Railway Engineering PDF

Lec. - Railway Engineering Assist. Lec.
Zaid Abdul Zahra Mahdi
Introduction to Railways and Trains
Railway Engineering: The branch of Civil Engineering which deals with the design, construction and
maintenance of the railway tracks for safe and efficient movements of trains.
The Importance of Rail Transport:

1- Large transport heavy loads over long distances.
2- The ability to quickly and clear superiority ‫ التفوق‬of a lot of other means; where some trains
speed reached 210 km / h and others 510 km/ h.
3- Economy and safe mode of transportation.
Types of Land Transportation System
1- Rail transport Owing to the heavy expenditure ‫ نفقه‬on the basic infra-structure ‫بنيه تحتيه‬
required, rail transport is best suited for carrying bulk commodities ‫ سلع‬and a large number
of passengers over long distances.
2- Road transport Owing to flexibility of operation and the ability to provide door to- door
service, road transport is ideally suited for carrying light commodities and a small number of
passengers over short distances.
1
Lec. - Railway Engineering Assist. Lec. Zaid Abdul Zahra Mahdi
3- Pipe lines (for oil, gas, etc...).
The History of Railways
1- About 5000 BC by the Babylonians and the ancient Egyptians invented the wheels.
2- Greeks used paths to their vehicles digging ground lines nearly 15 centimeters in depth. And
the vehicle was paid on two parallel lines a distance of one meter or more between them are
more like bars rail.
3- In the 16th century used lines of iron above the ground (rails) to transport coal from the mines
to the vehicles wheels above it.
4- The first trains were rope- hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses.
5- The opening of the first railway in 1825 the planning of the English author George Stephenson
Klangurt. The length of the railway line 40 kilometers.
6- From the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives ‫القاطره( عربه المحرك‬.
Pulled by horses Steam Locomotives
7- From the 1910s onwards the steam locomotives began to be replaced by diesel locomotives
and electric locomotives. From city transit trains, subways, trams, to high speed rapid transit
trains.
2
8-
9-
10-
Diesel locomotives Electric locomotives
8- Nowadays; Maglev technology has invented to achieve much faster operation over 500
km/h (310 mph), in addition to modern tram system developed.
Maglev Light rail
Types of Railways
It might be divided according to its elevation into 1- at grade rails. 2- Elevated rails and 3- metro
those in the urban areas, also it might be in form of 1- ballast rails 2- slabs, and 3- maglev.
The most divisions of railways types:
1- Common railway – From the first moments that steam engines started rolling across the fields
of England, standard configuration of railway began spreading across the world.
3
2- Electrified railway –they became increasingly popular only after the introduction of alternating
to steam, it designed to use the electricity to move the engine of the train.
3- High speed rail – Advances in railway and train technologies enabled technicians to design
new type of railway that is optimized for high speeds and smooth driving. These railways can
be found in many high-speed train networks, especially in Japan, France and Spain.
4- Maglev – it uses power of the magnets to provide support for traveling locomotive and its
trains. Today this system is often used for very expensive and high-speed railway lines.
Comparative between Electric traction and Fuel cell locomotives
Electric traction Fuel cell locomotives
Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of The initial cost of such fuel cell vehicles is still
train operation but at a higher initial cost substantial at the moment, Higher cost per mile
electric traction is less viable for long-distance It is more viable for long-distance lines with the
lines with the exception of long-distance high exception of long-distance high speed lines
speed lines
Electric trains receive their current via Fuel cell locomotives combine the advantage of
overhead lines or through a third rail electric not needing an electrical system in place
system
4
Types of Trains
There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes and consist of five major
types, those are:
1- A freight train (also known as a goods train) uses freight cars ‫( عربات الشحن‬also known as
wagons or trucks) to transport goods or materials (cargo) any train that is not used for
carrying passengers.
2- Mine trains – Special train types that are used for underground excavations of rock and
coal. They are durable, small, and capable of hauling goods in very harsh and cramped
environment; Mine trains are operated in large mines and carry both workers and goods.
Overland trains are used to carry cargo over rough terrain.
3- Long-distance train category is high-speed rail; a passenger train is one which includes
passenger carrying vehicles which can often be very long and fast.
Freight train Passenger train
4- Freight and passengers may be carried in the same train in a mixed consist.
5- Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc., are termed
maintenance of way equipment; these may be assembled into maintenance of way trains.
Similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train
line.
5
Rail car Maintenance Rail Car
The comparative between two types of land transport mode:
feature Rail Road
1- Tractive The movement of steel wheels on steel The tractive resistance of a

