Topic: psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the
study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It
is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the
natural and social sciences. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent
properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As a social science,
psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups. Ψ (or psi)
is a Greek letter which is commonly associated with the science of psychology.

A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a

psychologist. Some psychologists can also be classified as social, behavioral, or
cognitive scientists. Some psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental
functions in individual and social behavior. Others explore the physiological and
biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.

Psychologists are involved in research on perception, cognition, attention,

emotion, intelligence, subjective experiences, motivation, brain functioning, and
personality. Psychologists' interests extend to interpersonal relationships,
psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas within social
psychology. They also consider the unconscious mind. Research psychologists employ
empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between
psychosocial variables. Some, but not all, clinical and counseling psychologists
rely on symbolic interpretation.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of

mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving
problems in several spheres of human activity. By many accounts, psychology
ultimately aims to benefit society. Many psychologists are involved in some kind of
therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Other
psychologists conduct scientific research on a wide range of topics related to
mental processes and behavior. Typically the latter group of psychologists work in
academic settings (e.g., universities, medical schools, hospitals). Another group
of psychologists is employed in industrial and organizational settings. Yet others
are involved in work on human development, aging, sports, health, forensics, and
the media.
Etymology and definitions

The word psychology derives from the Greek word psyche, for spirit or soul. The
latter part of the word "psychology" derives from -λογία -logia, which refers to
"study" or "research". The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian
humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae
humanae (Psychology, on the Nature of the Human Soul) in the late 15th century or
early 16th century. The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English
was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary. The dictionary refers
to "Anatomy, which treats the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."In
1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of mental life, both of its
phenomena and their conditions." This definition enjoyed widespread currency for
decades. However, this meaning was contested, notably by radical behaviorists such
as John B. Watson, who in 1913 asserted that the discipline is a "natural science,"
the theoretical goal of which "is the prediction and control of behavior." Since
James defined "psychology," the term more strongly implicates scientific
experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of ordinary people, as
contrasted with that of psychology professionals, with regard to the mental states
and behaviors of people.
History

The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in
the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the Ebers Papyrus mentioned
depression and thought disorders. Historians note that Greek philosophers,
including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise),
addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek
physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than
supernatural causes. In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental
processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart.In
China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and
Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge
involves insights drawn from introspection and observation, as well as techniques
for focused thinking and acting. It frames the universe in term of a division of
physical reality and mental reality as well as the interaction between the physical
and the mental. Chinese philosophy also emphasized purifying the mind in order to
increase virtue and power. An ancient text known as The Yellow Emperor's Classic of
Internal Medicine identifies the brain as the nexus of wisdom and sensation,
includes theories of personality based on yin–yang balance, and analyzes mental
disorder in terms of physiological and social disequilibria. Chinese scholarship
that focused on the brain advanced during the Qing Dynasty with the work of
Western-educated Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), Liu Zhi (1660–1730), and Wang Qingren
(1768–1831). Wang Qingren emphasized the importance of the brain as the center of
the nervous system, linked mental disorder with brain diseases, investigated the
causes of dreams and insomnia, and advanced a theory of hemispheric lateralization
in brain function.Influenced by Hinduism, Indian philosophy explored distinctions
in types of awareness. A central idea of the Upanishads and other Vedic texts that
formed the foundations of Hinduism was the distinction between a person's transient
mundane self and their eternal, unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines and
Buddhism have challenged this hierarchy of selves, but have all emphasized the
importance of reaching higher awareness. Yoga encompasses a range of techniques
used in pursuit of this goal. Theosophy, a religion established by Russian-American
philosopher Helena Blavatsky, drew inspiration from these doctrines during her time
in British India.Psychology was of interest to Enlightenment thinkers in Europe. In
Germany, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus
to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum.
He suggested that the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is
only a matter of degree. Christian Wolff identified psychology as its own science,
writing Psychologia Empirica in 1732 and Psychologia Rationalis in 1734. Immanuel
Kant advanced the idea of anthropology as a discipline, with psychology an
important subdivision. Kant, however, explicitly rejected the idea of an
experimental psychology, writing that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can also
never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental
doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere
division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but
still less does another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to
suit our purpose), and even observation by itself already changes and displaces the
state of the observed object." In 1783, Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752-1812)
designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic and gave lectures on
scientific psychology, though these developments were soon overshadowed by the
Napoleonic Wars. At the end of the Napoleonic era, Prussian authorities
discontinued the Old University of Münster. Having consulted philosophers Hegel and
Herbart, however, in 1825 the Prussian state established psychology as a mandatory
discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential educational system.
However, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation. In England, early
psychology involved phrenology and the response to social problems including
alcoholism, violence, and the country's crowded "lunatic" asylums.
Beginning of experimental psychology

Gustav Fechner began conducting psychophysics research in Leipzig in the 1830s. He

articulated the principle that human perception of a stimulus varies
logarithmically according to its intensity.: 61  The principle became known as the
Weber–Fechner law. Fechner's 1860 Elements of Psychophysics challenged Kant's
negative view with regard to conducting quantitative research on the mind.
Fechner's achievement was to show that "mental processes could not only be given
numerical magnitudes, but also that these could be measured by experimental
methods." In Heidelberg, Hermann von Helmholtz conducted parallel research on
sensory perception, and trained physiologist Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt, in turn, came to
Leipzig University, where he established the psychological laboratory that brought
experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental
processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent
advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and
structure of materials. Paul Flechsig and Emil Kraepelin soon created another
influential laboratory at Leipzig, a psychology-related lab, that focused more on
experimental psychiatry.The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a researcher at
the University of Berlin, was another 19th-century contributor to the field. He
pioneered the experimental study of memory and developed quantitative models of
learning and forgetting. In the early twentieth century, Wolfgang Kohler, Max
Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology (not to be
confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls). The approach of Gestalt
psychology is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified
wholes. Rather than reducing thoughts and behavior into smaller component elements,
as in structuralism, the Gestaltists maintained that whole of experience is
important, and differs from the sum of its parts.

Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon
followed Wundt in setting up laboratories. G. Stanley Hall, an American who studied
with Wundt, founded a psychology lab that became internationally influential. The
lab was located at Johns Hopkins University. Hall, in turn, trained Yujiro Motora,
who brought experimental psychology, emphasizing psychophysics, to the Imperial
University of Tokyo. Wundt's assistant, Hugo Münsterberg, taught psychology at
Harvard to students such as Narendra Nath Sen Gupta—who, in 1905, founded a
psychology department and laboratory at the University of Calcutta. Wundt's
students Walter Dill Scott, Lightner Witmer, and James McKeen Cattell worked on
developing tests of mental ability. Cattell, who also studied with eugenicist
Francis Galton, went on to found the Psychological Corporation. Witmer focused on
the mental testing of children; Scott, on employee selection.: 60 Another student
of Wundt, the Englishman Edward Titchener, created the psychology program at
Cornell University and advanced "structuralist" psychology. The idea behind
structuralism was to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily
through the method of introspection. William James, John Dewey, and Harvey Carr
advanced the idea of functionalism, an expansive approach to psychology that
underlined the Darwinian idea of a behavior's usefulness to the individual. In
1890, James wrote an influential book, The Principles of Psychology, which expanded
on the structuralism. He memorably described "stream of consciousness." James's
ideas interested many American students in the emerging discipline.: 178–82  Dewey
integrated psychology with societal concerns, most notably by promoting progressive
education, inculcating moral values in children, and assimilating immigrants.: 196–
200 

A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology,

emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the
University of Buenos Aires. In Russia, too, researchers placed greater emphasis on
the biological basis for psychology, beginning with Ivan Sechenov's 1873 essay,
"Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?" Sechenov advanced the idea of brain
reflexes and aggressively promoted a deterministic view of human behavior. The
Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered in dogs a learning process that
was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied the process to human beings.
Consolidation and funding

