Eur. Phys. J.

C (2021) 81:842
https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-021-09630-7

Regular Article - Theoretical Physics

Horizon curvature and spacetime structure influences on black

hole scalarization
Hong Guo1,2,a , Xiao-Mei Kuang1,b , Eleftherios Papantonopoulos3,c , Bin Wang1,2,d
1 Center for Gravitation and Cosmology, College of Physical Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
2 School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
3 Physics Division, National Technical University of Athens, Zografou Campus, 15780 Athens, Greece

Received: 18 April 2021 / Accepted: 7 September 2021 / Published online: 22 September 2021
© The Author(s) 2021

Abstract Black hole spontaneous scalarization has been 1 Introduction

attracting more and more attention as it circumvents the well-
known no-hair theorems. In this work, we study the scalar- Experimental progress on gravitational waves [1–3] and the
ization in Einstein–scalar-Gauss–Bonnet theory with a probe shadow of the M87 black hole [4] further demonstrates the
scalar field in a black hole background with different curva- great success of Einstein’s general relativity (GR). Yet it is
tures. We first probe the signal of black hole scalarization unabated that the GR theory should be generalized, and in the
with positive curvature in different spacetimes. The scalar generalized theories extra fields or higher curvature terms are
field in AdS spacetime could be formed easier than that in always involved in the action [5–7]. So physicists have pro-
flat case. Then, we investigate the scalar field around AdS posed various modified gravitational theories which indeed
black holes with negative and zero curvatures. Comparing provide richer framework and significantly help us further
with negative and zero cases, the scalar field near AdS black understand GR as well as our universe.
hole with positive curvature could be much easier to emerge. Among them, the scalar–tensor theories which introduces
And in negative curvature case, the scalar field is the most a scalar field into the action attract lots of attention [8]. When
difficult to be bounded near the horizon. the scalar field backreacts to the background metric, one
could expect that hairy black hole solutions would be gener-
ated. One of the first hairy black hole solution in an asymp-
Contents totically flat spacetime was discussed in [9–11] but soon the
solution was argued to be unstable because the scalar field is
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 divergent on the event horizon [12]. However, such irregular
2 Scalar field perturbations in Einstein–scalar-Gauss– behaviour of the scalar field on the horizon was avoided in
Bonnet theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 asymptotically AdS/dS spacetime with a presence of a cos-
3 Signal of scalarization of black holes with positive mological constant in the gravity theory. It was found that
curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 the resulting hairy black hole solutions have a regular scalar
3.1 Asymptotical flat black hole . . . . . . . . . . 4 field behaviour and all the possible divergence could be hid-
3.2 Asymptotical AdS black hole . . . . . . . . . . 5 den behind the horizon [13–24].
3.3 Asymptotical dS black hole . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The effects of higher-order curvature terms become more
4 Signal of scalarization of black holes with negative significant as we are exploring the strong field regime of
curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 gravity via detections of gravitational waves and black hole
5 Signal of scalarization of black holes with zero curvature 8 shadows. It is known that the inclusion of such terms proba-
6 Closing remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 bly bring in the well-known ghost problem [25], and Gauss–
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Bonnet (GB) corrections is a counter-case which is ghost-
free. But it becomes a topological term in four-dimensional
a e-mail: gh710105@gmail.com spacetime and has no dynamics in field equations when it is
b e-mail: xmeikuang@yzu.edu.cn (corresponding author) minimally coupled with Einstein–Hilbert action. A way to
c e-mail: lpapa@central.ntua.gr make this term meaningful in four-dimensional spacetimes
d e-mail: wang_b@sjtu.edu.cn is to consider its coupling with a scalar field [26]. As a spe-

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842 Page 2 of 13 Eur. Phys. J. C (2021) 81:842