resistance rails has the basic advantage of low pneumatic tyre on metaled
‫مقاومة الجر‬ rolling resistance. This reduces of roads is almost five times
haulage costs because of low tractive compared to those wheels on
resistance rails. ‫تمتلك الحركه اعاقه تعادل خمس‬
‫مرات من السكه‬
2- Right of way A railway track is defined on two rails Roads, though having well
and is within protected limits. Trains defined limits, can be used by
work as per a prescribed schedule and any vehicular traffic and even by
no other vehicle has the right of way pedestrians they are open to all.
except at specified level Crossings.
3- Cost analysis Owing to the heavy infrastructure, the The cost of construction and
initial as well as maintenance cost of a maintenance of roads is
railway line is high. comparatively cheaper.
6
4- Gradients The gradients of railways tracks are Roads are constructed normally
and Curves flatter (normally not more than 1 in 100) with steeper gradients of up to 1
and curves are limited up to only 10° on in 30 and relatively much
broad gauge sharper curves.
.
5- Flexibility of Due to the defined routes and facilities Road transports have much
movement required for the reception and dispatch more flexibility in movement
of trains, railways can be used only and can provide door-to-door
between fixed points. services.
6- Suitability Railways are best suited for carrying Road transport is best suited for
heavy goods and large numbers of carrying lighter goods and
passengers over long distances smaller numbers of passengers
. Over shorter distances.
7
Railway Components
The main components of a railway:
1- Rails: it is a general form of the railway having parallel rods of steel bar or continuous line of
bars lay on the ground as one of a pair forming a railway track,
2- Sleepers: a set of plate's wooden or concrete beams parallel among them, creating what looks
like a stairs, in order to maintain the same distance between them In order to ensure stability
on the ground
3- Ties and fixers: the continuous bars of rails tied with together longitudinally by fish plates and
the rails are fixed by screws or metal screws vertically on sleepers with chairs and spikes.
4- Ballast: a concrete base or a bed of gravel which rails and sleepers sat on; it compressed on
the ground in order to avoid twisting the rail and carrying the weight of the train, it also
provides flexibility, and good drainage. Over time, increases stability rail under the weight of
locomotives passers-by.
Sleepers
Ballast Rails
5- Formation: a level of subgrade which the components of railway are raised from natural
ground on it; almost have soil improvement structure.
8
Railway Gauge
Introduction
Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between two rails.
Various gauges have been adopted by different railways in the world due to historical and other
considerations. In British Railways, a gauge of 1525 mm (5 feet) was initially adopted, but the wheel
flanges at that time were on the outside of the rails. Subsequently, in order to guide the wheels
better, the flanges were made inside the rails.
The gauge then became 1435 mm (4' 8.5"), as at that time the width of the rail at the top was 45
mm (1.75"). The 1435-mm gauge became the standard gauge in most European Railways. The
approximate proportions of various gauges on world railways are given in the table below:
Various gauges on world railways
Type of gauge Gauge Gauge (feet ) % of length total Countries

(mm)
Standard gauge 1435 4' 8.5" 62 England, USA, Canada,
Turkey, Persia, and China
Broad gauge 1676 5' 6" 6 India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Brazil,
Argentina
Broad gauge 1524 5' 0" 9 Russia, Finland
Cape gauge 1067 3' 6" 8 Africa, Japan, Java, Australia,
and New Zealand
Meter gauge 1000 3' 3.5" 9 India, France, Switzerland, and
Argentina
23 various other Different Different 6 Various countries
gauges gauges gauges
9
Also there is another types adapted in India 762 mm (2' 6") and 610 mm (2' 0") called narrow
gauges were introduced for thinly populated areas, mountain railways, and other miscellaneous
purposes.
Factors theoretically influence the choice of the gauge:
a- Cost Considerations
There is only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a wider gauge is adopted.
b- Traffic Considerations
The volume of traffic depends upon the size of wagons and the speed and hauling capacity of the
train, as a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can theoretically carry more traffic.
A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed is a function of the
diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited by the width of the gauge.
c- Physical Features of the Country
It is possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper curves for a narrow gauge as compared to a
wider gauge.
d- Uniformity of Gauge
The existence of a uniform gauge in a country enables smooth, speedy, and efficient operation of
trains. Therefore a single gauge should be adopted irrespective of the minor advantages of a
wider gauge and the few limitations of a narrower gauge.
Dual-gauge Tracks
A dual-gauge or mixed-gauge railway has
railway track that allows trains of different
gauges to use the same track. Generally dual-
gauge railway consists of three rails, rather
than the standard two rails. The two outer
rails give the wider gauge, while one of the
outer rails and the inner rail give a narrower
gauge. Thus one of the three rails is common
to all traffic.
10
Alignment of Railway Lines
Alignment of railway line refers to the direction and position given to the center line of the
railway track on the ground in the horizontal and vertical planes.
Horizontal alignment means the direction of the railway track in the plan including the straight
path and the curves it follows.
Vertical alignment means the direction it follows in a vertical plane including the level track,
gradients, and vertical curves.
There are various factors affecting alignment, and types of track alignments and their suitability in
different terrains.
Types of Railway Alignments:
The alignment of a new railway line depends upon the topography of the country it traverses. The
following few situations may arise.
A. Plane alignment: When the topography is plane and flat, the alignment presents no
problems and can pass through obligatory points and yet have very easy gradients.
11
B. Valley alignment (‫)وادي‬: The alignment of a railway line in valley is simple and does not
pose (‫ )التشكل‬any problem. If two control points lie in the same valley, a straight line is
provided between these points with a uniform gradient.
Valley alignment
C. Cross-country alignment: The alignment of a railway line in such terrain crosses the
watersheds (‫ (تجمع للمياه‬of two or more streams of varied sizes.
 As the levels vary in cross country, the gradients are steep and varying and there are sags
and summits.
 The controlling or obligatory points for cross-country alignment may be the lowest saddles
or tunnels.
 It may be desirable to align the line for some length along the watersheds so that some of
the drainage crossings may be avoided.
D. Mountain alignment: The levels in mountains vary considerably, and if normal alignment
is adopted, the grades would become too steep, much more than the ruling gradient
(allowable gradient). In order to remain within the ruling gradient, the length of the
railway line is increased artificially by the ‘development processes.
12
The following are the standard methods for the development technique:
1- Zigzag line method: In this method, the railway line traverses in a zigzag alignment and
follows a convenient side slope which is at nearly right angles to the general direction of
the alignment. The line then turns about 180° in a horseshoe pattern to gain height.
2- Switch-back method )‫ )التبديل الى الوراء‬In the case of steep side slopes, a considerable gain in
elevation is accomplished the switch-back method. This method involves a reversal of
direction achieved by a switch, for which the train has to necessarily stop.
13
The switch point is normally located in a station yard. A and B are two switches and A1 and B1
are two buffer stops )‫(عوازل لاليقاف‬. A train coming from D will stop at B1 and move in back
gear to line BA. It will stop at A1 again and then follow the line AC.
3- Spiral or complete loop method: This method is used in a narrow valley where a small
bridge or viaduct has been constructed at a considerable height to span the valley.
In this case, normally a complete loop of the railway line is constructed, so that the line
crosses the same point a second time at a height through a flyover (overpass) or a tunnel.
Mountain Railways characteristics
There are few hills or mountains that have been connected by railway lines. Some of the
important features of these mountain railways are the following:
1- Gradients: Normally tracks with gradients of 3% or more are considered mountain tracks.
2- Gauge: Normally narrow gauges with gauge widths of 762 mm or 610 mm are adopted for
mountain railways.
3- Curvature: The curvature of mountain tracks is very sharp. Curvatures of up to 40° are
normally adopted.
14
4- Alignment: Mountain alignment is quite zigzag and not straight in order to gain heights
easily. The type of alignments normally followed is zigzag, switch-back, and spiral.
Track and Track Stresses
The track (or permanent way) is the railroad on which trains run Permanent way: The
combination of rails, fitted on sleepers with the help of fixtures and fastenings and resting on
ballast and subgrade is called the railway track or permanent way. It consists: Rails, sleepers,
ballast and formation.
Track components
The mechanism of transmission the stresses over railway track components:-
1- The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel load of trains to the sleepers.
2- The sleepers transfer the load to the ballast.
3- The ballast provides a uniform level and transfers the load to a larger area of the
formation.
4- The formation takes the total load of the track as well as of the trains moving on it.
Forces Acting on the Track
A rail is subjected to heavy stresses due to the following types of forces.
(a) Vertical loads consisting of dead loads, dynamic augment )‫ )زياده‬of loads including the effect of
speed, the hammer blow effect, and the inertia of reciprocating )‫ )التردديه‬masses, etc.
(b) Lateral forces due to the movement of live loads, eccentric )‫ )المائله‬vertical loading, shunting
)‫ (المناوره‬of locomotives, etc.
15
(c) Longitudinal forces due to tractive effort and braking forces, thermal forces, etc.
(d) Contact stresses due to wheel and rail contact.
(e) Stresses due to surface defects such as flat spots on wheels, etc.
Coning of Wheels
• The wheels of locomotive are not flat but sloped or coned at a slope of 1 in 20.
• The distance between inside edges of wheel flanges (B) is generally kept less than the
gauge (G). This results in a gap of 1 cm between flange and running face of rail.
Theory of coning:
✓ On level track, as soon as the axle moves towards one rail, the dia of the wheel tread over
the rail increases, while it decreases over the other rail. This prevents the further
movement and axle get back to its original position.
✓ Due to rigidity of the wheel base either the wheel must slip by an amount equal to the
difference of length or the axle move slightly outwards to provide a tread of longer
diameter over the outer rail and smaller diameter over the inner rail.
Advantages of coning:
✓ Reduce the wear and tear of wheel flanges and rails.
16
✓ To provide possibility of lateral movement of the axle with its wheels.
✓ To prevent the slipping of wheels.
If the tread dia. on both the rails is same

