KIA 4008 BRIDGE ENGINEERING _ NMB2021 1

KIA 4008
BRIDGE ENGINEERING

BRIDGE LOADING
EUROCODE

Norazura Muhamad Bunnori (NMB)

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
University of Malaya
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Introduction

• Infrastructure is funded from public funds and large number of

people use those => high level of safety needed
• Well defined load paths => effects of load can be evaluated
accurately.
• Load may be determined to a greater precision.
• Strength is often the governing condition
• Primary structure is a higher proportion of the total investment.
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Loading Standard

• BS5400: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges

• Part 2: Specification for Loads
• British Department of Transport – Departmental Standards
• BD 37/88 : Loads for Highway Bridges
• Public Work Department of Malaysia– JKR Bridge Standard
• Eurocode
• Part 1: Actions on Structures
• Part 2: Traffic Loads on Bridges
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Introduction
For the benefit of those who are making the transition from BS5400 to the Eurocodes

i.dead loads become 'permanent actions' (Characteristic value = 'Gk')

ii.imposed loads, snow loads, thermal loads and wind loads are collectively called
'variable actions' (Characteristic value = 'Qk')
iii.load combinations become 'combinations of actions'.

In its simplest form a combination is Gk + Qk

For prestressed structures the effect of the prestressing action has been classified as a
permanent action and identified separately by the variable P.
Thus the combination becomes Gk + P + Qk

The permanent actions Gk can comprise of several elements (weight of the beams and
deck slab, weight of the parapets, weight of the road surfacing, weight of the footway
construction, differential settlement, concrete shrinkage, etc.). Each of these elements
are referenced by a suffix and given the variable letter 'j'.

Similarly the variable actions Qk can comprise of several elements (traffic loads,
temperature effects, wind loads, snow loads, etc). Each of these elements are
referenced by a suffix and given the variable letter 'i'.
The combination of all these different actions is ΣGk,j + P + ΣQk,i
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ACTIONS
• It is reminded that according to EN 1991 the following should be
considered:
• Self-weight and imposed loads
• Wind
• Thermal actions
• Actions during execution
• Accidental actions (impact loads)
• Traffic loads
• There are also other actions described in EN 1991, such as fire
and snow loads, which are considered as irrelevant for the example of
bridge structure presented. Additional actions are foreseen in other EN
Eurocodes, namely:
• Concrete creep and shrinkage (EN 1992)
• Settlements and earth pressures (EN 1997)
• Seismic actions (EN 1998)
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Parts and Implementation of EN 1991

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Actions: Selfweight
Structural parts:
The density of structural steel is taken equal to 77 kN/m3 [EN 1991- 1-1,
Table A.4]. The density of reinforced concrete is taken equal to 25 kN/m3
[EN 1991-1-1, Table A.1]. The selfweight is determined based on the
dimensions of the structural elements. For the longitudinal bending global
analysis the selfweight of the in-span transverse cross girder is modelled
by a uniformly distributed load of 1,5 kN/m applied to each main girder
(about 10% of its own weight)

Non-structural parts:
The density of the waterproofing material and of the asphalt is taken as
equal to 25 kN/m3 [EN 1991-1-1, Table A.6]. According to [EN 1991-1-1,
5.2.3(3)] it is recommended that the nominal value of the waterproofing
layer and the asphalt layer is multiplied by +/-20% (if the post-execution
coating is taken into account in the nominal value) and by +40% / -20% (if
this is not the case)
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Carriageway

Definition:
The part of road surface, supported by a single structure (deck,
pier, etc), which includes all physical traffic lanes (i.e as may be
marked on the road surface), hard shoulder, hard strips and
marker strips.

The width of the carriageway (w) has to be measured between the

inner limits of vehicle restraint systems.
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Carriageway
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National Lane
• The width, taken as described in the previous slide, should then be
divided into national lanes. The width of the national lanes and their
number is defined accordingly to the Code instruction.
• National lane : strip of the carriageway, parallel to an edge of the
carriageway, which is deemed to carry a line of cars and/or
lorries.
• The first step when evaluating the loads on bridges of the division of
the carriageway in to national lanes.
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Division of the Carriageway into National

Lanes
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National Lanes
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National Lanes
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Classification of Actions
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EN 1991-2: Traffic Loads on Bridges

Load models should:

• be easy to use
• produce main load effects correctly
• be the same for local and global verifications
• cover all possible situations (traffic scenarios)
• include dynamic effects
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EN 1991-2: Traffic Loads on Bridges

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ACTIONS : TRAFFIC LOADS -

General Organisation for Road Bridges
Traffic load models

- Vertical forces : LM1, LM2, LM3, LM4

- Horizontal forces : braking and acceleration,
centrifugal, transverse

Groups of loads

- gr1a, gr1b, gr2, gr3, gr4, gr5

- characteristic, frequent and quasi-permanent values

Combination with actions other than traffic actions

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Load Models for Limit States

