BASIC INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTS

Instrumentation

is a branch of science which is used to measure, control, record, display, etc.

of a process variable
Instruments

- are devices which is used to measure, control, record, display of a process

variable such as pressure, temperature, flow, level etc.
Purpose of Instruments

-Workplace safety
-Reduce operational cost and maintenance
-Reduce human interface
-Maintain reliability
-Product quality
WHERE ARE THESE INSTRUMENTS USED?

-Oil and gas industry

-Petrochemical industry
-Sugar and Paper industry
-Power Plants
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Pressure Instruments
Examples:
• Diaphragms - measure pressure in a fluid

• Bellows - used for the measurement of absolute pressure

• Manometer - used to measure the pressure of a fluid by

balancing and creating a hydraulic pressure against a
predetermined column of fluid.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Level Instruments
• RF capacitance - measuring how much
energy can be stored in the capacitor.

• Conductance – based on the electrical

conductance of the measured material,
which is usually a liquid that can conduct a
current with a low-voltage source
Radar - measure the distance
from the transmitter (located
at some high point) to the
surface of a process material
located farther below in
much the same way as
ultrasonic transmitters – by
measuring the time-of-flight
of a traveling wave.

Ultrasonic - measure distance

by using ultrasonic waves
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Flow Instruments
• Head type Flowmeters - Based on Differential
Pressure Measurement. In these head type
flowmeters, some devices is inserted into a
pipe carrying fluid. It obstructs the flow of
fluid and creates a pressure difference on
either side of the device.

• Mechanical Flowmeters - measure flow by

using an arrangement of moving parts, either by
passing specific, known volumes of a fluid
through a series of gears or chambers (in the
case of positive displacement meters) or by
means of a spinning turbine or rotor in an
arrangement called a turbine flowmeter.
Electronic Flowmeters - are industrial digital
flow meters for fluid flow rate
measurement. ectronic flow meters are
suitable for Industrial liquid, water,
natural gas, petrol, fuel, air, and more
fluid flow.

Mass Flowmeters - is a device that measures

mass flow rate of a fluid traveling through
a tube. Mass flow meters operate either
by introducing a known amount of heat
into the flowing stream and measuring an
associated temperature change or by
maintaining a probe at a constant
temperature and measuring the energy
required to do so.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Temperature Instruments
-RTDs
-Thermocouple
-Thermistor
-Thermopile
-Pyrometer
INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTION

-Transmitter
-Transducer
-Gauge
-Indicator
-Recorder
-Totalizer
-Controllers
-Control Valve
INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DESIGN

-Pneumatic Instruments
-Digital Electronic Instruments
-Analogue Electronic Instruments
 HUMAN NA
NAMINAW MO???
SHEEESH DATS KRAZY UWU
Determination
of Density,
Specific
Gravity, &
Viscosity of
Liquid Fuels

Presented by: Group 2

Determination of Density,
Specific Gravity, &
Viscosity of Liquid Fuels
By Group 2:
BAJOS, CYRILL RAY
BANTILAN, EDUARD JOHN
BARLUADO, MARIANNIE
What is a Fuel?

▪ Any substance used to produce energy is called fuel.

▪ Any combustible substance which may be burnt to supply heat for practical applications
without the formation of excessively object able products.
Principles of Classification of Fuels

▪ According to the physical state in which they exist in nature

▪ According to the mode of procurement
Liquid Fuels

▪ Are those combustible energy-generating molecules that can be harness to create

mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy.
▪ They also must take the shape of their container
Types of Liquid Fuels

▪ Diesel
▪ Gasoline
▪ Kerosine
▪ Compressed Natural Gas
▪ Liquified Petroleum Gas
▪ Methanol
▪ Ethanol
▪ Butanol
Density
 It is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has too its volume
 Formula:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
 Unit:
 Kilogram per cube meter (kg/m^3)
 Gram per cube centimeter (g/cm^3)
 Gram per milimeter
 Pycnometer – a laboratory device used to measure density
Specific Gravity

 It is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of a reference substance (water).