then amount of slip is:
Slip=δ (R₂-R₁)
Where, outer radius, R₂= R+ (G/2)
R₁= R- (G/2), G=Gauge
δ = angle at center in radians.

Slip= δ × G
Example: G=1.676 meters for B.G …………….. Slip= (2πθ˚/360) ×1.676 ……θ˚=angle at center (degree)
Therefore, Slip = 0.029 m per degree of central angle.
Rails
Function of Rails
Rails are similar to steel girders. These are provided to perform the following functions in a track.
(1) Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
(2) Rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction. The friction between the steel
wheel and the steel rail is about one-fifth of the friction between the pneumatic tyre and a metaled
road.
(3) Rails serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
(4) Rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them through axles and
wheels of rolling stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.
17
(5) Rails carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the formation through
sleepers and the ballast.
Types of Rails (according to the cross section)

1-The first rails used were double headed (DH) and made of an I or dumb-bell section, Reversible.
2-the bull headed (BH) rail which had an almost similar shape but with more metal in the head to
better withstand wear and tear.
Head
Web
Foot
The bull headed (BH)

Double headed (DH)
3-A flat-footed rail, also called a vignole rail with
an inverted T-type cross section
is a more economical design, giving greater strength
and lateral stability to the track as compared
to a BH rail for a given cross-sectional area.
A flat-footed (FF)
RAIL Creep
Longitudinal movement of rails in a track in the direction of motion, it varies from negligible length
to few centimeters.
1- Drag Theory. According to this theory rails are pushed backwards by driving wheel of
locomotive. Whereas other wheel of locomotive and wagons push the rails in the direction
of motion.
18
As a result of this, creep takes place in the direction of motion.