One of the earliest psychology societies was La Société de Psychologie

Physiologique in France, which lasted from 1885 to 1893. The first meeting of the
International Congress of Psychology sponsored by the International Union of
Psychological Science took place in Paris, in August 1889, amidst the World's Fair
celebrating the centennial of the French Revolution. William James was one of three
Americans among the 400 attendees. The American Psychological Association (APA) was
founded soon after, in 1892. The International Congress continued to be held at
different locations in Europe and with wide international participation. The Sixth
Congress, held in Geneva in 1909, included presentations in Russian, Chinese, and
Japanese, as well as Esperanto. After a hiatus for World War I, the Seventh
Congress met in Oxford, with substantially greater participation from the war-
victorious Anglo-Americans. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale University in
New Haven, Connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the APA. Tokyo Imperial
University led the way in bringing new psychology to the East. New ideas about
psychology diffused from Japan into China.American psychology gained status upon
the U.S.'s entry into World War I. A standing committee headed by Robert Yerkes
administered mental tests ("Army Alpha" and "Army Beta") to almost 1.8 million
soldiers. Subsequently, the Rockefeller family, via the Social Science Research
Council, began to provide funding for behavioral research. Rockefeller charities
funded the National Committee on Mental Hygiene, which disseminated the concept of
mental illness and lobbied for applying ideas from psychology to child rearing.
Through the Bureau of Social Hygiene and later funding of Alfred Kinsey,
Rockefeller foundations helped establish research on sexuality in the U.S. Under
the influence of the Carnegie-funded Eugenics Record Office, the Draper-funded
Pioneer Fund, and other institutions, the eugenics movement also influenced
American psychology. In the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in
psychology classes. In contrast to the US, in the UK psychology was met with
antagonism by the scientific and medical establishments, and up until 1939, there
were only six psychology chairs in universities in England.During World War II and
the Cold War, the U.S. military and intelligence agencies established themselves as
leading funders of psychology by way of the armed forces and in the new Office of
Strategic Services intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin
Cartwright reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda
research in 1939–1941. He observed that "the last few months of the war saw a
social psychologist become chiefly responsible for determining the week-by-week-
propaganda policy for the United States Government." Cartwright also wrote that
psychologists had significant roles in managing the domestic economy. The Army
rolled out its new General Classification Test to assess the ability of millions of
soldiers. The Army also engaged in large-scale psychological research of troop
morale and mental health. In the 1950s, the Rockefeller Foundation and Ford
Foundation collaborated with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to fund research
on psychological warfare. In 1965, public controversy called attention to the
Army's Project Camelot, the "Manhattan Project" of social science, an effort which
enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyze the plans and policies of
foreign countries for strategic purposes.In Germany after World War I, psychology
held institutional power through the military and subsequently expanded along with
the rest of the military under the Third Reich. Under the direction of Hermann
Göring's cousin Matthias Göring, the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute was renamed
the Göring Institute. Freudian psychoanalysts were expelled and persecuted under
the anti-Jewish policies of the Nazi Party, and all psychologists had to distance
themselves from Freud and Adler, founders of psychoanalysis who were also Jewish.
The Göring Institute was well-financed throughout the war with a mandate to create
a "New German Psychotherapy." This psychotherapy aimed to align suitable Germans
with the overall goals of the Reich. As described by one physician, "Despite the
importance of analysis, spiritual guidance and the active cooperation of the
patient represent the best way to overcome individual mental problems and to
subordinate them to the requirements of the Volk and the Gemeinschaft."
Psychologists were to provide Seelenführung [lit., soul guidance], the leadership
of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of a German community. Harald
Schultz-Hencke melded psychology with the Nazi theory of biology and racial
origins, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and deformed. Johannes
Heinrich Schultz, a German psychologist recognized for developing the technique of
autogenic training, prominently advocated sterilization and euthanasia of men
considered genetically undesirable, and devised techniques for facilitating this
process.After the war, new institutions were created although some psychologists,
because of their Nazi affiliation, were discredited. Alexander Mitscherlich founded
a prominent applied psychoanalysis journal called Psyche. With funding from the
Rockefeller Foundation, Mitscherlich established the first clinical psychosomatic
medicine division at Heidelberg University. In 1970, psychology was integrated into
the required studies of medical students.After the Russian Revolution, the
Bolsheviks promoted psychology as a way to engineer the "New Man" of socialism.
Consequently, university psychology departments trained large numbers of students
in psychology. At the completion of training, positions were made available for
those students at schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in the military.
The Russian state emphasized pedology and the study of child development. Lev
Vygotsky became prominent in the field of child development. The Bolsheviks also
promoted free love and embraced the doctrine of psychoanalysis as an antidote to
sexual repression.: 84–6  Although pedology and intelligence testing fell out of
favor in 1936, psychology maintained its privileged position as an instrument of
the Soviet Union. Stalinist purges took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of
fear in the profession, as elsewhere in Soviet society.: 22  Following World War
II, Jewish psychologists past and present, including Lev Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, and
Aron Zalkind, were denounced; Ivan Pavlov (posthumously) and Stalin himself were
celebrated as heroes of Soviet psychology.: 25–6, 48–9  Soviet academics
experienced a degree of liberalization during the Khrushchev Thaw. The topics of
cybernetics, linguistics, and genetics became acceptable again. The new field of
engineering psychology emerged. The field involved the study of the mental aspects
of complex jobs (such as pilot and cosmonaut). Interdisciplinary studies became
popular and scholars such as Georgy Shchedrovitsky developed systems theory
approaches to human behavior.: 27–33 Twentieth-century Chinese psychology
originally modeled itself on U.S. psychology, with translations from American
authors like William James, the establishment of university psychology departments
and journals, and the establishment of groups including the Chinese Association of
Psychological Testing (1930) and the Chinese Psychological Society (1937). Chinese
psychologists were encouraged to focus on education and language learning. Chinese
psychologists were drawn to the idea that education would enable modernization.
John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese audiences between 1919 and 1921, had a
significant influence on psychology in China. Chancellor T'sai Yuan-p'ei introduced
him at Peking University as a greater thinker than Confucius. Kuo Zing-yang who
received a PhD at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of
Zhejiang University and popularized behaviorism.: 5–9  After the Chinese Communist
Party gained control of the country, the Stalinist Soviet Union became the major
influence, with Marxism–Leninism the leading social doctrine and Pavlovian
conditioning the approved means of behavior change. Chinese psychologists
elaborated on Lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness, envisioning an "active
consciousness" (pinyin: tzu-chueh neng-tung-li) able to transcend material
conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept of
"recognition" (pinyin: jen-shih) which referred to the interface between individual
perceptions and the socially accepted worldview; failure to correspond with party
doctrine was "incorrect recognition.": 9–17  Psychology education was centralized
under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, supervised by the State Council. In 1951,
the academy created a Psychology Research Office, which in 1956 became the
Institute of Psychology. Because most leading psychologists were educated in the
United States, the first concern of the academy was the re-education of these
psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child psychology and pedagogy for the
purpose of a nationally cohesive education remained a central goal of the
discipline.: 18–24 
Disciplinary organization
Institutions
In 1920, Édouard Claparède and Pierre Bovet created a new applied psychology
organization called the International Congress of Psychotechnics Applied to
Vocational Guidance, later called the International Congress of Psychotechnics and
then the International Association of Applied Psychology. The IAAP is considered
the oldest international psychology association. Today, at least 65 international
groups deal with specialized aspects of psychology. In response to male
predominance in the field, female psychologists in the U.S. formed the National
Council of Women Psychologists in 1941. This organization became the International
Council of Women Psychologists after World War II and the International Council of
Psychologists in 1959. Several associations including the Association of Black
Psychologists and the Asian American Psychological Association have arisen to
promote the inclusion of non-European racial groups in the profession.The
International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS) is the world federation of
national psychological societies. The IUPsyS was founded in 1951 under the auspices
of the United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO).
Psychology departments have since proliferated around the world, based primarily on
the Euro-American model. Since 1966, the Union has published the International
Journal of Psychology. IAAP and IUPsyS agreed in 1976 each to hold a congress every
four years, on a staggered basis.IUPsyS recognizes 66 national psychology
associations and at least 15 others exist. The American Psychological Association
is the oldest and largest. Its membership has increased from 5,000 in 1945 to
100,000 in the present day. The APA includes 54 divisions, which since 1960 have
steadily proliferated to include more specialties. Some of these divisions, such as
the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and the American
Psychology–Law Society, began as autonomous groups.The Interamerican Psychological
Society, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology across the Western
Hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and ha had 1,000
members in year 2000. The European Federation of Professional Psychology
Associations, founded in 1981, represents 30 national associations with a total of
100,000 individual members. At least 30 other international organizations represent
psychologists in different regions.In some places, governments legally regulate who
can provide psychological services or represent themselves as a "psychologist." The
APA defines a psychologist as someone with a doctoral degree in psychology.
Boundaries

Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from

parapsychology, which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity (including
the interest of scholars such as William James). Some people considered
parapsychology to be part of "psychology." Parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism
were major topics at the early International Congresses. But students of these
fields were eventually ostractized, and more or less banished from the Congress in
1900–1905. Parapsychology persisted for a time at Imperial University in Japan,
with publications such as Clairvoyance and Thoughtography by Tomokichi Fukurai, but
it was mostly shunned by 1913.As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend
off accusations that it is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's
1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking
agreement on the type of overarching theory found in mature sciences such as
chemistry and physics. Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods
such as surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an
objective science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion
cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports,
which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways
to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.Divisions still exist
within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique
experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points
within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that
mainstream psychology has become increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism,"
which limits the scope of research because investigators restrict themselves to
methods derived from the physical sciences.: 36–7  Feminist critiques have argued
that claims to scientific objectivity obscure the values and agenda of
(historically) mostly male researchers. Jean Grimshaw, for example, argues that
mainstream psychological research has advanced a patriarchal agenda through its
efforts to control behavior.: 120 
Major schools of thought
Biological

Psychologists generally consider biology the substrate of thought and feeling, and
therefore an important area of study. Behaviorial neuroscience, also known as
biological psychology, involves the application of biological principles to the
study of physiological and genetic mechanisms underlying behavior in humans and
other animals. The allied field of comparative psychology is the scientific study
of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals. A leading question in
behavioral neuroscience has been whether and how mental functions are localized in
the brain. From Phineas Gage to H.M. and Clive Wearing, individual people with
mental deficits traceable to physical brain damage have inspired new discoveries in
this area. Modern behavioral neuroscience could be said to originate in the 1870s,
when in France Paul Broca traced production of speech to the left frontal gyrus,
thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization of brain function. Soon
after, Carl Wernicke identified a related area necessary for the understanding of
speech.: 20–2 The contemporary field of behavioral neuroscience focuses on the
physical basis of behavior. Behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models, often
relying on rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that
underlie behaviors involved in learning, memory, and fear responses. Cognitive
neuroscientists, by using neural imaging tools, investigate the neural correlates
of psychological processes in humans. Neuropsychologists conduct psychological
assessments to determine how an individual's behavior and cognition are related to
the brain. The biopsychosocial model is a cross-disciplinary, holistic model that
concerns the ways in which interrelationships of biological, psychological, and
socio-environmental factors affect health and behavior.Evolutionary psychology
approaches thought and behavior from a modern evolutionary perspective. This
perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent
problems in human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to
find out how human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, the results of
natural selection or sexual selection over the course of human evolution.The
history of the biological foundations of psychology includes evidence of racism.
The idea of white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose
during the process of world conquest by Europeans. Carl von Linnaeus's four-fold
classification of humans classifies Europeans as intelligent and severe, Americans
as contented and free, Asians as ritualistic, and Africans as lazy and capricious.
Race was also used to justify the construction of socially specific mental
disorders such as drapetomania and dysaesthesia aethiopica—the behavior of
uncooperative African slaves. After the creation of experimental psychology,
"ethnical psychology" emerged as a subdiscipline, based on the assumption that
studying primitive races would provide an important link between animal behavior
and the psychology of more evolved humans.
Behavioral

A tenet of behavioral research is that a large part of both human and lower-animal
behavior is learned. A principle associated with behavioral research is that the
mechanisms involved in learning apply to humans and non-human animals. Behavioral
researchers have developed a treatment known as behavior modification, which is
used to help individuals replace undesirable behaviors with desirable ones.

Early behavioral researchers studied stimulus–response pairings, now known as

classical conditioning. They demonstrated that when a biologically potent stimulus
(e.g., food that elicits salivation) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus
(e.g., a bell) over several learning trials, the neutral stimulus by itself can
come to elicit the response the biologically potent stimulus elicits. Ivan Pavlov—
known best for inducing dogs to salivate in the presence of a stimulus previously
linked with food—became a leading figure in the Soviet Union and inspired followers
to use his methods on humans. In the United States, Edward Lee Thorndike initiated
"connectionist" studies by trapping animals in "puzzle boxes" and rewarding them
for escaping. Thorndike wrote in 1911, "There can be no moral warrant for studying
man's nature unless the study will enable us to control his acts.": 212–5  From
1910 to 1913 the American Psychological Association went through a sea change of
opinion, away from mentalism and towards "behavioralism." In 1913, John B. Watson
coined the term behaviorism for this school of thought.: 218–27  Watson's famous
Little Albert experiment in 1920 was at first thought to demonstrate that repeated
use of upsetting loud noises could instill phobias (aversions to other stimuli) in
an infant human, although such a conclusion was likely an exaggeration. Karl
Lashley, a close collaborator with Watson, examined biological manifestations of
learning in the brain.Clark L. Hull, Edwin Guthrie, and others did much to help
behaviorism become a widely used paradigm. A new method of "instrumental" or
"operant" conditioning added the concepts of reinforcement and punishment to the
model of behavior change. Radical behaviorists avoided discussing the inner
workings of the mind, especially the unconscious mind, which they considered
impossible to assess scientifically. Operant conditioning was first described by
Miller and Kanorski and popularized in the U.S. by B.F. Skinner, who emerged as a
leading intellectual of the behaviorist movement.Noam Chomsky published an
influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that behaviorist
principles could not adequately explain the complex mental process of language
acquisition and language use. The review, which was scathing, did much to reduce
the status of behaviorism within psychology.: 282–5  Martin Seligman and his
colleagues discovered that they could condition "learned helplessness" in dogs, a
state that was not predicted by the behaviorist approach to psychology. Edward C.
Tolman advanced a hybrid "cognitive behavioral" model, most notably with his 1948
publication discussing the cognitive maps used by rats to guess at the location of
food at the end of a maze. Skinner's behaviorism did not die, in part because it
generated successful practical applications.The Association for Behavior Analysis
International was founded in 1974 and by 2003 had members from 42 countries. The
field has gained a foothold in Latin America and Japan. Applied behavior analysis
is the term used for the application of the principles of operant conditioning to
change socially significant behavior (it supersedes the term behavior
modification).
Cognitive

Cognitive psychology involves the study of mental processes, including perception,

attention, language comprehension and production, memory, and problem solving.
Researchers in the field of cognitive psychology are sometimes called cognitivists.
They rely on an information processing model of mental functioning. Cognitivist
research is informed by functionalism and experimental psychology.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James,

Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as experimental psychology became increasingly
cognitivist and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider, interdisciplinary
cognitive science. Some called this development the cognitive revolution because it
rejected the anti-mentalist dogma of behaviorism as well as the strictures of
psychoanalysis.Albert Bandura helped along the transition in psychology from
behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Bandura and other social learning theorists
advanced the idea of vicarious learning. In other words, they advanced the view
that a child can learn by observing his or her social environment and not
necessarily from having been reinforced for enacting a behavior, although they did
not rule out the influence of reinforcement on learning a behavior.

Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and mental

representations. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian
psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological
phenomena to the structure and function of the brain. The rise of computer science,
cybernetics, and artificial intelligence underlined the value of comparing
information processing in humans and machines.

A popular and representative topic in this area is cognitive bias, or irrational

thought. Psychologists (and economists) have classified and described a sizeable
catalogue of biases which recur frequently in human thought. The availability
heuristic, for example, is the tendency to overestimate the importance of something
which happens to come readily to mind.Elements of behaviorism and cognitive
psychology were synthesized to form cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of
psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert
Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck.

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise involving

cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, linguists, and researchers in
artificial intelligence, human–computer interaction, and computational
neuroscience. The discipline of cognitive science covers cognitive psychology as
well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience. Computer
simulations are sometimes used to model phenomena of interest.
Social

Social psychology is concerned with how behaviors, thoughts, feelings, and the
social environment influence human interactions. Social psychologists study such
topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity,
persuasion) and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about other
people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology for the
purpose of understanding how people process, remember, or distort social
information. The study of group dynamics involves research on the nature of
leadership, organizational communication, and related phenomena. In recent years,
social psychologists have become interested in implicit measures, mediational
models, and the interaction of person and social factors in accounting for
behavior. Some concepts that sociologists have applied to the study of psychiatric
disorders, concepts such as the social role, sick role, social class, life events,
culture, migration, and total institution, have influenced social psychologists.
Psychoanalytic

Psychoanalysis refers to the theories and therapeutic techniques applied to the

unconscious mind and its impact on everyday life. These theories and techniques
inform treatments for mental disorders. Psychoanalysis originated in the 1890s,
most prominently with the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was
largely based on interpretive methods, introspection, and clinical observation. It
became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality,
repression, and the unconscious.: 84–6  Freud pioneered the methods of free
association and dream interpretation.Psychoanalytic theory is not monolithic. Other
well known psychoanalytic thinkers who diverged with Freud include Alfred Adler,
Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm,
John Bowlby, Freud's daughter Anna Freud, and Harry Stack Sullivan. These
individuals ensured that psychoanalysis would evolve into diverse schools of
thought. Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and
interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis.

Psychologists such as Hans Eysenck and philosophers including Karl Popper sharply
criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis had been
misrepresented as a scientific discipline, whereas Eysenck advanced the view that
psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of the
20th century, psychology departments in American universities mostly marginalized
Freudian theory, dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.
Researchers such as António Damásio, Oliver Sacks, and Joseph LeDoux, and
individuals in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis, have defended some of
Freud's ideas on scientific grounds.
Existential-humanistic theories

Humanistic psychology, which has been influenced by existentialism and

phenomenology, stresses free will and self-actualization. It emerged in the 1950s
as a movement within academic psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and
psychoanalysis. The humanistic approach seeks to view the whole person, not just
fragmented parts of the personality or isolated cognitions. Humanistic psychology
also focuses on personal growth, self-identity, death, aloneness, and freedom. It
emphasizes subjective meaning, the rejection of determinism, and concern for
positive growth rather than pathology. Some founders of the humanistic school of
thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of
human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy.

Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific study.

Positive psychology is the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and
well-being, focusing more on people who are currently healthy. In 2010, Clinical
Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological
interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of
gratitude. It is, however, far from clear that positive psychology is effective in
making people happier. Positive psychological interventions have been limited in
scope, but their effects are thought to be somewhat better than placebo effects.
The evidence, however, is far from clear that interventions based on positive
psychology increase human happiness or resilience.The American Association for
Humanistic Psychology, formed in 1963, declared:

Humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the whole of psychology

rather than a distinct area or school. It stands for respect for the worth of
persons, respect for differences of approach, open-mindedness as to acceptable
methods, and interest in exploration of new aspects of human behavior. As a "third
force" in contemporary psychology, it is concerned with topics having little place
in existing theories and systems: e.g., love, creativity, self, growth, organism,
basic need-gratification, self-actualization, higher values, being, becoming,
spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness, warmth, ego-transcendence,
objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning, fair-play, transcendental
experience, peak experience, courage, and related concepts.

Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a client's total

orientation towards the world. Existential psychology is opposed to reductionism,
behaviorism, and other methods that objectify the individual. In the 1950s and
1960s, influenced by philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger,
psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May helped to develop
existential psychology. Existential psychotherapy, which follows from existential
psychology, is a therapeutic approach that is based on the idea that a person's
inner conflict arises from that individual's confrontation with the givens of
existence. Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George
Kelly may also be said to belong to the existential school. Existential
psychologists tend to differ from more "humanistic" psychologists in the former's
relatively neutral view of human nature and relatively positive assessment of
anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free
will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths and narratives;
meaning can be deepened by the acceptance of free will, which is requisite to
living an authentic life, albeit often with anxiety with regard to death.Austrian
existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of
meaning's therapeutic power from reflections upon his own internment. He created a
variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist
analysis that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's
Nietzschean doctrine of will to power or Freud's will to pleasure.
Themes
Personality

Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought,

and emotion. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools of
thought. Each theory carries different assumptions about such features as the role
of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud,
personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego. By
contrast, trait theorists have developed taxonomies of personality constructs in
describing personality in terms of key traits. Trait theorists have often employed
statistical data-reduction methods, such as factor analysis. Although the number of
proposed traits has varied widely, Hans Eysenck's early biologically-based model
suggests at least three major trait constructs are necessary to describe human
personality, extraversion–introversion, neuroticism-stability, and psychoticism-
normality. Raymond Cattell empirically derived a theory of 16 personality factors
at the primary-factor level and up to eight broader second-stratum factors.

Since the 1980s, the Big Five (openness to experience, conscientiousness,

extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) emerged as an important trait theory
of personality. Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support,
and a version of dimensional assessment has been included in the DSM-V. However,
despite a plethora of research into the various versions of the "Big Five"
personality dimensions, it appears necessary to move on from static
conceptualizations of personality structure to a more dynamic orientation,
acknowledging that personality constructs are subject to learning and change over
the lifespan.An early example of personality assessment was the Woodworth Personal
Data Sheet, constructed during World War I. The popular, although psychometrically
inadequate, Myers–Briggs Type Indicator was developed to assess individuals'
"personality types" according to the personality theories of Carl Jung. The
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), despite its name, is more a
dimensional measure of psychopathology than a personality measure. California
Psychological Inventory contains 20 personality scales (e.g., independence,
tolerance). The International Personality Item Pool, which is in the public domain,
has become a source of scales that can be used personality assessment.
Unconscious mind

Study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the individual's
awareness but that is believed to influence conscious thought and behavior, was a
hallmark of early psychology. In one of the first psychology experiments conducted
in the United States, C.S. Peirce and Joseph Jastrow found in 1884 that research
subjects could choose the minutely heavier of two weights even if consciously
uncertain of the difference. Freud popularized the concept of the unconscious mind,
particularly when he referred to an uncensored intrusion of unconscious thought
into one's speech (a Freudian slip) or to his efforts to interpret dreams. His 1901
book The Psychopathology of Everyday Life catalogues hundreds of everyday events
that Freud explains in terms of unconscious influence. Pierre Janet advanced the
idea of a subconscious mind, which could contain autonomous mental elements
unavailable to the direct scrutiny of the subject.The concept of unconscious
processes has remained important in psychology. Cognitive psychologists have used a
"filter" model of attention. According to the model, much information processing
takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain stimuli, limited
by their nature and number, make their way through the filter. Much research has
shown that subconscious priming of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts
and behavior. Because of the unreliability of self-reporting, a major hurdle in
this type of research involves demonstrating that a subject's conscious mind has
not perceived a target stimulus. For this reason, some psychologists prefer to
distinguish between implicit and explicit memory. In another approach, one can also
describe a subliminal stimulus as meeting an objective but not a subjective
threshold.The automaticity model of John Bargh and others involves the ideas of
automaticity and unconscious processing in our understanding of social behavior,
although there has been dispute with regard to replication.