 Unitless or has no unit.
 Formula:
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝐻2𝑂
 Tools used to identify S.G.:
 Hydrometer – instrument used for measuring the relative density of liquids based on the concept
of bouyancy
 Aerometer - an instrument for ascertaining the weight or density of air or other gases
 Specific Gravity of Liquid Fuels

LIQUID SG @ 60°F / 15.6°C LIQUID SG @ 60°F / 15.6°C

Machine Lubricants 0.88 – 0.94 Tap Water (Reference) 1.0
Propylene Glycol 1.038 Automotive Oil 0.88 – 0.94
Sodium Chloride 5% 1.037 Carbon Tetrachloride 1.59
CCl4
Sodium Hydroxide (caustic 1.22
soda) Crude Oil 0.79 – 0.86
Sulphuric Acid 95% 1.839 Diesel Fuel Oils 20 0.82 – 0.95
Sulphuric Acid 20% 1.14 Ethylene Glycol 1.125
Triethylene Glycol 1.125 Gasoline 0.68 – 0.74
Turpentine 0.86 – 0.87 Kerosene 0.78 – 0.82
Water, Fresh 1.0 Jet Fuel (av) 0.62
Water, Sea 1.03 Lard Oil 0.91 – 0.93
Viscosity

 It is a measure of a fluids propensity to flow.

LIQUID FUELS VISCOSITY

Diesel 2-6
Gasoline 0.006
Kerosene 2.71
Natural Gas 0.011
Liquefied Petroleum Gas 0.17
Methanol 0.00020
Ethanol 0.012
Butanol 0.0074
Dynamic Viscosity

 It measures the ratio of the shear stress to the shear rate for a fluid
 It is the resistance to movement of one layer of a fluid over another
 Formula:
𝜏
𝜇 =
𝛾
 Unit:
Kinematic Viscosity

 It measures the ratio of the viscous force to the inertial force on the fluid.
 It is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow under gravitational forces. It is
determined by measuring the time in seconds, required for a fixed volume of fluid to flow
a known distance by gravity through a capillary within a calibrated viscometer at a
closely controlled temperature.
 Formula:
𝜇
𝑣 =
𝜌
 Unit:
 Tools to measure Viscosity

▪ Viscometer
- Also called VISCOSIMETER, used to measure the viscosity of a fluid
- In one version, the time taken for a given volume of fluid to flow
through an opening is recorded. In the capillary tube viscometer,
the pressure needed to force the fluid to flow at a specified rate
through a narrow tube is measured. Other types depend on
measurements of the time taken for a sphere to fall through the
fluid, or of the force needed to rotate the inner cylinder of a coaxial
pair (the space between the two cylinders being filled with the fluid
under test), or of the rate at which oscillations of a disk vibrating in
the fluid die out.
▪ Rheometer
- A laboratory device used to measure the way in which a liquid,
suspension or slurry flows in response to applied forces.
References:

 https://www.fluidswitch.com/resources/specific-gravity/
 https://prezi.com/p/i3-vhfqj8sqe/determination-of-density-specific-gravity-and-viscosity-of-
liquid-fuels/?fbclid=IwAR0LfPKV-oRwzmX28oODa9Ou-
BmxjCqyQhgIQBjnEfVsvBFoWk1HN8fpbq8
FLASH AND FIRE POINTS OF
LIQUID FUELS AND GREASE
PRESENTED BY: KENT CHARLES BETOYA
FERNANDO CAÑEDA
LEONARD CASICNAN
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
Combustion is a chemical process
in which a substance reacts
rapidly with oxygen and gives off
heat. The original substance is
called the fuel, and the source of
oxygen is called the oxidizer.
• Combustion reaction
predominantly takes place in
gaseous state, even though
surface reactions in certain solid
fuels are known to take place as
secondary reactions.
Flammable Limits Example

LEL – “lower explosive limit”

UEL – “upper explosive limit”
 FLASH POINT

• Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a

liquid can form an ignitable mixture in air near the
surface of the liquid.
• The lower the flash point, the easier it is to ignite
the material. For example, gasoline has a flash
point of -43 degrees C (-45 F) and is more
flammable than ethylene glycol (antifreeze) which
has a flash point of 111 degrees C (232 F).
 FIRE POINT

