field day) and farm visits (US$7.1 per farmer), which were the
most expensive. The research findings showed that the cost of running a tea-based FFS was
cheaper compared to that of a field day and farm visit. These results contradicts the findings
of Bunyatta, Mureithi, Onyango and Ngesa, (2006) who noted that high training costs take up
a large portion of the FFS recurrent budget. While comparing the FFS approach with the farm
visit in Zanzibar, Endalew (2009) noted that FFSs have many promising attributes which gives
it much higher chances of effectiveness as an extension methodology in Sub-Saharan African
than farm visits. According to him and in the opinion of most FFS members, FFS graduates
accrue additional, difficult-to-quantify, benefits which can be difficult to quantify in monetary
forms such as gaining superior leadership skills and become more cohesive as a group than non-
FFS farmers. Rusike et al. (2004) concurs that FFS trainings provided more opportunities for
experimentation and collective learning-by-doing that improves farmers’ understanding of new
technologies, their capacity to effectively use the technologies and to make better decisions, and
improves adoption rates. International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (2010), suggested that
FFSs can be a cost - effective way of increasing farmers’ skills. Smallholder farmer derived a
lot of benefits from participating in the FFS through empowerment, group cohesion and gaining
superior leadership skills in sustainable farming, better tea husbandry, improved yields, social
capital benefits and leadership skills. FFS-trained farmers benefited from increased tea yields,
improved farmer empowerment and health as well as increased savings and improved self-
reliance.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, the researchers concluded that training tea farmers
in FFS was cheaper and more effective in bringing behavioral change related to adoption of
agricultural technologies compared to field days and farm visits. They also concluded that
FFSs provided farmers many learning opportunities and could be up-scaled in a sustainable
manner because they involved farmers in decision making and in contributing the resources
required for training. The researchers further concluded that smallholder tea farmers trained
in FFS benefited from better tea husbandry, reduced plucking interval, improved tea yields,
increased empowerment and enhanced leadership skills. The researchers recommended that tea
stakeholders such as Kenya Tea Development Agency, The Sustainable Trade Initiative, and
the Kingdom of Netherlands Embassy, among others, should continue using FFS in the training
of tea farmers. They should also invest more in the development of more FFS and should
encourage other development partners particularly in the private sector such as tea buyers,
NGOs and willing sponsors to financially support the current initiative of up-scaling tea-based
FFSs.
Acknowledgements
We would like to pass our sincere gratitude to staff at ETC-East Africa and the
Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Kenya for awarding us the research funds and
to fellow colleagues at the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension, the Dean of
the Faculty of Education and Community Studies; and the Director of Graduate School of
Egerton University for ascertaining the questionnaire’s content validity, and to all smallholder
tea farmers and all KTDA field extension officers involved in the study for their support.
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Wanyama, J. M., Mose, L. O., Mutoko, C. M., Wanyonyi, M., Nyambati, E., Wanjekeche, E., Rono, S.
(2007). Assessing factors influencing farmers to join and participate in farmer research groups in
the North Rift Region of Kenya. Kitale. Kenya. Retrieved on 28th December 2010 from http://www.
kari.org/filesadmin/publications/10thProceedings/Volone/AssessingFactors.pdf
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School in Kenya
PROBLEMS
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IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 47, 2012
177
Advised by Milan Kubiatko, Masaryk University, Czech Republic
Received: August 30, 2012 Accepted: September 30, 2012
Stephen Wambugu Maina MSc in Agricultural Extension, Principal Agricultural Officer, Ministry of
Agriculture – Narok South District, P. O. Box 15428-20100 Nakuru, Kenya.
Phone +254-(0)722379440; +254-(0)735456734
E-mail: stephen67maina@yahoo.com
John Gowland-Mwangi PhD in Agricultural Education and Extension, Professor of Agricultural

Education and Extension and Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research & Exten�
sion), Egerton University, P. O. Box 536-20115 Egerton, Kenya.
Phone: +254-(0)723 466733; (0)732 241 089; (0)722-958069.
E-mail: mwangijg5@yahoo.com; dvcre@egerton.ac.ke
Dave Boselie Director Learning and Innovation, IDH, The Sustainability Initiative Utrecht,
The Netherlands.
E-mail: Boselie@idhsustainabletrade.com
ISSN 1822-7864
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IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 47, 2012
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Volume 47, 2012
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 47, 2012