Some experimental data suggest that the brain begins to consider taking actions
before the mind becomes aware of them. The influence of unconscious forces on
people's choices bears on the philosophical question of free will. John Bargh,
Daniel Wegner, and Ellen Langer describe free will as an illusion.
Motivation

Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals
initiate a behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans
and lower animals continue or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William
James initially used the term motivation to refer to intention, in a sense similar
to the concept of will in European philosophy. With the steady rise of Darwinian
and Freudian thinking, instinct also came to be seen as a primary source of
motivation. According to drive theory, the forces of instinct combine into a single
source of energy which exerts a constant influence. Psychoanalysis, like biology,
regarded these forces as demands originating in the nervous system. Psychoanalysts
believed that these forces, especially the sexual instincts, could become entangled
and transmuted within the psyche. Classical psychoanalysis conceives of a struggle
between the pleasure principle and the reality principle, roughly corresponding to
id and ego. Later, in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud introduced the concept
of the death drive, a compulsion towards aggression, destruction, and psychic
repetition of traumatic events. Meanwhile, behaviorist researchers used simple
dichotomous models (pleasure/pain, reward/punishment) and well-established
principles such as the idea that a thirsty creature will take pleasure in drinking.
Clark Hull formalized the latter idea with his drive reduction model.Hunger,
thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation constitute fundamental
motivations in animals. Humans seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations—
though theoretically these could be explained as resulting from desires for
belonging, positive self-image, self-consistency, truth, love, and
control.Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways.
Researchers have found that eating, for example, depends not only on the organism's
fundamental need for homeostasis—an important factor causing the experience of
hunger—but also on circadian rhythms, food availability, food palatability, and
cost. Abstract motivations are also malleable, as evidenced by such phenomena as
goal contagion: the adoption of goals, sometimes unconsciously, based on inferences
about the goals of others. Vohs and Baumeister suggest that contrary to the need-
desire-fulfilment cycle of animal instincts, human motivations sometimes obey a
"getting begets wanting" rule: the more you get a reward such as self-esteem, love,
drugs, or money, the more you want it. They suggest that this principle can even
apply to food, drink, sex, and sleep.
Development psychology

Developmental psychology refers to the scientific study of how and why the thought
processes, emotions, and behaviors of humans change over the course of their lives.
Some credit Charles Darwin with conducting the first systematic study within the
rubric of developmental psychology, having published in 1877 a short paper
detailing the development of innate forms of communication based on his
observations of his infant son. The main origins of the discipline, however, are
found in the work of Jean Piaget. Like Piaget, developmental psychologists
originally focused primarily on the development of cognition from infancy to
adolescence. Later, developmental psychology extended itself to the study cognition
over the life span. In addition to studying cognition, developmental psychologists
have also come to focus on affective, behavioral, moral, social, and neural
development.

Developmental psychologists who study children use a number of research methods.

For example, they make observations of children in natural settings such as
preschools and engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble
specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and
scientifically useful. Developmental researchers have even devised clever methods
to study the mental processes of infants. In addition to studying children,
developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life
span, including old age. These psychologists draw on the full range of
psychological theories to inform their research.
Genes and environment

All researched psychological traits are influenced by both genes and environment,
to varying degrees. These two sources of influence are often confounded in
observational research of individuals and families. An example of this confounding
can be shown in the transmission of depression from a depressed mother to her
offspring. A theory based on environmental transmission would hold that an
offspring, by virtue of his or her having a problematic rearing environment managed
by a depressed mother, is at risk for developing depression. On the other hand, a
hereditarian theory would hold that depression risk in an offspring is influenced
to some extent by genes passed to the child from the mother. Genes and environment
in these simple transmission models are completely confounded. A depressed mother
may both carry genes that contribute to depression in her offspring and also create
a rearing environment that increases the risk of depression in her child.

Behavioral genetics researchers have employed methodologies that help to

disentangle this confound and understand the nature and origins of individual
differences in behavior. Traditionally the research has involved twin studies and
adoption studies, two designs where genetic and environmental influences can be
partially un-confounded. More recently, gene-focused research has contributed to
understanding genetic contributions to the development of psychological traits.

The availability of microarray molecular genetic or genome sequencing technologies

allows researchers to measure participant DNA variation directly, and test whether
individual genetic variants within genes are associated with psychological traits
and psychopathology through methods including genome-wide association studies. One
goal of such research is similar to that in positional cloning and its success in
Huntington's: once a causal gene is discovered biological research can be conducted
to understand how that gene influences the phenotype. One major result of genetic
association studies is the general finding that psychological traits and
psychopathology, as well as complex medical diseases, are highly polygenic, where a
large number (on the order of hundreds to thousands) of genetic variants, each of
small effect, contribute to individual differences in the behavioral trait or
propensity to the disorder. Active research continues to work toward understanding
the genetic and environmental bases of behavior and their interaction.
Applications

Psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the

study of mental processes and behavior.
Psychological testing

Psychological testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as 2200 BC, in the
examinations for the Chinese civil service. Written exams began during the Han
dynasty (202 BC – AD 200). By 1370, the Chinese system required a stratified series
of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The system was
ended in 1906.: 41–2  In Europe, mental assessment took a different approach, with
theories of physiognomy—judgment of character based on the face—described by
Aristotle in 4th century BC Greece. Physiognomy remained current through the
Enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and
intelligence based on simple assessment of neuroanatomy.: 42–3 

When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading

practitioner. By virtue of his procedures for measuring reaction time and
sensation, he is considered an inventor of modern mental testing (also known as
psychometrics).: 44–5  James McKeen Cattell, a student of Wundt and Galton, brought
the idea of psychological testing to the United States, and in fact coined the term
"mental test".: 45–6  In 1901, Cattell's student Clark Wissler published
discouraging results, suggesting that mental testing of Columbia and Barnard
students failed to predict academic performance.: 45–6  In response to 1904 orders
from the Minister of Public Instruction, French psychologists Alfred Binet and
Théodore Simon developed and elaborated a new test of intelligence in 1905–1911.
They used a range of questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. Binet and
Simon introduced the concept of mental age and referred to the lowest scorers on
their test as idiots. Henry H. Goddard put the Binet-Simon scale to work and
introduced classifications of mental level such as imbecile and feebleminded. In
1916, (after Binet's death), Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman modified the Binet-
Simon scale (renamed the Stanford–Binet scale) and introduced the intelligence
quotient as a score report.: 50–56  Based on his test findings, and reflecting the
racism common to that era, Terman concluded that intellectual disability
"represents the level of intelligence which is very, very common among Spanish-
Indians and Mexican families of the Southwest and also among negroes. Their
dullness seems to be racial."Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which
was developed by psychologist Robert Yerkes in 1917 and then used in World War 1 by
industrial and organizational psychologists for large-scale employee testing and
selection of military personnel. Mental testing also became popular in the U.S.,
where it was applied to schoolchildren. The federally created National Intelligence
Test was administered to 7 million children in the 1920s. In 1926, the College
Entrance Examination Board created the Scholastic Aptitude Test to standardize
college admissions.: 61  The results of intelligence tests were used to argue for
segregated schools and economic functions, including the preferential training of
Black Americans for manual labor. These practices were criticized by Black
intellectuals such a Horace Mann Bond and Allison Davis. Eugenicists used mental
testing to justify and organize compulsory sterilization of individuals classified
as mentally retarded (now referred to as intellectual disability). In the United
States, tens of thousands of men and women were sterilized. Setting a precedent
that has never been overturned, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the
constitutionality of this practice in the 1927 case Buck v. Bell.Today mental
testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western societies.: 2 
Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure,
consistency of results, output of an interpretable score, statistical norms
describing population outcomes, and, ideally, effective prediction of behavior and
life outcomes outside of testing situations.: 4–6  Developments in psychometrics
include work on test and scale reliability and validity. Developments in item-
response theory, structural equation modeling, and bifactor analysis have helped in
strengthening test and scale construction.
Mental health care