• The fire point is the temperature to which the

product must be heated under the prescribed
conditions of the method to burn continuously
when the mixture of vapor and air is ignited by a
specified flame
• a permanent combustion is possible even after
removal of the ignition source, because the
substance surface then delivers flammable vapors
in sufficient quantity
 IGNITION POINT

• The Ignition point (also ignition temperature,

spontaneous ignition temperature) defines the
temperature to which one has to heat a substance
or a contact surface, so that a combustible
substance (solids, liquids, their vapor or gas) in the
presence of air exclusively on the basis of its own
temperature self-ignites - without an ignition source
such as a spark.
 RELEVANCE OF FLASH POINT
• Under safety aspects the flash point is in
comparison to the firing point of far greater
importance or relevance, since it defines the lowest
temperature where at the inflammation of an
explosive gas / air mixtures is possible.
 TESTING FLASH AND FIRE POINTS
• The fundamental reason for the requirement of flash point measurements is
to assess the safety hazard of a liquid or semi-solid with regard to its
flammability and then classify the liquid into a group. The lower the flash
point temperature, the greater the risk. This classification is then used to warn
of a risk and to enable the correct precautions to be taken when using,
storing or transporting the liquid. Specifications quote flash point values for
quality control purposes as well as for controlling the flammability risk. A
change in flash point can indicate the presence of potentially dangerous
volatile contaminants or the adulteration of one product by another. The
classification of chemicals including petroleum products helps to identify the
hazards of a substance or preparation. It is important that the classification
of the hazard is correct, otherwise the label, safety data sheet and the
packaging may be incorrectly assigned. This can have potentially serious
consequences for the end user.
 TESTING FLASH
AND FIRE POINTS
• There are two general classes of flash
point tests: open cup and closed cup
Open Cup Closed Cup
 OPEN-CUP TEST
The open-cup test CLA 5 was initially
developed to assess the potential hazards of
liquid spillage. An ignition source is passed
horizontally over the surface of the liquid,
while the cup and liquid are being heated, to
test if the vapors 'flash'. If the test is repeated
at increasing test specimen temperatures a
point may be reached at which the
specimen continues to burn without further
application of the ignition source, this is the
fire point. The precision of open-cup tests is
somewhat poorer than closed-cup tests as
the vapors produced by heating the test
specimen are free to escape to the
atmosphere and are more affected by local
conditions in the laboratory. When open-cup
tests are carried out at temperatures above
ambient the result is usually higher than a
result from a closed-cup test due to the
reduced concentration of vapors.
 CLOSED-CUP TEST
The closed-cup test PMA 5 contains
any vapors produced and essentially
simulates the situation in which a
potential source of ignition is
accidentally introduced into a
container. In this test a test specimen
is introduced into a cup and a close-
fitting lid is fitted to the top of the
cup. The cup and test specimen is
heated. Subsequently, apertures are
opened in the lid to allow air into the
cup and the ignition source to be
dipped into the vapors to test for a
flash. The closed cup is mostly used in
product specifications and
regulations due to its better precision.
TESTING FLASH AND FIRE
POINTS
FUEL SUBSTANCES AND
FLASH POINTS
 Flash Point(oF)
Fuel
Acetaldehyde -36
Acetone 0
Acentonitrile 43
Acrylonitrile 32
Allyamine -20
Aniline 158
Anisole 126
Benzene 12
Benzaldehyde 145
Biodiesel 266
Butanal -7.6
n-Butane -76
1-Butanol 99
Peroxyacetic acid 106
Petroleum ether <0
Propanal -22
Propane -156
 2-Propanol 54
Propylamine -35
Styrene 90
Tetrohydrofuran 151
Toluene 40
Triethanolamine 354
Triethylamine 19
o-Xylene 63
m-Xylene 81
p-Xylene 81
 Carbon Disulfide -22
Cyclohexanone 111
Diesel Fuel (1-D) 100
Diesel Fuel (2-D) 126
Diesel Fuel (4-D) 130
Diethanolamine 342
Diethylene glycol diethyl
180
ether
Diethyl ether -49
Diisopropyl ether -18
Dimethyl sulfate 181
Dimethyl sulfide -35
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) 63
Ethylamine 3.2
Formaldehyde 185
Fuels Oil No.1 100 - 162
Fuels Oil No.2 126 - 204
Fuels Oil No.4 142 - 240
Fuels Oil No.5 Lite 156 - 336
Fuels Oil No.5 Heavy 160 - 250
Fuels Oil No.6 150
Furfural 140
Furfuryl alcohol 167
Gasoline -45
Gear oil 375 - 580
Hexylamine 84
Iso-Butane -117
 Iso-Pentane less than -60
Iso-Octane 10
Isopropylbenzene
347
hydroperoxide
Jet fuel (A/A-1) 100 - 150
Kerosene (paraffin) 100 - 162
Methyl Alcohol (Methanol) 52
Methylamine 32
Motor oil 420 - 485
Naphtha 32 - 86
n-Pentane less than -40
n-Hexane -7
n-Heptane 25
n-Octane 56
Naphthalene 174
NeoHexane -54
Paraldehyde 97
ANY QUESTIONS ????
 REFERENCES
• https://www.kolb-ct.com/service/faq-good-to-know/flash-firing-
ignition-point
• https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/combst1.html
• https://wiki.anton-paar.com/en/flash-and-fire-point-measurement/
• https://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/19/flash-point-test
• https://www.fauske.com/blog/temperature-as-an-ignition-source-
which-test-do-i-choose
• https://blog.ansi.org/2020/03/flash-point-pensky-martens-closed-
astm-d93/#gref
• https://hsewatch.com/difference-between-flash-point-and-fire-
point
By: Group 4
Carbon Residues