2- Wave Theory. As rail gets depressed under the rolling wheel, a vertical reverse curve is
formed.
The wheels have a tendency to push the rail in the direction of traffic. With the successive
forward motion of the wheel, creep is carried forward.
3- Percussion Theory
Rail end ahead of joint gets battered. Impact of wagon wheel tends to push forward the rail
giving rise to creep.
When; wheel crosses over the joint, force acts normal to the contact surface.
It's horizontal component causes creep whereas vertical component causes battering of rail
end.
19
Sleepers
The main functions of sleepers:
1- Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment
2- Giving a firm and even support to the rails
3- Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast
4- Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and vibrations
caused by moving loads
5- Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way
6- Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life . ‫لتصحيح المسارالهندسي‬
Types of Sleepers
1- Wooden sleepers
Advantages
(a) Cheap and easy to manufacture
(b) Absorbs shocks and bears a good capacity to
Dampen vibrations; therefore, retains the packing well
(c) Easy handling without damage

(d) Suitable for track-circuited sections Wooden sleepers
(e) Suitable for areas with yielding formations
(f) Alignment can be easily corrected
(g) More suitable for modern methods of maintenance
(h) Can be used with or without stone ballast
(i) Can be used on bridges and ash pits also
(j) Can be used for gauntleted track
Disadvantages
(a) Lesser life due to wear, decay, and attack by vermin
20
(b) Liable to mechanical wear due to beater packing

(c) Difficult to maintain the gauge
(d) Susceptible to fire hazards
(e) Negligible scrap value
2- Cast iron Sleepers
Advantages
(a) Less corrosion
(b) Less probability of cracking at rail seat
(c) Easy to manufacture
(d) Higher scrap value
Disadvantages
(a) Gauge maintenance is difficult as tie bars get bent

Metal sleepers
(b) Provides less lateral stability
(c) Unsuitable for track-circuited lines
(d) Not very suitable for mechanical maintenance and/or MSP because of rounded bottom
(e) Susceptible to breakage
3- Concrete sleepers
Concrete sleepers
21
Advantages
(a) Concrete sleepers, being heavy, lend more strength and stability to the track and are especially
suited to LWR due to their great resistance to buckling of the track.
(b) Concrete sleepers with elastic fastenings allow a track to maintain better gauge, cross level, and
alignment. They also retain packing very well.
(c) Concrete sleepers, because of their flat bottom, are best suited for modern methods of track
maintenance such as MSP and mechanical maintenance, which have their own advantages.
(d) Concrete sleepers can be used in track-circuited areas, as they are poor conductors of electricity.
(e) Concrete sleepers are neither inflammable nor subjected to damage by pests or corrosion under
normal circumstances.
(f) Concrete sleepers have a very long lifespan, probably 40–50 years. As such rail and sleeper renewals
can be matched, this is a major economic advantage.
(g) Concrete sleepers can generally be mass produced using local resources.
Disadvantages
(a) Handling and laying concrete sleepers is difficult due to their large weights. Mechanical methods,
which involve considerable initial expenditure, have to be adopted for handling them.
(b) Concrete sleepers are heavily damaged at the time of derailment.
(c) Concrete sleepers have no scrap value.
(d) Concrete sleepers are not suitable for beater packing.
(f) Concrete sleepers should preferably be maintained by heavy ‘on track’ Tampers.
Comparison of different types of sleepers
Characteristics Wooden Steel CI Concrete

Service life 12–15 40–50 40–50 50–60
(years)
Type of Manual or Manual or Manual Mechanized only
maintenance mechanized mechanized
22
Cost of High Medium Medium Low

maintenance
Gauge Difficult Easy Easy No gauge
adjustment adjustment possible
Ballast
The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel or any other granular material placed and packed
below and around sleepers.
Functions of Ballast
1- Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.
2- Holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
3- Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the formation.
4- Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
5- Provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
6- Provides effective drainage to the track.
7- Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.
Types of Ballast
1- Sand ballast
2- Coal ash or cinder
3- Broken stone ballast
4- Other types.
Minimum Depth of Ballast
For the even distribution of load on the formation, the depth of the ballast is determined by the
following formula:
Sleeper spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 × depth of ballast
23
Subgrade and Formation

Subgrade is the naturally occurring soil which is prepared to receive the ballast.
Formation is the prepared flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast, sleepers, and rails.
The Formation functions:

(a) To provide a smooth and uniform bed for laying the track.
(b) To bear the load transmitted to it from the moving load through the ballast.
(c) To facilitate drainage and (d) to provide stability to the track.
Geometric Design of Track
The parameters of geometric design:
1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising gradient, and falling gradient.
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition curves, sharpness of
the curve in terms of radius or degree of the curve, cant or super elevation on curves, etc.
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment.
1- Gradients
A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of one unit. Sometimes
the gradient is indicated as percent rise or fall. For example, if there is a rise of 1 m in 400 m, the
gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25%.
24
a) Ruling Gradient ‫االنحدار المسموح‬
The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It determines the maximum load
that can be hauled by a locomotive on that section.
1- Should be adequate to haul the maximum load at maximum permissible speed given the
hauling power of the engine And
2- Determines the maximum gradient that is compatible with the hauling power of the engine.
P = W Sin ϴ
= W tan ϴ (approximately, as ϴ is very small)
= W × gradient
The extra force P required by a locomotive to pull a train of weight W on a gradient with an angle of
inclination ϴ.
b) Pusher or Helper Gradient ‫االنحدار المستخدام الجل تقليل طول السكه‬
In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very important when trying to reduce the
length of the railway line; When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to necessitate the
use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper gradient.
c) Momentum Gradient ‫انحدار الزخم‬
The momentum gradient is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train
because of the momentum it gathers while running on the section. In valleys, a falling gradient is
sometimes followed by a rising gradient.
d) Gradients in Station Yards ‫انحدار في محطات الوقوف‬
The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following reasons.
(a) To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard Due to the
combined effect of gravity and strong winds.
(b) To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent
possible.
25
It may be mentioned here that generally, yards are not leveled completely and certain flat gradients
are provided in order to ensure good drainage. The maximum gradient prescribed in station yards
on Indian Railways is 1 in 400, while the recommended gradient is 1 in 1000.
2-Curves
Radius or degree of a curve
A curve is defined either by its radius or by its degree. The degree of a curve (D) is the angle
subtended at its centre by a 30.5-m or 100-ft chord. The value of the degree of the curve can be
determined as indicated below.
Circumference of a circle = 2π R
Angle subtended at the centre by a circle with this circumference = 360° Angle subtended at the
centre by a 30.5-m chord, or degree of curve.
360 * 30.5
2πR
D = 1750/R (approx., R is in metres)
Example / A 2° curve, therefore, has a radius of 1750/2 = 875 m.
Relationship between radius and versine of a curve
The versine is the perpendicular distance of the midpoint of a chord from the arc of a circle. Let R
be the radius of the curve, C be the length of the chord, and V be the versine of a chord of length C.
V=
Where R is the radius of the curve, C is the chord length in metres, and V is the versine in
centimetres,
26
Setting Out a Circular Curve
 Tangential offset method
 Long chord offset method
The design of horizontal curves
Superelevation or cant (Ca) is the difference in height between the outer and the inner rail on a
curve. Maximum cant must be (1/10)th – (1/12)th from gauge.
27
Where e is the superelevation in millimetres, V is the speed in km/h, R is the radius of the curve in metres,
and G is the dynamic gauge in millimetres, which is equal to the sum of the gauge and the width of the rail
head in millimetres.
The equilibrium speed is the speed at which the effect of the centrifugal force is completely balanced by
the cant provided.
Cant deficiency it is occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium
speed. It is the difference between the theoretical cant required for such high speeds and the actual cant
provided.
Cant deficiency: is the difference between the equilibrium cant that is necessary for the maximum
permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant provided. For BG 75 mm, MG 50 mm and for NG 40
mm. while when speeds higher than 100 km/h the Cd is 100 mm for the BG.
Cant excess (Ce) it occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium
speed. It is the difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for such a
low speed.
Cant excess should not be more than 75 mm on broad gauge and 65 mm on metre gauge for all types of
rolling stock.
Maximum permissible speed: This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking into
consideration the radius of curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and the length of
transition.
On curves where the maximum permissible speed is less than the maximum sectional speed of the section
of the line, permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.
Negative Superelevation
When the main line lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading to a branch line, the
superelevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over the main line curve cannot be
provided. The branch line curve has a negative superelevation and, therefore, speeds on both tracks must
be restricted, particularly on the branch line.
28
1-The equilibrium superelevation for the branch line curve is first calculated.
2-The equilibrium superelevation e is reduced by the permissible cant deficiency Cd and the resultant
superelevation to be provided is x = e – Cd where,
X is the superelevation, e is the equilibrium superelevation, and Cd is 75 mm for BG, 50 mm for MG

and 40 mm for NG. The value of Cd is generally higher than that of e, and, therefore, x is normally
negative. The branch line thus has a negative superelevation of x.
3-The maximum permissible speed on the main line (which has a superelevation of x) is then
calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency (x + Cd). The safe speed is also calculated and
smaller of the two values is taken as the maximum permissible speed on the main line curve.
Safe Speed on Curves
1- with Transitioned curves
V = 4.4 √𝑅 − 70 ………For BG and MG
V = 3.65 √𝑅 − 6 ……....For NG (subject to a maximum of 50 km/h).
Where V is the speed in km/h and R is the radius in metres.
2- without Transitioned curves
Safe speed = four-fifths of the speed, where the NG is subject to a maximum of 40 km/h.
3- for high speed rails : v = 4.58 √𝑅
29
Theoretical Maximum permissible speed:
For equilibrium superelevation and is based on the assumption that G = 1750 mm, which is the
centre-to-centre distance between the rail heads of a BG track with 52-kg rails and MG track is 1058
mm.
1- On curves with transition curves:-
v = 0.27 √( 𝐶𝑎 + 𝐶𝑑)𝑅 ………..for BG
v = 0.347 √( 𝐶𝑎 + 𝐶𝑑)𝑅………for MG
v = 3.65 √𝑅 − 6 …....................for NG (subject to a maximum of 50 km/h).
Where V is the maximum speed in km/h, Ca is the actual cant in mm, C d is the permitted cant deficiency
in mm, and R is the radius in m.
2- On curves without transitions (cant on virtual transition):-