The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical

psychology in the U.S. Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and
counseling psychology professions engage in practices that resemble that of
clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists typically include people who have
graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology. In Canada, some of the
members of the abovementioned groups usually fall within the larger category of
professional psychology. In Canada and the U.S., practitioners get bachelor's
degrees and doctorates; doctoral students in clinical psychology usually spend one
year in a predoctoral internship and one year in postdoctoral internship. In Mexico
and most other Latin American and European countries, psychologists do not get
bachelor's and doctoral degrees; instead, they take a three-year professional
course following high school. Clinical psychology is at present the largest
specialization within psychology. It includes the study and application of
psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving
psychological distress, dysfunction, and/or mental illness. Clinical psychologists
also try to promote subjective well-being and personal growth. Central to the
practice of clinical psychology are psychological assessment and psychotherapy
although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching,
consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.Credit
for the first psychology clinic in the United States typically goes to Lightner
Witmer, who established his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern
psychotherapist was Morton Prince, an early advocate for the establishment of
psychology as a clinical and academic discipline. In the first part of the
twentieth century, most mental health care in the United States was performed by
psychiatrists, who are medical doctors. Psychology entered the field with its
refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve the diagnosis of mental
problems. For their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using
psychoanalysis and other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy to understand and
treat the mentally ill.Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the
distinction between psychiatry and psychology, and this trend continued with the
rise of community mental health facilities. Some in the clinical psychology
community adopted behavioral therapy, a thoroughly non-psychodynamic model that
used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of patients. A key aspect of
behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's effectiveness. In the
1970s, cognitive-behavior therapy emerged with the work of Albert Ellis and Aaron
Beck. Although there are similarities between behavior therapy and cognitive-
behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy required the application of cognitive
constructs. Since the 1970s, the popularity of cognitive-behavior therapy among
clinical psychologists increased. A key practice in behavioral and cognitive-
behavioral therapy is exposing patients to things they fear, based on the premise
that their responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be deconditioned.Mental health care
today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. In 1977,
National Institute of Mental Health director Bertram Brown described this shift as
a source of "intense competition and role confusion." Graduate programs issuing
doctorates in clinical psychology emerged in the 1950s and underwent rapid increase
through the 1980s. The PhD degree is intended to train practitioners who could also
conduct scientific research. The PsyD degree is more exclusively designed to train
practitioners.Some clinical psychologists focus on the clinical management of
patients with brain injury. This subspecialty is known as clinical neuropsychology.
In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The
emerging field of disaster psychology (see crisis intervention) involves
professionals who respond to large-scale traumatic events.The work performed by
clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches,
all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually
an individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches
encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical
perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and
systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the
various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of
issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the
advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence
that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common
element being a strong therapeutic alliance. Because of this, more training
programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic
orientation.Diagnosis in clinical psychology usually follows the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The study of mental illnesses is
called abnormal psychology.
Education

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings,

the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the
social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychologists can be
found in preschools, schools of all levels including post secondary institutions,
community organizations and learning centers, Government or private research firms,
and independent or private consultant [[Madisonodell5/sandbox]]. The work of
developmental psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, and Jerome Bruner
has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.
Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs in places
such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.

School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical

psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster
the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in
adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning
environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral
assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive
training in research.
Work

Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology involves research and practices that
apply psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals' work-
lives. In the field's beginnings, industrialists brought the nascent field of
psychology to bear on the study of scientific management techniques for improving
workplace efficiency. The field was at first called economic psychology or business
psychology; later, industrial psychology, employment psychology, or
psychotechnology. An influential early study examined workers at Western Electric's
Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois from 1924 to 1932. Western Electric
experimented on factory workers to assess their responses to changes in
illumination, breaks, food, and wages. The researchers came to focus on workers'
responses to observation itself, and the term Hawthorne effect is now used to
describe the fact that people work harder when they think they're being watched.
Although the Hawthorne research can be found in psychology textbooks, the research
and its findings, however, were weak at best.The name industrial and organizational
psychology emerged in the 1960s. In 1973, it became enshrined in the name of the
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Division 14 of the American
Psychological Association. One goal of the discipline is to optimize human
potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology is a subfield of I/O psychology.
Personnel psychologists apply the methods and principles of psychology in selecting
and evaluating workers. Another subfield, organizational psychology, examines the
effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job
satisfaction, and productivity. Most I/O psychologists work outside of academia,
for private and public organizations and as consultants. A psychology consultant
working in business today might expect to provide executives with information and
ideas about their industry, their target markets, and the organization of their
company.Organizational behavior (OB) is an allied field involved in the study of
human behavior within organizations. One way to differentiate I/O psychology from
OB is to note that I/O psychologists train in university psychology departments and
OB specialists, in business schools.
Military and intelligence

One role for psychologists in the military has been to evaluate and counsel
soldiers and other personnel. In the U.S., this function began during World War I,
when Robert Yerkes established the School of Military Psychology at Fort Oglethorpe
in Georgia. The school provided psychological training for military staff. Today,
U.S. Army psychologists perform psychological screening, clinical psychotherapy,
suicide prevention, and treatment for post-traumatic stress, as well as provide
prevention-related services, for example, smoking cessation. The United States
Army's Mental Health Advisory Teams implement psychological interventions to help
combat troops experiencing mental problems.Psychologists may also work on a diverse
set of campaigns known broadly as psychological warfare. Psychological warfare
chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy soldiers and civilians.
This so-called black propaganda is designed to seem as if it originates from a
source other than the Army. The CIA's MKULTRA program involved more individualized
efforts at mind control, involving techniques such as hypnosis, torture, and covert
involuntary administration of LSD. The U.S. military used the name Psychological
Operations (PSYOP) until 2010, when these activities were reclassified as Military
Information Support Operations (MISO), part of Information Operations (IO).
Psychologists have sometimes been involved in assisting the interrogation and
torture of suspects, staining the records of the psychologists involved.
Health, well-being, and social change
Social change

An example of the contribution of psychologists to social change involves the

research of Kenneth and Mamie Clark. These two African American psychologists
studied segregation's adverse psychological impact on Black children. Their
research findings played a role in the desegregation case Brown v. Board of
Education (1954).The impact of psychology on social change includes the
discipline's broad influence on teaching and learning. Research has shown that
compared to the "whole word" or "whole language" approach, the phonics approach to
reading instruction is more efficacious.
Medical applications

Medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. One

aspect of health psychology is the psychoeducation of patients: instructing them in
how to follow a medical regimen. Health psychologists can also educate doctors and
conduct research on patient compliance. Psychologists in the field of public health
use a wide variety of interventions to influence human behavior. These range from
public relations campaigns and outreach to governmental laws and policies.
Psychologists study the composite influence of all these different tools in an
effort to influence whole populations of people.
Worker health, safety and wellbeing

Psychologists work with organizations to apply findings from psychological research

to improve the health and well-being of employees. Some work as external
consultants hired by organizations to solve specific problems, whereas others are
full-time employees of the organization. Applications include conducting surveys to
identify issues and designing interventions to make work healthier. Some of the
specific health areas include:

Accidents and injuries: A major contribution is the concept of safety climate,

which is employee shared perceptions of the behaviors that are encouraged (e.g.,
wearing safety gear) and discouraged (not following safety rules) at work.
Organizations with strong safety climates have fewer work accidents and injuries.

Cardiovascular disease: Cardiovascular disease has been related to lack of job

control.

Mental health: Exposure to occupational stress is associated with mental health

disorder.

Musculoskeletal disorder: These are injuries in bones, nerves and tendons due to
overexertion and repetitive strain. They have been linked to job satisfaction and
workplace stress.