cial scalar–tensor theory with higher derivatives [27,28], the procedure.1 Thus, the aim of this work is to probe the signal
Einstein–scalar-Gauss–Bonnet (ESGB) gravity recently has of scalarization in various black holes with different horizon
attracted a lot of attention. Especially, the introduction of this curvature and try to understand its effects on the scalariza-
coupling could lead to hairy black holes. Various black hole tion processes. To this end, we first consider the test scalar
solutions and compact objects in the four-dimensional ESGB field perturbation and analyze its effective potential in var-
theories were studied in the literature [29–34]. ious black hole backgrounds. Then we study the tachyonic
Recently, the spontaneous scalarization with particular instabilities of the scalar field near the horizon by solving
coupling function in ESGB theory is widely investigated. the perturbation equation. We find that the scalar hair around
In this setup, besides GR solutions with a trivial scalar field the black hole with spherical horizon is easier to form in
configuration, the scalarized hairy solutions for black holes AdS spacetime than in flat case. While in dS case, the regu-
and stars could also exist, which evades the no-hair theorems lar condition near cosmological horizon leads to divergence
[35–37]. It was shown in [38] that below a certain mass the at large distance, so that the test field approximation breaks
Schwarzschild black hole background may become unsta- down. Moreover, our study on the effect of horizon curva-
ble in regions of strong curvature, and then when the scalar tures indicates that the scalar hair around AdS black hole with
field backreacts to the metric, a scalarized hairy black hole toroidal horizon could be easier to be formed than that with
emerges and it is physically favorable. A natural extension hyperbolic horizon, but more difficult than that with spheri-
of these results was to consider the case of nonzero black cal horizon. Both the effective potential analysis and the test
hole charge. A large set of coupling functions between the field solution conclude the above observations.
Gauss–Bonnet invariant and the scalar field was considered The work is organized as follows. We write down the gen-
in order to understand better the behaviour of the scalarized eral equation of motion of a test scalar field in the background
solutions [39–41] . of four dimensional black holes with different topologies in
Various generalizations of the spontaneous scalarization ESGB gravity theory in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3, we study the signal
procedure were followed in the literature. The scalarization of scalarization of a black hole with positive curvature in dif-
due to a coupling of a scalar field to Ricci scalar was studied ferent spacetimes. Then we investigate the signal of a black
in [42] and in the presence of Chern–Simons invariant was hole scalarization with negative curvature and zero curvature
studied in [43]. The generalized study of scalarized black hole in Sects. 4 and 5 respectively. The last section is devoted to
solutions and compact objects in asymptotical flat spacetime conclusions and discussions.
of ESGB theories was discussed in [44–54]. The sponta-
neous scalarization of asymptotically AdS/dS black holes
in ESGB theory with a negative/positive cosmological con- 2 Scalar field perturbations in
stant was extended in [55–59]. Especially, the connections Einstein–scalar-Gauss–Bonnet theories
of asymptotically AdS black holes scalarization with holo-
graphic phase transitions in the dual boundary theory was We consider four-dimensional ESGB theories with the action
studied in [60,61]. Recently the spontaneous scalarization in 
1 √ 
f(R) gravity theories in the presence of a scalar field mini- S= d 4 x −g R − 2 − ∇μ ∇ μ 
16π G
mally coupled to gravity with a self-interacting potential was 
discussed in [62]. Also in ESGB theory the spin-induced −m 2 2 + λ2 f ()R2G B , (1)
black hole spontaneous scalarization, which is the outcome
of linear tachyonic instability triggered by rapid rotation, was where  is the cosmological constant, λ is the coupling con-
explored in [63–68]. stant between Gauss–Bonnet term and scalar field with the
The scalarization in asymptotical flat, AdS and dS black dimension of length and ∇μ denotes the covariant derivative.
holes in ESGB gravity theory was studied, however detailed The scalar field coupling function f () only depends on the
information on how different spacetime structures influence neutral scalar field , and the Gauss–Bonnet term is given
the scalarization process is not disclosed. An interesting by
question is how the cosmological constant leaves its imprint
R2G B = R 2 − 4Rμν R μν + Rμναβ R μναβ , (2)
on the black hole scalarization and in which kind of space-
time the scalar field could be formed more easily. Besides, the where R, Rμν and Rμναβ are the Ricci scalar, Ricci and Rie-
studies of spontaneous scalarization in the existed literatures mann tensors, respectively. The Einstein equation and Klein–
were focused on the black hole with spherical horizon, but as
known in AdS spacetime, one can have AdS black holes with 1 Note that in [69], the authors discussed the influence of the topology in
different topologies and it is interesting to study how these
the matter configuration on the spontaneous scalarization. They found
topologies of the black hole horizon affect the scalarization that comparing to the spherical distribution, the planar symmetric matter
distribution makes the spontaneous scalarization easier to occur.

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Gordon equation can be derived from the above action as is plane wave case as ei K(x+y) so that A = K2 ; and for neg-
ative curvature Y (x1 , x2 ) is spherical harmonics Y− 1 ±iζ,m
G μν − gμν + μν = ∇μ ∇ν  2

1 1 and A = 41 + ζ 2 [70,71]. Then we use the tortoise coordi-

− gμν ∇α ∇ α  − gμν m 2 2 , (3) nate dr∗ = g(r
dr
2 2 ) , and bring the Klein–Gordon equation into
ϕ(r )
1 √ λ2 d f () 2 a Schrodinger-like form by reforming φ(r ) =
√ ∂μ ( −g∂ μ ) = m 2  − RG B , (4) r
−g 2 d
where the energy–momentum tensor μν is given by ∂ 2 ϕ(r )
  + (ω2 − V (r ))ϕ(r ) = 0, (9)
1 ∂r∗2
α
μν = −R(∇μ ν + ∇ν μ ) − 4∇ α Rμν − Rgμν
2
+4Rμα ∇ α ν + 4Rνα ∇ α μ where the effective potential takes the form
αβ
−4gμν R ∇α β + 4R βμαν ∇ α β , (5)
 