 It is the deposits of black residue from burnt carbon.

 A fuel which has a tendency to form carbon deposit

under high temperature in an inert atmosphere is
known as carbon residue.
Carbon Residue Test
 It is expressed as weight percentage (Wt%)
 It can be also expressed as:
1. Rams bottom carbon Residue (RCR)
2. Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR)
Significance
 The carbon residue value gives

 An approximate indication of the combustibility and

 Deposit forming tendencies of the fuel.

Significance of Carbon Residue
 Its value is greater than 20%, the fuel is not suitable for
combustion.

 i.e. the fuel blocks the engine tubes and rings.

 Therefore, it is necessary to clean the engine

frequently.
Significance of Carbon Residue
Significance of Carbon Residue
 The carbon residue value of motor oil, while at one
time regarded as indicative of the amount of
carbonaceous deposits a motor oil would form in the
combustion chamber of an engine, is now considered
to be of doubtful significance due to the presence of
additives in many oils.
Carbon Residue
 Disadvantages of carbon residue on engines
 It causes and corrosion of the internal parts of engines.

 Value of carbon residue of a fuel

 The carbon residue value of a fuel depends on the
refinery processes employed in its manufacture. For
straight run fuels, the value is typically 10-12% m/m,
while for fuels from secondary refining processing the
value depends on the severity of the process applied. In
some areas, it can be as high as 20% m/m.
Methods to Calculate Carbon
Residue
Rams bottom Carbon Residue (RCR) – It is used for
testing the amount of carbon residue left after
evaporation and pyrolysis of an oil, and it is intended to
provide some indication of relative coke-forming
propensity.
Rams bottom Carbon Residue
(RCR)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGFWdH9uunY
Methods to Calculate Carbon
Residue
Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR) – This test method
covers the determination of the amount of carbon
residue left after evaporation and pyrolysis of an oil. It is
applicable to relatively nonvolatile petroleum products
which partially decompose on distillation at atmospheric
pressure.
Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSJXhluv_lg
References
 Slideshare.net. 2021. Carbon residue report. [online]
Available at:
<https://www.slideshare.net/AppleGreen6/carbon-
residue-report> [Accessed 22 October 2021].
 Youtube.com. 2021. [online] Available at:
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGFWdH9uunY>
[Accessed 22 October 2021].
 Youtube.com. 2021. [online] Available at:
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSJXhluv_lg>
[Accessed 22 October 2021].