The cant gradient must not be steeper than 1 in 360 on BG and 1 in 720 on MG and NG under any
circumstance.
L = 3.60 * e …….for BG or L = 7.20 * e ……for MG and NG
Where e is actual superelevation in cm, L is length of curve in metres. Then find the v from e.
Maximum permissible speed
1- Maximum sanctioned speed of the section this is the maximum permissible speed authorized by the
commissioner of railway safety.
2- Maximum speed of the section taking into consideration cant deficiency this is the speed calculated
(from theoretical max.speed) first, the equilibrium speed is decided after taking various factors into
consideration and the equilibrium superelevation (Ca) calculated. The cant deficiency (Cd) is then
added to the equilibrium superelevation and the maximum speed is calculated as per this increased
superelevalion (Ca + Cd).
3- Maximum speed taking into consideration speed of goods train and cant excess, generally its value
(slow move) 65 km/h for BG and 50 km/h for MG, find cant from this and add to the maximum value
of cant excess.
4- Speed corresponding to the length of the transition curves 1-from code : L (m)= 4.4√𝑅,
2-from rate of change of radial acceleration (0.3048 m/sec2) L= 3.28 v3 /R… (v=0.278 V).
3- From table below (the speeds above 100 km/h must use minimum length formula below):
30
L=
L = 0.005 Ca Vm
L=
L = 0.005 Cd Vm
Example 1 Calculate the superelevation and the maximum permissible speed for a 2° BG
transitioned curve on a high-speed route with a maximum sanctioned speed of 110 km/h. The speed
for calculating the equilibrium superelevation as decided by the chief engineer is 80 km/h and the
booked speed of goods trains is 50 km/h.
31
Example 2 Calculate the maximum permissible speed on a curve of a high speed BG having the
following particulars: degree of the curve = 1°, superelevation = 80 mm, length of transition curve = 120
m, maximum speed likely to be sanctioned for the section =160 km/h.
32
Example 3 Calculate the superelevation, maximum permissible speed, and transition length for a 3°
curve on a high-speed BG section with a maximum sanctioned speed of 110 km/h. Assume the
equilibrium speed to be 80 km/h and the booked speed of the goods train to be 50 km/h.
33
Example 4 A BG branch line track takes off as a contrary flexure through 1o turnout from a main line
track of a 3° curvature. Due to the turnout, the maximum permissible speed on the branch line is 30 km/h.
calculate the negative superelevation to be provided on the branch line track and the maximum
permissible speed on the main line track (when it takes off from a straight track).
34
Summary of parameters concerns in curves
features BG MG NG
Dynamic gauge (mm), c : c 1750 1058 ---
Max. degree of curvature (on plain track) 10 16 40
Max. degree of curvature ( On turnouts) 8 15 17
Min. radius (m) on plain track 175 109 44
Min. radius (m) On turnouts 218 116 103
Maximum cant (mm) 165 90 65
Allowable cant deficiency (mm) 75 50 40
Maximum cant deficiency for high speed A 100 --- ---
and B group routes (mm)
Maximum Cant excess (mm) 75 65 ---
Minimum cant deficiency in turnout (mm) 75 50 ---
Types of Transition Curves
Euler’s spiral: This is an ideal transition curve, but is not preferred due to mathematical complications.
The equation for Euler’s spiral is Φ = l2 / 2RL.
Cubical spiral: This is also a good transition curve, but quite difficult to set on the field. (y = l2 / 6RL)
Bernoulli’s Lemniscate: In this curve, the radius decreases as the length increases and this causes the
radial acceleration to keep on falling. The fall is, however, not uniform beyond a 30° deflection angle.
This curve is not used on railways.
Cubic parabola Indian Railways mostly uses the cubic parabola for transition curves. The equation of the
cubic parabola is (y= x3 / 6RL).
Φ is the angle between the straight line track and the tangent to the transition curve, l is the distance of
any point on the transition curve from the take-off point, L is the length of the transition curve, x is the
35
horizontal coordinate on the transition curve, y is the vertical coordinate on the transition curve, and R
is the radius of the circular curve.
S-shaped transition curve In an S-shaped transition curve, the curvature and superelevation assume the
shape of two quadratic parabolas. Instead of a straight line ramp, an S-type parabola ramp is provided
with this transition curve. The special feature of this curve is that the shift required (‘shift’ is explained
in the following section) in this case is only half of the normal shift provided for a straight line ramp. The
value of shift is (s = L2/ 48R).
Shift
It is a measure required to be moved inward by for the main circular curve to fit in the transition curve,
which is laid in the shape of a cubic parabola. (s = L2 /24R), where S is the shift in m and L is the length of
the transition curve in m, and R is the radius in m.
The offset (in centimetres) from the straight line to any point on the transition curve is calculated using
the equation. (y = 16.7 X2/ LR), where y is the offset from the straight line in cm, x is the distance from
the commencement of the curve in m, L is the length of transition in m, and R is the radius of curve in
m.
36
Widening of Gauge on Curves
Where B is the wheel base of the vehicle in metres (for BG=6 and for MG= 4.88), R is the radius of the
curve in metres, L = 0.02(h2 + Dh)1/2 is the lap of the flange in metres, h is the depth of flange below top
of the rail, and D is the diameter of the wheel of the vehicle, D, w and h in cm.
Example: The wheel base of a vehicle moving on a BG track is 6 m. The diameter of the wheels is 1524
mm and the flanges project 32 mm below the top of the rail. Determine the extra width of the gauge
required if the radius of the curve is 168 m. Also indicate the extra width of gauge actually provided as
per Indian Railways standards.
(iii) As per Indian Railways standards, an extra width of 5 mm is provided for curves with a radius less
than 400 m in actual practice.
Vertical Curves
An angle is formed at the point where two different gradients meet; forming a Summit or sag, the
required length of a vertical curve for achieving the maximum permissible speed is given by the formula
L = (a/r) × 30.5 m. where L is the length of the vertical curve in m, a is the per cent algebraic difference
between successive gradients, and r is the rate of change of the gradient, which is 0.1% for summit
(crest) curves and 0.05% for valley (sag) curves.
Notes on vertical curves:-