f ()
g  (r ) A λ2
with μ = λ2 d d ∇μ . V (r ) = g(r ) + 2 + m 2 − R2G B . (10)
r r 2
It is obvious that different forms of the coupling func-
tion f () shall give different properties of the ESGB the-
ory. As addressed in [38], f () could satisfy conditions Noted that in the Schrodinger-like form (9) and (10) of the
d f () d 2 f () perturbation, we have only kept the leading term of the expan-
d |=0 = 0 and d2 |=0 = b > 0, where b is a con-
2
f ()
stant, in order to admit Schwarzschild black hole as a back- sion d d  (1 − 2 + 21 4 + O(2 )) in the potential
ground solution and further explore the black hole scalariza- function.
tion in the ESGB theory. Moreover, one usually assumes that We then analyze the signal of scalarization of the system
the scalar field vanishes at infinity and normalizes the con- by computing the effective potential with the lowest mode
stant b to unity. Thus, in this work, we shall choose the form ( = K = ζ = 0). For simplification, we could focus on the
static perturbation with ω = 0, thereby we shall solve the
of the coupling function as f () = 21 (1 − e− ) which also
2

radial perturbed equation for φ(r ),

satisfies f ( = 0) = 0.
When the scalar field vanishes, i.e.,  = 0, the gravity
   
theory admits black hole solutions, whose metric takes the  2 g  (r )  A m2
φ (r ) + + φ (r ) − 2 + φ(r )
general form, r g(r ) r g(r ) g(r )
dr 2 λ2 d f (φ)
ds 2 = −g(r )dt 2 + + r 2d −
→
x 2k,2 , + R2G B = 0, (11)
g(r ) 2g(r ) dφ
M r 2
g(r ) = k − − , (6)
r 3 and see how the scalar field with the lowest mode emerges
where M is the integral constant related the black hole mass, as the Gauss–Bonnet coupling increases. To control the vari-
and k determines the curvature of two dimensional geometry ables of the black holes and compare the results, we shall
near the horizon with the line element d − →
x 2k,2 given by set rh = 1 in various cases, namely, we fix the size of
⎧ the black holes such that the black hole mass is solved via
⎨ d22 = dθ 2 + sin2 θ dψ 2 for k = +1, g(r = rh ) = g(rh = 1) = 0 in the following discussion. We
−
→
d x k,2 = d22 = d x 2 + dy 2
2
for k = 0, (7) would numerically employ the spectral method to solve the
⎩ 2
dσ2 = dθ 2 + sinh2 θ dψ 2 for k = −1, differential equations.
where k = 1, 0 and −1 correspond to black hole horizon Since the existence of above black hole with different cur-
with spherical, planar and hyperbolic topology, respectively. vatures is dependent on the type of asymptotic background,
Then the corresponding GB term can be easily computed as i.e., the sign of , we would discuss the signal of scalarization
of various black holes in terms of the curvature. Moreover,
4  
we shall rewrite  = ±3/L 2 where L is the curvature AdS
R2G B = 2 g  (r )2 + (g(r ) − k)g  (r ) . (8)
r radius. As it was discussed in [61,72] because the scalar field
In order to explore the (in)stability of the background black is coupled to GB invariant, the effective mass of the scalar
holes, we consider a small fluctuation in the form δ = field receives a contribution from this coupling. Then for var-
e−iωt φ(r )Y (x1 , x2 ) where Y (x1 , x2 ) satisfies Laplace– ious values of the coupling, the effective mass of the scalar
Beltrami equation 2 Y (x1 , x2 ) = −AY (x1 , x2 ). We con- field becomes tachyonic outside the background black hole
sider that Y (x1 , x2 ) is spherical harmonics Y,m for positive and the fluctuations are unstable destabilizing in this way the
curvature so that A = ( + 1); For zero curvature Y (x1 , x2 ) background metric.

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3 Signal of scalarization of black holes with positive

curvature

In this section, we focus on the background solution with

positive curvature, i.e., k = 1 in (6), in which case there exist
asymptotical flat ( = 0), AdS ( < 0) and dS ( > 0)
black holes as possible backgrounds. Consequently, we shall
separately study the signal of scalarization in all these asymp-
totical backgrounds, and then do comparisons on the emer-
gence of non-trivial scalar field which is introduced by the
Gauss–Bonnet coupling in these different spacetime back-
grounds.
Fig. 1 The effective potential of the scalar field in asymptotical flat
schwarzschild black hole with different values of λ
3.1 Asymptotical flat black hole