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, 2012

A DILEMMA IN UPPER SECONDARY TEACHER EDUCATION

TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING THROUGH ROBOTICS: SCIENCE

PORTUGUESE HIGHER EDUCATION STUDENT’S COSTS:TWO LAST DECADES VIEW

A PROPOSAL TO TEACH LIGHT IN A UNIFIED FRAMEWORK USING THE FEYNMAN

DISTANCE, REMEMBRANCE, TOLERANCE: EUROPEAN REMARKS ON CONTEXTUAL

ANALYTICAL STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE PREFERENCE USING THE PEDAGOGICAL

CRAFT AS A BOUNDARY TOOL FOR MULTI- AND INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION: A

EFFECTS OF GENDER ROLE PORTRAYAL IN TEXTBOOKS IN KENYAN PRIMARY

PROPOSIONAL COURSES OF TEACHER EDUCATION: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNCHRONOUS VIRTUAL EDUCATION: THE

4 TEACHER CAREERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION : A BRAZILIAN DILEMMA

AN EARLY UNDERSTANDING OF MECHANISM OF RAINFALL: A STUDY

COST AND BENEFITS OF RUNNING A TEA-BASED FARMER FIELD SCHOOL IN KENYA

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................ 178

A DILEMMA IN UPPER SECONDARY 5

Received: October 23, 2012 Accepted: November 02, 2012

Muammer Çalik PhD, Associate Professor of Chemistry Education, ������������������������

Timothy F. Slater, J. Chris Haynes

Pre-collegiate teacher confidence has been established as a necessary condition to

Recommendations by Bordogna, Fromm, and Ernst (1993) to integrate engineering

General Background of Research

Figure 1: Daily professional development content and laboratory sessions.

Instrument and Procedures

Figure 2: STEM self-reported confidence pre and post-survey data.

Table 1. Lesson plan topics divided into themes (artifact data).

Ben-Ari, M. (2001). Constructivism in computer science education. Journal of Computers in Mathematics

Advised by Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Received: September 29, 2012 Accepted: November 11, 2012

Timothy F. Slater Ph.D. GeoSciences, Endowed Chair of Science Education,

J. Chris Haynes Ph.D. Agricultural Education, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education,

Luisa Cerdeira, Tomás Patrocínio, Belmiro Gil Cabrito

18 - The income of the household;

Social and Economic Composition of Students in Higher Education in Portugal

Figure 1: Economic background of students in higher education.

Costs of Education and Life of Portuguese Students in Higher Education

A significant increase in the costs that HE students must do to be enrolled on HE can be

Expenditure on Education and Life for Portuguese Students of Higher Education

Living Conditions of Students in Higher Education

Table 2. Accessibility of Portuguese students in higher education (public and

(1) GDP per capita 19198,7 (*)

(2) Education costs 1.934,83 10.1

(3) Life costs 4.689,62 24.4

(4) = (2) + (3) = Total costs 6.624,45 34.5

(5) Scholarship by student (a) 425,64

(6) = (4) -(5) = Net cost 6.198,61 32.3

(9) Loan by student (c) 0,00

Source: Cerdeira, Cabrito, Patrocínio, Machado & Brites, 2012

Comparing the Costs of Portuguese Students in Higher Education with those of

Education costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

Living costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

Total costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

24 England and Wales 14.844 36059 41,2 12th

Net Costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

26 Cerdeira, L. (2009). O Financiamento do Ensino Superior Português. A Partilha de custos. Lisboa:

Received: September 30, 2012 Accepted: November 01, 2012

Luisa Cerdeira PhD, Vice-Rector, University of Lisbon, Alameda da Universidade, 1649-013

Muammer Çalik PhD, Associate Professor of Chemistry Education, ��

(1) GDP per capita 19198,7 (*)  

(5) Scholarship by student (a) 425,64  

(9) Loan by student (c) 0,00  

  Education costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

  Living costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

  Total costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking

  Net Costs (1) GDP pc (2) % Ranking