 The vertical curve is the parabolic type.
 It is set out by tangent to the two intersecting grades.
 It is apex at a level halfway between the points of intersection of grades line and the average
elevation of the two tangent points.
 The first offset we can depend at the mid of curve line (= elevation of curve apex – elevation of
intersection point).
 The offset of any point on the curve tangent point towards apex will vary as square distance from
tangent point (y= x2/L2). So the offset of any point = (x2/L2) * offset of apex.
37
Example: Calculate the length of the vertical curve between two gradients meeting in a summit, one
rising at a rate of 1 in 100 and the other falling at a rate of 1 in 200.
Sol:
Gradient of the rising track (1 in 100) = 1% (+)
Gradient of the falling track (1 in 200) = 0.5% (–)
Change of gradient (a) = 1 – (–0.5) = 1 + 0.5% = + 1.5%
Rate of change of gradient (r) for summit curve = 0.1%,
Points and Crossings
Points and crossings are provided to help transfer railway vehicles from one track to another, the points
or switches aid in diverting the vehicles and the crossings provide gaps in the rails so as to help the
flanged wheels to roll over them.
Turnout It is an arrangement of points and crossings with lead rails by means of which the rolling stock
may be diverted from one track to another.
Tongue rail it is a tapered ‫ مدبب‬movable rail, made of high-carbon or -manganese steel to withstand
wear. At its thicker end, it is attached to a running rail. A tongue rail is also called a switch rail.
Stock rail it is the running rail against which a tongue rail operates.
Points or switch a pair of tongue and stock rails with the necessary connections and fittings forms a
switch.
Heel: - Tapered rail fixed to the main rails are called Heel.
38
Crossing A crossing is a device introduced at the junction where two rails cross each other to permit the
wheel flange of a railway vehicle to pass from one track to another.
Track Maintenance
The following operations of maintenance as per the timetable or calendar, the 12-month cycle:
(a) Through packing
(b) Packing of sleepers
(c) Systematic overhauling ‫االصالح بانتظام‬
a- Through Packing
Opening of road the ballast is dug out on either side of the rail seat for a depth of 50 mm (2") below the
bottom of the sleeper with the help of a shovel with a wire craw.
Examination of rails, sleepers, and fastenings the rails, sleepers, and fastenings to be used are
thoroughly examined. Defective sleepers are removed and loose fastenings are tightened. Any kinks in
the rails are removed using a Jim Crow.
Squaring of sleepers the sleepers get out of square quite frequently resulting in gauge variations and
kinks.
Aligning the track the alignment of the track is normally checked visually, wherein the rail is visually
assessed from a distance of about four rail lengths or so.
39
Gauging the gauge should be checked and an attempt should be made to provide a uniform gauge
within permissible tolerance limits.
b- Packing of sleepers
The base rail is identified by the mate and the dip or low joints are lifted correctly to ensure that the
longitudinal level of the rail is perfect.
c- Systematic Overhauling: It involves the following operations in sequence.
(a) Shallow screening and making up of ballast section
(b) Replacement of damaged or broken fittings
(c) All items included in through packing
(d) Making up the cess.
Railway Stations and Yards
A railway station is that place on a railway line where traffic is booked and dealt with and where trains
are given the authority to proceed forward. It is classified as a flag station or a block station.
Selection of Site for a Railway Station
The following factors are considered when selecting a site for a railway station.
1. Adequate land: There should be adequate land available for the station building, not only for the
proposed line but also for any future expansion.
2. Level area with good drainage: the maximum permissible gradient adopted is 1 in 400, but a
gradient of 1 in 1000 is desirable.
3. Alignment: The station site should preferably have a straight alignment so that the various signals
are clearly visible.
4. Easy accessibility: The station site should be easily accessible. The site should be near villages and
towns.
5. Water supply arrangement: When selecting the site, it should be verified that adequate water
supply is available for passengers and operational needs.
Classification of Railway Stations

Railway stations can broadly be sorted into various classes on the basis of two main considerations.
a- Operational considerations
b- Functional considerations
Yards
A yard is a system of tracks laid out to deal with the passenger as well as goods traffic being handled by
the railways. This includes receipt and dispatch of trains apart from stabling, sorting, marshaling, and
other such functions. Yards are normally classified into the following categories.
a- Coaching yard: The main function of a coaching yard is to deal with the reception and dispatch of
passenger trains.
b- Goods yard: A goods yard provides facilities for the reception, stabling, loading, unloading, and
dispatch of goods wagons.
40
c- Marshalling yard: A goods yard which deals with the sorting of goods wagons to form new goods
trains.
d- Locomotive yard: This is the yard which houses the locomotive. Facilities for watering, fuelling,
examining locomotives, repairing, etc.
e- Sick line yard: Whenever a wagon or coach becomes defective, it is marked ‘sick’ and taken to sick
lines. This yard deals with such sick wagons.
Urban Transport
The different forms of urban transport in use in most cities of the world are the following.
(a) Motorbuses: This is the most convenient form of transport and is used extensively in metropolitan
cities.
(b) Trolley buses: These are buses that derive their energy through overhead electric transmission.
(c) Tramways: Tramways require a track on which the trams can run and as such require the
infrastructure of a proper railway track.
(d) Surface railways: the track is laid on a ground that has a suitable embankment or cutting, depending
upon the topography of the area
(e) Underground railways: An underground railway system normally uses ‘electric traction’, as steam
and diesel tractions produce smoke and lead to the pollution of the environment.
(f) Elevated railways: This type of railway is provided at an elevation above the ground level. The track
is laid on a deck, which is supported by steel or RCC columns.
(g) Monorails: The monorail is a form of elevated railway that is provided with only one rail on which
trains run.
(h) Tube railways: In this rail system, the underground railways are generally provided at a depth of
more than 25 m.
Railway Tunneling
A tunnel can be defined as an underground passage for the transport of passengers, goods, water,
sewage, oil, gas, etc.
Necessity/Advantages of a Tunnel
The necessity of constructing a tunnel may arise because of one of the following considerations.
(a) A tunnel may be required to eliminate the need for a long and circuitous route for reaching the other
side of a hill, as it would considerably reduce the length of the railway line and may also prove to be
economical.
(b) It may be economical to provide a tunnel instead of a cutting, particularly in a rocky terrain.
(c) In hills with soft rocks, a tunnel is cheaper than a cutting.
41
(d) In metropolitan towns and other large cities, tunnels are constructed to accommodate underground
railway systems in order to provide a rapid and unobstructed means of transport.
(e) A tunnel constructed under a river bed may sometimes prove to be more economical and
convenient than a bridge.
(f) In the case of aerial warfare transportation through tunnels provides better safety and security to rail
users compared to a bridge or deep cutting.
(g) The maintenance cost of a tunnel is considerably lower than that of a bridge or deep cutting.
Signalling
Signaling is Mechanism by which the station master conveys information to the Loco driver to
Stop, Go with Caution or Proceed.
Stop signal
Semaphore Signaling
Semaphore signals are rectangular or fish tailed The length and width of arm vary from 120-167 cm and
arm fixed to a vertical Post.The arm is rotated in 23-25 cm respectively.
different angles to convey information to the
Loco driver.
42
Modernization of Railways and High Speed Trains
Railways are modernized with the objective of allowing heavier trains to run safely and
economically at faster speeds, of improving productivity, and of providing better customer service
to rail users.
Requirements of Modernization
1-upgrading the track, use of better designed rolling stock, adopting a superior form of traction.
2-better signaling, telecommunication arrangements and using other modern techniques in the
various operations of a railways system.
A railway track is modernized by incorporating the following features in the track:
(a) Use of heavier rail sections such as 52 kg/m and 60 kg/m and the use of wear resistant rails for
heavily used sections so as to increase the life of the rails.
(b) Use of curved switches of 1 in 16 and 1 in 20 type for smoother arrival at yards.
(C) Use of prestressed concrete sleepers and elastic fastenings such as Pndrol clips to provide
resilience to the track and ensure the smooth movement of trains at high speeds.
(d) Use of long welded rails and switch expansion joints to ensure a smooth and fast rail journey.
(e) Modernization of track maintenance methods to include mechanized maintenance, measured
shovel packing, etc., in order to ensure better track geometry, to facilitate high speeds and smooth
travel.
(f) Track monitoring using the Amsler car, portable accelerometer, Hallade track recorder, etc. to
assess the standards of track maintenance and plan for better maintenance, if required.
43
Example (vertical curves)