For  = 0, the asymptotical flat black hole (AFBH) with In Fig. 1, we show the effective potential of the scalar field
spherical horizon (k = 1) is just the Schwarzschild black as the function of radial coordinate. When λ = 0 without
hole. In this case, the redshift function in the field equation GB coupling, there is a potential barrier. As the GB coupling
(11) is g(r ) = 1 − M r where M = r h = 1 and RG B =
2
is turned on and increased, the barrier is suppressed, and a
4  
(g (r ) + (g(r ) − 1)g (r )).
2
r2 negative potential well form near the horizon which could
In this case, the potential (10) for the lowest mode  = 0 trigger an instability and then lead to the development of
of the massless scalar field (m = 0) is scalar hair.
  We then study the behaviour of scalar field by solving
M M 6λ2 M 2
V (r ) = (1 − ) 3 − the perturbation equation (11) and expect to see the signal
r r r6
   of scalarization in the probe limit. By scanning the coupling
1 1 6λ2 parameter, it is found that there exists a threshold value λt 
= 1− − (12)
r r3 r6 0.60234.2 When λ is smaller than the threshold value, the
scalar field is zero everywhere which is trivial. When the
where we have inserted M = 1 in the second equality. A
coupling is larger than λt , the scalar hair would emerge and
sufficient condition for the existence of an unstable scalar
increase as the coupling increases. The profile of the scalar
field mode is [38,73]
 ∞  ∞ field with various values of λ is shown in the left plot of Fig. 2.
V (r ) Moreover, in the middle plot of Fig. 2, we present the value of
V (r∗ )dr∗ = dr < 0, (13)
−∞ M g(r ) the scalar field near the event horizon φh as the function of λ
and corresponding scalar charge φ− at infinity is shown in the
which leads to λ2 > 12 5
M 2 = 12 5
. This indicates that the right figure. The black line on the horizontal axis is the trivial
tachyonic instability emerges when the coupling constant sat- scalar field. As the coupling parameter increases larger than
isfies λ2 > 12 5
. Especially, near the horizon r → 1, we can λt , there emerges the bifurcation dividing the trivial solution,
reduce from equation (11) that the scalar field φ(1) and its the non-trivial scalar field formes and grows dramatically.
derivative φ  (1) are both regular with a relation This phenomenon indicates that due to the instability
brought by the GB coupling, the scalar field may emerge
φ  (1) + 6λ2 φ(1)e−φ(1) = 0.
2
(14)
and grow near the horizon of AFBH background, such that
It is obvious that the contribution of the GB coupling could a new branch of scalarized hairy black hole develops. It is
control the near horizon behaviour of the scalar field. While noticed that the scalarized hairy black hole solutions with
at infinity r → +∞, the scalar field behaves as backreaction were numerically explored in [39], and it was
  found that the entropy of the scalarized black hole is larger
φ− φ+ 1 than of AFBH solution which indicates the hairy solution is
φ(r → ∞) → φ∞ + + 2 +O 3 . (15)
r r r physically favorable.
We would set φ∞ = 0 as the Dirichlet boundary condition
so that the scalar field converges to zero as r → ∞ which 2 Noted that previously we discussed that for λ2 > 12 5
M 2 , i.e. λ 
is well behaved. Thus, we can consider the scalar field as a
0.645, the background black holes would be unstable. Here the threshold
probed field to study the signal of the scalarization. Also φ− value λt  0.60234 is a bit smaller. This is reasonable because (13) is
could be treated as the scalar charge. only a sufficient condition, which was also verified in [38].

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Fig. 2 Left: the profiles of the scalar field in asymptotical flat schwarzschild black hole with different values of λ. Middle: the value of scalar field
near the event horizon φh as the function of λ. Right: the corresponding scalar charge of the black hole φ− at infinity as the function of λ

3.2 Asymptotical AdS black hole not the same scalar mass, which is reasonable because non-
vanishing scalar charge implies the occurrence of scalariza-
In the AdS case with  = −3/L 2 < 0, the redshift function tion and modifies the general relativity black hole [36]. Actu-
ally, though the mass of scalar field m 2 L 2 = m 2e L 2 −12 Lλ 2 in
2
r +
in the solution (6) with spherical horizon is g(r ) = 1 − M
r2 AdS case seems to be very different from m = 0 in flat case, it
L2

(M = 1 + L12 as rh = 1) and the GB term R2G B =

 is obvious that the mass in AdS case m 2 = −2/L 2 +12λ2 /L 4
4
r2
g  (r )2 + (g(r ) − 1)g  (r ) .
As is known, the AdS background could possess a classical go to zero as L → ∞, which is the flat limit. Our numerical
instability for the real scalar field, but provided its effective result will also support the analysis, We shall show soon that
mass is above the Breitenlohner–Freedman (BF) bound, the all properties for very large L in AdS case recover those in
perturbation do not break the AdS behavior [74]. In our case, flat case as expected.
the effective mass derived from (4) is given by m 2e f f = m 2 − To proceed, we first show the potential function (10) in
λ2 2 Fig. 3. We see that the potential near the horizon could be
2 RG B ,
and so the regular tachyonic instability could exist
negative for certain parameter regime and the negative poten-
> m 2B F = −9/4L 2 . Specially, near infinity, the
as m 2e f f
tial may lead to instability of the scalar field and a small
Klein–Gordon equation becomes
scalar field perturbation may finally destabilizes the AdS
2
4 −m 2 L 2 + 12λ black hole background. In the left plot without the GB cou-
φ (r ) + φ  (r ) +