Physical health symptoms: Occupational stress has been linked to physical symptoms
such as digestive distress and headache.

Workplace violence: Violence prevention climate is related to being physically

assaulted and psychologically mistreated at work.Interventions that improve
climates are a way to address accidents and violence. Interventions that reduce
stress at work or provide employees with tools to better manage it can help in
areas where stress is an important component.
Industrial psychology became interested in worker fatigue during World War I, when
government ministers in Britain were concerned about the impact of fatigue on
workers in munitions factories but not other types of factories. In the U. K. some
interest in worker well-being emerged with the efforts of Charles Samuel Myers and
his National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP) during the inter-War years.
In the U. S. during the mid-twentieth century industrial psychologist Arthur
Kornhauser pioneered the study of occupational mental health, linking industrial
working conditions to mental health as well as the spillover of an unsatisfying job
into a worker's personal life. Zickar accumulated evidence to show that "no other
industrial psychologist of his era was as devoted to advocating management and
labor practices that would improve the lives of working people."
Occupational health psychology

As interest in the worker health expanded toward the end of the twentieth century,
the field of occupational health psychology (OHP) emerged. OHP is a branch of
psychology that is interdisciplinary. OHP is concerned with the health and safety
of workers. OHP addresses topic areas such as the impact of occupational stressors
on physical and mental health, mistreatment of workers (e.g., bullying and
violence), work-family balance, the impact of involuntary unemployment on physical
and mental health, the influence of psychosocial factors on safety and accidents,
and interventions designed to improve/protect worker health. OHP grew out of health
psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, and occupational medicine.
OHP has also been informed by disciplines outside psychology, including industrial
engineering, sociology, and economics.
Research methods

Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of

hypotheses. Although the field makes abundant use of randomized and controlled
experiments in laboratory settings, such research can only assess a limited range
of short-term phenomena. Some psychologists rely on less rigorously controlled, but
more ecologically valid, field experiments as well. Other research psychologists
rely on statistical methods to glean knowledge from population data. The
statistical methods research psychologists employ include the Pearson product–
moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear
regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical
linear modeling. The measurement and operationalization of important constructs is
an essential part of these research designs.

Although this type of psychological research is much less abundant than

quantitative research, some psychologists conduct qualitative research. This type
of research can involve interviews, questionnaires, and first-hand observation.
While hypothesis testing is rare, virtually impossible, in qualitative research,
qualitative studies can be helpful in theory and hypothesis generation,
interpreting seemingly contradictory quantitative findings, and understanding why
some interventions fail and others succeed.
Controlled experiments

A true experiment with random assignment of research participants (sometimes called

subjects) to rival conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about
causal relationships. When there are large numbers of research participants, the
random assignment (also called random allocation) of those participants to rival
conditions ensures that the individuals in those conditions will, on average, be
similar on most characteristics, including characteristics that went unmeasured. In
an experiment, the researcher alters one or more variables of influence, called
independent variables, and measures resulting changes in the factors of interest,
called dependent variables. Prototypical experimental research is conducted in a
laboratory with a carefully controlled environment.
A quasi-experiment refers to a situation in which there are rival conditions under
study but random assignment to the different conditions is not possible.
Investigators must work with preexisting groups of people. Researchers can use
common sense to consider how much the nonrandom assignment threatens the study's
validity. For example, in research on the best way to affect reading achievement in
the first three grades of school, school administrators may not permit educational
psychologists to randomly assign children to phonics and whole language classrooms,
in which case the psychologists must work with preexisting classroom assignments.
Psychologists will compare the achievement of children attending phonics and whole
language classes and, perhaps, statistically adjust for any initial differences in
reading level.

Experimental researchers typically use a statistical hypothesis testing model which

involves making predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how
well the data collected are consistent with the predictions. These predictions are
likely to originate from one or more abstract scientific hypotheses about how the
phenomenon under study actually works.
Other types of studies

Surveys are used in psychology for the purpose of measuring attitudes and traits,
monitoring changes in mood, and checking the validity of experimental manipulations
(checking research participants' perception of the condition they were assigned
to). Psychologists have commonly used paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys
are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Web-based surveys are
increasingly used to conveniently reach many subjects.

Observational studies are commonly conducted in psychology. In cross-sectional

observational studies, psychologists collect data at a single point in time. The
goal of many cross-sectional studies is the assess the extent factors are
correlated with each other. By contrast, in longitudinal studies psychologists
collect data on the same sample at two or more points in time. Sometimes the
purpose of longitudinal research is to study trends across time such as the
stability of traits or age-related changes in behavior. Because some studies
involve endpoints that psychologists cannot ethically study from an experimental
standpoint, such as identifying the causes of depression, they conduct longitudinal
studies a large group of depression-free people, periodically assessing what is
happening in the individuals' lives. In this way psychologists have an opportunity
to test causal hypotheses regarding conditions that commonly arise in people's
lives that put them at risk for depression. Problems that affect longitudinal
studies include selective attrition, the type of problem in which bias is
introduced when a certain type of research participant disproportionately leaves a
study.

Exploratory data analysis refers to a variety of practices that researchers use to

reduce a great many variables to a small number overarching factors. In Peirce's
three modes of inference, exploratory data analysis corresponds to abduction. Meta-
analysis is the technique research psychologists use to integrate results from many
studies of the same variables and arriving at a grand average of the findings.
Direct brain observation/manipulaiton

A classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the
electroencephalogram (EEG), a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's
scalp to measure voltage changes in different parts of the brain. Hans Berger, the
first researcher to use EEG on an unopened skull, quickly found that brains exhibit
signature "brain waves": electric oscillations which correspond to different states
of consciousness. Researchers subsequently refined statistical methods for
synthesizing the electrode data, and identified unique brain wave patterns such as
the delta wave observed during non-REM sleep.Newer functional neuroimaging
techniques include functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission
tomography, both of which track the flow of blood through the brain. These
technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and
create representations of the brain with widespread appeal. They also provide
insight which avoids the classic problems of subjective self-reporting. It remains
challenging to draw hard conclusions about where in the brain specific thoughts
originate—or even how usefully such localization corresponds with reality. However,
neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable results showing the existence of
correlations between mind and brain. Some of these draw on a systemic neural
network model rather than a localized function model.Psychiatric interventions such
as transcranial magnetic stimulation and drugs also provide information about
brain–mind interactions. Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced mental
effects.
Computer simulation

Computational modeling is a tool used in mathematical psychology and cognitive

psychology to simulate behavior. This method has several advantages. Since modern
computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time,
allowing for high statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to
visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that
couldn't be directly observed in a human. Computational neuroscience uses
mathematical models to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling,
which represents many mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of
modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.
Animal studies

Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including

perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s,
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical
conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, and rats and other rodents
are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments
introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique
effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in
laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary
so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control
important variables for human subjects. There are pitfalls, however, in
generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal
models.Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and
mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the
phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research
in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects to primates. It is
closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as ethology.
Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human
behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for
example the Sociobiology of E.O. Wilson. Animal models are often used to study
neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience.
Qualitative research

Qualitative research is often designed to answer questions about the thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors of individuals. Qualitative research involving first-hand
observation can help describe events as they occur, with the goal of capturing the
richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding
phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations are made.

Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand

observation, and participant observation. Creswell (2003) identified five main
possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology,
ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Qualitative researchers sometimes aim
to enrich our understanding of symbols, subjective experiences, or social
structures. Sometimes hermeneutic and critical aims can give rise to quantitative
research, as in Erich Fromm's application of psychological and sociological
theories, in his book Escape from Freedom, to understanding why many ordinary
Germans supported Hitler.

Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful
observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct naturalistic
observation of ongoing human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the
participants are aware they are being observed, and other times the participants do
not know they are being observed. Strict ethical guidelines must be followed when
covert observation is being carried out.
Program evaluation

Program evaluation involves the systematic collection, analysis, and application of

information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly
about their effectiveness. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders
often want to know the extent which the programs they are funding, implementing,
voting for, receiving, or objecting to are producing the intended effects. While
program evaluation first focuses on effectiveness, important considerations often
include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be
improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives,
if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and
useful.
Contemporary issues in methodology and practice
Metascience

Metascience involves the application of scientific methodology to study science

itself. The field of metascience has revealed problems in psychological research.
Some psychological research has suffered from bias, problematic reproducibility,
and misuse of statistics. These findings have led to calls for reform from within
and from outside the scientific community.
Confirmation bias

In 1959, statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological

studies and discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses,
implying possible publication bias. Similarly, Fanelli (2010) found that 91.5% of
psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and
concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times
higher than in fields such as space science or geosciences. Fanelli argued that
this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their
conscious and unconscious biases.
Replication

A replication crisis in psychology has emerged. Many notable findings in the field
have not been replicated. Some researchers were even accused of publishing
fraudulent results. Systematic efforts, including efforts by the Reproducibility
Project of the Center for Open Science, to assess the extent of the problem found
that as many as two-thirds of highly publicized findings in psychology failed to be
replicated. Reproducibility has generally been stronger in cognitive psychology (in
studies and journals) than social psychology and subfields of differential
psychology. Other subfields of psychology have also been implicated in the
replication crisis, including clinical psychology, developmental psychology, and a
field closely related to psychology, educational research.Focus on the replication
crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test important
findings. In response to concerns about publication bias and data dredging
(conducting a large number of statistical tests on a great many variables but
restricting reporting to the results that were statistically significant), 295
psychology and medical journals have adopted result-blind peer review where studies
are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are
completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the
methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical
justifications for their proposed statistical analysis before data collection or
analysis is conducted. In addition, large-scale collaborations among researchers
working in multiple labs in different countries have taken place. The collaborators
regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess.
Allen et al. estimated that 61 percent of result-blind studies have yielded null
results, in contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 percent in traditional research.
Misuse of statistics

Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Psychologist and

statistician Jacob Cohen wrote in 1994 that psychologists routinely confuse
statistical significance with practical importance, enthusiastically reporting
great certainty in unimportant facts. Some psychologists have responded with an
increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on p-values.
WEIRD bias

In 2008, Arnett pointed out that most articles in American Psychological

Association journals were about U.S. populations when U.S. citizens are only 5% of
the world's population. He complained that psychologists had no basis for assuming
psychological processes to be universal and generalizing research findings to the
rest of the global population. In 2010, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan reported a
bias in conducting psychology studies with participants from "WEIRD" ("Western,
Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic") societies. Henrich et al. found
that "96% of psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the world’s
population" (p. 63). The article gave examples of results that differ significantly
between people from WEIRD and tribal cultures, including the Müller-Lyer illusion.
Arnett (2008), Altmaier, and Hall (2008) and Morgan-Consoli et al. (2018) view the
Western bias in research and theory as a serious problem considering psychologists
are increasingly applying psychological principles developed in WEIRD regions in
their research, clinical work, and consultation with populations around the world.
In 2018, Rad, Martingano, and Ginges showed that nearly a decade after Henrich et
al.'s paper, over 80% of the samples used in studies published in the journal
Psychological Science employed WEIRD samples. Moreover, their analysis showed that
several studies did not fully disclose the origin of their samples; the authors
offered a set of recommendations to editors and reviewers to reduce WEIRD bias.
Unscientific mental health training

Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in
particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices. Critics
say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs
that do not instill scientific competence. Practices such as "facilitated
communication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques including body
work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or
even dangerous, despite their popularity. These practices, however, are outside the
mainstream practices taught in clinical psychology doctoral programs.
Ethics

Ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past
studies are today considered unethical and in violation of established codes (the
Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report).
The American Psychological Association has advanced a set of ethical principles and
a code of conduct for the profession.The most important contemporary standards
include informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code was
established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries
(and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the
National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966,
and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures
encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in
experimental studies. A number of influential but ethically dubious studies led to
the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT-Harvard Fernald
School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis
study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
Humans

Universities have ethics committees dedicated to protecting the rights (e.g.,

voluntary nature of the research, privacy) and well-being (e.g., minimizing
distress) of research participants. University ethics committees evaluate proposed
research to ensure that researchers protect the rights and well-being of
participants; an investigator's research project cannot be conducted unless
approved by such an ethics committee.The ethics code of the American Psychological
Association originated in 1951 as "Ethical Standards of Psychologists". This code
has guided the formation of licensing laws in most American states. It has changed
multiple times over the decades since its adoption. In 1989, the APA revised its
policies on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an investigation
by the Federal Trade Commission. The 1992 incarnation was the first to distinguish
between "aspirational" ethical standards and "enforceable" ones. Members of the
public have a five-year window to file ethics complaints about APA members with the
APA ethics committee; members of the APA have a three-year window.Some of the
ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only
within the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and
to avoid sexual relations with them. Another important principle is informed
consent, the idea that a patient or research subject must understand and freely
choose a procedure they are undergoing. Some of the most common complaints against
clinical psychologists include sexual misconduct.
Other animals

Research on other animals is also governed by university ethics committees.

Research on nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission of the ethics
committee of the researcher's home institution. Current ethical guidelines state
that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the
harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of
the research. Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use certain research
techniques on animals that could not be used on humans.

Comparative psychologist Harry Harlow drew moral condemnation for isolation

experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the
1970s. The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of clinical
depression. Harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female
isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture. In 1974, American literary
critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing
their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in
advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He
writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.
References
Sources
Further reading

Badcock, Christopher R. (2015). "Nature-Nurture Controversy, History of".

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 340–344.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03136-6. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Cascio, Wayne F. (2015). "Industrial–Organizational Psychology: Science and

Practice". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 879–
884. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.22007-2. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Chryssochoou, Xenia (2015). "Social Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the

Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 532–537. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6.
ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Deakin, Nicholas (2015). "Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology". International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 31–36. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-
097086-8.27049-9. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Demetriou, Andreas (2015). "Intelligence in Cultural, Social and Educational

Context". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 313–
322. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92147-0. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Gelso, Charles J. (2015). "Counseling Psychology". International Encyclopedia of

the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 69–72. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21073-
8. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Henley, Tracy B. (2015). "Psychology, History of (Early Period)". International

Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 406–411. doi:10.1016/B978-0-
08-097086-8.03235-9. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Knowland, Victoria C.P.; Purser, Harry; Thomas, Michael S.C. (2015). "Cross-
Sectional Methodologies in Developmental Psychology". International Encyclopedia of
the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 354–360. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.23235-2. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Louw, Dap (2015). "Forensic Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 351–356. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21074-X. ISBN 978-
0-08-097087-5.

McWilliams, Spencer A. (2015). "Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century)".

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 412–417.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03046-4. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Pe-Pua, Rogelia (2015). "Indigenous Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the

Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 788–794. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24067-1.
ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Peterson, Roger L.; Peterson, Donald R.; Abrams, Jules C.; Stricker, George;
Ducheny, Kelly (2015). "Training in Clinical Psychology in the United States:
Practitioner Model". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences. pp. 517–523. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21086-6. ISBN 978-0-08-
097087-5.

Poortinga, Ype H. (2015). "Cross-Cultural Psychology". International Encyclopedia

of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 311–317. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.24011-7. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Spinath, Frank M.; Spinath, Birgit; Borkenau, Peter (2015). "Developmental

Behavioral Genetics and Education". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 320–325. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92009-9. ISBN 978-
0-08-097087-5.

Smith, Edward E. (2015). "Cognitive Psychology: History". International

Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 103–109. doi:10.1016/B978-0-
08-097086-8.03028-2. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Staerklé, Christian (2015). "Political Psychology". International Encyclopedia of

the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 427–433. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.24079-8. ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
External links

Psychology at Curlie
American Psychological Association

Association for Psychological Science