If sag curve is introduced between downgrades 0.9 % followed by an upgrade of 0.7% determines
the length of the parabolic vertical curve, the offsets at every 30.5 m and the railway levels of the
various corresponding points on the curves. When given the R.Ls of the ground at the sag point is
30 m and allowable rate of change of gradient is 0.1 %.
g= g1-g2
g= -0.9-0.7= -1.6
As rate change of gradient is 0.1% so the total length of the curve = 1.6/0.1= 16 chains.
If each chain is 30.5 m then the total length of the curve will be: 16 * 30.5 = 488 m.
It is mean 244 m at each side.
R.L. of the ground at beginning point = 30 + 244 * 0.9% = 32.19 m
R.L. of the ground at the end of curve = 30 + 244 * 0.7% = 31.7 m
The mid-point level = (32.19+31.7)/2= 31.95m
The level of apex = (30 + 31.95)/2= 30.97m
Then the offset at sag point = 30.97- 30 = 0.975 m
The offset of each point = (x2/L2)* offset of apex.
The point at (30.5) = (30.5)2/ (244)2 *(0.975) = 0.0095 m
The point at (61) = (60)2/ (244)2 * (0.975) = 0.036 m
The point at (91.5) = (91.5)2/ (244)2 * (0.975) = 0.085 m
.
.
44

Railway Engineering PDF

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Railway Engineering PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Railway Engineering PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lec. - Railway Engineering Assist. Lec.

Zaid Abdul Zahra Mahdi

Introduction to Railways and Trains

The Importance of Rail Transport:

3- Economy and safe mode of transportation.

Types of Land Transportation System

3- Pipe lines (for oil, gas, etc...).

The History of Railways

Pulled by horses Steam Locomotives

Diesel locomotives Electric locomotives

Maglev Light rail

The most divisions of railways types:

Comparative between Electric traction and Fuel cell locomotives

Electric traction Fuel cell locomotives

Freight train Passenger train

Rail car Maintenance Rail Car

The comparative between two types of land transport mode:

feature Rail Road

1- Tractive The movement of steel wheels on steel The tractive resistance of a

The main components of a railway:

Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between two rails.

Various gauges on world railways

Type of gauge Gauge Gauge (feet ) % of length total Countries

Factors theoretically influence the choice of the gauge:

c- Physical Features of the Country

Alignment of Railway Lines

Types of Railway Alignments:

Mountain Railways characteristics

Track and Track Stresses

The mechanism of transmission the stresses over railway track components:-

Forces Acting on the Track

A rail is subjected to heavy stresses due to the following types of forces.

(d) Contact stresses due to wheel and rail contact.

✓ Reduce the wear and tear of wheel flanges and rails.

✓ To provide possibility of lateral movement of the axle with its wheels.

✓ To prevent the slipping of wheels.

If the tread dia. on both the rails is same

Where, outer radius, R₂= R+ (G/2)

R₁= R- (G/2), G=Gauge

δ = angle at center in radians.

Therefore, Slip = 0.029 m per degree of central angle.

(3) Rails serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.

Types of Rails (according to the cross section)

The bull headed (BH)

3-A flat-footed rail, also called a vignole rail with

an inverted T-type cross section

is a more economical design, giving greater strength

and lateral stability to the track as compared

to a BH rail for a given cross-sectional area.

As a result of this, creep takes place in the direction of motion.

The main functions of sleepers:

1- Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment

2- Giving a firm and even support to the rails

5- Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way

(a) Cheap and easy to manufacture

(b) Absorbs shocks and bears a good capacity to

Dampen vibrations; therefore, retains the packing well