2
L2
φ(r ) = 0 (16) pling, the effective potential never becomes negative unless
r r
the scalar field is charged as addressed in [75,76]. In the
which gives the boundary behavior of the scalar field as middle plot with λ = 0.3, the potential well becomes deeper
φ(r → ∞) = φ−r −α− + φ+r −α+ . (17) as L decreases, meaning that there exists a critical L ∗ that
√ the potential is negative enough for the scalar field emerg-
3± 9+4m 2e L 2
and m 2e L 2 = m 2 L 2 − 12 Lλ 2
2
Here α± = 2
ing near the horizon. In the right plot with fixed L = 0.5,
is the asymptotical behavior of m 2e f f L 2 . It is obvious that as λ increases, the potential becomes deeper. This behaviour
m 2e > m 2B F = −9/4L 2 could also ensure the scalar field at is similar as that in AFBH case, however, by careful com-
infinity to be convergent to be zero. Thus, in AdS case, for the parison, we find that for the same GB coupling, the well in
parameters satisfied the above analysis, we are safe to solve the right plot is more deeper than that in AFBH case (see
the probed perturbative equation (11) to see how exactly the Fig. 1). This implies that comparing to the flat spacetime, the
GB coupling and AdS curvature radius affect the fate of the scalar field in AdS spacetime would be easier bounded near
scalar field. the horizon, saying with smaller GB coupling.
For a proper comparison in the flat and AdS cases, we Considering the scalar field near the horizon
set m 2e L 2 = −2 and then the asymptotic behaviour becomes  
L2 λ2
φ(r → ∞) = φ− /r + φ+ /r 2 , such that the scalar charge φ  (1) = m 2
− 6 (3 + 2L 2
+ L 4 −φ(1)2
)e φ(1).
3 + L2 L4
φ− term has the same decay behavior as that in flat case. In (18)
the numeric, we set φ+ = 0 as the boundary condition. It is
noted that in general, the asymptotic behaviour of the scalar and the boundary condition (17) by choosing φ+ = 0, we
charge term could be different in flat and AdS cases. Thus, scan the parametric space (λ, L) to find the solution of
to compare the signal of scalarization, we have to carefully Eq. (11). We find a critical line for the threshold of scalar
control the variables and then we require the decay behav- field as shown on the left panel of Fig. 4. Below the critical
ior of the scalar charge term is coincident. It means that we line, the scalar field is zero which is trivial, while above the
shall probe the scalar field with the same scalar charge but line the scalar field behaves as a non-trivial solution. We can

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Fig. 3 The effective potential in asymptotical AdS black hole with positive curvature

extract two properties from the left panel of Fig. 4. Firstly, a test field in the dS spacetime. Following the analysis of [56],
the threshold value of λ first increases as L becomes larger, we consider the Klein–Gordon equation Eq. (11) in pure dS
2
and then tends to be a constant as L → ∞. The constant background with g(r ) = 1 − Lr 2 for which the cosmological
is around λt  0.60234 which matches the aforementioned horizon is located at rc = L. By setting φ(r ) = ϕ(r )
and
r
value in AFBH case (see the blue dot). This is reasonable x = rrc , the Klein–Gordon equation is reduced as
because as L → ∞, the cosmological constant goes to zero
which is the case we studied in the previous subsection. Sec- (1 − x 2 )ϕ  (x) − 2xϕ  (x) + u(u + 1)ϕ(x) = 0 (19)
ondly, comparing to AFBH case, the threshold value of λ in 3χ −1
AdS case is smaller, which implies that weaker GB coupling where u = 2 , and
could introduce spontaneous scalarization for spherical AdS 
4 λ2 4
black hole. This behaviour supports our previous analysis on χ= 1 − m 2 rc2 + 4 2 ≡ 1 − m̄ 2e f f rc2 (20)
the effective potential of Fig. 3. 9 rc 9
In the middle panel of Fig. 4, we present the scalar field 2
where we define m̄ 2e f f = m 2 − 9λ in the second equality.
near the event horizon φh as a function of λ. For larger L, the rc4
value of λ for the emergence of non-zero φh is larger, which We see that the Gauss–Bonnet coupling contributes to χ as
is consistent with the observed on the left of Fig. 4. The scalar a modification of that in [56].
hair near the horizon emerges at the threshold coupling, and The solution of (19) is
 
the value at the horizon increases as λ increases and then tends   ϕ r    
to be constant. The scalar charge of the black hole φ− shown r rc 1 r s r
φ = = Pu + Qu (21)
in the right figure of Fig. 4 supports our results. However, rc r r rc r rc
when λ is small, φh decreases as L increases, but when λ where Pu and Q u are Legendre functions and s is an arbitrary
is large enough, φh increases as L increases. Starting from constant. It is obvious that the solution diverges at r = 0,and
the probe limit, we can obtain certain signal of spontaneous also the second term diverges at r = rc because of Q u rrc
scalarization of the AdS background brought by GB coupling diverges. So the regularity at r = rc requires s = 0, then the
with the form f (φ) = 21 (1 − e−φ ). Numerical methods are
2
solution near rc is
called for to handle the fully backreacted system and get the
hairy solution, as was explored for various different f (φ) in 1 m̄ 2e f f
φ(r )  − (r − rc ) + higher order term, (22)
[55]. rc 2
while the solution at r
rc behaves as
3 3
3.3 Asymptotical dS black hole φ(r )  c+r − 2 (1+χ ) + c−r − 2 (1−χ ) , where
(∓ 3χ
2 )
 rc  1±3χ
In the dS case with  = 3/L 2 > 0, only the black hole c± = √ 2 . (23)
with spherical horizon exists, so the redshift function in the π (1 ∓ 3χ2 ) 2
r2
solution (6) is g(r ) = 1 − M r − L 2 . As r h = 1, the mass The precondition of scalarization is that a scalar field must
is M = 1 − L12 , so that L > 1 is required for the positive have a tachyonic behaviour somewhere in between the BH
mass. Moreover,
√ the cosmological horizon is located at rc = and cosmological horizon, which requires m̄ 2e f f < 0 and
1
(−1 + 4L 2 − 3) > r = 1, which further requires L >
χ > 0. But this implies that the scalar field could diverge at
√
2 h
3 in our setup. r
rc . Therefore, the regularity of the scalar field at the cos-
Similar as the above subsections, we first discuss the valid- mological horizon makes the tachyonic test field divergent at
ity of the probe approximation considering the scalar field as large distance, which breaks the probe approximation. Even