• Field of application: Loaded lengths less than 200m, carriageway width less
than 42m
• Four Load Models to represent vertical forces
• Load Model No. 1 (LM1) – Concentrated and distributed loads (main
model – general and local verifications)
• Load Model No. 2 (LM2) – Reproduces effects on short structural
members, Single axle load on specific rectangular tire contact areas.
• Load Model No. 3 (LM3) – Set of special vehicles, and it is to be
considered by request (general and local verifications)
• Load Model No. 4 (LM4) – Crowd loading : 5 kN/m2 (general
verifications)
• Horizontal forces : braking and acceleration, centrifugal, transverse
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EN 1991-2 : Traffic Loads on Bridges

Clause 4.3.2 + NA.2.12

Clause 4.3.3 + NA.2.15

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16

Clause 4.3.5
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Load Model 1
Clause 4.3.2 + NA.2.12

• Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads, which cover

most of the effects of the traffic of lorries and cars. This model
should be used for general and local verifications.
• Consists of two partial systems
• Tandem system
• UDL
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Load Model 1
Clause 4.3.2 + NA.2.12

• Load model LM1 generally reproduces traffic effects to be taken into

account for global and local verifications;
• The Load Model 1 consists of two partial systems:
• Double axle concentrated loads, called Tandem System
(TS), with weight αQi x Qik per axle;
• Uniformly distributed loads (UDL), with weight αqi x qik
The adjustment factors αQi and αqi depend on the class of the route
and on the expected traffic type: in absence of specific indications, they
are assumed equal to 1.
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Load Model 1
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Load Model 1
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Load Model 1

Clause 4.3.2 + NA.2.12

Load Model 1 : Characteristic Values

x 0.61 = 5.5
x 2.2 = 5.5
x 2.2 = 5.5
x 2.2 = 5.5
x 2.2 = 5.5

BS EN 1991-2:2003 + Adjustment Factor q (UK AN2.12)

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Load Model 1
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Load Model 1
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Load Model 2
Clause 4.3.3 + NA.2.15

• Load model LM2 reproduces traffic effects on short structural

members.
• The local load model LM2 consists of a single axle load βQ×Qak on
specific rectangular tire contact areas, 0.35 x 0.6 m, being Qak=400 kN,
dynamic amplification included. Unless otherwise specified βQ=aQ1.
• LM2, which is intended only for local verifications, should be considered
alone on the bridge, travelling in the direction of the longitudinal axis of
the bridge, in the most unfavourable position.
• When unfavourable, only one wheel should be considered.
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Load Model
Clause 4.3.3 + NA.2.15
2
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
Load model LM3, special vehicles, should be considered only when
requested, in a transient design situation. It represents abnormal vehicles
not complying with national regulations on weight and dimension of
vehicles. The geometry and the axle loads of the special vehicles to be
considered in the bridge design should be assigned by the bridge owner.
Additional information can be found in Annex A of EN 1991-2.
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
NA.2.16 Load Model 3 (Special Vehicles)
[BS EN 1991-2:2003, 4.3.4 (1)]

The following defines Load Model 3 and its conditions of use. They do not describe
actual vehicles but have been calibrated so that the effects of the nominal axle weights,
multiplied by the Dynamic Amplification Factor, represent the maximum effects that
could be induced by actual vehicles in accordance with the Special Types General
Order (STGO) and Special Order (SO) Regulations.

The choice of the particular STGO or SO model vehicle for the design of structures on
motorways, trunk roads and other minor roads should be determined for the individual
project.

The UK National Annex describe two groups of vehicles, SV and SOV vehicles (LM3)
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Load Model 3 – Special

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
Vehicles
(i) Special Vehicles, SV Model Vehicles (SV80, SV100 and SV196)

NA.2.16.1.1 SV80
The SV80 vehicle is intended to model the effects of STGO Category 2 vehicles with a
maximum gross weight of 80 tonnes and a maximum basic axle load of 12,5 tonnes.
Figure NA.1(a) gives the basic axle loads, the plan and axle configuration for the SV80
vehicle.

Figure NA.1 Basic longitudinal

configuration of SV model vehicles
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
(i) Special Vehicles, SV Model Vehicles (SV80, SV100 and SV196)

NA.2.16.1.2 SV100
The SV100 vehicle is intended to model the effects of STGO Category 3 vehicles with a
maximum gross weight of 100 tonnes and a maximum basic axle load of 16,5 tonnes.
Figure NA.1(b) gives the basic axle loads, the plan and axle configuration for the
SV100 vehicle.

Figure NA.1 Basic longitudinal

configuration of SV model
vehicles
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

(i) Special Vehicles, SV Model Vehicles Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
(SV80, SV100 and SV196)

NA.2.16.1.3 SV196

The SV196 model represents the effects of a

single locomotive pulling a STGO Category 3
load with a maximum gross weight of 150
tonnes and a maximum basic axle load of
16,5 tonnes with the gross weight of the
vehicle train not exceeding 196 tonnes.