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Fig. 4 Left: the threshold curves for AdS black hole with posi- the function of λ with different AdS radius L; Right: the corresponding
tive curvature where the blue dot represents the threshold value of scalar charge of the black hole φ− behaves with different AdS radius L
Schwarzschild black hole; Middle: the scalar hair of the black hole as

though the probe limit may be valid between the event hori- where  has negative constant curvature are stable under
zon and cosmological horizon, we can not check the signal gravitational perturbations and the stability of the topologi-
of scalarization in probe limit with the same boundaries as cal black holes was discussed in [71,88]. In a series of papers
working in flat and AdS cases. We could improve the numer- [70,89,90] it was shown that there is evidence that a vacuum
ical skills to involve the backreaction and do the comparison, TBH goes over to a hairy configuration, the MTZ black hole
and we hope to address this issue in the future. [15], through a second-order phase transition. Therefore it is
interesting to see if in the presence of the coupling between
scalar field and the GB term, there is evidence of TBH scalar-
4 Signal of scalarization of black holes with negative ization.
curvature In this case, the GB term (8) is evaluated as R2G B =
4
r2
(g  (r )2 + (g(r ) + 1)g  (r )). To fulfill g(rh ) = 0, the black
In this section we will study the signal of scalarization if the hole mass should satisfy M = rh3 /L 2 − rh . The positivity
background metric is a topological black hole (TBH). For the of black hole mass forces 0 < L < rh , while √ the positiv-
action ity of Hawking √ temperature requires L < 3rh . Thus for

√  R + 6L −2  rh ≤ L < 3rh , the topological black hole have a pos-
S = d 4 x −g , itive Hawking temperature, but the black hole mass could
16π G
be zero or negative, and the stability of the these massless
the presence of a negative cosmological constant allows the and negative mass black hole has been investigated in [88].
existence of black holes with a topology R 2 × , where  It is noted that the topological black holes have interesting
is a two-dimensional manifold of constant curvature. The structures in their own right, here for security we focus on
simplest solution of this kind, when  has negative constant topological black hole with positive mass, such that we have
curvature, reads 0 < L < 1 as we have set rh = 1. Then the effective poten-
 
r2 2Gμ tial is shown in Fig. 5. Without the GB coupling (see the left
ds = − −1 + 2 −
2
dt 2 plot), the effective potential is always positive, so there is
L r
dr 2 no signal of tachyonic instability to induce the scalarization,
+  + r 2 dσ22 , (24) so that the TBH keeps stable. With λ = 0.3 (see the mid-
r2 2Gμ
−1 + L2
− r dle plot), the potential well becomes deeper as L decreases
. When L is small enough, the potential well would be deep
where dσ22 is the line element of  which is just (6) with enough to allow the tachyonic instability to happen. In the
k = −1,  = −3L −2 and M = 2Gμ. The line element dσ22 right plot with fixed L = 0.5, as λ increases, the potential
is locally isomorphic to the hyperbolic manifold H 2 and  well becomes deeper. We note that the rule for negative cur-
must be of the form vature in AdS case extracted from Fig. 5 is qualitatively the
 = H 2 / with ⊂ O(2, 1), same as that in the positive curvature case (see Fig. 3). But
with the same parameters, the potential well for k = −1 is
where is a freely acting discrete subgroup (i.e., without shallower than that in the case with k = 1. This means that the
fixed points). onset of spontaneous scalarization is easier to happen for AdS
The configurations (24) are asymptotically local AdS black hole with positive curvature than that with negative
spacetimes and these black holes are known as TBHs [77– curvature.
86]. It has been shown in [87] that the massless configurations

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842 Page 8 of 13 Eur. Phys. J. C (2021) 81:842

Fig. 5 The effective potential for the AdS black hole with negative curvature

Again, to further fix the parameters for the threshold of the of Fig. 6, we find that for bigger L, the formed scalar hair
nontrivial scalar field, we need to call back the perturbation is weaker even we have stronger coupling strength λ. The
equation (11). Near the event horizon, the scalar field satisfies growth of L counteracts the effect of the λ and hinders the
  scalarization process.
L2 λ2
φ  (1) = m 2 − 6 4 (3 − 2L 2 + L 4 )e−φ(1) φ(1).
2

3 − L2 L
(25) 5 Signal of scalarization of black holes with zero
curvature
While in asymptotical infinity, the behavior is also (17). We
shall also set φ+ = 0 in the numeric. AdS black holes with a flat space (k = 0) is described
The critical threshold parameters in (λ, L) space is shown as toroidal black hole spacetimes. Thus the corresponding
on the left of Fig. 6 where in the green shadow region the r2
redshift function in the metric (6) is g(r ) = − M r + L2
scalar field in nontrivial. As L increases, the critical coupling
(M = L12 as rh = 1) and the GB term is R2G B = r42 (g  (r )2 +
also increases which is similar as that in the cases with k = 1.
g(r )g  (r )).
The curve tends to be divergent as L → 1 because there is no
We plot the effective potential in Fig. 7. The potential func-
black hole solution when L ≥ 1 in our setup. By comparing
tion with λ = 0 does not show negative well which insures
with left of Fig. 6 and Fig. 4, we find that the scalar hair is
the stability of the original toroidal hole. When the coupling
more difficult to form in the negative curvature than in the
between the scalar field and GB term is turned on, for the cho-
positive case. This is consistent with the conclusion from the
sen AdS radius L, the potential well near the horizon appears
comparison of the potential function.
and becomes deeper as λ increases. For the same coupling
We also present the scalar hair near the horizon and the
strength λ, similar potential well behavior will appear when
scalar charge at infinity as the function of λ for different
we decrease the AdS radius L. The deep potential well can
values of L in the middle and right of Fig. 6, respectively.
bound the scalar field near the horizon and lead to the insta-
With the increase of L, the threshold value λ becomes larger,
bility of the original toroidal black hole. This property is
which matches the observation on the left of Fig. 6. Moreover,
similar to those observed in the case with positive curvature
as L becomes larger, the curves become lower and lower
(Fig. 3) and negative curvature (Fig. 5). Through careful com-
rapidly and the value of φh (φ− ) decreases. Especially, when
parisons, we find that for the same parameters, the potential
L goes closely to the unity, φh becomes very small, which
well in zero curvature case is deeper than that in the nega-
indicates that the scalarization of the background black hole
tive curvature case, while shallower than that in the positive
becomes very difficult. This behaviour is consistent with that
curvature background. This indicates that in ESGB theory,
in positive curvature at small coupling (see the middle plot of
the horizon curvature influences the scalarization. For AdS
Fig. 4) as well as that in zero curvature shown in next section.
black hole with toroidal horizon the scalar hair can be formed
We have observed that scalarizations in hyperbolic AdS
more easily than the hyperbolic case, but if compared with
black hole backgrounds depend on two factors, the coupling
the spherical AdS black hole, the scalarization process in
strength between the scalar field and the GB term and the
toroidal AdS black hole is still more difficult.
cosmological constant through the radius L. For the chosen
To see the signal of the scalar field growing near the hori-
L, once the coupling parameter λ increases, the effective
zon, we solve the perturbation equation (11) with the bound-
potential in Fig. 5 becomes deeper which can ignite tachyonic
ary condition near the horizon
instability and start the hair formation more easily. When we
 
have big enough L, in Fig. 6 we see that the required critical λ  L2 λ2 −φ(1)2
to start the scalarization becomes bigger. In the middle panel φ (1) = m − 18 4 e
2
φ(1). (26)
3 L

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Eur. Phys. J. C (2021) 81:842 Page 9 of 13 842

Fig. 6 Left: the threshold curves for AdS black hole with negative curvature; Middle: the scalar hair near the horizon as the function of  with
different AdS radius L; Right: the corresponding scalar charge of the black hole φ− as the function of λ

Fig. 7 The effective potential for AdS black hole with zero curvature

The behavior is also (17) in asymptotical infinity, and we set 6 Closing remarks
φ+ = 0 as usual in the numeric.
The phase diagram in parameters (L , λ) space is shown in In this paper, we discussed the signal of scalarization for
the left panel of Fig. 8 where below the blue line, the scalar black holes with different curvature topologies in various
field perturbation will trivially die out, but above this line spacetimes. We considered the scalar field as a probe to the
the black hole scalarization will happen. The values on this general relativity solution in Einstein–scalar-Gauss–Bonnet
line are critical threshold values to ignite the scalarization. theory. Our discussion is based on the analysis of its effective
When the AdS radius L → ∞, we see that the threshold potential and the onset of nontrivial solution to the perturbed
coupling λ linearly approaches infinity, which means that scalar equation.
the toroidal AdS black hole cannot be scalarized in such We studied the signal of black hole scalarization with pos-
limits. In the limit L → ∞, the background returns to itive curvature in asymptotical flat, AdS and dS spacetime.
the flat spacetime and there is no black hole with the zero We first analyzed the validity of the probe approximation in
curvature. various spacetimes. We found that in flat and AdS cases, a
With some fixed L, we study the scalar field near the regular condition of test scalar field near event horizon could
horizon and the scalar charge at infinity as the function correspond to convergent (vanishing) condition at the asymp-
of λ, and the results are shown in the middle and right totical infinity, meaning the test field approximation could be
of Fig. 8, respectively. Note that for large GB coupling, valid; while in dS case, the regular condition near cosmolog-
the probe limit may be not reasonable and backreaction ical horizon leads to divergence at large distance, so that the
should be involved. But in some sense our result for small test field approximation breaks down. We then compared the
GB coupling is reliable and we see the signal of scalar- effect of asymptotical flat and AdS spacetime structures on
ization from the scalar field perturbation. In [61], we con- the scalarization process. Without the GB coupling λ, the
structed the scalarized hairy black hole with planar hori- effective potential of the scalar field are always positive and
zon in AdS space by considering the full backreaction. no well emerges. As we increased the coupling, the nega-
There we have set L = 1 and the threshold value is tive potential well would show and becomes deeper which
λ  0.64 which is consistent with that in Fig. 8 via careful may lead to tachyonic instability. With the same parame-
comparison. ters, the potential well for AdS black hole is deeper than that
for Schwarzschild black hole, meaning that the scalar hair