Figure NA.1(c) gives the basic axle loads, the

plan and axle
configuration for the SV196 vehicle.

The wheel loads of all the three SV model

vehicles should be uniformly distributed over
a square contact area as shown in Figure Figure NA.1 Basic longitudinal
NA.1. configuration of SV model vehicles
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

NA.2.16.2 Basic models for Special Order Vehicles Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16

The following four SOV model vehicles simulate vertical effects of Special Order (SO)
vehicles with trailer weights limited to:
i) SOV-250 – Maximum total weight of SO trailer units up to 250 tonnes
ii) SOV-350 – Maximum total weight of SO trailer units up to 350 tonnes
iii) SOV-450 – Maximum total weight of SO trailer units up to 450 tonnes
iv) SOV-600 – Maximum total weight of SO trailer units up to 600 tonnes.

The longitudinal configuration of the four model vehicles is shown in Figure NA.2. The
standard configuration has a trailer with two bogies and two tractors; one pulling and
one pushing. However, on structures located on a stretch of road with a gradient
steeper than 1 in 25, six tractor units in any combination of pulling and pushing that
produces the worst effect, should be used for design.
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
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Load Model 3 – Special Vehicles

Clause 4.3.4 + NA.2.16
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

According to Table 4.4.a of EN1991-2, the characteristic values of the

traffic actions acting simultaneously with non-traffic actions can be
determined considering the five different, and mutually exclusive groups,
where the dominant action is highlighted. Each group of loads should be
considered as defining a characteristic action for combination with non-
traffic loads, but it can be also used to evaluate infrequent and frequent
values.
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

Combination value – (0 Qk)

of an action is intended to take
account of the reduced
probability of the simultaneous
occurrence of two or more
variable actions

Frequent value – (1 Qk) is

such that it should be
exceeded for only a short
period of time (Ψ1 = 0.75 )

Characteristic Value - Ψ1 = 1
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

- gr1a
Load Model 1 is combined with footway loading. The footway loading is reduced
to 3kN/m2 (0.6 x 5kN/m2).

The diagram above illustrates Group gr1a for a single span two lane carriageway with
two footways. The Tandem Systems can be positioned anywhere along the length of
the traffic lane so as to produce the worst load effect. The position shown above will
produce the worst effect for the mid-span bending moment. If the worst shear in the
deck is required then the Tandem Systems will need to be positioned adjacent to the
support.
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

– gr1a
When analysing for global effects the tandem systems are positioned in the centre of
the notional lanes (0.5m from each edge of a 3.0m lane).

When analysing for local effects then the two tandem systems are positioned so that
the minimum distance between them is not less than 0.5m [see Fig. 4.2b) and clause
4.3.2(5) of EN 1991-2:2003].
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

– gr1b

This consists of the 400kN axle shown in Load Model 2

and is not combined with any other load model.
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

– gr2

The 'Frequent' value of Load Model 1 is combined with Braking and

Acceleration Forces (Clause 4.4.1) and Centrifugal (Clause 4.4.2) and
Transverse Forces (Clause NA.2.20). The Frequent value of Load Model 1 is
obtained by multiplying axle loads and UDL by 0.75 (Ψ1 = 0.75 from Table
NA.A2.1 in NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005).
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

– gr3

This consists of Load Model 4 and is applied to the footways only; it is not
combined with any other load model. The UDL may be applied to one or
both of the footways so as to achieve the worst load effect.
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

– gr4

This consists of Load Model 4 and is applied to the footways,

carriageways and central reserve; it is not combined with any
other load model.
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Road Bridges

– gr5
The 'Frequent' value of Load Model 1 (LM1) is combined with Load
Model 3 (LM3). The Frequent value of LM1 is obtained by multiplying axle
loads and UDL by 0.75 (Ψ1 = 0.75 from Table NA.A2.1 in NA to BS EN
1990:2002+A1:2005).

Tandem Systems (TS1 and TS2 shown below) can be interchanged if a

worse load effect is achieved. Loading from LM1 is omitted from the Lane,
or Lanes, occupied by LM3 for a distance within 5 metres of the front and
rear axles.
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Load Models for Footways and Footbridges

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Load Models for Footways and Footbridges

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Load Models for Footways and Footbridges

For footbridges only, a horizontal force should be taken into account, to be

applied along the deck axis at the surfacing level Qflk.

Its characteristic value, which may be altered in the National Annex, is

equal to the higher of the two following values :

• 10% of the total uniformly distributed load as defined in 5.3.2.1,

• 60% of the total service vehicle load where relevant (5.3.2.3- (1)P).

The horizontal force is applied simultaneously with the vertical load, but not
with the concentrated load.
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Groups of Traffic Loads on Footbridges

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Rialto Bridge, Venice

(Pantoon Bridge, 1181)