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842 Page 10 of 13 Eur. Phys. J. C (2021) 81:842

Fig. 8 Left: the threshold curves for AdS black hole with zero curvature; Middle: the scalar hair near the horizon as the function of λ with different
AdS radius L; Right: the corresponding scalar charge of the black hole φ− as the function of λ

around the spherical AdS black hole may be easier to form.

We solved the perturbed scalar field equation in the parameter
space (λ, L), and obtained the critical line above which the
non trivial scalar hair can be found. Figure 4 shows that the
scalar cloud around AdS black hole could form easier than
that around the Schwarzschild black hole. Moreover, in the
limit L → ∞, the threshold coupling in AdS case approaches
the value in Schwarzschild black hole from below as shown
in the left of Fig. 4.
We also investigated the signal of AdS black hole scalar-
ization process with different curvatures of the horizon. For
AdS black hole with positive (k = 1), negative (k = −1)
and zero (k = 0) curvatures, the properties of effective
potential is qualitatively the same (see Figs. 3, 5 and 7, Fig. 9 The threshold curves for AdS black hole with different cur-
respectively), that’s to say, no negative potential well appears vatures. The blue dot represents the threshold value of Schwarzschild
black hole
with λ = 0 for instability. The potential well near horizon
appears and becomes deep as λ (or L) increases (decreases),
which could bound the scalar field near the horizon and lead terms mentioned in points (iii-iv) are actually geometrical
to instability. However, the potential well for zero curva- effect. Thus, in this sense, the effect from the horizon curva-
ture is deeper than that for negative curvature but shallower ture on the potential as well as the scalarization is reflected
than that for positive curvature. Notice that the effect of by the interplay between the topology and geometry.
horizon curvature on the potential could be roughly ana- The behavior of potential indicates that in ESGB theory,
lytically
  evaluated from the expression
 (10), i.e, V (r ) = the scalar hair around AdS black hole with toroidal horizon
g (r ) λ2 2
g(r ) r + r 2 + m − 2 RG B . With fixed L and λ, we
A 2
may be easier to be formed than that with hyperbolic horizon
can diagnose the potential as follows. (i) m 2 = −2/L 2 + but more difficult than that with spherical horizon. Moreover,
12λ2 /L 4 for different horizon curvatures is the same in our we collected the critical threshold curves for different cur-
setup. (ii) For the lowest mode, the topological term A sat- vatures in Fig. 9 where the blue dot represents the threshold
isfies A(k = 1) = A(k = 0) = 0 < A(k = −1) = 1/4. value of Schwarzschild black hole in the limit L → ∞. It is
(iii) Fixing horizon radius implies that the black hole mass obvious that for the AdS black hole with fixed L, the scalar
satisfies M(k = 1) > M(k = 0) > M(k = −1), then it is hair is the easiest to be formed around spherical horizon, then

easy to obtain that the group term T = g r(r ) − λ2 RG
2
2 in the around the toroidal horizon and it is the most difficult to be
B
potential satisfies T (k = 1) < T (k = 0) < T (k = −1) < 0 bounded near hyperbolic horizon.
for fixed r near horizon. (iv) The overall factor g(r ) fulfills We shall present two comments on Fig. 9. (i) In the limit
g(k = 1) > g(k = 0) > g(k = −1) > 0 for fixed r outside L → 0, the threshold coupling in all three cases is very
the horizon. Combining (i)-(iv), it is not difficult to reduce small in which case the scalarization could easily realized.
that the effect of horizon curvature on the negative poten- Moreover, we know from the effective potential that the GB
tial well is V (k = 1) < V (k = 0) < V (k = −1) near coupling should be involved for the tachyonic instability and
horizon. It is noted that only the angular eigenvalues term A it further leads to the spontaneous scalarization. So we may
mentioned in point (ii) is truly the topological effect, and the argue that the threshold value would be tiny as L → 0, or the
scalarization could cut off at certain tiny L. This direction

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distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you 18. G. Dotti, R.J. Gleiser, C. Martinez, Static black hole solutions with
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